Wikiversity enwikiversity https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Main_Page MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.24 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikiversity Wikiversity talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk School School talk Portal Portal talk Topic Topic talk Collection Collection talk Draft Draft talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 4 28 2840870 2840422 2026-10-17T06:31:32Z Michael Ten 654933 2840870 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikiversity:Colloquium/Header}} <!-- MESSAGES GO BELOW --> == Add an edit count requirement for autoconfirmed? == Currently, only waiting for four days is required for a user to become autoconfirmed. I am proposing that we include a minimum edit count of <s>10 edits (akin to Wikipedia)</s> 5 edits especially because of [[Special:AbuseFilter/16|a private abuse filter]], and LTAs may game autoconfirmed permissions to vandalize here. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:01, 23 August 2026 (UTC) : [[Wikiversity:Autoconfirmed users]] : Are you suggesting an additional requirement? i.e., 4 days + 10 edits? : How is it adjusted? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 03:57, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :: Yes. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:30, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :: @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]: I said yes to your first question. As for the adjustment question, in the InitialiseSettings.php file on noc.wikimedia.org, on <code>wgAutoConfirmCount</code> is where English Wikiversity would be added as <code>'enwikiversity' => 10,</code>. Does my reply make sense? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:31, 15 September 2026 (UTC) :As a newly volunteered member, it doesn't seem unreasonable to me to require a certain number of edits to establish my bona fides. [[User:Cfm490|Cfm490]] ([[User talk:Cfm490|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cfm490|contribs]]) 17:53, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :I agree that adding an edit count requirement is a reasonable expectation before the user can become autoconfirmed. [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 18:56, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :+ 1 —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 19:40, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :'''Weak support''' Generally reasonable, but I would caution that we should really make this clear for those instances where professors have students edit here and make it frictionless for them to get autoconfirmed status. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:42, 6 September 2026 (UTC) : {{oppose|No support}} because I cannot see the [[Special:AbuseFilter/16|abuse filter]] cited as the primary reason and I do not know what LTAs is. I guess you don’t want support from ''ordinary'' users. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kays]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 18:18, 14 September 2026 (UTC) ::Also some readers may be interested in this: ::* [[Wikipedia/Types of user accounts]] ::[[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 19:05, 14 September 2026 (UTC) ::: An LTA means a long-term abuser, and it means someone who is usually abusive. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:42, 14 September 2026 (UTC) ::::@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]], an LTA is someone who is usually abusive? That's news to me. Can you please point us to the source of this information. ::::Thanks in advance, [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 15:50, 14 October 2026 (UTC) :::::[[w:WP:LTA|WP:LTA]] :::::[[User:Chrisblammo123|Chrisblammo123]] ([[User talk:Chrisblammo123|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Chrisblammo123|contribs]]) 08:59, 15 October 2026 (UTC) :'''Strong''' {{support}}; specially to battle LTA [[User:Mbataw|Mbataw]] ([[User talk:Mbataw|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mbataw|contribs]]) 13:17, 18 September 2026 (UTC) :{{support}}, having no edit count requirement for autoconfirmed is a bad idea in general. [[User:BooksBooksBooks3|BooksBooksBooks3]] ([[User talk:BooksBooksBooks3|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BooksBooksBooks3|contribs]]) 01:43, 19 September 2026 (UTC) :Comment: I realize that it is not easy to be an admin on wikimedia projects. I realize that many admins have to deal with some VERY unpleasant personalities. But.. :Admins are not the only users who encounter harassment on wikimedia projects, big or small. Anyone who's been here as long as I have, has come across users who are not tolerated by the "community". Not necessarily because they are spammers, trollers, paid editors, LTAs , disruptive etc, but simply because they are different. :When I "edit" without logging in, I carry no baggage. I also get encouraging prompts such as this: :* This year, Wikipedia has had fewer visitors and fewer new supporters, so '''<big>your visit today means a lot</BIG>''' :Anyway, back to the topic at hand [[Wikipedia/Types of user accounts]]. I believe the section about IP editors is outdated since wikimedia now views users who are not logged-in as anonymous, and only trusted users are allowed to see their IP address (I am not clear on the details). I wonder if anyone participating here has an interest in bringing this page uptodate? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 04:13, 22 September 2026 (UTC) : If there's some obvious things to fix, I'd say go ahead. It looks like there were several useful anonymous contributions to that page recently. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 07:54, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :hmm [[User:Tornaiden|Tornaiden]] ([[User talk:Tornaiden|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tornaiden|contribs]]) 02:02, 27 September 2026 (UTC) :{{support}} Having a reasonable (and very modest) number of edits in addition to 4 days is sensible and not overly burdensome. The benefits outweigh any inconveniences. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 04:18, 7 October 2026 (UTC) ::I agree that the 5 edit minimum described below is sufficient. [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 01:14, 13 October 2026 (UTC) :I'd say that a minimum of five (5) edits would be a good compromise, given the lower user activity/user traffic present here (when compared with Wikipedia). [[User:SamLaxarox|SamLaxarox]] ([[User talk:SamLaxarox|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SamLaxarox|contribs]]) 17:47, 12 October 2026 (UTC) : I agree that a minimum edit count is a prudent addition, but also agree with @[[User:SamLaxarox|SamLazaraox]] that a minimum of 5 is sufficient. It can be frustrating for new, genuine users when they get caught in new user restrictions. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 21:49, 12 October 2026 (UTC) :: I adjusted the proposal to require at least 5 edits for autoconfirmed users, instead of 10. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:18, 13 October 2026 (UTC) : Here is current page about [[Wikiversity:Autoconfirmed users]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 21:50, 12 October 2026 (UTC) == Bartending Course on Wikiversity == I recently finished the course on [[Bartending]], and while I have experience editing on Wikipedia, this is my first Wikiversity project. If any of you have the time or interest, I could use an experienced eye to see if there's anything obviously missing from the course in terms of Wikiversity administration. I'm not sure what's active, if the course should belong in an existing school, or if there's any obvious discoverability tool I haven't implemented. Any tips are welcomed, or just a thumbs up saying it looks fine would be great. [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] recommended I post this here in case someone wanted to include the new course under News on the [[Wikiversity:Main Page|Main Page]]. Thanks! [[User:Sabbier|Sabbier]] ([[User talk:Sabbier|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sabbier|contribs]]) 01:24, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :Wow! Fantastic work- I'm so impressed! Your work gives me inspiration on how to better organize the courses I'm working on. :) [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 21:32, 3 September 2026 (UTC) : Awesome work. I've added this course to the [[Main Page/News|main page news]]. : We could also consider for [[Wikiversity:Featured]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:43, 5 September 2026 (UTC) ::The course [[Creating Wikiversity Courses]] is intended to provide guidance to new Wikiversity editors. I hope it is helpful and I welcome improvement suggestions. Thanks. [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 14:08, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :Just checked it out; Very impressive! [[User:SamLaxarox|SamLaxarox]] ([[User talk:SamLaxarox|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SamLaxarox|contribs]]) 17:48, 12 October 2026 (UTC) == Writing news here == I'm bringing up this discussion again because I think it is beneficial to the project since Wikinews is gone, thank you. [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 03:17, 1 September 2026 (UTC) : Given that the community consensus here was not to replicate WikiNews within Wikiversity, I suggest thinking differently e.g., in terms of specific news-related projects you are interested in that have educational objectives that satisfy Wikiversity's mission. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:46, 5 September 2026 (UTC) ::I wonder if you mean <u>Wikiversity:Main Page/News ?</u> ::If so I have just checked this page and I see it only contains news for 2026 and part of 2025, even though the history indicates it was created in the 2000-decade. If you go back and check all revisions there is a wealth of (historical?) information. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 16:28, 13 September 2026 (UTC) ::: I didn't mean that page, but yes, its history could be reconstructed into a more accessible format. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 21:37, 13 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Wikiversity talk:Interface administrators#My thoughts about this user group]] == As I suggested, I would like to propose allowing permanent interface administrators on English Wikiversity. My temporary interface admin rights are about to expire soon, and I will soon create a new CfIA page (and its header). We should also have a minimum of two interface administrators. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:44, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :I am also in favor of this and we did discuss it pretty recently and came to a consensus on extending IA rights and lowering the administrative overhead, but not allowing indefinite at this juncture. From my perspective, since we discussed this so recently and nothing seems to have changed much, I personally would recommend holding off for a couple of years or until/unless there is some critical new information. Again, I would continue to support indef IA rights were it to come up again and think that at least two is also a sensible proposal. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:32, 6 September 2026 (UTC) ::Responding to myself so that I don't derail: I would be interested/willing to be an indef IA. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:36, 6 September 2026 (UTC) : I made [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Interface Adminship]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:24, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :: CC to @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]. I made a request since my IA rights are about to expire. We should also hold a separate vote to allow permanent IAs here (for this policy). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:55, 7 September 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]], I count at least three in favor (votes below, and Koavf agreeing), so can you close this request? Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:22, 24 September 2026 (UTC) :: Second ping to @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 02:24, 7 October 2026 (UTC) :Temporary rights can be extended for a year. I'd like a little more time to consider permanent rights and justin's sensible suggestion of a minimum of two. Let's not rush into this. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 04:38, 7 October 2026 (UTC) ::Sorry, my mistake, policy is 120 days. Interface allows 1 year or indef. I don't see any reason why a nom couldn't request extending rights for another 120 days while we clarify indef and other wording of policy. I'll look closer tomorrow. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 05:00, 7 October 2026 (UTC) : Personally, I'm not convinced of the need for permanent interface administrators. This isn't necessarily a strong view. But it seems that Wikiversity's interface administration needs can largely currently be met by permitting temporary periods for individual users. : If there are users who make productive use of several temporary periods, then that could strengthen a case for allowing longer periods or permanent use. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 10:15, 12 October 2026 (UTC) :I am also not (yet) convinced of the need for permanent, but could be persuaded. My main concern is that we are simultaneously voting on changing the policy while also voting for a nom to hold the right based on a policy that doesn't yet exist. The current [[WV:IA|policy]] states "For now, Wikiversity does not have a need for permanent or long term interface administrators. Accordingly, interface administratorship '''may only be granted temporarily'''..." This should have been addressed before the community even started a discussion on a permanent nomination. I'd be inclined to change temporary from "between 14 and 120 days" to "between 1 week and 1 year" just to align with the pull down menu options in [[Special:UserRights|UserRights]]. I'm in favor of the suggestion that there be a minimum of two with permanent, should we adopt that. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 19:31, 13 October 2026 (UTC) === Votes === * For the record, I am creating a separate subsection for voting, whether or not we should allow permanent interface administrators. {{support}} accordingly. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:32, 15 September 2026 (UTC) *: To the above, I support for indefinite interface adminship rights. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:47, 7 October 2026 (UTC) * {{support}} [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:51, 18 September 2026 (UTC) *{{support}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 02:22, 7 October 2026 (UTC) * Temporary {{oppose}} until there has been further discussion. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 19:31, 13 October 2026 (UTC) == Paid part-time Administrative Officer position with WikiJournal == [[WikiJournal User Group|WikiJournal]] is an open-access, nonprofit scholarly publisher hosted on Wikiversity. It uses the wiki format to allow authors to write and develop scholarly articles directly online. Submitted articles then undergo formal academic peer review and, when accepted, are published as citable journal articles while remaining freely accessible. WikiJournal is seeking expressions of interest in a new part-time '''Administrative Officer''' position. The officer would support the project's day-to-day organizational work, including: * Setting up and administering a system for tracking contractor hours and issuing payments. * Coordinating the contracting, onboarding, timekeeping and payment of technical editors and other contractors. * Maintaining financial, contractor and administrative records. * Assisting with grant administration, budget tracking and reporting. * Following up on board action items, deadlines and recurring obligations. * Supporting recruitment and other operational tasks as needed. This is a remote, flexibly scheduled contractor role averaging approximately '''6 hours per week'''. Compensation is proposed at '''US$25 per hour''', with up to approximately '''320 hours (US$8,000) available over the year'''. Applicants may be based internationally, although appointment will depend on WikiJournal being able to establish a practical and legally appropriate contracting and payment arrangement in the applicant's country of residence. Relevant experience may include administrative organization, bookkeeping or financial administration, contractor or personnel coordination, nonprofit or grant administration, Wikimedia participation, academic publishing, and open-access work. Applicants are not expected to have experience in every area. For the complete role description and further details, see [[WikiJournal User Group/Administrative officer]]. Those interested should reply in the '''[[Talk:WikiJournal User Group#Call for interest: Administrative Officer|Call for interest: Administrative Officer]]''' discussion by '''30 September 2026''', briefly describing their relevant experience, any connection to WikiJournal or related communities, and their general availability. Expressions of interest received later may still be considered if the position has not been filled. Recommendations of potentially suitable candidates are also welcome. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 20:00, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == Server switch - Your wiki will be read-only for a short time soon == <section begin="server-switch"/><div class="plainlinks"> [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|Read this message in another language]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-Tech%2FServer+switch&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}] The [[foundation:|Wikimedia Foundation]] will switch the traffic between its data centers. This will make sure that Wikipedia and the other Wikimedia wikis can stay online even after a disaster. All traffic will switch on '''{{#time:j xg|2026-09-23|en}}'''. The switch will start at '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/{{#time:U|2026-09-23T14:00|en}} {{#time:H:i e|2026-09-23T14:00}}]'''. Unfortunately, because of some limitations in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:What is MediaWiki?|MediaWiki]], all editing must stop while the switch is made. We apologize for this disruption, and we are working to minimize it in the future. A banner will be displayed on all wikis 30 minutes before this operation happens. This banner will remain visible until the end of the operation. You can contribute to the [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3ATranslate&group=Centralnotice-tgroup-read_only_banner&task=view&language=&filter=&action=translate translation or proofreading] of this banner text. '''You will be able to read, but not edit, all wikis for a short period of time.''' * You will not be able to edit for up to an hour on {{#time:l j xg Y|2026-09-23|en}}. * If you try to edit or save during these times, you will see an error message. We hope that no edits will be lost during these minutes, but we can't guarantee it. If you see the error message, then please wait until everything is back to normal. Then you should be able to save your edit. But, we recommend that you make a copy of your changes first, just in case. ''Other effects'': * Background jobs will be slower and some may be dropped. Red links might not be updated as quickly as normal. If you create an article that is already linked somewhere else, the link will stay red longer than usual. Some long-running scripts will have to be stopped. * We expect the code deployments to happen as any other week. However, some case-by-case code freezes could punctually happen if the operation require them afterwards. * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/GitLab|GitLab]] will be unavailable for about 90 minutes. This project may be postponed if necessary. You can [[wikitech:Switch_Datacenter|read the schedule at wikitech.wikimedia.org]]. Any changes will be announced in the schedule. '''Please share this information with your community.'''</div><section end="server-switch"/> [[m:user:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]] 12:58, 15 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Non-Technical_Village_Pumps_distribution_list&oldid=30513874 --> == Your feedback wanted: Remove ''(Language link added:) and similar'' edits from Special:RecentChanges == ''(Apologies for posting in English. You can help by translating it)'' Hello, I’m Danny from [[:en:w:Wikimedia_Deutschland|Wikimedia Deutschland’s]] [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects|Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects]] team.<br/> We have been investigating and examining how Wikidata’s use in the [[Special:RecentChanges]] and [[Special:Watchlist]] pages can be made to be more useful, or less ‘noisy’ (fewer edits that have little value to the reader). We are currently exploring to make a change in the volume and the type of Wikidata edits that appear in these pages, and '''we need your feedback''' to help us ensure this is a positive change for the Wikis and won’t disrupt your workflows.<br/> Language links are also known as sitelinks or interlanguage links and describe when a Wikidata item is connected to a Wiki, adding it to the language dropdown tool for other connected Wikis. [[File:Types of Lang Link changes.png|x350px|frame|A variety of "Language Link" edits as seen in the Recent Changes feed]] The request for feedback is whether you support the removal of these language link edits from the Recent Changes and Watchlist feed, or would you oppose such a change and if so, why? Please share you thoughts on the dedicated '''[[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|metawiki Talk page]]'''. Further information about this change: [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Hide_Language_Link_edits]] Thank you for any participation or feedback you give, -- [[m:User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] 12:23, 25 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_test_list&oldid=31080985 --> == Wikidata Sitelink changes in Recent Changes and Watchlist == ''(Apologies for cross-posting in English, translating it will help spread the message)'' Editors on group 1 wikis, including Wikiquote, Wikibooks, Wikiversity, Wikivoyage, and Wikisource, will no longer see notifications on [[Special:RecentChanges|Recent Changes]] and [[Special:Watchlist|Watchlist]] when a link to ''another'' language version of a page is added, removed, or changed in its Wikidata item. This change will begin on '''October 5 at 07:00 UTC''' as a two-week trial to reduce high-volume, low-value notifications and make higher-value changes easier to identify. Editors who rely on these notifications should be aware of the change and can share feedback or concerns on the [[m:Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects/Clearer Wikidata Edit Summaries/Hide Language Link edits|project]] or [[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|talk page]].<br/>Please reach out if you have any questions, thank you! -- [[User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] ([[User_talk:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|talk]]) sent via [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 12:42, 1 October 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_test_list&oldid=31106967 --> == Demote [[Wikiversity:CheckUser policy]]? == I am proposing that we demote that policy to a standard page, mostly for two reasons: # Considering the few amount of custodians and the size of this wiki, I'd say that this project is considered too small to have any CUs, and relying on the stewards would be a more logical choice. # We haven't elected two CUs in a few years. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:53, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :Reasonable. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:09, 4 October 2026 (UTC) == General Questions and Reference Questions == <p>Hey everyone,</p> <p> My apologies in advance if these questions are oblivious or their responses readily apparent, but I figured I'd ask just to be safe.</p> <p> '''Questions'''</p> <p> 1. Should pages have inline citations and a reference section? A [[Fundamentals of Neuroscience/What is Neuroscience|majority of pages]] I have explored have neither, while [[Neurobiology of emotion|others have a more traditional approach to references]].</br> 2. Are there widely-used templates for weasel-words, references, etc.? </p> '''CONTEXT''': I migrated from Wikipedia, so I'm not entirely sure what the norms/roc are here.</br> Thanks in advance,</br> [[User:SamLaxarox|SamLaxarox]] ([[User talk:SamLaxarox|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SamLaxarox|contribs]]) 18:40, 12 October 2026 (UTC) :You're asking fine questions. I posted {{tl|welcome}} to your talk page which I think will help you. To answer your direct questions: :#This project spun out of [[:b:]] and both here and there, you can post original research. This does not mean that you can post just anything, so if you want to post an educational resource and you want to justify claims you make with inline citations, that's great. If you want to include a bibliography, that's also quite helpful for readers. Generally, the way that Wikiversity works in practice is that individual users make a resource and then tend to work on it solo and have broad latitude about what you can do and how it looks. :#You can take al look at [[:Category:Templates]] and the subcat [[:Category:Maintenance templates]]. At Wikipedia, it's very common to point out issues with tone or uncited claims. That's not really as common here. We [[:d:Q7780480|do not have an equivalent]] of [[:w:en:Template:weasel]], but we do have a [[Template:Citation needed|local version]] of [[:w:en:Template:Citation needed]]. :―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:31, 12 October 2026 (UTC) ::Thanks for the heads up on both accounts; I'm happy to join forces with all y'all! ::[[User:SamLaxarox|SamLaxarox]] ([[User talk:SamLaxarox|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SamLaxarox|contribs]]) 23:39, 12 October 2026 (UTC) ==Agent editors== What about inviting agents to edit this wiki? And they would need a human being responsible for them. [[User:Michael Ten|Michael Ten]] ([[User talk:Michael Ten|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Michael Ten|contribs]]) 06:31, 17 October 2026 (UTC) 8mcrylla8u39dozfrp2dxfqmh1hz8v5 0 50013 2840725 2837484 2026-10-16T18:15:57Z ~2026-55583-24 3112789 I added what I thought 2840725 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:US $5 series 2003A obverse.jpg|thumb|400px|right|Front of the $5 bill]] The United States $5 bill is a denomination of U.S. currency. The bill currently features U.S. President Abraham Lincoln's portrait on the front and the Lincoln Memorial on the back. All $5 bills issued today are Federal Reserve Notes. The 5 dollar bill is very very good:). [[File:US $5 series 2003 reverse.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Back of $5 bill]]The Bureau of Engraving and Printing says the "average life" of a $5 bill in circulating circulation before it is replaced due to wear. Approximately 9% of all paper currency produced by the U.S. Treasury's Bureau of Engraving and Printing today are $5 bills. [[File:Five Bill Obverse 2005 Series.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Front of the 2006 Series $5 bill]] == The Redesigned $5 Bill == The redesigned $5 bill was unveiled on 9/20/2007, and was issued on 3/13/2008. New and enhanced security features make it easier to check the new $5 bill and more difficult for potential counterfeiters to reproduce. The new $5 bill has: * '''Watermarks:''' There are now two watermarks on the redesigned $5 bill. A large number "5" watermark is located in a blank space to the right of the portrait replacing the previous watermark portrait of President Lincoln found on the older design of $5 bills. A second watermark - a new column of three smaller "5"s - has been added to the new $5 bill design and is positioned to the left of the portrait. * '''Security Thread:''' The embedded security thread runs vertically and is now located to the right of the portrait on the redesigned $5 bill. The letters "USA" followed by the number "5" in an alternating pattern are visible along the thread from both sides of the bill. The thread glows blue (the previous bills glowed white) when held under ultraviolet light. === Design Features === The new $5 bills will remain the same size and will use the same (but enhanced) portraits and historical images. The most noticeable difference in the redesigned $5 bill is the addition of light purple in the center of the bill, which blends into gray near the edges. Similar to the recently redesigned $10, $20, and $50 bills, the new $5 bill features an American symbol of freedom printed in the background: The Great Seal of the United States, an eagle and shield, is printed in purple on the back of the bill. === Additional Design Elements Include: === * On the back of the bill, a larger, purple number "5" appears in the lower right corner to help those with visual impairments to distinguish the denomination. * The oval borders around President Lincoln's portrait on the front, and the Lincoln Memorial vignette on the back have been removed. Both engravings have been enhanced. * An arc of purple stars surrounds the portrait and The Great Seal on the front of the bill, and small yellow "05"s are printed on the front and back of the bill. * Small yellow "05"s are printed to the left of the portrait on the front of the bill and to the right of the Lincoln Memorial vignette on the back. === Other Features === * Microprinting: Because they are so small, microprinted words are hard to replicate. The redesigned $5 bill features microprinting, which is the engraving of tiny text, on the front of the bill in three areas: the words “FIVE DOLLARS” can be found repeated inside the left and right borders of the bill; the words “E PLURIBUS UNUM” appear at the top of the shield within the Great Seal; and the word “USA” is repeated in between the columns of the shield. On the back of the bill the words “USA FIVE” appear along one edge of the large purple “5” low-vision feature. * Federal Reserve Indicators: A universal seal to the left of the portrait represents the entire Federal Reserve System. A letter and number beneath the left serial number identifies the issuing Federal Reserve Bank. * Serial Numbers: The unique combination of eleven numbers and letters appears twice on the front of the bill. On the new $5 bill, the left serial number has shifted slightly to the right, compared with previous designs. === More Information === * http://www.moneyfactory.gov/newmoney/ * http://www.federalreserve.gov/ * http://www.secretservice.gov/ == Large Size Note history == ''<small>(≈ 7.1418 x 3.125 in ≅ 189 x 79 mm)</small>'' * '''1861:''' The first $5 bill was issued as a Demand Note with a small portrait of Alexander Hamilton on the right and an allegorical statue representing freedom on the left side of the obverse. * '''1862:''' The first $5 United States Note was issued with a face design similar to the previous Demand Note and a completely revised reverse. * '''1869:''' A new $5 United States Note was issued with a small portrait of Andrew Jackson on the left and a vignette of a pioneer family in the middle. * '''1870:''' National Gold Bank Notes were issued specifically for payment in gold coin by participating banks. The obverse featured vignettes of Christopher Columbus sighting land and Columbus with an Indian princess; the reverse featured U.S. gold coins. * '''1875:''' The series 1869 United States Note was revised. The green tinting that was present on the obverse was removed and the design on the reverse was completely changed. * '''1886:''' The first $5 Silver Certificate was issued with a portrait of Ulysses S. Grant on the obverse and five Morgan silver dollars on the reverse. [[File:US $5 1886 Silver Certificate.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Series 1886 $5 bill]] * '''1890:''' Five dollar Treasury or "Coin Notes" were issued and given for government purchases of silver bullion from the silver mining industry. The reverse featured an ornate design that occupied almost the entire note. * '''1891:''' The reverse of the 1890 Treasury Note was redesigned because the treasury felt that it was too "busy" which would make it too easy to counterfeit. * '''1891:''' The reverse of the 1886 Silver Certificate was revised; the 5 Morgan silver dollars were removed. * '''1896:''' The famous "Educational Series" Silver Certificate was issued. The entire obverse was covered with artwork representing electricity and the reverse featured portraits of Ulysses Grant and Phillip Sheridan. [[File:5 Silver US Dollars 1896.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Famous 1896 $5 "Educational Series" Silver Certificate]] [[File:US $5 1907 United States Note.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Series 1907 $5 bill]] * '''1899:''' A new $5 silver certificate with a portrait of Running Antelope on the face was issued. * '''1914:''' The first $5 Federal Reserve Note was issued with a portrait of Lincoln on the obverse and vignettes of Columbus sighting land and the Pilgrim's landing on the reverse. The note initially had a red treasury seal and serial numbers; however, they were changed to blue. * '''1915:''' Federal Reserve Bank Notes (not to be confused with Federal Reserve Notes) were issued by 5 Federal Reserve Banks. The obverse was similar to the 1914 Federal Reserve Notes, except for large wording in the middle of the bill and a portrait with no border on the left side of the bill. Each note was an obligation of the issuing bank and could only be redeemed at the corresponding bank. * '''1918:''' The 1915 Federal Reserve Bank Note was re-issued under series 1918 by 11 Federal Reserve banks. * '''1923:''' The $5 silver certificate was redesigned; it was nicknamed a "porthole" note due to the circular wording of THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA around Lincoln's portrait. The reverse featured the Great Seal of the United States. [[File:US $5 1923 Silver Certificate.jpg|thumb|right|400px|1923 "porthole" silver certificate]] == Small Size Note History == ''<small>(6.14 x 2.61 in ≅ 156 x 66 mm)</small>'' * '''1929:''' Under Series of 1928, all small-sized notes carried a standardized design. All $5 bills would feature a portrait of Lincoln, the same border design on the obverse, and the Lincoln Memorial on the reverse. The $5 bill was issued as a United States Note with a red seal and serial numbers and as a Federal Reserve Note with a green seal and serial numbers. * '''1933:''' As an emergency response to the Great Depression, additional money was pumped into the American economy through Federal Reserve Bank Notes. This was the only small-sized $5 bill that had a different border design. The serial numbers and seal on it were brown. * '''1934:''' The redeemable in gold clause was removed from Federal Reserve Notes due to the U.S. withdrawing from the gold standard. * '''1934:''' The first $5 Silver Certificates were issued with a blue seal and serial numbers along with a blue numeral 5 on the left side of the obverse. * '''1942:''' Special World War II currency was issued. HAWAII was overprinted on the front and back of the $5 Federal Reserve Note; the seal and serial numbers were changed to brown from green. This was done so that the currency could be declared worthless if there was a Japanese invasion. A $5 silver certificate was printed with a yellow instead of blue treasury seal; these notes were for U.S. troops in North Africa. These notes, too, could be declared worthless if seized by the enemy. * '''1950:''' Many minor aspects on the obverse of the $5 Federal Reserve Note were changed. Most noticeably, the treasury seal, gray word FIVE, and the Federal Reserve Seal were made smaller; also, the Federal Reserve seal had spikes added around it. * '''1953:''' New $5 United States Notes and Silver Certificates were issued with a gray numeral 5 on the left side of the bill and the gray word FIVE with a blue seal imprinted over it on the right and blue serial numbers. * '''1963:''' Both the $5 United States Note and Federal Reserve Note were revised with the motto IN GOD WE TRUST added to the reverse and WILL PAY TO THE BEARER ON DEMAND removed from the obverse. Also, the obligation on the Federal Reserve Note was changed to its current wording, THIS NOTE IS LEGAL TENDER FOR ALL DEBTS PUBLIC AND PRIVATE. [[File:US $5 1963 USN.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Series 1963 $5 United States Note. Urban legend erroneously holds that the red seal from that year onward was done in mourning of the Kennedy assassination]] * '''1967:''' Production of the $5 United States Note ends. * '''1969:''' The $5 bill began using the new treasury seal with wording in English instead of Latin. * '''1993:''' The first new-age anti-counterfeiting measures were introduced with microscopic printing around Lincoln's portrait and a plastic security strip on the left side of the bill. * '''May 24, 2000:''' To combat evolving counterfeiting, a new $5 bill was issued under series 1999 whose design was similar in style to the $100, $50, and $20 bills that had all undergone previous design changes. The $5 bill, however, does not feature color-shifting ink like all the other denominations. * '''June 28, 2006:''' The BEP announced plans to redesign the $5 note, likely with similar features as newer $10, $20, and $50 notes. * '''September 20, 2007:''' The BEP revealed the redesigned $5 note to the public.The new bill began circulating on March 13, 2008. == Reverse Side == On the back of the $5 bill the following states names are written at the top of the Lincoln Memorial in this order: '''Top''' * Arkansas * Michigan * Florida * Texas * Iowa * Wisconsin * California * Minnesota * Oregon * Kansas * West Virginia * Nevada * Nebraska * Colorado * North Dakota '''Bottom''' * Delaware * Pennsylvania * New Jersey * Georgia * Connecticut * Massachusetts * Maryland * Carolina * New Hampshire * Virginia * New York --[[User:Km|km]] 01:11, 20 January 2008 (UTC) [[Category:United States currency]] e4n4jyxvh5utv9ssd08zj835phjkt3x 2840726 2840725 2026-10-16T18:28:11Z NDG 3006541 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contribs/~2026-55583-24|~2026-55583-24]] ([[User talk:~2026-55583-24|talk]]) to last version by ~2026-54446-21: test edits, please use the sandbox 2837484 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:US $5 series 2003A obverse.jpg|thumb|400px|right|Front of the $5 bill]] The United States $5 bill is a denomination of U.S. currency. The bill currently features U.S. President Abraham Lincoln's portrait on the front and the Lincoln Memorial on the back. All $5 bills issued today are Federal Reserve Notes. [[File:US $5 series 2003 reverse.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Back of $5 bill]]The Bureau of Engraving and Printing says the "average life" of a $5 bill in circulating circulation before it is replaced due to wear. Approximately 9% of all paper currency produced by the U.S. Treasury's Bureau of Engraving and Printing today are $5 bills. [[File:Five Bill Obverse 2005 Series.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Front of the 2006 Series $5 bill]] == The Redesigned $5 Bill == The redesigned $5 bill was unveiled on 9/20/2007, and was issued on 3/13/2008. New and enhanced security features make it easier to check the new $5 bill and more difficult for potential counterfeiters to reproduce. The new $5 bill has: * '''Watermarks:''' There are now two watermarks on the redesigned $5 bill. A large number "5" watermark is located in a blank space to the right of the portrait replacing the previous watermark portrait of President Lincoln found on the older design of $5 bills. A second watermark - a new column of three smaller "5"s - has been added to the new $5 bill design and is positioned to the left of the portrait. * '''Security Thread:''' The embedded security thread runs vertically and is now located to the right of the portrait on the redesigned $5 bill. The letters "USA" followed by the number "5" in an alternating pattern are visible along the thread from both sides of the bill. The thread glows blue (the previous bills glowed white) when held under ultraviolet light. === Design Features === The new $5 bills will remain the same size and will use the same (but enhanced) portraits and historical images. The most noticeable difference in the redesigned $5 bill is the addition of light purple in the center of the bill, which blends into gray near the edges. Similar to the recently redesigned $10, $20, and $50 bills, the new $5 bill features an American symbol of freedom printed in the background: The Great Seal of the United States, an eagle and shield, is printed in purple on the back of the bill. === Additional Design Elements Include: === * On the back of the bill, a larger, purple number "5" appears in the lower right corner to help those with visual impairments to distinguish the denomination. * The oval borders around President Lincoln's portrait on the front, and the Lincoln Memorial vignette on the back have been removed. Both engravings have been enhanced. * An arc of purple stars surrounds the portrait and The Great Seal on the front of the bill, and small yellow "05"s are printed on the front and back of the bill. * Small yellow "05"s are printed to the left of the portrait on the front of the bill and to the right of the Lincoln Memorial vignette on the back. === Other Features === * Microprinting: Because they are so small, microprinted words are hard to replicate. The redesigned $5 bill features microprinting, which is the engraving of tiny text, on the front of the bill in three areas: the words “FIVE DOLLARS” can be found repeated inside the left and right borders of the bill; the words “E PLURIBUS UNUM” appear at the top of the shield within the Great Seal; and the word “USA” is repeated in between the columns of the shield. On the back of the bill the words “USA FIVE” appear along one edge of the large purple “5” low-vision feature. * Federal Reserve Indicators: A universal seal to the left of the portrait represents the entire Federal Reserve System. A letter and number beneath the left serial number identifies the issuing Federal Reserve Bank. * Serial Numbers: The unique combination of eleven numbers and letters appears twice on the front of the bill. On the new $5 bill, the left serial number has shifted slightly to the right, compared with previous designs. === More Information === * http://www.moneyfactory.gov/newmoney/ * http://www.federalreserve.gov/ * http://www.secretservice.gov/ == Large Size Note history == ''<small>(≈ 7.1418 x 3.125 in ≅ 189 x 79 mm)</small>'' * '''1861:''' The first $5 bill was issued as a Demand Note with a small portrait of Alexander Hamilton on the right and an allegorical statue representing freedom on the left side of the obverse. * '''1862:''' The first $5 United States Note was issued with a face design similar to the previous Demand Note and a completely revised reverse. * '''1869:''' A new $5 United States Note was issued with a small portrait of Andrew Jackson on the left and a vignette of a pioneer family in the middle. * '''1870:''' National Gold Bank Notes were issued specifically for payment in gold coin by participating banks. The obverse featured vignettes of Christopher Columbus sighting land and Columbus with an Indian princess; the reverse featured U.S. gold coins. * '''1875:''' The series 1869 United States Note was revised. The green tinting that was present on the obverse was removed and the design on the reverse was completely changed. * '''1886:''' The first $5 Silver Certificate was issued with a portrait of Ulysses S. Grant on the obverse and five Morgan silver dollars on the reverse. [[File:US $5 1886 Silver Certificate.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Series 1886 $5 bill]] * '''1890:''' Five dollar Treasury or "Coin Notes" were issued and given for government purchases of silver bullion from the silver mining industry. The reverse featured an ornate design that occupied almost the entire note. * '''1891:''' The reverse of the 1890 Treasury Note was redesigned because the treasury felt that it was too "busy" which would make it too easy to counterfeit. * '''1891:''' The reverse of the 1886 Silver Certificate was revised; the 5 Morgan silver dollars were removed. * '''1896:''' The famous "Educational Series" Silver Certificate was issued. The entire obverse was covered with artwork representing electricity and the reverse featured portraits of Ulysses Grant and Phillip Sheridan. [[File:5 Silver US Dollars 1896.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Famous 1896 $5 "Educational Series" Silver Certificate]] [[File:US $5 1907 United States Note.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Series 1907 $5 bill]] * '''1899:''' A new $5 silver certificate with a portrait of Running Antelope on the face was issued. * '''1914:''' The first $5 Federal Reserve Note was issued with a portrait of Lincoln on the obverse and vignettes of Columbus sighting land and the Pilgrim's landing on the reverse. The note initially had a red treasury seal and serial numbers; however, they were changed to blue. * '''1915:''' Federal Reserve Bank Notes (not to be confused with Federal Reserve Notes) were issued by 5 Federal Reserve Banks. The obverse was similar to the 1914 Federal Reserve Notes, except for large wording in the middle of the bill and a portrait with no border on the left side of the bill. Each note was an obligation of the issuing bank and could only be redeemed at the corresponding bank. * '''1918:''' The 1915 Federal Reserve Bank Note was re-issued under series 1918 by 11 Federal Reserve banks. * '''1923:''' The $5 silver certificate was redesigned; it was nicknamed a "porthole" note due to the circular wording of THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA around Lincoln's portrait. The reverse featured the Great Seal of the United States. [[File:US $5 1923 Silver Certificate.jpg|thumb|right|400px|1923 "porthole" silver certificate]] == Small Size Note History == ''<small>(6.14 x 2.61 in ≅ 156 x 66 mm)</small>'' * '''1929:''' Under Series of 1928, all small-sized notes carried a standardized design. All $5 bills would feature a portrait of Lincoln, the same border design on the obverse, and the Lincoln Memorial on the reverse. The $5 bill was issued as a United States Note with a red seal and serial numbers and as a Federal Reserve Note with a green seal and serial numbers. * '''1933:''' As an emergency response to the Great Depression, additional money was pumped into the American economy through Federal Reserve Bank Notes. This was the only small-sized $5 bill that had a different border design. The serial numbers and seal on it were brown. * '''1934:''' The redeemable in gold clause was removed from Federal Reserve Notes due to the U.S. withdrawing from the gold standard. * '''1934:''' The first $5 Silver Certificates were issued with a blue seal and serial numbers along with a blue numeral 5 on the left side of the obverse. * '''1942:''' Special World War II currency was issued. HAWAII was overprinted on the front and back of the $5 Federal Reserve Note; the seal and serial numbers were changed to brown from green. This was done so that the currency could be declared worthless if there was a Japanese invasion. A $5 silver certificate was printed with a yellow instead of blue treasury seal; these notes were for U.S. troops in North Africa. These notes, too, could be declared worthless if seized by the enemy. * '''1950:''' Many minor aspects on the obverse of the $5 Federal Reserve Note were changed. Most noticeably, the treasury seal, gray word FIVE, and the Federal Reserve Seal were made smaller; also, the Federal Reserve seal had spikes added around it. * '''1953:''' New $5 United States Notes and Silver Certificates were issued with a gray numeral 5 on the left side of the bill and the gray word FIVE with a blue seal imprinted over it on the right and blue serial numbers. * '''1963:''' Both the $5 United States Note and Federal Reserve Note were revised with the motto IN GOD WE TRUST added to the reverse and WILL PAY TO THE BEARER ON DEMAND removed from the obverse. Also, the obligation on the Federal Reserve Note was changed to its current wording, THIS NOTE IS LEGAL TENDER FOR ALL DEBTS PUBLIC AND PRIVATE. [[File:US $5 1963 USN.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Series 1963 $5 United States Note. Urban legend erroneously holds that the red seal from that year onward was done in mourning of the Kennedy assassination]] * '''1967:''' Production of the $5 United States Note ends. * '''1969:''' The $5 bill began using the new treasury seal with wording in English instead of Latin. * '''1993:''' The first new-age anti-counterfeiting measures were introduced with microscopic printing around Lincoln's portrait and a plastic security strip on the left side of the bill. * '''May 24, 2000:''' To combat evolving counterfeiting, a new $5 bill was issued under series 1999 whose design was similar in style to the $100, $50, and $20 bills that had all undergone previous design changes. The $5 bill, however, does not feature color-shifting ink like all the other denominations. * '''June 28, 2006:''' The BEP announced plans to redesign the $5 note, likely with similar features as newer $10, $20, and $50 notes. * '''September 20, 2007:''' The BEP revealed the redesigned $5 note to the public.The new bill began circulating on March 13, 2008. == Reverse Side == On the back of the $5 bill the following states names are written at the top of the Lincoln Memorial in this order: '''Top''' * Arkansas * Michigan * Florida * Texas * Iowa * Wisconsin * California * Minnesota * Oregon * Kansas * West Virginia * Nevada * Nebraska * Colorado * North Dakota '''Bottom''' * Delaware * Pennsylvania * New Jersey * Georgia * Connecticut * Massachusetts * Maryland * Carolina * New Hampshire * Virginia * New York --[[User:Km|km]] 01:11, 20 January 2008 (UTC) [[Category:United States currency]] d6pgsqvs2cjhtraez0p4n9i894cn069 0 139384 2840856 2839967 2026-10-17T06:19:33Z Young1lim 21186 /* Adder */ 2840856 wikitext text/x-wiki == Adder == * Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]] ) {| class="wikitable" |- ! Adder type !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design !! CMOS Level Design |- | '''1. Ripple Carry Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- | '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260722.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20261012.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2C.CLA.20261013.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2D.CLA.20260720.pdf|D]] || || [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]|| |- | '''3. Carry Save Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''4. Carry Select Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''5. Carry Skip Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]|| || || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''6. Carry Chain Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]], [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]|| |- || '''8. Prefix Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''9.1 Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]|| || || |- || '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]|| || || |} </br> === Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === * FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]]) * Carry-Skip Adder </br> == Barrel Shifter == * Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]]) </br> '''Mux Based Barrel Shifter''' * Analysis ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) * Implementation </br> == Multiplier == === Array Multipliers === * Analysis ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Tree Mulltipliers === * Lattice Multiplication ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Wallace Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Dadda Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Booth Multipliers === * [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]] * Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]]) </br> == Divider == * Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])</br> </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Digital Circuit Design]] [[Category:FPGA]] 1q1fz09rx7clshm6t448f40gi1qsvx1 2840858 2840856 2026-10-17T06:20:36Z Young1lim 21186 /* Adder */ 2840858 wikitext text/x-wiki == Adder == * Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]] ) {| class="wikitable" |- ! Adder type !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design !! CMOS Level Design |- | '''1. Ripple Carry Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- | '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260722.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20261012.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2C.CLA.20261014.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2D.CLA.20260720.pdf|D]] || || [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]|| |- | '''3. Carry Save Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''4. Carry Select Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''5. Carry Skip Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]|| || || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''6. Carry Chain Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]], [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]|| |- || '''8. Prefix Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''9.1 Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]|| || || |- || '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]|| || || |} </br> === Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === * FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]]) * Carry-Skip Adder </br> == Barrel Shifter == * Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]]) </br> '''Mux Based Barrel Shifter''' * Analysis ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) * Implementation </br> == Multiplier == === Array Multipliers === * Analysis ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Tree Mulltipliers === * Lattice Multiplication ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Wallace Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Dadda Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Booth Multipliers === * [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]] * Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]]) </br> == Divider == * Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])</br> </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Digital Circuit Design]] [[Category:FPGA]] pago2abv82bt0zgvaacken0mwery3jf 2840860 2840858 2026-10-17T06:21:24Z Young1lim 21186 /* Adder */ 2840860 wikitext text/x-wiki == Adder == * Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]] ) {| class="wikitable" |- ! Adder type !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design !! CMOS Level Design |- | '''1. Ripple Carry Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- | '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260722.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20261012.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2C.CLA.20261014.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2D.CLA.20260720.pdf|D]] || || [[Media:Adder.cla.20140314.pdf|pdf]]|| |- | '''3. Carry Save Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''4. Carry Select Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''5. Carry Skip Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]|| || || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''6. Carry Chain Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]], [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]|| |- || '''8. Prefix Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''9.1 Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]|| || || |- || '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]|| || || |} </br> === Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === * FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]]) * Carry-Skip Adder </br> == Barrel Shifter == * Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]]) </br> '''Mux Based Barrel Shifter''' * Analysis ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) * Implementation </br> == Multiplier == === Array Multipliers === * Analysis ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Tree Mulltipliers === * Lattice Multiplication ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Wallace Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Dadda Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Booth Multipliers === * [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]] * Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]]) </br> == Divider == * Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])</br> </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Digital Circuit Design]] [[Category:FPGA]] 46frr6wj06m9agp47p5dwoderzhw2of 2840861 2840860 2026-10-17T06:22:36Z Young1lim 21186 /* Adder */ 2840861 wikitext text/x-wiki == Adder == * Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]] ) {| class="wikitable" |- ! Adder type !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design !! CMOS Level Design |- | '''1. Ripple Carry Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- | '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260722.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20261012.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2C.CLA.20261014.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2D.CLA.20260720.pdf|D]] || || [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]|| |- | '''3. Carry Save Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''4. Carry Select Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''5. Carry Skip Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]|| || || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''6. Carry Chain Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]], [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]|| |- || '''8. Prefix Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''9.1 Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]|| || || |- || '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]|| || || |} </br> === Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === * FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]]) * Carry-Skip Adder </br> == Barrel Shifter == * Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]]) </br> '''Mux Based Barrel Shifter''' * Analysis ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) * Implementation </br> == Multiplier == === Array Multipliers === * Analysis ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Tree Mulltipliers === * Lattice Multiplication ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Wallace Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Dadda Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Booth Multipliers === * [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]] * Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]]) </br> == Divider == * Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])</br> </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Digital Circuit Design]] [[Category:FPGA]] pago2abv82bt0zgvaacken0mwery3jf 2840863 2840861 2026-10-17T06:22:49Z Young1lim 21186 /* Adder */ 2840863 wikitext text/x-wiki == Adder == * Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]] ) {| class="wikitable" |- ! Adder type !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design !! CMOS Level Design |- | '''1. Ripple Carry Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- | '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260722.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20261012.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2C.CLA.20261015.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2D.CLA.20260720.pdf|D]] || || [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]|| |- | '''3. Carry Save Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''4. Carry Select Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''5. Carry Skip Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]|| || || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''6. Carry Chain Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]], [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]|| |- || '''8. Prefix Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''9.1 Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]|| || || |- || '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]|| || || |} </br> === Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === * FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]]) * Carry-Skip Adder </br> == Barrel Shifter == * Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]]) </br> '''Mux Based Barrel Shifter''' * Analysis ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) * Implementation </br> == Multiplier == === Array Multipliers === * Analysis ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Tree Mulltipliers === * Lattice Multiplication ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Wallace Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Dadda Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Booth Multipliers === * [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]] * Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]]) </br> == Divider == * Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])</br> </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Digital Circuit Design]] [[Category:FPGA]] awl26b8tlzkqhtnxaav7la8xfnqch0m 2840865 2840863 2026-10-17T06:23:38Z Young1lim 21186 /* Adder */ 2840865 wikitext text/x-wiki == Adder == * Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]] ) {| class="wikitable" |- ! Adder type !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design !! CMOS Level Design |- | '''1. Ripple Carry Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- | '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260722.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20261012.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2C.CLA.20261016.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2D.CLA.20260720.pdf|D]] || || [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]|| |- | '''3. Carry Save Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''4. Carry Select Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''5. Carry Skip Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]|| || || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''6. Carry Chain Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]], [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]|| |- || '''8. Prefix Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''9.1 Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]|| || || |- || '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]|| || || |} </br> === Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === * FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]]) * Carry-Skip Adder </br> == Barrel Shifter == * Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]]) </br> '''Mux Based Barrel Shifter''' * Analysis ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) * Implementation </br> == Multiplier == === Array Multipliers === * Analysis ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Tree Mulltipliers === * Lattice Multiplication ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Wallace Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Dadda Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Booth Multipliers === * [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]] * Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]]) </br> == Divider == * Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])</br> </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Digital Circuit Design]] [[Category:FPGA]] 1440divb50zx6t8i82s1ieytjuzgt9o 2840867 2840865 2026-10-17T06:24:30Z Young1lim 21186 /* Adder */ 2840867 wikitext text/x-wiki == Adder == * Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]] ) {| class="wikitable" |- ! Adder type !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design !! CMOS Level Design |- | '''1. Ripple Carry Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- | '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260722.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20261012.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2C.CLA.20261017.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2D.CLA.20260720.pdf|D]] || || [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]|| |- | '''3. Carry Save Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''4. Carry Select Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''5. Carry Skip Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]|| || || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''6. Carry Chain Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]], [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]|| |- || '''8. Prefix Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''9.1 Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]|| || || |- || '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]|| || || |} </br> === Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === * FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]]) * Carry-Skip Adder </br> == Barrel Shifter == * Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]]) </br> '''Mux Based Barrel Shifter''' * Analysis ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) * Implementation </br> == Multiplier == === Array Multipliers === * Analysis ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Tree Mulltipliers === * Lattice Multiplication ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Wallace Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Dadda Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Booth Multipliers === * [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]] * Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]]) </br> == Divider == * Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])</br> </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Digital Circuit Design]] [[Category:FPGA]] sngv05trymyytn8zqwk5zjmdafr144z 2840872 2840867 2026-10-17T06:33:10Z Young1lim 21186 /* Adder */ 2840872 wikitext text/x-wiki == Adder == * Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]] ) {| class="wikitable" |- ! Adder type !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design !! CMOS Level Design |- | '''1. Ripple Carry Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- | '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260722.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20261013.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2C.CLA.20261017.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2D.CLA.20260720.pdf|D]] || || [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]|| |- | '''3. Carry Save Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''4. Carry Select Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''5. Carry Skip Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]|| || || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''6. Carry Chain Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]], [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]|| |- || '''8. Prefix Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''9.1 Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]|| || || |- || '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]|| || || |} </br> === Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === * FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]]) * Carry-Skip Adder </br> == Barrel Shifter == * Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]]) </br> '''Mux Based Barrel Shifter''' * Analysis ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) * Implementation </br> == Multiplier == === Array Multipliers === * Analysis ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Tree Mulltipliers === * Lattice Multiplication ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Wallace Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Dadda Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Booth Multipliers === * [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]] * Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]]) </br> == Divider == * Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])</br> </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Digital Circuit Design]] [[Category:FPGA]] h6a6euvmsqcdfppktn2yhwwbpnv3r8k 2840875 2840872 2026-10-17T06:34:38Z Young1lim 21186 /* Adder */ 2840875 wikitext text/x-wiki == Adder == * Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]] ) {| class="wikitable" |- ! Adder type !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design !! CMOS Level Design |- | '''1. Ripple Carry Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- | '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260722.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20261014.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2C.CLA.20261017.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2D.CLA.20260720.pdf|D]] || || [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]|| |- | '''3. Carry Save Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''4. Carry Select Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''5. Carry Skip Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]|| || || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''6. Carry Chain Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]], [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]|| |- || '''8. Prefix Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''9.1 Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]|| || || |- || '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]|| || || |} </br> === Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === * FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]]) * Carry-Skip Adder </br> == Barrel Shifter == * Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]]) </br> '''Mux Based Barrel Shifter''' * Analysis ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) * Implementation </br> == Multiplier == === Array Multipliers === * Analysis ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Tree Mulltipliers === * Lattice Multiplication ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Wallace Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Dadda Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Booth Multipliers === * [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]] * Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]]) </br> == Divider == * Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])</br> </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Digital Circuit Design]] [[Category:FPGA]] itcjv7bmxgk54uprj0c29krd9iwlxml 0 264277 2840731 2840615 2026-10-16T20:06:32Z Scogdill 1331941 2840731 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1840s|1840s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1850s |1850s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1860s | 1860s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1870s | 1870s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1880s | 1880s Headlines]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890s | 1890s Headlines]] 1890 [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1891 | 1891]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1892 | 1892]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1893 | 1893]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1894 | 1894]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1895 | 1895]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1896 | 1896]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1897 | 1897]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1898 | 1898]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1899 | 1899]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1900s|1900s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1910s|1910s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1920s-30s|1920s-30s]] ==January 1890== Sometime in January 1890, [[Social Victorians/People/Horniman|Annie Horniman]] was initiated into the Golden Dawn (Gilbert 86 144). Sometime in 1890 Annie Besant and [[Social Victorians/People/Helena Blavatsky|Helena Blavatsky]] founded the Working Women's Club in the East End (Besant Chronology.pdf). Maye Dilke was a member (Crawford 170). [[Social Victorians/People/Frank Harris|Frank Harris]] says,<blockquote>One day in 1890 I had George Meredith, Walter Pater and [[Social Victorians/People/Oscar Wilde|Oscar Wilde]] dining with me in Park Lane and the time of sex-awakening was discussed. Both Pater and Wilde spoke of it as a sign of puberty. Pater thought it began about thirteen or fourteen and Wilde to my amazement set it as late as sixteen. Meredith alone was inclined to put it earlier.<ref>Harris, Frank. ''My Life and Loves''.</ref></blockquote> ===1 January 1890, Wednesday, New Year's Day=== <blockquote>Sharp frost was experienced over the East of England yesterday morning, and in South London the thermometer had been as low as 27deg., and 28deg. in Hyde-park. It rose during the day to 41deg., but in the evening frost again set in. Later the thermometer rose again to 32deg., and there was an appearance as of coming rain.<ref><cite>The Morning Post. 1 January 1890 (No. 36,675): P. 4, Col. F.</cite></ref></blockquote>Influenza was spreading all over Europe. A true pandemic carried by international commerce and travel, it was called the Russian flu.<p> According to the "Court Circular: Orders for Court Mourning" in the Morning Post,<blockquote>A second supplement to the Gazette, issued last night, contains the following: — "Lord Chamberlain's Office, January 1. "Orders for the Court's going into mourning on Thursday next, the 2d instant, for her late Majesty the Empress of Brazil, viz." — "The ladies to wear black dresses, white gloves, black or white shoes, feathers, and fans, pearls, diamonds, or plain gold or silver ornaments. The gentlemen to wear black Court dress, with black swords and buckles. "The Court to change the mourning on Thursday, the 16th instant, viz.: — [new paragraph] The ladies to wear black dresses, with coloured ribbons, flowers, feathers, and ornaments, or grey or white dresses, with black ribbons, flowers, feathers, and ornaments. The gentlemen to continue the same mourning. "And on Thursday, the 23d instant, the Court to go out of mourning."<ref><cite>"Court Circular: Orders for Court Mourning." The Morning Post, 2 January 1890 (No. 36,676): page 5 Col. G.</cite></ref></blockquote> === 6 January 1890, Monday === Empress Augusta of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach died on 7 January, and her funeral was on 11 January 1890. (She had been Queen of Prussia and the first German Empress. Her mother had been a Romanov, and she had been married to William I, German Emperor; their eldest son, Frederick William, married Vicky, Princess Royal, Queen Victoria's first-born child. She had politics similar to those of her daughter-in-law, but not of her grandson, Kaiser Wilhelm II or Bismarck.) Bertie did not attend her funeral:<blockquote>The decision of the Prince of Wales not to go to Berlin for the funeral of the Empress Augusta has caused much surprise, to say the least of it; but H.R.H. preferred to conclude his visit to Baron Hirsch at Merton, where there was a prodigious slaughter of partridges during the four days' ''chasse''.<p> The guests invited to Merton to meet the Prince were the Duc de Chartres, the Duchess of Manchester, Lord Hartington, Lord and Lady de Grey, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], Mr. Henry Chaplin, and Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Sassoon.<ref>"What the World Says." ''The World'' 15 January 1890, Wednesday: 14 [of 40], Col. 2b [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0006339%2F18900115&page=14. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote>The local paper, the Thetford and Watton Times and People's Weekly Journal, has a full account:<blockquote>Royal Visit. — On Monday H.R.H. the Prince of Wales arrived here by special train on a visit to the Baron de Hirsch, who is residing at Merton Hall. The train was in charge of Mr. Kimm, the District Superintendent. The Prince was accompanied by the Marquis of Hartington, and attended by Colonel Teesdale. Long before the arrival of the train a large number of the townspeople and many from neighbouring villages gathered in the station yard, the platform being kept clear by a staff of police, who were under the direction of Inspector Knights. Crimson cloth was laid from the platform through the station to Lord Walsingham’s carriage, which was in waiting to convey the visitors to the Hall. His Royal Highness was met on the platform by the Baron. The crowd cheered most heartily as the Prince left the station yard. The company invited to meet His Royal Highness and staying at the Hall are the Duchess of Manchester, Lord Hartington, Colonel Teesdale, Mr. Mackenzie, Colonel Ellis, Lord and Lady Brook, Earl and Countess de Grey, Duc de Chartres, Mr. and Mrs. Sassoon, Viscountess Mandeville and Miss Giese. The Right Hon. Henry Chaplin was prevented by illness from being present. On Tuesday the party went partridge shooting at Stanford, where game was abundant. Lord Hartington was taken ill from the effects of a cold soon after his arrival at Merton. On Wednesday and Thursday the party had "mixed shooting," and to-day (Friday) they shoot through the Home Coverts.<ref>"Watton." ''Thetford & Watton Times'' 11 January 1890, Saturday: 5 [of 8], Col. 1a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive''https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001533%2F18900111&page=5&article=091&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Thetford and Watton Times and People's Weekly Journal'', p. 5.</ref></blockquote>''Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper'' says,<blockquote>The Prince of Wales, attended by General Teesdale, C.B., left Sandringham on Monday afternoon [Monday, 6 January] for Merton. ... The Princess of Wales, with Princesses Victoria and Maud, remains at Sandringham. The Prince of Wales is the guest of the Baron de Hirsch at Merton, the ancient seat of the De Grey's in Norfolk. Among the other guests at Merton are the Marquis of Hartington, who travelled by special train with the Prince from Wolferton, via King's Lynn and Swaffham, to Wotton, where the host met them and conducted them to Merton; the Duc de Chartres, the Duchess of Manchester, Viscountess Mandeville, and Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Sassoon.<ref>"The Queen and Royal Family." ''Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper'' 12 January 1890, Sunday: 12 [of 12], Col. 2a [of 5]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000079%2F18900112&page=12&article=046&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Lloyd's Weekly London Newspaper'', p. 12.</ref></blockquote>The ''Thetford and Watton Times and People's Weekly Journal'' has a little more:<blockquote>The Prince of Wales, attended by General Teesdale, C.B., left Sandringham on Monday afternoon for Merton. ... The Princess of Wales, with Princesses Victoria and Maud remain at Sandringham. The Prince of Wales is the guest of the Baron de Hirsch at Merton. Among the other guests at Merton are the Marquis of Hartington, M.P., who travelled by special train with the Prince from Wolferton, ''vía'' King’s Lynn and Swaffham, to Watton, where the host met them and conducted them to Merton; the Duc de Chartres, the Duchess of Manchester, the Earl and Countess de Grey, Viscountess Mandeville, General Ellis, Sir James Mackenzie, and Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Sassoon. Mr. Chaplin was expected to have joined the party, but at present is unable to do so.<ref>''Thetford & Watton Times'' 11 January 1890, Saturday: 4 [of 8], Col. 7c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001533%2F18900111&page=4&article=090&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Thetford & Watton Times and People's Weekly Journal'', p. 4.</ref></blockquote>And the ''County Gentleman'' has a little more:<blockquote>The party assembled to meet the Prince of Wales at Merton Hall included Lord Hartington, who came on from Wolferton with the Prince. Baron Hirsch met them at Walton Station, and conducted them back to Merton. There was a nice little crowd of country people at the station, who cheered H.R.H. lustily. The Duc de Chartres, the Duchess of Manchester, Lord and Lady de Grey, Lady Mandeville, and Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Sassoon were of the party. Mr. Chaplin, laid up with influenza, was unable to accept the Baron's invitation. The shooting was excellent. I hear that the Baron will, after all, buy Houghton, and take up his abode there next year. ...  Death has been busy in Imperial circles this week. Scarcely had mourning been decreed for the ex-Empress of Brazil than we heard of the death of the venerable Empress Augusta of Germany at the advanced age of 80. She had been a great invalid for many years past, and influenza found her an easy victim. ... The Empress Frederick's visit to Italy has been abruptly terminated by the death of her mother-in-law, the Empress Augusta. ... Court mourning will considerably modify the programmes arranged for next week at Bournemouth, Poole, and Canford Manor. The Prince and Princess will, of course, be Lord and Lady Wimborne's guests, but the balls will have to be given up, much to the vexation of spirit of all concerned. Mourning is to be worn for four weeks, from Wednesday until February 5.<ref>"The Man about Town." ''Sporting Gazette'' 11 January 1890, Saturday: 6 [of 34], Col. 1b–c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0002525%2F18900111&page=6&article=039&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The County Gentleman'', p. 38.</ref></blockquote> === 1890 January 7, Tuesday === The newspaper reports of several fights lack dates, so these aggregated descriptions are still under construction. Check February, too. The Fracas at the Trocadero and the meeting at the Pelican Club occurred on the same day. The [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Smith-Slavin 1889-12-23|Smith-Slavin Fight]] was 23 December 1889. At least 2 [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Pelican Club Meeting Smith-Slavin match|meetings at the London Pelican Club]] followed, as well as the [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Fracas at the Trocadero|Fracas at the Trocadero]]. === 9 January 1890, Thursday === ==== The York Hunt Ball ==== This account is from the ''Irish Society'', which explains which women's costumes are the focus:<blockquote>The fashionable world and his wife are out of town just now, having good times at country houses. They shed the light of their brilliant presence on those annual functions known as county balls, and enjoy themselves also at those popular and picturesque entertainments to which they are bidden by the masters and members of the various hunts. One of the smartest dances of last week took place at York on Thursday evening. It was in fancy costume, and was in aid of funds for the York County Hospital. Once upon a time the journey from London to the Minster City of the North was a far cry, and one not lightly undertaken. Now it is luxurious and short. In consequence this hall presented the appearance of one in town in mid-season. There was conspicuous for height and handsomeness the familiar figure and face of Countess de Grey. Lady Helen Duncombe, too, who shares with her Grace of Leinster, and Lady Cynthia Graham, the family beauty of the House of Feversham, was seen in the marvellously becoming (to her) costume of the Empire period. Lady Lilian Wemyss, a lady "divinely tall,” and appropriately fair, was garbed in pink and white of a fashion hailing from the Empire. A "square;” in which the lady dancers were all gowned empirically, was the event of the evening. An event worth remembering it was. The costumes were superb, but their attractions were nowhere in comparison with the charms the [Col. 1c–2a] wearers. These were all tall and each one handsome. Lady de Trafford’s pretty face and fine figure showed to great advantage in her gown of white satin, veiled with gold-bordered ''chiffon'', and with an Empire trained cloak from her shoulders of Rose du Barri velvet lined with white satin, and bordered with gold galon. The colour of the velvet in what is seen in the half-yellow, half-scarlet petals of the soft textured nasturtium bloom. [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Mrs Algernon Bourke]] looked a picture in a Gainsborough gown. The white satin skirt was flounced with sable and veiled with ''chiffon'', the setuage of which was left to show without being hemmed up. There was a broad sash of rose-pink silk and each buttonhole was filled round with crimped lisse. One might go on for long enough describing costume after costume, and then leave them half out. Therefore, we shall, like the judge "sum up” and "charge” for a verdict of the utmost brilliancy.<ref>"Our London Letter." ''Irish Society'' (Dublin) 11 January 1890, Saturday: 17 [of 24], Col. 1b–2a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001939/18900111/042/0017. Same print title, p. 29.</ref></blockquote> === 1890 January 10, Friday === The [[Social Victorians/1890-01-10 Ulster Club Ball|ball at the Ulster Club, Belfast]]. === 1890 January 13, Monday === ==== Wallace-Camp Boxing Match ==== An Important Boxing Match between two 8-stone (112-pound, Bantam-weight) boxers. Lord Mandeville seems to have been an organizer. Nunc (Edwin) Wallace in June of 1890 fought American George Dixon, who defeated Wallace to become the first Black fighter to win a world prize in boxing.<blockquote>Nunc Wallace and G. Camp for £1,000. On Monday night, at the Ormonde Club, London, the above-named met to do battle for the largest sum of money that has ever been "put up" for a glove contest. That a couple of 8st [8 stone] men could be brought together in a glove contest for the sum of £1,000 would, even in the palmy days of the Prize Ring, have been scouted by the merest tyro in ring matters. Celebrities like Peter Morris, George Holden, Joe Nolan, and Dan Thomas never fought for more than £200, but here we have a stake of £500 a-side freely put down to see who is the better man of the  two. This money, when the match was made last autumn, would have been gladly increased by either side to double the amount, therefore "the fight of his life" is applicable to both George Camp and Edwin ("Nunc") Wallace. The match, made so far back as October last was really the outcome of the bout between Camp and Wallace in the second round of an 8st competition, decided at the Royal Aquarium in December, 1888. A very close struggle ensued, so close, indeed, that the judges ordered a fourth round of two minutes. Wallace eventually get- [Col. 2c–3a] ting the award. From the moment the decision was given Camp's friends were dissatisfied, and hence the contract which was signed for Monday night's battle. With thirteen weeks in which to get fit, neither man was in a hurry to commence work, and the match had been ratified neatly a month before  Wallace took up his quarters at Sutton Coldfield, with Ben Garrington to look after him. Camp journeyed to Brighton with his old trainer, George Bagnall, and it is needless to say neither man wanted for anything. Thinking a change desirable, Wallace a mouth ago also made a move to Brighton, where his interests were studied to the minutest detail by Mr. Sam Mordecai. Both men were waited on hand and foot. Mr. Sam Blandford, representing Camp's backer, took up residence in the famous watering-place, and hardly ever lost sight of the Bermondsey youth. On the other hand Wallace hardly ever drank out of a pot that Mr. Sam Mordecai did not examine, and in this way the men progressed satisfactorily in their training. Lords and Dukes begged for the "tip" as to where the meeting would be in vain, and letters from legal luminaries, magistrates and city magnates came in shoals to those entrusted with the management. The backers on each side were obdurate, and at the final deposit the names of the fortunate <nowiki>''</nowiki>thirty" agreed upon, were handed in. The men were articled to weigh at twelve o'clock on Monday, and so as not to attract attention it was decided this important part of the programme should be performed at Brighton. Accordingly the scales having been fixed in Camp's bedroom, the rivals, in the presence of Lord  Mandeville, Mr. E W Bayly, Mr. Derriman, Mr. Sam Blandfold, and Mr. Dunning, and their trainers, "tipped the beam[.]" Wallace was the first to "pass," weighing 8ths 8st 1 1/2lb stripped. Camp failing to reach this by half a pound, also clothed in Nature's garb. Both looked in splendid trim, though Camp's ruddy complexion was more taking to the eye than the pale appearance of "Nunc." Wallace was attired in black drawers with a gold stripe, red socks, and black rubber-soled shoes. Camp was all in white, with canvas shoes, and amidst almost oppressive silence they faced each other at 8.50 p.m. The Contest ... Round 15 and Iast. The doctoring of Harper and Habbijam brought Camp round before he had again to face the music, but he looked very bad indeed when the watch holder gave the word to start once more. It was only a question of a few minutes, for Wallace was as yet little the worse for the struggle so far, while on Camp's part there was everything to fear. The latter, however, without the slightest trace of the "white feather," sprang up and met Wallace full of confidence, the latter coming at his weak opponent with a straight left on the face. The "Brum forced" Camp back to the ropes, and then smashed the left on the mouth, and only just missed with the right. Still having the best of it he popped in the left again, and down Camp went Iike a log through the ropes. In quicker time than it takes to tell the Surrey boxer was up and at it once more, but with a manifest disadvantage. Receiving right and left on the head he again went down, and in falling strunk his head against the skirting board outside the ring. Wallace stood over him, but at respectable distance, like a Roman gladiator, and the smile which played round his features, was one of victory, for Camp this time was beaten. Failing to rise within the stipulated ten second[s], Mr Angle awarded the fight to Wallace, the round having lasted 2min 45sec. The award was received with exulting shouts by the friends of Wallace, and the clever little boxer was at once raised shoulder high and lifted from the ring. Poor Camp soon came to, but was terribly cut up over his defeat, and for a time refused to be comforted. Wallace, recognising the pluck and ability of his vanquished foe, shook hands in kindly fashion, and thus ended one of the best conducted of modern contests with the gloves. Time of contest, 58 min 45secs.<ref>"A Great Glove Fight." ''Dublin Sporting News'' 17 January 1890, Friday: 3 [of 4], Col. 2c–4x [of 4]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0004807%2F18900117&page=3&article=022&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref> </blockquote> ===16 January 1890, Thursday=== <blockquote>About two hundred members of the newly formed Dulwich Literary and Scientific Association attended the conversazione given on Jan. 16 at Surrey House Museum, Forest Hill, when Mr. Horniman, F.R.G.S., acted as cicerone round the rooms, richly stored with historical relics, ornithological curiosities, and art treasures.<ref>''Illustrated London News'' (London, England), Saturday, January 25, 1890; pg. 120; Issue 2649, Col. 3.</ref></blockquote> === 1890 January 21, Tuesday === The marriage of Baron S. Alfred Oppenheim and Miss Florence Hutchins:<blockquote>In the church of St. Mary Abbotts, Kensington, the marriage took place of Baron S. Alfred von Oppenberm and Miss Florence Hutchins, daughter of Mrs. Parkinson Sharp, of Palace-gate. The Hon. and Rev E. Carr Glyn and the Rev. Henry White, M.A., officiated. Among those who attended the reception afterwards held were Prince and Princess Malcom Khan, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Dowager Countess of Harrington, Admiral Sir Edward Inglefield, Sir Arthur Sullivan, Lady Cottenham, and General Du Plat.<ref>"London Day by Day." ''Daily Telegraph & Courier'' (London) 22 January 1890, Wednesday: 5 [of 8], Col. 3b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001112%2F18900122&page=5&article=080&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Daily Telegraph'', p. 5.</ref></blockquote>The ''Pall Mall Gazette'' has a description that is slightly more full. Is Count von Alten related to [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louisa, Duchess of Manchester]]?<blockquote>At St. Mary Abbots, Kensington, yesterday, the marriage took place of Baron S. Alfred Von Oppenheim, only son of Baron Edward Von Oppenheim, of Cologne and Schloss Schlenderham, and Miss Florence Hutchins, only daughter of Mrs. Parkinson Sharp, of 10, Palace-gate. The service was fully choral, the officiating clergy being the Hon. R. E. Carr-Glyn, rector of St. Mary Abbots, and the Rev. Henry White, M.A., chaplain in ordinary to the Queen. The bride, who was given away by her stepfather, Mr Parkinson Sharp, wore a plain dress of rich white ivory satin, elaborately draped with real orange blossoms. Count C. Von Leyden, Councillor of the German Embassy, attended the Baron as best man. Half a dozen bridesmaids followed the bride elegantly attired in costumes of white cashmere, with white corded silk sashes. They were Miss Aim e [sic] Winslow, Miss Emry Von Oppenheim, Miss Vitty Von Oppenbeim, Miss Potter, Miss Eleanor Heywood, and Miss Seymour. The reception was given at Mrs. Parkinson Sharp's town residence, 10, Palace-gate, Kensington, which was largely attended among those present being Prince and Princess Malcom Khan, Baron and Baroness E. von Oppenheim, Baron Max Oppenheim, Baron von Wedd Yarlsberg, Countess de Bunsen, Baron and Baroness de Plency, Count von Alten, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Dowager Countess of Harrington, Admiral Sir Edward Inglefield, Sir Arthur Sullivan, Lady Cottenham, General Du Plat, &c.<ref>"Marriage of Baron S. Alfred Von Oppenheim." ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 22 January 1890, Wednesday: 7 [of 8m], Col. 2c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000098%2F18900122&page=7&article=016&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> === 1890 January 28, Tuesday === According to the ''Dundee Evening Telegraph'' on 28 January 1890 people were buying "Exploration" shares, which funded exploration expeditions with the possibility of rights to minerals or resources or the development of monopolies for goods that were "discovered."<blockquote>Royalty and the peerage have gone in for "Exploration" shares. The Duchess of Albany is the possessor of fifty shares, which hardly seems to assume the dimensions of a royal investment. Certainly the general public would incline to the idea that a princess would never condescend to invest so small a sum as £25 in anything unless it were a hat or a jacket. The Duke of Fife, on the other hand, has been allotted a thousand shares. The Duchess of Manchester and the Countess of Mandeville have thirty each.<ref>"Notes — Mainly Personal." ''Dundee Evening Telegraph'' 28 January 1890, Tuesday: 2 [of 4], Col. 2b [of my 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000453%2F18900128&page=2&article=001&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Evening Telegraph'', n.p.</ref></blockquote> === 1890 January 29, Wednesday === [[Social Victorians/Santurce Murrieta Wedding 1890-01-29|Santurce Murrieta Wedding 1890-01-29]] === 1890 January 30, Thursday, through at least 1890 February 8, Saturday === Kim, Lord Mandeville was in Brighton — at 80, King's-road — at least as early as 30 January.<ref>"Brighton Visitors." ''Brighton Gazette'' 30 January 1890, Thursday: 3 [of 8], Col. 2a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000938%2F18900130&page=3&article=073&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Brighton Gazette and Sussex Telegraph'', p. 3.</ref> The ''Lady's Pictorial'' lists "recent arrivals" in Brighton:<blockquote>Though a good many people have left Brighton, still fresh visitors arrive, and the front is crowded when the weather is a little kind. Amongst the most recent arrivals may be mentioned the Countess of Strafford, Lady Susan Byng, Lady Chelmsford, Lord and Lady Seaton, Lady Jane Grimston, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lord Mandeville]], Lord Romilly and the Hon. John Romilly, Viscount and Viscountess Hampden, the Hon. R. Somerset, the Hon.  Thomas Dundas, the Hon. Sidney Greville, the Hon. A. W. Verney Cave, Lady Elizabeth Cartwright, Colonel Sir Alfred and Lady Kirby, Mr. Bazley White, M.P., and Lady Bazley White, Sir Hugh Montgomery, Sir Frederick and Lady Perkins, Lady Ellis, General Seymour, &c., &c.<ref>Dorothy. "Brighton Notes." ''Lady's Pictorial'' 8 February 1890, Saturday: 51 [of 60], Col. 3a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0005980%2F18900208&page=51&article=671&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, p. 203.</ref></blockquote> ==February 1890== === 1890 February 6, Thursday === Before 6 February but not long before. The prize-fighter Pete Jackson fought a match at the New Pelican Club.<blockquote>It is always well to hear that distinguished visitors have enjoyed the hospitality which we have extended to them. This satisfaction is afforded us in full measure by the eminent "Parson" Davis, manager of Pete Jackson, the prize-fighter, who has just been regaling an American interviewer with an account of his experiences in England:— He had been treated in splendid style, and Jackson was received well everywhere. Nothing would give him greater pleasure than to revisit England, and he hoped soon to do so. "I shook a paw with the Prince,” said the parson. "We had a high old time with Albert E. His Royal Highness was exceptionally friendly with Jackson, and actually made a pump handle of his arm. He shook hands with him again and again. The Prince is in capital  health, and" —— But at this point the interviewer mysteriously breaks off. The Prince, however, was not the only British notable to whom Parson Davis referred. He explained that the cause of the trouble with Smith at the New Pelican Club was that the gloves furnished Jackson were too small in the fingers, and when he closed his hand he almost split them, and could not fight. The matter was explained to the officers of the Club, where the fight took place, and other gloves were procured for Jackson:— Fair play was given, and the audience, which included [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lords Mandeville]] and Lonsdale, were loud in their admiration of Jackson's skill.<ref>"The Tittle Tattle of the Week." ''Pall Mall Budget'' 6 February 1890, Thursday: 4 [of 36], Col. 1b [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0005967%2F18900206&page=4. Same print title, p. 162.</ref></blockquote> ==== The Fracas at the Trocadero ==== This report from the ''Eddowes's Shrewsbury Journal'', 12 January 1890, has paragraphs with gossip; the middle paragraph is not about Lord Mandeville, and the paragraph that follows these is about an epidemic in London; could it be the Russian flu?<blockquote>A great stir has been caused in London by the repert [sic] — only too well authenticated I regret to say — to the effect that a certain individual, who for some years past has been connected somewhat prominently alike with journalism and theatrical enterprise, has suddenly levanted [sic] in consequence of his name being associated with the recent West End scandals. What makes the matter all the more talked about is the fact that the person most concerned has for a long time posed as a conspicuous figure in Society, having given numerous receptions and himself being strongly to the fore at most of the big banquets, first nights and similar gatherings. He has hob-nobbed, in fact, with the wealthy and illustrious, but there is every reason to believe that his pleasant career has been prematurely cut short by a series of disclosures, which are too gross and too scandalous to be referred to in detail. The report is all the talk at the clubs.<ref>"Notes of the Week." ''Eddowes's Shrewsbury Journal'' 15 January 1890, Wednesday: 3 [of 12], Col. 2b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001504%2F18900115&page=3. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> === 12 February 1890, Wednesday === ==== Lady Constance Leslie's Reception ==== <blockquote>On Wednesday last Lady Constance Leslie had an evening party at her residence in Stratford-place.<p> The numerous guests included Prince Ernest of Hohenlohe, Princess Victor of Hohenlohe, and the Countesses Gleichen, the Austro-Hungarian Ambassador, Count Mensdorf, Count and Countess Henry Lützow, Mr. and Mrs. Henry White, Baroness de Brienen and Mdlles de Brienen, the Duke of Abercorn, the Duchess of Cleveland, the Marchioness of Blandford and Lady Frances Spencer Churchill, Earl and Countess of Portarlington, Earl Stanhope, the Earl of Northbrook, the Earl and Countess of Arran, the Earl and Countess of Erne and the Ladies Cole, Julia Countess of Jersey and Mr. Brandling, Viscount Clifden, Viscountess Bary, Viscount Torrington, Viscount and Viscountess Castlerosse and Lady Louisa Beauclerk, Viscount and Viscountess de Vesci and Lady Sarah Spencer, Viscountess Galway, and Mr Caryl Ramsden, Lord de L'Isle and Dudley, Lord Alcester, Lord and Lady Wantage, Lord Ashbourne, Lady Henry Grosvenor and Lady G. Ogilvy, Lady Cloncurry, Lord Morris and Mr. M. Morris, Lady Charles Beresford, Lord Rowton, Lady Blanche Hozier, Lady Colville, Lady Rayleigh, Lady Constance Lytton and Mr. Charles Earle, Lady Evelyn Sutton, Lady Ernest Seymour and Ladies Fortescue, Lord and Lady Sandhurst, Lady Mary Lloyd, Lady Tweedmouth, Lady Windsor, Lord and Lady William Seymour, Lady Guy Campbell, Lady Egerton, Lady Fitzgerald, Baron d'Erlanger and Mr. Charles Derenberg, Hon. R. C. Spencer, M.P., and Mrs. Spencer, Hon. Evelyn Ashley, Hon. W. Mansfield, Hon. Lionel Ashley, Hon. A. Hood, Hon. William Lowther and Miss Lowther, Hon. Sydney Greville, Hon. Fitzroy and Mrs. Stewart, Hon. Frederick Leveson Gower, Hon. Kenneth Howard, Hon. Francis Villiers, Hon. Francis Bertie, Hon. Arthur Walsh, Colonel the Hon. Charles Edgcumbe, General Hon. John Bourke, General and Hon. Mrs. Ellis and Mrs. R. Sneyd and Miss Ellis, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Algernon and Mrs. Bourke]], Hon. Alan and Hon. Evan Charteris, Hon. Alexander Yorke, Hon. Derek Keppel, General Sir Dighton Probyn, Hon. Percy Wyndham, Hon. Everard Baring and Hon. Susan Baring, Hon. Mrs. Brett, Hon. Claud Hay, the Right Hon. Henry Matthews, Sir George Arthur, Sir George Maude, Sir Philip Currie, C.B., Sir Redvers and Lady Audrey Buller, Sir Charles Grant, Sir Mackenzie Wallace, Sir Herbert Maxwell, M.P., Sir Oscar Clayton, Sir Robert Gresley, Sir Algernon West and Mr. Horace West, Sir George and Lady Russell and Miss Brackenbury, Sir Henry and Lady Longley, the Sub-Dean of the Chapels Royal, General Crealock, General Charles Fraser, Colonel Saunderson, M.P., and Hon. Mrs. Saunderson, Colonel and Mrs. Stewart and Miss Streatfeild [siv], Colonel and Miss Balfour, Colonel and Mrs. Stanley Clarke and Miss Clarke, Colonel R. Baring, Captain and Mrs. Jekyll, Captain and Mrs. J. Bagot, Captain Lambert Ward, Captain A. Bagot, Mr. Charles Hall, Q.C, M.P., Mr[.] Hussey Walsh, M.P., Mr and Mrs. W. Hartpole Lecky, Mr. and Mrs. Richard Combe, Mr Henry Foley, Mrs. Arbuthnot and Miss Guthrie, Mr. and Mrs. Heseltine and Miss Dorothy Heseltine and Lord Cantelupe, the Miss Stopford Brooke, Mr. and Mrs. Thackeray Ritchie, Mr Edmund Byng, Mr. and Mrs. Wilton Phipps, Professor Sidney Colvin, Mr. and Miss Tennant, Mr. Godfrey Webb, Mr. and Mrs. Turton and Mr. Sidney Ponsonby, Mrs. Adare, Mrs Cecil Paget and Mr. Hugo Wemyss, Mrs. L. Drummond, Mr. and Mrs E. Hope, Mrs. L. Seymour and Miss Seymour, Mr. Guy Repton, Mr. and Mrs. Julian Sturgis and Miss Beresford, Mr. Poynter, R.A., Mrs. Daniel Cooper, Mr. Hamilton Aïdé, Mr. Alwyne Maude, Mrs. C. Bentinck, Mrs. Bingham Mildmay, Mr. Philip Habord, Mr. and Mrs. George Bulteel, Mrs. Beerbohm Tree and Miss Julia Neilson, Mr. Hallé [Halle?], Mr. Rudolph Lehmann and Miss Lehmann, [[Social Victorians/People/Fanny Ronalds|Mr. R. Ronalds]], Mr. Ellice, Mr. Arthur, Madame Blumenthal, Miss Julia Leslie, Mr. and Mrs. Jeune, Mr and Mrs. Charles Stuart-Wortley and Misses Millais, Mrs. Arkwright, Mr Joachim, Mr. Gillett, Mr. Pulteney (Scots Guards), Colone| Cuthbert Larking, Mr. Harry Higgins, M. Tividar Nachez, Mr. G. Ross, Herr Johannes Woolff, Mrs. Charles Bagot and Miss Bagot, Mrs. Bischoffsheim, Mr. Henry Petre, Miss Balch, Mr. and Lady Maud Ramsden, Mr. Adolphus Liddell, Mr Knowles, Mr. Grenfell, Mr. Edward Hamilton, Mrs. Henry Gordon and Miss Gordon, Mr. Henry James, Mr. St. Leger, Mrs. Dacre Hamilton and the Misses Nugent, Mr. Harbord, Mr Somerset, Mr. Ruggles-Brise, Mr. and Miss Hughes of Kinmel, Mr. and Mrs Douglas Freshfield, Mrs. Homer, Mr. W. H. Mallock, Mr. and Mrs. Robert Benson, Mr. H. Seymour, Mr. Ernest Law, Mr. Hugh Grimston, Mr. Lionel Cust, Mr. Chappell, Mr. and Mrs. Du Maurier, Mr. Boughton, R.A., and Mrs. Boughton, Mr. R. Roche, Mr. Montagu Wilson, Mr. Herbert Hope, &c.<ref>"Lady Constance Leslie's Reception." ''Morning Post'' 15 February 1890, Saturday: 2 [of 8], Col. 5c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900215/008/0002. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> === 24 February 1890, Monday === Lilly Langtry starred in Shakespeare's ''As You Like It'' at the St. James's Theatre. The Daily Telegraph had a long review and mentioned more names:<blockquote> The motto of Petronius, which is said to have adorned the Globe Theatre in Shakespeare's time, "Totus mundus agit histrionem," and which is reproduced in Jaques' famous speech, may be said to have received a novel illustration in the brilliant audience which completely filled the St. James's Theatre last evening. A very distinguished section of the world "played the actor" in the stalls, boxes, and dress-circle, and evinced the keenest dramatic interest in the long-deferred production of "As You Like It." The Prince and Princess of Wales, with the Duchess of Fife, surveyed the scene from the Royal box, while amongst the many who secured seats for the first were the Austrian Ambassador, the [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Duchess of Manchester]], Countess de Grey, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Lady Colin Campbell, Lord Wolverton, Lord and Lady Coleridge, Sir Charles Russell, Sir Edward and Lady Guinness, Baroness de Stern, and Mr. Alfred Rothschild. Naturally enough there was much curiosity in seeing once more on the London stage an actress who has since her last appearance devoted so much serious study to her profession, and gained so much success both before American and provincial audiences; while the sympathy evoked by her recent severe illness, delaying for four weeks the production of the comedy, added an almost pathetic note to the general excitement and enthusiasm. In the second scene of the first act, when the tenderly attached cousins make their earliest appearance on the stage, Celia's first words, "| pray thee, Rosalind, sweet, my coz, be merry," answered by Rosalind’s "Dear Celia, I show more mirth than I am mistress of," were almost drowned in the applause which accompanied the recognition of Mrs. Langtry. From time to time, whenever opportunity served, enthusiasm broke out anew, culminating in the triumph of plaudits which formed the fit ending to the gracefully-delivered epilogue with which Rosalind takes her farewell of her audience. There can be no doubt that, with all due allowance for the inevitable nervousness which accompanied a first production before a critical though sympathetic house, the revival of the immortal comedy was generally pronoanced to be a success. The fancifally-named "As You Like It" — where even in nomenclature the author confesses his indebtedness to the romance of Thomas Lodge — with greater dullness than is usually the case with Shakespeare's plays. Indeed interest is hardly aroused till the scene before the Duke's Palace, where Rosalind and Celia witness the wrestling — which after a few more performances will probably go less stagily than it did last night — between Charles and Orlando. It is only when we are transported to the Forest of Arden that Shakespeare's romantic fancy allows itself full course, and it was only when she was accoutred in the doublet and hose that Mrs. Langtry exercised her full charm upon the audience. The difficulty for the actress in the character of Rosalind is the contrast between the early abandon of her frankly-expressed love for the son of Rowland de Bois and the subsequent archness and reserve with which she plays with her lover in the forest. Orlando goes through precisely an opposite change. From the careless desperateness of a man who is out of favour with fortune in the opening scene, he changes to the sentimental devotion of a "love-shaked fancy-monger" in the sylvan glades. If that interchange of parts be missed much is lost in the sprightly  contrasts of the drama. Unfortunately, no sooner did Orlando enter on the wrestling-ground last night, than he started and caught at his heart in obvious suggestion of love at first sight. Much is lost of the utter wonderment at Rosalind’s unexpected graciousness in giving him her chain, which keeps him tongue-tied later, if he betrays so early the fatal ravages of Cupid — a betrayal which is hardly likely in a man whom neglect and misery have driven to the last stage of reckless hardihood. Rosalind must love her champion before her winning thanks for his prowess have made the starred younger brother first marvel at and then adore the frank and generous advances of his benefactress. In the fine words, "My father was no traitor," Mrs. Langtry rose to the full height of the character she was depicting. Throughout the greater part of the first act there was grace, loveableness, charm, but also a kind of flatness, or, at all events, an even and somewhat uninteresting level of characterisation which did not convey the promise of all that this loveliest creation in Shakespeare's gallery could do, when the Court life was exchanged for the freer and less conventional existence in the woods. All the more praise, therefore, is Mrs. Langtry’s due, that when she finds herself in the Forest of Arden, she brings before us a truer Rosalind. The beautiful first scene between the disguised Ganymede and her amorous swain showed Mrs. Langtry at her best. The quick and nimble wit, the archness and pretty coquetry of a girl who is sick at heart with love and feeds her passion in a playful and adorable tyrannising over the unconscious lover, were depicted with a reality which won instant recognition from the spectators. For the rest, however, Mrs. Langtry’s Rosalind was an unequal performance, now rising with unexpected force into the regions of pure comedy, now sinking to an ordinary level of  uncomfortably-disguised womanishness. There were bright patches of power in the midst of a somewhat dull and colourless expanse. Much of this was, no doubt, due to the excitement and fatigue of a first night, to which also may be attributed possibly the sameness of some of her gestures and a restlessness which was something more than Rosalind's anxiety to win in her own incomparable way the happiness of which she was in search. A few nights hence firmness of carriage and self-control of manner will fill in the details of a character which was most graphically and sympathetically sketched in outline at the St. James’s last night. Mr Laurence Cautley as Orlando made most favourable impression on his audience. Through all the earlier scenes — with the exception of that wholly unnecessary lapse into amorousness on the lawn of Duke Frederick, which has been already noted — he sustained the character of a picturesque and youthful gallant with considerable success, though, possibly, a stronger dash of manly independence might not have come amiss to the Shakespearean hero. Touchstone is a more difficult part to play. Indeed, in some respects, he is the most difficult of all Shakespeare's clowns. He is on the borderland between the earlier, more conventional style of Costard, Launce, and Launcelot, and the far more elaborate and important clowns in "Twelfth Night" and "King Lear." He is not so clever as Feste, not so human and real as that inimitable and tender-hearted Edgar who tries to solace the wild ravings of his discrowned king. He is halfway between such farcical beings as Kempe and Tarlton probably depicted, and that witty, self-conscious, irresponsible Jester, which Shakespeare ultimately made an entirely new creation on Elizabethan boards. It is no discredit to Mr. Sugden that he failed to realise so ingenious a conception. He presented a Touchstone who was full of amusing quips, and he went through all the catalogue of points in the Book of Honour in the fifth act with admirable skill; the Touchstone of "As You Like It" we are probably not likely to see often on the modern stage. Mr. Bourchier’s Jaques was a far higher piece of portraiture, grave and bitter and cynical as that early disciple of Schopenhauer should be, with touches of humour which only serve to show the depths of a naturally perverse and misanthropical nature. The celebrated "Seven Ages" speech  was capitally delivered, with a conscientious care and easy mastery which are rare enough in an actor who has so lately left the ranks of the amateurs. For the rest, the Adam of Mr Everill, and the Andrey of Miss Marion Lea seemed to give most pleasure to the audience, though she was sometimes — espectally in the pronunciation of the word "poetry" — inclined to represent the boorishness of the wench with an accent  which reproduced simulated inebriation rather than native clumsiness. Miss Armbruster as Hymen also deserves a word of praise. The piece was produced under the direction of the Hon. Lewis Wingfield, and the scenery, which in the Forest Glade of Acts II., III., and IV., formed a beautiful stage picture, was designed by Messrs. Perkins and Bruce Smith. After all, was any one ever wholly satisfied with the representaton of one of Shakespeare's comedies? No thing is further from the truth as a general statement than the pedant’s theory that Shakespeare is for the study, and not for the boards. If ever, however, the paradox be true that a great dramatic artist suffers when his plays gain a dramatic representation, it is when "As You Like It," "Twelfth Night" and "Midsummer Night's Dream" are brought face to face with a modern audience and amid nineteenth century surroundings. It ts not with impunity that the light that never was on sea and land is parodied by the glare of the footlights. For, honest stage-craftsman as Shakespeare was, in the full spring-tide of his poetic genius there was a divine and masterful intolerance of the real and the commonplace, a reckless flight into an ideal world, peopled by beings coined in the mint of his dainty imagination — aerial and disembodied creations whose actions and characters refuse to submit themselves to the narrow rules of the every-day world. In such a sphere banished lovers shall be predestined to meet and cement their happy unions, and lions and snakes shall be the habitual denizens of a forest where shepherds and shepherdesses prattle their erotic strains, and even a crafty Oliver shall repent of his past sins and fall in love with gentle Celia, owing to the poetic exigencies of Cloud Cuckoo Land. How can one  see all these things with the cynical eye of the modern ''Fin de Siècle'' and not feel an inevitable shock of dissatisfaction and surprise? How is it possible to avoid the jarring sense of discord when the dream picture is realised in the setting of prosaic reality? For Shakespeare's comedy is a romantic work of the mind, a refuge for all those delightful improbabilities which an indolent or whimsical fancy strings together to construct a series of complications and incidents which interest us, while they elude the sober tests of reason and judgment. But we must not carry this vein of thought too far. It is true that we have in such plays comedies of incident rather than of character. Yet Shakespeare is too and heart-whole to linger only at the Ivory gate. He throws even into these merry plots the force of that instinctive knowledge of human nature which produces real personages, tricked out in witty and imaginative guise. Shakespeare was able to pour everything into his comedies which he did into his tragedies, though in the one there is only suggestion, while in the other there is the elaboration of that is deep and tragic as well as humorous in life. Rosalid, Orlando, Touchstone, and Jaques are none the less real because they are ideal; and it is on these grounds that we can praise the conscientious and capable artists who presented these characters in flesh and blood on the St. James's stage. Nor does Shakespeare, as some have thought, intend in this play to preach [Col. 1c–2a]  any polemic against the life of the town, or compose any passionate encomium for the simple graces of the country. He is too great to be didactic on such narrow issues. Wherever men and women live, there they can be happy; or, as Touchstone says to Corin, when he expresses ignorance of the Court, one-sided enthusiasts for either streets or hedge-rows are truly damned, "like an ill-roasted egg, all on one side." Equanimity, such that of the Duke and old Adam, carries with it, wherever it be, the gracious gentleness of an eternal Eden.<ref>"St. James's Theatre." ''Daily Telegraph & Courier'' (London) 25 February 1890, Tuesday: 5 [of 12], Col. 6a–7a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001112%2F18900225&page=5&article=048&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Daily Telegraph'', p. 5. </ref></blockquote> The ''St. James's Gazette'' reported:<blockquote> We came intending to like it very much, and we succeeded in our intention. Indeed, we spent a really pleasant evening at the St. James's Theatre, Many of us knew one another to nod to, and some of us had bowing acquaintance with the author of the play; so it was all very sociable and comfortable. There were just enough shop-window celebrities to give an air of distinction to the rest of the audience, and everybody had a right to hope that his neighbours were wondering who he was. The critics were quite at their ease, having nothing to criticise except the acting; not being expected to suggest any slight alterations in the play (such as cutting out Acts I., III., and V., and rewriting Acts II. and IV.), but just to accept it as it stood, without even tracing it back to the French vaudeville from which it was, no doubt, originally adapted. The performance had many individual merits, but it also had two general faults. The first and least striking fault was that the interludes were  slurred over instead of being played up to. Now, the plot of "As You Like It" is so loose that a lengthy interlude (provided it be pretty) does not check the flow of interest; indeed, it gives a welcome rest and allows you to pick up your thoughts again. The other fault is one which may be, and is likely to be, remedied the play goes on. But at present it is neither smart nor spontaneous: the parts do not hang well together, and there is none of the enthusiasm which helps to pass off the interior performances of less skilful actors. The deficiency which we have noted was probably due to the serious illness from which Mrs. Langtry had been suffering and from which it was evident last night that she had not made a complete recovery. She worked very hard as Rosalind, and worked very well, and several times she made a really good hit; she was, perhaps, at her best in her indignant appeal to the usurper Duke against his unexpected and unjust decree of banishment. She was charming, again, in her embarrassment (as Miss Litton was charming before her) when she had her first meeting with her unconscious lover and she suggested very cleverly the absence of her skirts. She did her love-making archly and merrily; but though the pretended pretence gave her a right to go beyond the limits of maiden coyness, she seemed occasionally to assume the masculine Initiative when the feminine Suggestive would have been prettier. it was a pleasant though uneven performance, with plenty of grace in it and plenty of brains. The Touchstone of Mr. Sugden was in every way admirable — crisp, humorous, and distinctive. That his clowning was occasionally tedious was no fault of his. The palate of a modern audience does not relish these long-drawn pedantries of buffoonery. Our sense of humour is not more refined — it is different, and that's the end of it. But in the scenes with Audrey (and Miss Marion Lea made a capital Audrey — open-mouthed and innocently wicked or wickedly innocent) Mr. Sugden had a better opportunity and he made the most of it. There the humour was not conventional, and the audience enjoyed a laugh which was not scholarly. A word of praise must given to Mr. Brodie for his conscientious and effective rendering of the difficult and ungrateful part of the moonstruck lover of the wayward Phoebe. The first appearance of Mr. Bourchier in London attracted much interest. As an amateur at Oxford and elsewhere he was believed Iikely to to great things upon the stage, and his performance of Jaques was by no means a disappointment. The fault of it was that he did not suggest either the melancholy or the sententiousness which we associate with the character. The melancholy was but skin-deep, and the sententiousness simply was not there. But every actor has a right to read a part in his own way if it is a good way. And there is much to said for Mr. Bourchier's interpretation of Jaques. The temptation is to be stagy; Mr. Bourchier's tendency is to be natural. And he carried it out with great success in speaking the lines of the Seven Ages of Man. He caught up the Duke's phrase just as if it had dropped in the course of an ordinary conversation; and he played with it for a time until it seemed of itself to suggest to his mind the famous soliloquy. Certainly Mr. Bourchier’s method was effective, as it drew one of the heartiest rounds of applause in the whole evening. Among the company were noticed the following well known persons:— His  Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, the Duke and Duchess of Fife, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], Lord De Grey, Mr. Alfred De Rothschild, Lord Lurgan, Sir Charles Russell, Sir Edward Guinness, Lady Colin Campbell, Lady Curzon, Lady Londonderry, Lady Hothfield, Hon. Alan Charteris, Mr. Oscar Wilde, Mr. Akers Douglas, M.P., Mr. Justin McCarthy, M.P., Sir Allen Young, Lord and Lady Coleridge, the Austrian Ambassador, the Spanish Ambassador, Lady Hozier, Mr. George Lewis, Mr. Whistler, Lady Greville [<nowiki/>[[Social Victorians/People/Lady Violet Greville|Lady Violet Greville]]?].<ref>"As You Like It."  ''St James's Gazette'' 25 February 1890, Tuesday: 5 [of 16], Col. 1b–c [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001485%2F18900225&page=5&article=027&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p. </ref></blockquote> This report is from ''Blalud, The Bath Society Paper'':<blockquote>Happily, there was no disappointment in store for the friends and admirers of Mrs. Langtry, who gathered on Monday night at the St. James’s Theatre in great force, to welcome this popular lady back to London and receive her with an extra warmth of cordiality in token of satisfaction at her recovery from her recent severe illness. Eight years have elapsed since she last played Rosalind in London. Since then she has travelled much, both at home and abroad, and followed the study and practice of her art with unfailing spirit and determination. She returns to the character which all leading actresses aspire to play in Shakespeare’s glorious dream of the Court of Duke Frederick and the forest of Arden a far riper artist, and, says the ''Daily News'', she presented us on Monday with an impersonation which compared to her former efforts is as the finished portrait to the crude sketch. Her performance may lack the great high tide of girlish impulsiveness, but first nights before an exceptionally critical audience and some remains of the languor of her recent indisposition doubtless contributed to rob her acting of something of its force and impulse. But her ''Rosalind'' remains a most winning and beautiful performance. A handsomer ''Rosalind'', or one that has worn the doublet and hose with more grace and picturesqueness (Mrs, Langtry, we may here note, scorns the modern heresy of boots, and appears in the more orthodox hose cross-gartered), has certainly not been seen in our time. The performance is full of good points; as when at the words, "here on the skirts of this forest like the fringe of a petticoat," she remembers with a momentary touch of maidenly shyness that petticoats no longer form part of her attire. Again, when in bantering her lover, who exhibits so strange an inability to recognize the voice and features of the woman whom he passionately loves, she pauses at "a beard neglected," and pointing at ''Orlando’s'' smooth chin bursts into uncontrollable laughter; again, when in the mock marriage scene, with ''Celia'' for the priest, her mind for the moment seems to wander away into such a dream as this mockery might suggest to one so deeply in love. The distinguishing feature of the impersonation, indeed, is the subtle suggestion of serious passion that underlies the frolicsome and bantering moods, and exhibits itself again and again in many subtle forms. The play is beautifully put on the stage, and if some of the performers fall a long way short of ideal excellence there are several impersonations that stand forth in strong relief and are of far more than common excellence. The ''Phœbe'' and ''Silvius'' of Miss Beatrice Lamb and Mr. Matthew Brodie deserve special note: but the most brilliant success of all in the case of the minor characters was undoubtedly the ''Audrey'' of Miss Marion Lee, whose hoydenish, but not ungraceful antics, whose happy, contented ignorance, whose mingled wonderment and admiration at ''Touchstone's'' philosophical utterances were admirable. Everything that taste can suggest has been done to embellish the play; the musical features are strengthened by an efficient chorus, and the costumes designed by the Hon. Lewis Wingfield are rich and handsome. Perhaps it might be objected that Mrs. Langtry’s beautiful green velvet doublet, with its slashes, tags, and laces, her cinnamon jerkin, her black cap and jewelled buckle, and her rich and massive cloak were hardly suited to her daring enterprise on the highways and in the forests of the Duke’s dominions. The restoration of Hymen, gracefully represented by Miss Violet Armbruster, and the final morris dance in honour of the nuptials, gave the crowning fanciful touch to the performance, and prepared the spectators for the playful epilogue, which was spoken by Mrs. Langtry, in her simple nuptial white robe and leopard skin, with rare elocutionary grace and effect,. [sic] The audience which greeted Mrs. Langtry was at once distinguished and interesting. The Royal box was occupied by the Prince and Princess of Wales, the Duchess of Fife, the Princesses Victoria and Maud of Wales, and the Duke of Fife. Among the representatives of "Society" were Lady Londonderry, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], Lord de Grey, Lord and Lady Coleridge, Lady Curzon, Lady Hothfield, Lord Lurgan, Lady Greville [<nowiki/>[[Social Victorians/People/Lady Violet Greville|Lady Violet Greville]]?], Lady Hozier, Mr. Alfred de Rothschild, Sir Charles Russell, Sir Edward Guinness, Mr. Coningsby Disraeli, Mr. Akers Douglas, M.P., Mr. Justin M‘Carthy, M.P., Sir Allen Young, Lady Colin Campbell, Lady Monckton, Mrs. Labouchere, and the Austrian and Spanish Ambassadors. Pictorial art was represented by Mr. Whistler; music by Mdme. Antoinette Sterling; dramatic writing by Mr. H. A. Jones; and theatrical interests by Mrs. Bancroft, Miss Genevieve Ward, Mr. and Mrs. John Lart, Mrs. John Hare, Mr. M. L. Mayer, Mr. Augustus Harris, &c.<ref>"Mrs. Langtry." ''Bladud'' 26 February 1890, Wednesday: 9 [of 16], Col. 2b–c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0005771%2F18900226&page=9&article=055&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Blalud, The Bath Society Paper'', p. 9.</ref></blockquote> === 25 February 1890, Tuesday === On 5 March, the ''World'' reports on a party hosted by Mrs. Adair that must have been held the week before:<blockquote>Many smart people were present at Mrs. Adair's party in Curzon Street on Tuesday night. The rooms, lighted by electricity, looked their prettiest with floral decorations consisting entirely of tulips, the hostess appearing in a gown of terra-cotta velvet trimmed with dark fur. The Austrian Ambassador and Madame Waddington were among those who listened to Miss Damian’s rendering of a new song by Tosti, and to the glees sung by Mr. Avon Saxon's American quartet; and among others present were Lady Charles Beresford, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], the Duchess of Marlborough, Lady Fanny Marjoribanks, who brought her sister, Lady Sarah Churchill, Sir Arthur Sullivan (just back from his annual sojourn at Monte Carlo), Lord and Lady Wharncliffe, Lady Howe and Lady Edith Curzon, Lord and Lady William Nevill, Mrs. Cavendish-Bentinck, General Charles Fraser, Lady Conyers, Madame de Brienen, and Sir Philip Currie.<ref>"What the World Says." ''The World'' 5 March 1890, Wednesday: 19 [of 44], Col. 2a [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0006339%2F18900305&page=19&article=061&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote>The ''Daily Telegraph'' covered the party with a few additional names:<blockquote>A casual passer-by in Curzon-street last night might almost have imagined from the long string of carriages assembled there that, in spite of the cold east wind blowing, the London season had already begun. Mrs. Adair had together to hear some beautiful music, including a celebrated quartette of American singers, a large and fashionable crowd, composed of the ''élite'' of London society, comprising among many others, the Austrian Ambassador, the French Ambassadress, the Marquis and Marchioness of Tweeddale, Lady Charles Beresford, Lady Fanny Marjoribanks and Lady Sarah Spencer-Churchill, Earl and Countess of Wharncliffe, Countess Howe and Lady Edith Curzon, Lord and Lady William Nevill, Lord George Nevill, Viscount and Viscountess Curzon, Countess of Sefton and Lady Rose Molyneux, Viscountess Mandeville, Julia Countess of Jersey and Mr Brandling, Viscount and Viscountess Bury and the Hon. Mary Keppel, the Countess of Crawford, the Earl of Clonmell, the Countess of Antrim and Lady Louisa Beauclerk, Viscountess Melgund, Lady Conyers, Hon. Lady Cotterell and Miss Cotterell, Lord Alington, Lord Alcester, Lord Greenock, Viscount de Vesci, Lady Hilda Brodrick, Hon. W. Lowther, M.P., and Mrs. Lowther, Hon. Mrs. Bampfylde, Hon. Hallyburton Campbell, Mrs. and Miss Campbell, Hon. Kenneth Howard, Hon. Derek Keppel, Hon. FitzRoy and Mrs. Stewart, Lady FitzGerald, Mrs. Bischoffsheim, Madame de Brienen, Lieutenant-General Sir Seymour Blane, General C. Fraser, M.P., Mr. Chamberlain, M.P., Mr. Howard Vincent, M.P., and Mrs Vincent, Mr. Charles Hall, M.P., Mrs. Cavendish-Bentinck, Sir C. Rivers Wilson, Sir Arthur Sullivan, Sir Philp Currie.<ref>"London Day by Day." ''Daily Telegraph & Courier'' (London) 26 February 1890, Wednesday: 5 [of 8], Col. 4a [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001112%2F18900226&page=5&article=094&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Daily Telegraph'', p. 5. </ref></blockquote>The ''Sporting Gazette'' also had a report, on 1 March:<blockquote>Mrs. Adair's party in Curzon-street on Tuesday night was, as usual, exceedingly smart and dressy. The "smarties" turned out strong for this Anglo-American function, and wore their best frocks and jewels. Lady Tweeddale, Lady Howe, with Lady Edith Curzon, Lady Fanny Majoribanks chaperoning her younger sister, Lady Sarah Churchill, Lady Curzon, Lady Antrim with Lady Louisa Beauclerk, Lady William Nevill with some lovely diamonds, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], Lord Alington, Sir Arthur Sullivan, Mrs Cavendish Bentinck, and others. The singing of an American quartette was ''the'' feature of the evening.<ref>"The Man About Town." "The County Gentleman." ''Sporting Gazette'' 1 March 1890, Saturday: 6 [of 38], Col. 2b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0002525%2F18900301&page=6&article=053&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, p. 274.</ref></blockquote> ==March 1890== === 10 March 1890, Monday === The Prince and Princess of Wales hosted a ball in celebration of their wedding anniversary. This report from the ''Bedfordshire Mercury'' is very brief:<blockquote> The Prince and Princess of Wales, in celebration of the anniversary of their wedding on March 10, 1863, gave a dance at Marlborough House on Monday night. The Danish Minister and Madame de Falbe were among the company invited, also the Earl and Countess Brownlow, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Lord Alwyne Compton, Baron F. de Rothschild, &c.<ref>"Notes of the Aristocracy." ''Bedfordshire Mercury'' 15 March 1890, Saturday: 7 [of 8], Col. 4b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001290%2F18900315&page=7&article=073&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> The report from the ''Morning Post'' suggests that this was a smaller party than usual for the Prince and Princess of Wales:<blockquote>In celebration of the anniversary of the Prince and Princess of Wales's wedding day, their Royal Highnesses gave an evening party (dancing) at Marlborough House last night. His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, her Royal Highness Princess Beatrice (Princess Henry of Battenberg) and his Royal Highness Prince Henry of Battenberg, her Royal Highness the Princess Louise of Wales (Duchess of Fife) and the Duke of Fife, his Royal Highness Prince George of Wales, her Royal Highness the Princess Victoria of Wales, her Royal Highness the Princess Maud of Wales, her Royal Highness the Princess Mary Adelaide (Duchess of Teck), and his Highness the Duke of Teck and her Serene Highness the Princess Victoria of Teck and his Serene Highness Prince Francis of Teck, and their Serene Highnesses the Prince and Princess Victor of  Hohenlohe-Langenburg and the Countess Victoria Gleichen were present. The following had the honour to receive invitations, but some amongst them were unavoidably prevented from attending: — The French Ambassador (M. Waddington) and Madame Waddington, the German Ambassador (Count Hatzfeldt) and the Countess Marie Hatzfeldt, the Turkish Ambassador (Rustem Pasha), the Austro-Hungarian Ambassador (Count Deym) and the Countess Deym, the Italian Ambassador  (Count Tornielli), the Countess Tornielli, and Mademoiselle Virginia dei Conti Lazzari, the Danish Minister (M. de Falbe) and Madame de Falbe, the Russian Chargé d'Affaires (M. Bontineff), his Serene Highness Prince Louis Esterhazy, M. A. Kroupensky, M. A. de Stoeckl, Count Leyden, Count Albert Mensdorff, Count Reventlow, Mr. and Mrs. Henry White, M. de Soveral, the Marques and Marquesa de Santurce, Mr. A. de Murrieta, Mr. C. de Murrieta. The Duke and Duchess of Leeds and Lady Alice Osborne, the Duke and Duchess of Buccleuch, the Duke and Duchess of Portland, the Duke and Duchess of Westminster, the Marchioness of Blandford and Lady Frances Spencer Churchill, the Marquis and Marchioness of Granby, the Marquis and Marchioness of Londonderry, the Marquis and Marchioness of Ormonde, the Marquis and Marchioness of Salisbury and Lady Gwendolen Cecil, the Marquis and Marchioness of Stafford, Count Gleichen, the Earl and Countess Brownlow, the Earl and Countess Cadogan and Lady Emily  Cadogan, the Earl and Countess of Clarendon, the Earl of Chesterfield, the Earl of Clonmell, the Earl of Dudley, the Earl and Countess of Dunraven and Lady Florence Wyndham Quin, the Earl and Countess Granville and Lady Victoria Leveson Gower, the Earl and Countess of Hardwicke, the Earl and Countess Howe and Lady Evelyn Curzon, the Earl and Countess of  Kilmorey, the Earl and Countess of Lathom and Lady Alice Wilbraham, the Earl and Countess of Lucan and Lady Rosalind Bingham, the Earl of Mount Edgcumbe and Lady Albertha Edgcumbe, the Earl and Countess of Romney and Lady Florence Marsham, the Earl and Countess of Rosebery, the Earl of Shaftesbury, the Earl of Stradbroke, the Earl and Countess of Sefton and Lady Gertrude Molyneux, the Earl and Countess Spencer, Viscount Drumlanrig, Lord and Lady Randolph Spencer Churchill, Lord Frederick Hamilton, Lord Ernest Hamilton, Lord and Lady Algernon Gordon Lennox, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Lord Charles Montagu, Viscount Chelsea, Viscount and Viscountess Coke and the Hon. Violet White, Viscount Curzon, Lady Georgina Curzon and Lady Sarah Spencer Churchill, Viscount Fincastle, Viscount Royston, Viscount Valletort, Lord and Lady Brooke, Lord Burghersh, Lord Capell, Lord and Lady Norreys and the Hon. Coralie Glyn, Lady Charles Beresford, Lord Marcus Beresford, Lord Alwyne Compton, Lord and Lady William Nevill, Lord Richard Nevill, Lord Henry Paulet, Lord Henry Vane Tempest, Lord Herbert Vane Tempest, Admiral Lord Alcester, Lady Ampthill and the Hon. Constance Russell, Lord Alington and the Hon. Winifred and Hon. Mildred Sturt, Lord and Lady Colville of Culross  and the Hon. Blanche Colville, Lord and Lady De  Ramsey, Lady Hastings, Lord and Lady Hindlip, Lord Lurgan, Lord and Lady Revelstoke and the Hon. Susan Baring, Lord and Lady Rothschild,  Lord Rowton, Lord Suffield and the Hon. Judith and Hon. Eleanor Harbord, Lord and Lady Wimborne and the Hon. Frances Guest, Lord Wolverton, Baron Ferdinand Rothschild, Captain the Hon. Maurice Bourke, R.N., Colonel the Hon. Henry Byng and the Misses Byng, the Hon. Alan Charteris, Lieutenant-Colonel the Hon. C. Edgcumbe, the Hon. Sir Spencer and Lady Ponsonby Fane, the Hon. Sidney Greville, Colonel the Hon. Oliver Montagu, the Hon. C. R. and Mrs. Spencer, the Hon. S. M'Donnell, the Hon. Alexander Yorke, the Hon. H. and Lady Feodora Sturt, the Hon. Arthur Walsh, the Hon. R. Winn, the Right Hon. W. E. and Mrs. Gladstone and Miss Gladstone, the Right Hon. A. J. Balfour, the Right Hon. H. Chaplin, the Right. Hon. Sir Henry James, the Right Hon. Sir C. L. Wyke, the Hon. S. C. Colville, the Hon. Assheton Harbord, the Hon. Julia Stonor, the Hon. H. Stonor, the Hon. E. Stonor, Captain the Hon. Henry White, Sir Edward and Lady Guinness, Sir Charles Hartopp, Sir Frederick Johnstone, Sir John and Lady Lister Kaye, Sir James and Lady  Mackenzie, Colonel Sir Nigel and Lady Emily Kingscote, Admiral Sir R. and the Hon. Lady Macdonald and Miss Macdonald, General Sir Dighton and Lady Probyn, Sir Francis and the Hon. Lady Knollys, Major-General Sir Christopher Teesdale, Sir Oscar Clayton, Sir Allen Young, Lieutenant-General Bateson, Lieutenant-General Charles Fraser, Major-General and the Hon. Mrs. Arthur Ellis and Miss Ellis, Colonel J. P. Brabazon, Colonel and Mrs. Stanley Clarke and the Misses Clarke, Captain H. F. Stephenson, R.N., Lieutenant-Colonel F. H. Poore, Lieutenant-Colonel R. Vivian, Major C. Swaine, Captain Douglas Dawson, Captain C. H. A. Hervey, the officers of the Queen's Guard, St. James's Palace, Mr. G. Byng, Mr. Henry Calcraft, Mr. Victor Cavendish, Mr. Henry Ellis, Mr. Horace Farquhar, Mr. and Mrs. George Forbes and Miss Forbes, Mr. Montagu Guest, Mr. Charles Hall, Mr. E. W. Hamilton, Mr. and Lady Hilda Higgins, Mr. Holzmann, Miss Knollys, Mr. and Mrs. F. R. Knollys, Mr. Ronald Moncrieffe, Mr. Alfred Montgomery, Mr. Arnold Morley, Mr. Henry Petre, Mr. Alfred de Rothschild, Mr. and Mrs. Leopold de Rothschild, Mr. Reuben Sassoon and Miss Sassoon, Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Sassoon, Mr. Edgar Sebright, Mr. and Mrs. Ralph Sneyd, Mr. Christopher Sykes, and Mr. O. G. St. George Williams. Messrs. Coote and Tinney's band was in attendance.<ref>"Marlborough House." ''Morning Post'' 11 March 1890, Tuesday: 5 [of 8]. Col. 6b–c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000174%2F18900311&page=5&article=055&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p. </ref></blockquote> ==April 1890== Arnold Dolmetsch took out a three-day ticket to the Reading Room in April 1890 (Campbell 22). === 9 April 1890, Wednesday === ==== The New Forest United Hunt Ball ==== <blockquote>This annual ball was beld at the New Forest Hall, Lyndhearst, on Wednesday night, and was a most brilliant gathering, upwards of 200 being present, not only the New Forest but also neighbouring hunts being well represented. Among those present were Earl and Countess of Londesborough, Lady Mildred Denison, Lady Lilian Denison, Hon. Louis Johnstone, Hon. Gerald and Mrs Lascelles, Major Downman, Capt. Sandbach, R.H.A., Col. and Mrs Sinkins, Col. Fitzroy Smyth, Lady Thursby and party, Mr Stanley Pearce (Master of the Foxhounds), Mr F. Lovell (Master of the Deerhounds) and party, Lady Adela Goff and party, Hon. Miss St. Leger Glyn and party, Mr A. H. Jeffreys, M.P., and Mrs Jeffreys, Hon. Mrs A. Peter, Mr Somerset H. Onslow, Mr Lancelot Orde, Lord Garioch, Mr and Mrs C. K. Francis, the Countess of Normandy, Lady Mary Agar, Lord Montagu, Hon. John Scott Montagu, Viscount Cantelupe, Prince Dhuleep Singh, Hon. D. Keppel, Col. Charles Needham (1st Life Guards), [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs Algernon Bourke]], Mrs Cornwallis West, Mr and Mrs Shelley Bontein, Col. Gridley, Col. Newton, Col. Elliot, R.H.A., Lady Meyrick and party, Sir W. Jervois, Lady Jervois and party, &c.<ref>"The New Forest United Hunt Ball." ''The Sportsman'' 11 April 1890, Friday: 2 [of 4], Col. 5c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001055/18900411/024/0002. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> ==May 1890== Leonora Braham appeared at the Opera Comique as Ruth Ferns in ''Gretna Green''. ===21 May 1890, Wednesday=== It was his pupil the young Countess Valda Gleichen who found a sponsor for Dolmetsch's first but brief appearance at a London concert on 21 May 1890, when the 'Magpie Minstrels' … gave one of their bi-annual performances at the Princes' Hall" (Campbell 30). ==June 1890== === 3 June 1890, Tuesday === ==== Dinner and Concert Hosted by Mrs. Arthur Williams and Ball by Mrs. Menzies ==== <blockquote>Yesterday evening society passed a large proportion of time on wheels, and the number of receptions was more than the most inveterate could get through wvith comfort. ... Meanwhile, the Duke of Clarence and Avondale dined with Mrs. Arthur Wilson in Grosvenor-place, and a small and select concert followed. The Duchess of Leinster was, as ever, the most beautiful among many beauties, the Hon. Helen Henniker, after her long mourning, was warmly greeted by swarms of friends, and the Countess of Lovelace, in grey satin, chaperoned her débutante niece, Miss Milbank. Prince "Eddie" went from Mrs. Arthur Wilson's hospitable mansion to that of Mrs. J. Graham Menzies. It is unusual to find mother and daughter entertaining this illustrious young man on the same evening. Mrs. Menzies, who has succeeded Lord Suffield in his beautiful house in Upper Grosvenor-street, had one of the smartest and most successful balls of the present season. The Blue Hungarians played with immense vigour and owing to the postponement of Lady Carnarvon's ball, there was no competition for men and married women. Countess Howe, Lady Brougham and Vaux, Lady Aveland and Miss Willoughby, Viscountess Stormont, the Hon. Lady Grey Egerton and Miss Egerton, the Duchess of Buccleuch, the [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs. Algernon Bourke]], the Earl of Craven, Countess of Coventry, Mrs. Mackay, Lady Sykes, the Marchioness of Granby, Mrs. Hwfa Williams, Lord Garioch, Sir Savile and Lady Crossley, Mr. and Mrs. Harry Lawson, and many others were present.<ref>"Yesterday Evening Society." ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 4 June 1890, Wednesday: 4 [of 8], Col. 3a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000098/18900604/015/0004. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> ==== Münster-Hay Wedding ==== Account of the wedding of Count Alexander Münster and Lady Muriel Henrietta Constance Hay. Count Bismarck sent a gift.<blockquote>St. Andrew's Church, Wells-street, was completely filled yesterday afternoon on the occasion of the marriage of Count Alexander Münster, son of Count Münster, German Ambassador in Paris, with Lady Muriel Henrietta Constance Hay, younger daughter of the Earl and Countess of Kinnoull. The ceremony was fixed for half-past two o'clock, but all the seats in the body of the church were occupied long before that time by invited guests. The rood screen was hidden with white flowers, and a number of tall palms were skilfully arranged in and about the chancel. The bridegroom was early in his place, and wore the splendid white and gold uniform of the Garde du Corps of the Emperor; his best man, Prince Hans Heinrich Pless, wearing the scarlet and gold uniform of the Garde Hussars. The six bridesmaids were Lady Mildred Denison, Lady Dorothea Stewart Murray, Hon. Marie Hay, Hon. Marjory Murray, Miss Rosalind Lovell, and Miss Gladys Hadow (niece of the bride). They wore pretty dresses of pale blue satin, veiled with white chiffon; the skirts were edged with a frill, and the bodices finished with quaint fichus of the chiffon, fastened in front with a bunch of forget-me-nots. They wore drawn hats of the chiffon, covered with forget-me-nots, and their posies were of the same flowers, intermixed with pink roses, and tied with narrow pink ribbons. Each wore a gold bangle with centre forming the initials "A.M.," and a single turquoise drop. The bride entered the church at half-past two, and was received by her father, who led her to the chancel steps, preceded by the choristers singing a nuptial hymn. The bride's dress was of ivory satin made with a very long train. The front was fringed round the hem with orange blossoms and veiled with old Brussels lace, the gift of her mother; the bodice was entirely covered with beautiful old lace, and finished at the neck on one side with a cluster of orange blossoms. She wore a small wreath of orange blossoms and myrtle arranged in the hair at the back and a tulle veil falling almost to the end of the train and held by diamond stars, the gift of the bridegroom. The bride's other jewels included two diamond drop hairpins, the gift of Count Münster; an emerald and diamond brooch, from the bridegroom; enamel and diamond heartsease brooch, from Lady Mary Mills; a diamond and emerald bracelet, from the Duke of Beaufort; and a diamond bracelet, from the Duke and Duchess of Athole. Her train was held by her two little nephews, Masters Roland and Patrick Hadow, wearing Scotch dress with lace ruffles. The service, which was fully choral, was performed by the Rev. Provost Rorison, of St. Ninian's Cathedral, Perth, assisted by the Rev. W. T. Houldsworth, rector of St. Andrew's. The Earl and Countess of Kinnoull afterwards entertained the bridal party at the residence of the Earl of Londesborough, uncle of the bride, in Grosvenor-square. Among the numerous guests were the Russian Ambassador and Madame de Staal, the German Ambassador, the Austrian Ambassador and Countess Deym, Count Münster and the Countesses Marie, Julia, and T. Münster, Prince Pless, Prince Louis Esterhazy, Count Donhoff, Baroness von Beckendorff-Hindenburg, Baron E. Fürstenberg, Count Paul Metternich, Geheimrath Schmettau, Countess Valentin, [[Social Victorians/People/de Soveral|M. de]] [[Social Victorians/People/de Soveral|Soveral]], Captain Hasenclever, Count Leyden, Herr von Rath, Count Francis Deym, Baron and Baroness Deichmann, Count Mensdorff, Herr Pilgrim Baltazzi, Count and Countess Henry Lützow, Baroness d' Erlanger [?], Herr von Kemnitz, Baron Cramm, Vicomte de Janzé, the Duke of Beaufort, the Duchess of Athole, and the Ladies Stewart Murray, the Marchioness of Downshire, the Marchioness of Stafford and Lady Sybil St. Clair Erskine, Maria Marchioness of Ailesbury, the Countess of Dunraven and Ladies Wyndham Quin, the Countess of Kilmorey, the Countess of Galloway and Miss Stewart, the Countess of Dudley and Lady Edith Ward, the Countess of Strathmore and Lady Constance Lyon, the Earl and Countess of Roden, Lady Willoughby de Eresby and Hon. Miss Willoughby, the Countess of Westmorland. Viscount and Viscountess Raincliffe, Viscountess Coke, Viscountess Stormont and Hon. MabeI Murray, Viscountess Malden and Hon. Miss Capel, Lord Hay of Kinfauns [?], Lady Delamere and Miss Cholmondeley, Lady Brougham, Lady Esher, Lord Saye and Sele and Hon. Maud and Hon. Gertrude Fiennes, Lady Helen MacGregor and Miss MacGregor, Lord and Lady Algernon Gordon Lennox and Lady Angela St. Clair Erskine, Lady Raglan, Lord Charles Innes Ker, Lady Elizabeth Bertie, Lady Frances Pratt and Lady Clementine Pratt, Lady Geraldine Somerset, Lady Dalton Fitzgerald and Miss Payne, Lady Mary Mills and Miss Pereira, Lady Dorchester, Lady Louisa Moncreiffe and Misses Moncreiffe, Lady Norreys, Lady Petre, Lady Jane Trefusis, Lord Frederic Hamilton, Baroness de Brienen and Miss de Brienen, Helen Lady Forbes and the Misses Forbes, Lady Scott, Miss Scott and Mrs. Green, Lord Zouche and Hon. Miss Curzon, Mr. and Lady Constance Hadow, Hon. Lady Campbell, Lady William Nevill and Miss Bannerman, Hon. Alastair and Mrs. Hay, Hon. Miss Greville, Captain Hon. Randolph Stewart, Hon. FitzRoy and Mrs. Stewart, Hon. Charles Walsh, Hon. William Walsh, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs. Algernon Bourke]], Colonel Hon. Charles and Mrs. Hay and Miss Maude Hay, Hon. Mrs. Greville Nugent, Hon. Mrs. Colville and Miss Streatfeild [sic], Hon. Claude Hay, Sir Charles and Lady Forbes of Newe, Laely Borthwick, Sir Francis Montefiore, Sir Henry Hoare, Sir George Arthur, Sir William Gordon Cumming, General and Mrs. Wilkinson, Colonel and Mrs. Chaine, Colonel Arthur Paget, Colonel H. M. Hozier, the Provost of St. Ninian's, Major Finch, Major Candy, Colonel Lloyd, Captain and Mrs. Stewart, Mr. and Mrs. Hay Drummond, Captain and Mrs. Lloyd, Mr. William Gillett, Mr. Hulse, M.P., and Mrs. Hulse, Captain Lumley, Captain Barrow, Major Anstruther, Mrs. Hwfa Williams, Mr. Arthur Hay, Mr. Raglan Somerset, Mr. and Mrs. George Cavendish Bentinck, Mrs. Villiers, Mr. Henry Petre, Mrs. Keighley, Mrs. E. Balfour and Miss Balfour and Miss Ellice, Mrs. Dick Cunynghame and Miss A. M'Gregor, Rev. C. Weidemann, Miss Balfour and Miss E. Balfour, Mrs. and Miss Halford, Mr. and Mrs. Toler, Mrs. and Miss Townley, Rev. Dr. M'Ewan, Mr. A. F. Levita, Mr. F. Stephens, Mrs. and Miss Leigh, Mr. and Mrs. George Forbes and Miss Forbes, Mrs. Luke Wheeler, Mrs. J. Beerbohm, Dr. and Mrs. W. M. Collins, Mrs. and Miss Orde, Mrs. Murray, Miss Glyn, Mrs. Godfrey Pearse, Mr. Balfour, Mr. Leopold Goldberg, Mr. and Miss Oswa d [Oswald], Mr. and Mrs. C. Bulteel, Mrs. Brydges Wyllyams, Mr. H. Balfour, the Misses Codrington, Miss Finch, Mrs. Barron and Miss Sullivan, Mr. Hamilton Aidé, Mr. Granville and Miss Berkeley, Mr. M'Gregor, Mrs. and Miss Needham, Mr. and Mrs. A. Consett and Miss Consett, Mrs. Herbert Naylor LeyIand, Mr. and Mrs. A. Darby, Mrs. Montefiore, Mrs. Charles Murray and Miss Murray, Mrs. Thomas Legh, the Rev. John F. Mitchell, Mr. and Mrs. Claud Hay, Mr. Fiztalan Manners, Mr. Albert Stopford, Mr. Hervey Pechell, and Mr. and Mrs. Charles Orde. Later in the day Count Alexander Münster and his bride left for Hillingdon Court, Uxbridge, the residence of the Hon. A. Mills, where they will pass the early days of the honeymoon, and then proceed to Chàlet Sans Souci, Bellaggio, Lake of Como, lent by Mr. Hervey Pechell. They will afterwards go to Wiesbaden, and thence to Count Münster's German country seat, where a great reception awaits them. The wedding presents were very numerous. Count Munster presented the bride with a diamond necklace and pair of diamond drop hairpins. The bridegroom's gifts to his bride included a tiara of three diamond stars, a brooch formed of an emerald of unusual size set in diamonds, large pearl pendant, gold bracelet set with turquoises, and diamond and turquoise ring. The Duke of Beaufort presented Lady Muriel with an emerald and diamond bracelet. The Earl and Countess of Kinnoull's presents included a quantity of plate and other articles. Prince Henry of Battenberg sent a large silver-mounted claret jug; Count Bismarck, a silver box; the Marchioness of Waterford, gold snake bracelet, with pearl head and ruby eyes; the Duke and Duchess of Athole, diamond "M" bangle; Lady Ermyntrude Malet, massive silver bowl; Countess Marie Münster, silver tea set and tray; Baron E. Fürstenberg, pair of gold-mounted claret jugs; Baron and Baroness Erlanger, large silver bowl; Baron and Baroness Gungberg, pair of antique silver mounted jugs.<ref>"Marriage of Count Alexander Münster and Lady Muriel Hay." ''Morning Post'' 4 June 1890, Wednesday: 7 [of 12], Col. 7a–c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900604/064/0007. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> ===4 June 1890, Wednesday=== Derby Day. According to the Morning Post, <quote>Lady Thurlow's first dance. / Mrs. Coddington's Ball. / The Fourth of June celebration at Eton. / ... Royal Society of Literature — Paper on "Early England," by Mr. Carmichael, S. </quote> ("Arrangements for This Day." The Morning Post Wednesday, 4 June 1890: p. 7 [of 12], Col. 6A). ===13 June 1890, Friday=== ? or on the 12th? Arnold Dolmetsch had a concert at which his students performed (Campbell 31). It was reviewed very positively in the 13 June Daily Graphic, especially Helene Dolmetsch's performance. They did Purcell's Fairy Queen. They used a harpsichord. ===26 June 1890, Thursday=== There was apparently a regular celebration of [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Collins|Arthur Collins]]' birthday, 26 June, by Bret Harte, George Du Maurier, [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Sullivan|Arthur Sullivan]], Alfred Cellier, Arthur Blunt, and John Hare (Nissen, Axel. Brent Harte: Prince and Pauper: 239. [http://books.google.com/books?id=WEDewmUnapcC]). Choosing 1885–1902 as the dates because those apparently are the dates of the close relationship between Harte and Collins, ending in Harte's death in 1902. ==July 1890== ===3 July 1890, Thursday=== <blockquote>On July 3, 1890, Besant’s house at 19 Avenue Road, St. John’s Wood, was inaugurated as a new center of Theosophical work, serving as the European headquarters of the [[Social Victorians/Theosophical Society|Theosophical Society]] and as HPB’s residence. That house became also the meeting place of HPB’s Inner Group, twelve of her students who were eager for more intense training than was feasible in a larger, more general gathering.</blockquote>That Inner Group is different from the Esoteric Section.<ref>"Esoteric World Chapter 23." ''The Theosophical Society of America, Online Resources''. http://www.theosophical.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&catid=23&id=1725&Itemid=53</ref><blockquote>The hall had a seating capacity of about 200. On the opening night [July 3, 1890] [sic] the room was crammed, and many were unable to gain admission. The speakers were Mrs. Besant, Mr. Sinnett, a Mrs. Woolff (of America), and Mr. [Bertram] Keightley. HPB was present but said nothing, on account of the critical state of her health.<ref>"23a. Henry S. Olcott, July 1890, London [Olcott 1931, 4:254–6]." Esoteric World Chapter 23. ''The Theosophical Society of America, Online Resources''. http://www.theosophical.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&catid=23&id=1725&Itemid=53.</ref></blockquote> === 4 July 1890, Friday, 11 p.m. === ==== The Queen's State Ball at Buckingham Palace ==== The Prince and Princess of Wales were hosts of this ball, as Queen Victoria was not present. Many of the Queen's children and their spouses were present.<ref>"State Ball at Buckingham Palace." ''Morning Post'' 5 July 1890, Saturday: 5 [of 8], Col. 5a–7b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900705/038/0005. Same print title and p.</ref> The dancing commenced shortly after the Prince and Princess of Wales arrived at 11:00. === 1890 July 15, Tuesday === ==== Garden Party at Marlborough House to Meet the Queen ==== The beginning of the ''Morning Post'' article, which is followed by a very long list of people invited:<blockquote>Their Royal Highnesses the Prince and Princess of Wales gave a garden party at Marlborough House yesterday afternoon to meet the Queen. Her Majesty was accompanied by their Royal Highnesses the Princesses Victoria and Margaret of Prussia, and was attended by the Duchess of Roxburghe, Miss M'Neill, the Hon. Evelyn Moore, the Hon. Bertha Lambert, and Major-General Sir Henry Ewart and Major F. A. Bigge. Madlle. De Perpigna was in attendance on the Princesses Victoria and Margaret. The following were present: — Their Royal Highnesses the Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh and Prince Alfred, and the Princesses Marie, Victoria, Alexandra, and Beatrice of Edinburgh; their Royal Highnesses the Duke and Duchess of Connaught and Prince Arthur, and the Princesses Margaret and Patricia of Connaught; their Royal Highnesses the Prince and Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein Sonderburg-Augustenburg and Princess Victoria and Princess Louisa of Schleswig-Holstein, her Royal Highness the Princess Louise, Marchioness of Lorne, and the Marquis of Lorne. Her Royal Highness the Duchess of Albany, her Royal Highness the Princess Frederica and the Baron von Pawell-Rammingen, his Royal Highness the Duke of Cambridge, her Royal Highness Princess Mary Adelaide Duchess of Teck and his Highness the Duke of Teck and Princess Victoria of Teck, his Royal Highness the Duke d'Orleans and Princess Hélène d'Orleans, his Imperial Highness Don Pedro Augustus of Coburg and Braganza, his Serene Highness the Prince of Schaumburg-Lippe, his Serene Highness the Prince of Leiningen and their Serene Highnesses Prince and Princess Victor of Hohenlohe-Langenburg and the Countesses Gleichen, and Count Gleichen.<ref>"Garden Party at Marlborough House." ''Morning Post'' 15 July 1890, Tuesday: 5 [of 8], Col. 3a–7c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900715/044/0005. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> === 19 July 1890, Saturday === ==== Wedding of James Francis Harry St. Clair-Erskine and Violet Aline Vyner ==== This report from the ''Fife Free Press'' is missing a big piece of the 2nd paragraph, where the bridesmaids' and bride's dresses are described, because the page was damaged. The digitized copy is also generally poor.<blockquote>On Saturday forenoon, in Michael’s Church, Chester Square, London, was celebrated the marriage of Lord Loughhorough, eldest son of the Earl of Rosslyn with Miss Violet Aline Vyner, younger daughter of Mr R. C. Vyner, of Fairfield, Yorkshire. The chancel was beautifully decorated with palms and a profusion of lilies most artistically arranged. The Prince of Wales, Duke of Cambridge. Princess Mary Adelaide, Duchess and the Duke of Teck, and Princess Victoria, and the Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone were among those present. The wedding party began to arrive at 11 o’clock, the bridesmaids being early in attendance. They were the Ladies Sybil and Angela St Clair Erskine, sisters of the bridegroom; Lady Anne Lambton, Miss Musgrave, Miss Rachel Gurney, and Miss Fleming. They were charmingly dressed in soft cream crepon, with violet velvet Zoave jackets, forming half sleeves and capes at the back, and pretty turn-down collars and cravats of white mosseline [mousseline?] chiffon, and the skirts were very plainly made. They wore large white hats lined with a band of violet velvet near the face, and trimmed on the crown with white ostrich plumes, a bunch of violets fastening the brim at the back. Each wore a brooch — the St Clair cross in rubies and diamonds set in a circle of the latter, and surmounted by a baron’s cornet of the same precious stones — the gift of the bri[degroom]; and carried a bouquet of Marechal Niel [roses?] ...ging sprays of the same, and tied w... ribbons. The bride entered the ... eleven o’clock, being received at ... father, who led her to the cha... her away. The service be... procession was preceded up ... choir, who sang "The voic..." The bride’s dress was ... with a long court train, ... white velvet being embro... ...und the train, and fasten... ...ver true lover’s knot. The picture... ...gh silver waistband, had full slee... mousseline chiffon; and a small ... blossoms was most becomingly arra... with a long tulle veil. The Earl of Chesterfield discharged the duties of best man. The Rev. Canon Fleming, Chaplain in Ordinary to the Queen and Vicar of St Michael's, performed the marriage rite, assisted by the Rev. Edgar Sheppard, Sub-Dean of the Chapels Royal, and the Rev. J. Thomson, of Rosslyn, near Edinburgh. The hymn “Thine for ever! For of love,” was sung the end of the service. Canon Fleming afterwards delivered a most impressive address. After the benediction the clergy and bride and bridegroom passed to the vestry, the Prince of Wales following with Mrs Vyner. Pretty wedding favours of orange blossoms, Parma violets, and white heather were then distributed amongst the congregation. Mr and Mrs Vyner afterwards welcomed the wedding party at Ashburnham House, Dover-street. The ''dejeuner'' was served in three rooms, one being reserved for the bride and bridegroom and the Royal party. The table in the latter room was decorated with several of Mr Vynet's racing trophies. The band of the Grenadier Guards performed in the garden during the reception. The Prince of Wales, Duke of Cambridge, the Duke and Duchess of Teck and Princess Victoria were present at the breakfast, and among the general company were Count Munster and Countess Maria Munster, the Marchese and Marchesa de Montagliari, the Marquis and Marchioness of Ripon, the Marquis and Marchioness of Stafford, the Marquis of Cholmondeley, the Marquis of Northampton, Maria Marchioness of Ailesbury, the Dowager Marchioness of Conyngham and Lady Blanche Conyngham, the Marchioness of Downshire, the Countess of Rosslyn, Earl and Countess Compton, the Earl of Feversham, the Earl of Durham, the Countess of Coventry and the Ladies Coventry, Countess Howe and Ladies Curzon, the Countess of Yarborough, the Earl of Clonmell, the Earl and Countess of Loudoun, the Countess of Kilmorey, Countess de Grey, Viscount Molyneux, the Bishop of Gibraltar and Mrs Sandford, Viscountess de Labrosse and Mdles. de Labrosse, Lord Greenock, Lord and Lady Algernon Lennox, Lady Lilian Wemyss, Lady Julia Wombwell and Miss Wombwell, Hon. Lady Campbell of Blythswood, Lady Constance Harris, Lady Florence Harris, Lord and Lady Burghley, Lady Dorchester, Lord Houghton, Lady Curzon, Lady Brougham and Vaux and Miss Musgrave, Baron de Hirsch, Helen Lady Forbes and the Misses Forbes, Baroness Burdett Coutts and Mr Burdett Coutts, M.P., Lady Astley, Lord and Lady William Nevill, Lord and Lady Brooke and Hon. Leopold and Hon. Marjorie Greville, Lady Dalton Fitzgerald and Miss Payne, Lord Elcho, Lady Willoughby de Eresby and the Misses Willoughby, Lady Ewart, Lady Hindlip, Lady Cecilia Rose, Lord Rowton, Lord Capell, Lady Mabel Compton, Lord and Lady Herries, Lady Sykes, Lord and Lady Alwyne Compton, Lady Ventry and Hon. Miss de Moleyns, Hon. Lady Knollys, Lady Manners, Hon. Lady Drummond and Misses Drummond, Hon. Sydney Greville, Hon. Assheton Harbord, Hon. Derek Keppel, Hon. Captain Bourke, Hon. Mrs Percy Mitford, Hon. Philip Harbord, Hon. and Rev. L. Tyrwhitt, Hon. Coralie Glyn, Hon. M. Lambton, Hon L. Greville, Hon. Alwyn Greville, Hon[.] Eva Greville, Hon. Frances Dawnay, Hon Evelyn Paget, Hon Mrs Algernon Grosvcnor, Hon and Mrs Lambton. Hon. Mrs Evelyn Pelham, Hon. Fitzroy St Clair Erskine, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs Algernon Bourke]], Hon. W. Maxwell, Hon. G. and Mrs Dawnay, Hon. Captain Lambton, General Sir Seymour Blane, Sir William Gordon Cumming, Sir Archibald and Miss Edmunstone, Sir Henry and Lady Meysey Thompson, Mrs Gladstone, Mr and Lady Margaret Cameron, Mr and Lady Florence Astley, Mr and Lady Elizabeth Melville Cartwright and Miss Melville Cartwright, General and Mrs Duff and Miss Duff, General Owen Williams, Colonel and Mrs Anstruther Thompson, Colonel Stopford Sackville, Colonel Craig, Colonel Brabazon, Colonel Forester, Colonel Stanley Clarke (in attendance on the Prince of Wales) and Miss Clarke, Major Davidson, Canon and Mrs Fleming, Captain St John Mildmay (in attendance on the Duke of Cambridge), Captain and Mrs FitzGeorge, Mrs William Portal, the Sub Dean of the Chapels Royal, Rev. W. M. and Mrs Wollaston, Rev. R. West, Mr and Miss Chamberlain. Mr and Mrs W. H. Grenfell, Mr Christopher Sykes, M.P., Mr Reuben Sassoon, Mr Arthur Sassoon, Mrs Bischoffsheim, Mr and Mrs Herbert Naylor Leyland, Dr and Mrs Anderson, Mrs Oswald, Mr and Mrs Surtees, Mr Fitzgerald, Mr and Mrs Menzies, Miss Willoughby and Miss Gertrude Willoughby, Mr Arthur Paget, Miss Christie, Mr Dowdall, Mrs Eastwood and the Misses Eastwood, Mr Frederick Warre, Mr William Williamson, Mrs Burton, Mrs Chaine, Captain and Mrs Livesey Wardle, Captain A. R. Hill, Miss Helby, Mrs and Miss Winslow, Mr and Miss Oswald, Mr Willoughby, Mr Quintin Hume, Mr F and Miss Fitzherbert, Mrs and Miss F. Hotham, Mr and Mrs Moreton Frewin, Mrs Charles Otway, Mr Calcraft, Mr Watson, Mr Fennick, Mr Montgomery, Mr Cecil Murray, Mr and Mrs Sneyd, Mr Leslie Stephen, Mr Edgar Sebright, Miss Fleetwood Wilson, Mrs and Miss Farmer of Nonsuch, Mr and Mrs Dennistoun and Miss Dennistoun, Mr and Mrs J. R. Lane Fox and Miss Lane Fox, &c. The bride and bridegroom left early in the afternoon for Easton Lodge, Dunmow, the seat of Lord and Lady Brooke, in Essex, where they will spend the honeymoon. The bride travelled in a costume of biscuit coloured armure silk, the top of the bodice and sleeves being of pale pink mousseline de soie, and the lower part of the former inserted with pink velvet ribbons to form a high band, Tuscan straw-hat trimmed with pink crepe de chine, and biscuit feathers. The presents exceeded four hundred in number. The Prince of Wales presented the bride with a trefoil moonstone and diamond brooch and the bridegroom with a sapphire and diamond pin. The Princess of Wales's gift the bridegroom was a silver-necked claret jug. The Duke of Cambridge gave an amethyst and diamond pendant, and the bridegroom a pair of silver gilt candlesticks; and Princess Mary and the Duke of Teck presented the bride with a silver sugar basin. The bridegroom’s gifts to the bride were a diamond and sapphire watch bracelet, a diamond half-hoop ring, diamond brooch with pearl centre, diamond and turquoise brooch, formed of the St Clair badge in rubies and diamonds set in a circle of diamonds, surmounted by a baron’s coronet in the same precious stones, a large salts bottle with two heart-shaped moonstones set with rubies and diamonds and a silver sugar basin. The bride presented Lord Loughborough with a turquoise and diamond stud. The Earl of Rosslyn presented the bride with diamond necklet. The Countess of Rosslyn’s gifts were diamond orchid brooch and a pink feather fan. Mr R. C. Vyner’s gifts to his daughter were a diamond and pearl tiara and gold mounted dressing case, and Mrs Vyner gave her a sapphire and diamond ring. The Marchioness of Stafford gave a ruby and diamond pin; Lady Mary Vyner antique diamond tiara; the Ladies Angela and Sybil Erskine sapphire and diamond bracelet; Hon. Fitzroy St Clair Erskine with "1890" in rubies and diamonds; Lord and Lady A. Compton large diamond star; the Earl of Rosslyn presented his son with a large silver bowl and two silver dishes; the Countess of Rosslyn's present was a travelling bag; Mr Vyner gave him a luncheon basket; Mrs Vyner a silver ''entree'' dish; the Marchioness of Stafford case containing silver coffee and tea pots, urn and stand, sugar basin, and cream jug; Lord and Lady Brooke four antique silver sauce boats; Lord and Lady Algernon Gordon ['''Col. 1c–2a'''] Lennox three antique silver ''entree'' dishes. The Earl of Rosslyn's Fifeshire tenants presented Lord Loughborough with a beautiful antique silver bowl, two antique silver dessert dishes, and two antique sugar castors; and to the bride they gave an antique silver tea service. The congregation of Rosslyn Chapel presented the bridegroom with a complete and elegant writing set, whilst Lord Rosslyn's servants gave him a silver inkstand and pair of silver candlesticks. Mr Vyner's servants presented the bride with a silver salver and six ''liqueur'' cups. The servants of Newby Hall gave a silver coffee pot, and Mr Vyner’s Cheshire tenants presented a case containing silver tea pot, sugar basin, and cream jug. The bride also received from the Duchess of Portland a travelling bag; the Duchess de Luynes, sapphire and diamond ring; the Duke of Westminister, Indian necklace; the Marquis of Northampton, diamond bracelet; the Marquis of Ripon, sapphire and diamond bracelet; the Marchioness of Ripon, turquoise and diamond bangle, the Earl of Durham, a diamond half hoop bracelet; Earl and Countess Cowper, a diamond "V V” brooch; Dowager Viscountess Downe, moonstone and diamond crescent; Lady Skyes [Sykes] ruby and diamond fish brooch; Lady Millbank, sapphire and diamond brooch Lord Douglas Compton, double heart brooch; Lord Herbert Vane Tempest, gold curb chain bracelet set with pearls; Earl and Countess Compton, bangle with “Vi” and “good luck” on it; the Duke and Duchess of St Albans, tea service with table; the Marchioness Conyngham, silver cream jug; the Marchioness of Tavistock, silver vase; the Countess of Rodin, a silver I bowl; the Countess of Yarborough, silver candlesticks; Viscountess Downe, silver tea caddie; Lady de Trafford, gold mounted salts bottle; the Hon. F. Dawnay, large silver candlesticks[;] Hon. F and Lady Lampton, travelling clock; Hon. W. Lambton, silver candlesticks; Sir R. and Lady Graham, silver salver; Sir Roderick and Miss Cameron, two silver dishes; General Williams, diamond bangle; Colonel and Mrs G. FitzGeorge, gold mounted bottle; Major and Mrs Egerton, pair of silver candlesticks; Major Stuart Wortley, diamond Swallow; Major Davidson, heart-shaped brooch in coral and diamonds; Captain and Lady Cecilia Rose, a brougham; Mr Beaumont, silver bowl; Miss Edmonstone, moonstone and diamond hat pins; Mrs Harris, sapphire and diamond bracelet; Mr Egerton, turquoise and diamond brooch; Sir Cecil Murray, sapphire and diamond pin; Mr A. Farquharson, diamond swallow brooch; Mr and Mrs Hulse, two small silver vases; Miss Fleetwood Wilson, diamond bangle; Mrs A. Wilson, tortoiseshell candlestick; Mr Quintin Hume, salts bottle mounted with diamonds and rubies; Miss Helbert, gold violet pin; Mr Chamberlain, pair of silver candlesticks; Hon. Arthur Coventry, gold mounted bottle with "Vi" in diamonds; Mrs Leopold de Rothschild, diamond hand brooch, together with a number of other gifts. Among the presents to the bridegroom were — from the Marchioness of Downshire, antique silver sugar sifter; the Marquis of Exeter, silver sandwich case; the Marchioness of Bath, antique Dutch silver box; the Marquis of Downshire, a gold pencil; Count Munster, cigarette case and match box; Count Alexander Munster, a hunting flask; the Countess of Lindsay, antique silver pen-tray; the Earl of Mar and Kellie, silver matchbox; the Earl and Countess of Loudoun, silver cigarette box; the Earl of Chesterfield, antique silver gilt inkstand; the Countess of Bradford, gold seal with agate; the Countess of Warwick, antique silver bowl; the Earl of Coventry, silver pen-tray; the Countess of Wharncliffe, two silver candlesticks; the Earl and Countess of Cromartie, two antique silver cups; Viscountess of Newport, silver paper knife; Mr and Mrs A. Sassoon, ruby and diamond pin; Lord John Cecil, silver salver; Lord and Lady Willoughby de Eresby, antique silver-mounted cruet stand; Lord William Nevtll, antique brandy carrier; Lady Margaret Spicer, silver match box; Lord Burghley, four silver salt cellars and spoons; Baron de Hirch [Hirsch?], silver inkstand; Lady W. E. Osborne Elphinstone, silver inkstand; Lord Kesteven, silver cream jug; Lord Capell, silver cigarette case; Lord and Lady Gerard, tortoiseshell and silver travelling clock; Lady Lilian Wemyss, silver cigarette case; Dad Alwyne Compton, umbrella containing matchbox and whistle; Lord and Lady Lennox, two antique silver ''entree'' dishes and bacon dish; Lord Burghersh, silver cigarette lighter; Lady Angela 8t Clair Erskine, four silver salt cellars; Lady Randolph Churchill, gold pencil case, with two sapphires; Lord Houghton, antique gold basket; Lady Sybil St Clair Erskine, umbrella; Lord and Lady Dorchester, large crystal seal; Hon. Derek P. Keppel, pair of silver candlesticks; Hon. E. and Mrs Pelham, silver inkstand; Hon. G. N. Curzon, silver gilt bowl; Hon. F. St Clair Erskine, four silver candle-sticks; [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. A. and Mrs Bourke]], four small silver dessert dishes; Hon. Mrs Elliot Yorke, pair of silver candlesticks; Hon. Mr and Mrs L. Greville, tortoise-shell and silver box; Hon. R Somerset, diamond and pearl pin; Hon. G. H. Willoughby, silver ink-stand; Hon. H. and Mrs Grosvenor, umbrella; [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs Algernon Bourke]], enamel and diamond pin; Captain Hon. Maurice Bourke, cigarette case and lighter; Hon. W. Maxwell, silver-backed clothes and hat brushes; Hon. Sidney Greville, saltspoons; Hon. M. C. Maxwell Scott, two silver ''menu'' plates; Hon. W. Edwardes, pin; [[Social Victorians/People/Greville|Captain Hon. A.]] and [[Social Victorians/People/Lady Violet Greville|Mrs Greville]], silver gilt bowl, fork, spoon, and ladle; Sir Frederick Milner, diamond and moonstone pin; Sir George Chetwynd, two long silver flagons; Sir M. and Lady Fitzgerald, two silver saltspoons; Sir N. Gordon Gumming, silver-handled paper knife, &c.<ref>"Marriage of Lord Loughborough with Miss Vyner." ''Fife Free Press'' 26 July 1890, Saturday: 2 [of 8], Col. 1a–2b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001110/18900726/015/0002. Same print title and p.</ref> </blockquote> === 24 July 1890, Thursday === ==== Dinner and Dance Hosted by Lord Alington ==== Perhaps the date on this is uncertain, since the article in ''Truth'' would suggest it was held in late May or early June. The newspaper story in the ''Queen'' mentions another occasion in which the flowers were notable as well. From ''Truth'':<blockquote> But not a quarter of a mile distant [from a dinner and dance hosted by Lord Rothschild featuring Princess Louise and the Marquis of Lorne] a more important event was proceeding, for Lord Alington, having previously walked down the Row and invited his friends right and left to Alington House, South Audley-street, proceeded to give a dance which was honoured by the presence of the Prince and Princess of Wales, the Princesses Victoria and Maud, the Duke of Clarence, Princess Mary Adelaide, and Princess "May" and Prince and Princess Christian. This without exaggeration, with the exception of Lady Leconfield's, Lady Willoughby de Eresby's, and Lady Cadogan's, was the best ball hitherto given this season, and the prolific way ortolans [small songbirds regarded as a delicacy] were distributed at supper will long linger in the memories of those by whom these delicacies are cherished. One lady displayed her enthusiastic appreciation by devouring five of these, and it is to be hoped her devotion did not endanger her life. As for beauty, seldom before have so many pre-eminent for good looks been present at one gathering, as a mere enumeration of a few of these will prove. Of course the Duchess of Leinster heads the list, followed in quick succession by the Duchess of Portland, Lady de Grey, Lady Randolph Churchill, Lady Dudley, Lady Kilmorey, Lady Brooke, Lady de Trafford, Lady Helen Duncombe, Lady Hilda Dundas, Lady Sybil St. Clair Erskine, Lady Olivia Taylour, Miss Rachael Gurney, Lady Cardross, Miss Bourke, Lady Rose Leigh and her sister-in-law, Miss Leigh, Miss Berens (sister to Lady Cairns), Mrs. Ralph Sneyd, Lady Gerard, and a host of others far too numerous to mention. I often wonder that no painter has yet attempted to give us in one picture a permanent record of the chief beauties of our day. It would make a most interesting and exquisite group of lovely women, such as could not be found probably in any other country than this.<ref>Marmaduke, pseud. "Letters from the Linkman." ''Truth'' 12 June 1890, Thursday: 26 [of 56], Col. 1a–b [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002961/18900612/064/0026. Same print title, p. 1212.</ref></blockquote> From the ''Queen'':<blockquote>The P<small>RINCE AND</small> P<small>RINCESS OF</small> W<small>ALES</small> and the Princesses Victoria and Maud honoured L<small>ORD</small> A<small>LINGTON</small> by their presence at D<small>INNER</small>, at A<small>LINGTON</small> H<small>OUSE</small>, South Audley-street, on the 24th ult., when a distinguished party was present to meet them, including, among others, the Duke and Duchess of Leinster, the Marquis of Hartington, the Marquis and Marchioness of Ormonde, Maria Marchioness of Ailesbury, Earl and Countess Cadogan and Lady Emily Cadogan, the Earl Countess of Lucan and Lady Rosaline Bingham, the Earl of Hardwicke, the Countess of Dudley and Lady Edith Ward, the EarI of Chesterfield, the Earl of Stradbroke and Lady Hilda Rous, and Earl Annesley. Covers were laid for sixty. Lord Alington afterwards gave a dance to meet the Prince and Princess of Wales and their daughters. As on the previous occasion, the floral decorations were exquisite. The entrance hall and the approaches to the reception rooms were decorated with tall palms and a profusion of lilies, pelargoniums, ferns in every variety, and roses in every imaginable shade. The conservatories at the back were carpeted and furnished luxuriously, and blocks of ice, lighted by fairy lamps, were placed about with artistic effect, serving to keep the atmosphere cool and fresh. Feathery palms, hydrangeos [hydrangeas] and arums were here used freely, and a particularly pretty result was obtained by the windows being framed, one in a fringe of ferns and red pelargoniums, and the other in ferns and fuschias. The ballroom fireplaces were adorned on each side with palms reaching to the ceiling, the mantelpieces being hidden by a delicate arrangement of roses in various shades springing from banks of hydrangeas, calceolarias, pelargoniums, and marguerites, and the walls of the staircase leading from the conservatory to the ball-room were hung with half-balls of floral roses. The supper was served in the dining-room, the tables being embellished with the loveliest orchids and roses of the most delicate tints, intermixed with pancretia; the arrangement was so light and elegant that it was difficult to believe that hands had ever touched the flowers. On those tables with silver candelabra in the centre, the flowers were all pure white, and those having gold candelabra were treated with mauve orchids and the palest pink and yellow roses. A tent, arranged near the conservatory for the Prince of Wales, was draped with Oriental hangings, and outside were groups of flowers and myriads of fairy lamps. The company began to arrive at eleven o'clock, when dancing commenced to the strains of the Blue Hungarian Band. The Princess of Wales was dressed in white striped satin and silk, the front being embroidered in pale shades, and wore handsome diamond ornaments. The Princesses Victoria and Maud wore white tulle over satin, the front being sprinkled all over with tiny sprays of lilies of the valley, each laid on a single leaf. The Duchess of Wellington was in black satin, with a pink sash arranged very prettily across the back of the bodice, and falling to the feet; a cluster of pink flowers and a beautiful diamond spray were fastened in the front of the bodicea and a diamond rivière was arranged in the hair, a diamond necklace being also worn. The Duchess of Westminster was in white satin trimmed with gold embroidery, and veiled in white chiffon. The Marchioness of Ormonde wore white striped brocade and satin trimmed with white lace, and a splendid diamond tiara and other ornaments. Countess de Grey, palest blue satin, with front beautifully embroidered in beads, and a diamond and pearl coronet. Maria, Marchioness of Ailesbury, white brocade and lace, with splendid diamond and emerald ornaments. The Marchioness of Bath, cream an violet brocaded velvet, the front being covered with mauve [38, Col. 3c – 39, Col. 1a] violets. Lady Mary Mills, rose-pink satin, with front richly embroidered; Lady Cardross, white satin, trimmed round the bodice and train with silver embroidery; Lady William Nevill, pale yellow brocade, the front veiled with black net, trimmed up the side with jet leaves, and all round the skirt was a bordering of Maréchal Niel roses, over a flounce of black net; Countess Granville wore rich white brocade and beautiful jewels; the Countess of Sefton, black satin and diamonds; Viscountess Dungan, white mousseline de soie, the skirt edged with a deep flounce; Lady Brooke, pale blue satin, trimmed with silver; Lady Emma Crichton, white satin train, with front of white lisse, prettily embroidered in red; Lady Idina Brassey, pale mauve bengaline, with front of chiffon and a handsome diamon coronet; Lady Rose Molyneux, white cross crêpe de Chine, with a pale green sash, and prettily trimmed with pink roses; Lady Wimborne, pale grey satin; the Hon. Miss Guest, pink satin, veiled with white net, sparkling with silver; Lady Sarah Spencer Churchill, white satin, with a chiffon frill; Lady Chesham, white silk, with pink roses; the Countess of Normanton, pale grey satin, with front of fine old lace; Mrs Hulse, handsome white brocade, diamond tiara, &c.; Mrs Bischoffsheim, white silk, embroidered with silver, and trimmed round the bottom of the skirt and train with a ruche of pale yellow crèpe; the Hon. Muriel Brassey, white chiffon, over satin, slightly trimmed with pink; and the [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs Algernon Bourke]] was in pink, with magnificent diamonds.<ref>"Entertainments, Balls, &c." ''The Queen'' 2 August 1890, Saturday: 38, Col. 3c – 39 [of 82], Col. 1a–1c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0002627/18900802/237/0038 and https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002627/18900802/237/0039. Print: ''The Queen, The Lady's Newspaper'', pp. 170–171.</ref></blockquote>This is the story from the ''Morning Post'':<blockquote>The Prince and Princess of Wales and the Princesses Victoria and Maud honoured Lord Alington by their company at dinner last evening at Alington House, South Audley-street. The guests present to meet their Royal Highnesses comprised the Duke and Duchess of Leinster, the Marquis of Hartington, the Marquis and Marchioness of Ormonde, Maria Marchioness of Ailesbury, Earl and Countess Cadogan and Lady Emily Cadogan, the Earl and Countess of Lucan and Lady Rosaline Bingham, the Earl of Hardwicke, the Countess of Dudley and Lady Edith Ward, the Earl of Chesterfield, Earl Annesley, the Earl of Stradbroke and Lady Hilda Rous, Lord and Lady Gerard, Lady Norreys, Lord Rowton, Lord Calthorpe, Lord Frederick Hamilton, Lord Charles Montagu, Lord Herbert Vane Tempest, Lord Arthur Grosvenor, Lady Lilian Wemyss, Colonel the Hon. Oliver Montagu, Sir John and Lady Lister Kaye, the Hon. Humphrey and Lady Feodore Sturt, the Hon. John Baring, the Hon. Henry and the Hon. Julia Stonor, the Hon. Gilbert Willoughby, Lady Suffield and Major-General Ellis, in waiting on the Prince and Princess of Wales; Sir Henry Calcraft, Mr. and Lady Rose Leigh, General and Mrs. Owen Williams, Mr. Mildmay, M.P., Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Sassoon, Mr. Montague Guest, Captain Orr-Ewing, Mrs. Bulkeley, Mr. Ricardo, and Mr. Caryl Craven. Lord Alington afterwards gave a dance expressly to meet the Prince and Princess of Wales. Among the company were— The Russian Ambassador, the Danish Minister, Prince Louis Esterhazy, Comte Costa de Beaunyardt, the Duchess of Buccleuch and Lady Evelyn Fitzmaurice, the Duchess of Westminster, the Dowager Duchess of Marlborough and Lady Sarah Spencer Churchill, the Duchess of Wellington and Lady Cardross, the Marquis and Marchioness of Granby and Miss Bourke, the Marchioness of Stafford and Lady Sybil St. Clair Erskine, the Marchioness of Bath and Lady Beatrice Thynne, the Marquis of Cholmondeley, the Marquese and Marquesa de Santurce and Lady Wilham Nevill, Countess Spencer, Countess Granville and Lady Victoria Leveson-Gower, Countess de Grey, the Earl of Dunraven, the Countess of Lathom and Lady Edith Wilbraham, the Countess of Enniskillen and Lady Christian Cole, the Earl of Ilchester, the Earl of Durham and Lady Anne Lambton, the Earl of Dalkeith and Lord Ernest Scott, the Countess of Sefton and Lady Rose Molyneux, Countess Howe and the Ladies Curzon, the Countess of Normanton and Lady Mary Agar and Miss Mary Liddell, Earl Craven, Viscount Clifden, Viscount Ennismore and Lady Beatrice Hare, Viscount Coke and the Hon. Violet White, Viscount and Viscountess Castlerosse and the Hon. Susan Baring, Viscountess Newport and the Hon. Miss Bruce, Viscount and Viscountess Melgund, Viscount and Viscountess Curzon, Viscount and Lady Violet Dangan and Lady Eva Wellesley, Viscount Dungarvan, Viscount Chelsea, Viscount Royston, Lady Hastings, Lord Capell, Lord and Lady Willoughby de Eresby and Hon. Margaret Willoughby, Lady Cloncurry and Hon. Miss Winn, Lord and Lady Brooke, Lady Wimborne and Hon. Miss Guest, Lord Sandhurst, Lord and Lady Edmund Talbot, Lord and Lady Alwyne Compton and Miss Gurney, Lord and Lady Chesham, Lady Rossmore and Miss Naylor, Lord Kenyon, Lord Garioch, Lady Alice Portal, Lady Margaret Levett and the Ladies Ashley, Lady W. Nevill, Lord Paulet, Lady Charles Beresford, Lady Forbes and Misses Forbes, Lady Claud Hamilton, Lord Carlow, Lady Mary Mills, Lord Lurgan, Lord Henry Vane Tempest, Lord and Lady Algernon Gordon Lennox, Lord Richard Nevill, the Hon. W. Coventry, the Hon. G. Joliffe, the Hon. Schomberg M'Donnell, the Hon. H. Coventry, Captain the Hon. E. Dawson, the Hon. Alistair and Mrs. Hay, the Hon. Mrs. Grosvenor, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|the Hon. Algernon and Mrs. Bourke]], the Hon. F. Dawnay, the Hon. E. J. Mills, the Hon. A. Johnstone, the Hon. Claude Hay, the Hon. Sidney Greville, the Hon. Mr. Dundas and Lady Hilda Dundas, the Hon. Thomas and Lady Idina Brassey and the Hon. Muriel Brassey, the Hon. Mr. Mansfield, Colonel the Hon. Henry Byng and Miss Byng, the Hon. Mrs. Oliphant, the Hon. Mr. Harbord, the Right Hon. Henry Chaplin, M.P., the Hon. G. Somerset, Sir William Gordon Cumming, Sir George Arthur, Sir Hubert Miller, Sir Charles Forbes, Sir William and Lady Eden, Sir George Chetwynd, Sir Frederick Johnstone, Sir John D. Poynder, Colonel and Lady Emma Crichton, the Hon. Miss Harbord, Captain and Lady Jane Combe, Colonel Paget, Captain Williams, Captain Ford, Captain Doyle, Captain Hanbury, Captain Campbell, Captain Constable, Captain Kinloch, Captain Longfield, M. Gutmansthal, Mrs. Bingham, Mr. Guthrie, Mrs. Arthur Paget, Mrs. Charles Wilson and Miss Wilson, Mr. Hulse, M.P., and Mrs. Hulse, Mr. de Murrieta, Mrs. Bischoffsheim, Mr. Spencer Portal, Mr. and Mrs. Gerald Paget, Mr. Leigh and Miss Leigh, Mr. Percy Daniell, Mr. Lister, Mr. Frederick Vincent, Mr. Cazalet, Mr. Alfred de Rothschild, Mr. John Savile Lumley, Mr. and Mrs Leopold de Rothschild, Mr. and Mrs. Skeffington Smith and Miss Taylor, Mrs. George Cavendish Bentinck, Mr. Alfred Farquhar, [[Social Victorians/People/Fanny Ronalds|Mr. Reginald Ronalds]], Miss Alice Ellice, Mr. George Marjoribanks, Mr. Wyndham, Mr. Dugdale, Mr. Montagu, Mrs. Sneyd, Mr. Wynn, Mr. Edward Hamilton, Mr. Murray Guthrie, Mr. George Lambert, Mrs. Sanford, Miss Mabel Forbes. Mr. Herbert Magniac, Mr. Bailey, Mr. Milner, Mr. Charles Kindersley, Mr. Beaumont, Mr. Walter Hervey, Mr. H. Hoare, Mr. Foley, Mr. Scott Murray, Mr. Coventry, Mr. Bertie, Mr. Jarvis, Mr. Guthrie, Mr. George Cavendish Bentinck, Mr. E. Charteris, Mr. Cholmondeley, Mr. Oswald Magniac, Mr. Cecil Campbell, Mr. and Mrs. Henry Oppenheim, Mr. Peploe, Mr. A. Charteris, Mr. Seymour Gore, Mr. Robert Antrobus, Mr. Elliot, M. de Champs, Mr. Wombwell, Mr. Charles Hoare, M.P., and many others.<ref>"Lord Alington's Ball." ''Morning Post'' 25 July 1890, Friday: 3 [of 8], Col. 5 b–c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900725/014/0003. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> ==August 1890== ===6 August 1890, Friday=== ==== Beautiful Women ==== The ''Lancaster Observer and Morecambe Chronicle'' reprinted a story from ''Vanity Fair'' about "Beautiful Women":<blockquote>Beautiful Women. — ''Vanity Fair'' asks what country in the world can show a more beautiful bevy of women than England? When Lady Helen Vincent, with her sister, Lady Cynthia Graham; when Lady Warwick with her sisters, the Duchess of Sutherland and Lady Westmorland; and when Lady Mar and Kellie, Lady de Trafford, Princess Pless, Lady de Gray[,] Lady Naylor-Leyland, the Duchess of Portland, Lady Alington, Lady Sophie Scott, Lady Chelsea, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Lady Algernon Bourke]], Lady Henry Bentinck, Mrs. Willie Grenfell, Mrs. Rupert Beckett, Mrs. Arthur Paget, and Countess Clary are gathered together it is a sight to make an old man young; while Mrs. Gerard Leigh and her sister, Lady Yarborough, and Lady Powis, Lady Norreys, Mrs Farquharson, Mrs. Willie James, Lady Dalkeith, Mrs. Pretyman, Mrs. Gervase Beckett, Lady Rossmore, Lady Sarah Wilson, Lady Colebrook, Lady Hartopp, Mrs. Willie Walker, and Lady Milton are almost equally admired. The many pretty girls include Miss Enid and Miss Muriel Wilson, who still head the list of the unmarried beauties, Lady Beatrice Butler, Lady Alexandra Hamilton, Miss Kennard, Miss Madeline Bourke, and Miss Leila Crichton; while among the debutantes Lady Evelyn Crichton and Lady Vivian's daughters have had a great success, and Lady Alice Montagu, petite and charmingly pretty, has been so much admired. The daughters of Lady Gosford, Lady Verulam, Lady Leitrim, Lady Inchiquin, and Lady Grey have also been admired, as well as Lady Helen Stewart, Lady Katherine Scott, and Miss Chaplin.<ref>"Beautiful Women." ''Lancaster Observer and Morecambe Chronicle'' 6 August 1897, Friday: 2 [of 8], Col. 5b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001804/18970806/023/0002. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> ===25 August 1890, Monday=== Summer Bank Holiday ==September 1890== ==October 1890== ===22 October 1890, Wednesday=== Arnold Dolmetsch went to the Reading Room (Campbell 22). ===25 October 1890, Saturday=== [[Social Victorians/Loder De Vere Beauclerk Wedding|Loder—De Vere Beauclerk Wedding]] ===31 October 1890, Friday=== Halloween. ==November 1890== ===5 November 1890, Wednesday=== Guy Fawkes Day ===19 November 1890, Wednesday=== Arnold Dolmetsch, with some of his students and his daughter Helene, provided musical illustrations for a lecture given by Dr. Frederick Bridge on "Mozart as Teacher," probably at Gresham College, where Bridges was professor (Campbell 34). ===21 November 1890, Friday=== Dr. Frederick Bridge's last fall 1890 lecture at Gresham College, for which Dolmetsch provided illustration. Campbell says, "it is, in fact, the first record in modern times of music by Byrd, Dr. Bull, Jenkins, Simpson, Lawes, Locke and Purcell being played 'on the instruments for which it was written'" (Campbell 34). ===25 November 1890, Tuesday=== Arnold Dolmetsch got a three-month pass to the Reading Room and "thereafter held yearly tickets until 1916" (Campbell 22). ==== 1890 November 29, Saturday ==== ===== [[Social Victorians/Dudley-Beckwith Wedding 1890-11-29|Wedding of Francis Dudley, Lord Leigh and Héléne Forbes Beckwith]] ===== ==December 1890== Sometimes in December 1890, [[Social Victorians/People/William Robert Woodman|William Woodman]], one of the founding members of the [[Social Victorians/Golden Dawn|Golden Dawn]], died (Gilbert 86 12). === 4 December 1890, Thursday === ==== [[Mure-Portal Wedding 1890-12-04|Wedding of Miss Mure and Mr. S. J. Portal]] ==== ===19 December 1890, Friday=== "The eleventh annual ''Truth'' Toy Exhibition for the children in London hospitals, workhouses, and infirmaries was held at the Grosvenor Gallery, Bond-street, on Dec. 19 and 20. There are over 22,000 children in these institutions, and each of them has a separate toy, besides the large and more expensive toys which are presented for the general use of the inmates. A special feature of the show was the dolls dressed by lady readers of ''Truth''. Several special donations in connection with the fund have been made, the principal of which is that of 10,200 new sixpences sent for distribution by the same liberal donor who has given a similar present on former occasions; while Mr. Tom Smith has had specially made, and has forwarded for distribution, over 22,000 crackers; and Mr. Horniman (as stated in our last issue) has given to the adults in hospitals and workhouses 1200 packets of tea, to be given to them as Christmas boxes." (Illustrated London News (London, England), Saturday, December 27, 1890; pg. 806; Issue 2697, Col. B) ===20 December 1890, Saturday=== "In order that the adults connected with the hospitals and workhouses may participate in the good things given to the children in the ''Truth'' toy distribution, Mr. F. J. Horniman, of Wormwood-street, City, has sent Mr. Labouchere 1200 packets of tea to be given to them as a Christmas box." (Illustrated London News (London, England), Saturday, December 20, 1890; pg. 774; Issue 2696, Col. B) From the ''Times'', 22 December 1890, "The Late Sir Edgar Boehm": <blockquote>On Saturday, in accordance with the special request of the Queen, the late Sir Edgar Boehm, R.A., was buried in St. Paul’s Cathedral, in the south aisle of the crypt, the spot being known as “The Painters Corner.” [new paragraph] The funeral cortége left the residence of the deceased at about 11 o’clock, there being five mourning and several private carriages. In the first carriage were the chief mourners, Sir Edgar Collins Boehm, the only son of the late baronet, and Mr. Conrad Herapath. The second and third carriages were occupied by Sir Frederic Leighton, P.R.A., Sir Nigel Kingscote, Mr. Richard Mills, Colonel Francis Baring, Mr. Alma-Tadema, R.A., Sir R. H. Collins, Mr. Edward J. Poynter, R.A., and Mr. Duncan MacGregor, all of whom subsequently, at the cathedral, acted as pall bearers. The fourth carriage contained representatives of the Council of the Royal Academy – Mr. Edwin Long, R.A., Mr. J. B. Burgess, R.A., Mr. F. Goodall, R.A., and Mr. Beavis. In the fifth carriage were the following members of the professional staff of the deceased – Mr. R. Glassby, Mr. E. Lantéri, Signor Finili, and Herr Gross. The cortége stopped for a few moments at the Royal Academy, in order that it might be joined by two carriages containing other representatives of the institution. Leaving Piccadilly, the route taken was Waterloo-place, Pall-mall, Cockspur-street, the Strand, Fleet-street, and Ludgate-hill, the cathedral being reached about noon. The procession was met at the great west door by Canon Gregory, the Archdeacon of London, the Rev. Dr. Baker, Minor Canons Milman, Russell, and Kelly, and the choir, who had a few minutes previously left the vestry; by Major Bigge, Equerry to the Queen, representing her Majesty; Colonel Stanley Clarke, who attended on behalf of the Prince and Princess of Wales; and Colonel W. J. Colville, representing the Duke of Edinburgh. The [[Social Victorians/People/Princess Louise|Princess Louise]] (Marchioness of Lorne) attired in deep mourning, and accompanied by [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Collins|Lieut.-Col. Arthur Collins]] and Lady Sophia Macnamara, arrived at the cathedral a few minutes before 12 o’clock, and was conducted to a seat in the south side of the nave, close to the late Sir Edgar Boehm’s two daughters, upon whom her Royal Highness had called earlier in the morning. As the procession came slowly up the nave towards the chancel, “I am the resurrection of life” and other sentences of the burial service were chanted to music by Dr. Croft. The coffin, which was completely hidden by splendid wreaths, was preceded by the choristers and the clergy. Then followed Sir E. C. Boehm, with Mr. Conrad Herapath and Mr. Alfred Gilbert, A.R.A., the officers and council of the Royal Academy, and members of the deceased’s studio. The coffin was deposited upon a bier, which had been placed under the dome in front of the opening into the crypt, through which the body was subsequently lowered. The mourners having been conducted to the seats which had been reserved for them, and the clergy and choir having proceeded to their places in the chancel, Psalms xxxix. and xc. Were sung to music by Purcell and Felton, followed by Spohr’s anthem, “Blest are the departed,” and the lesson 1 Cor. Xv. 20, which was read by Canon Gregory. Whilst the hymn “Days and moments quickly flying” was being sung the Archdeacon of London and Minor Canon Milman proceeded from the chancel and took up positions by the side of the coffin. The remainder of the service preceding and following the lowering of the body into the crypt was read by Minor Canon Milman, and the collect was impressively recited by Archdeacon Sinclair. The late Dr. Newman’s beautiful hymn, “Lead kindly light,” was afterwards sung by the choir, and the service was brought to a close by Beethoven’s Funeral March, which was played in compliance with the special request of her Majesty, at whose desire also Chopin’s Funeral March had preceded the service. Dr. Martin was the organist. While Beethoven’s march was being played the son and daughters of the late “Sculptor in ordinary to her Majesty,” together with other mourners, descended the crypt by the door near Howard’s monument, and saw the coffin for the last time. It bore the following inscription:- “Joseph Edgar Boehm. Born July 6, 1834; died at his work December 12, 1890. Thy will be done.” The coffin had already been deposited in the brick grave prepared for it, which is next to that of Sir Edwin Landseer. Immediately around it lie the remains of painters and sculptors of bygone days – Sir Joshua Reynolds, James Barry, Benjamin West, Henry Fuseli, Sir Thomas Lawrence, J. M. W. Turner, and John Henry Foley, while within half-a-dozen yards is the tomb of the great architect of the cathedral, Sir Christopher Wren. The coffin as last seen was covered by the floral tributes of loving friends, the symbolic laurel wreath forwarded by her Majesty surmounting them. This bore the inscription, “A tribute of gratitude for many beautiful memorial works executed for her. From Victoria, R. I.” Attached to the beautiful wreath sent by the Prince and Princess of Wales were the words, “A token of sincere regard and friendship.” Wreaths were forwarded by other members of the Royal Family, by Sir John and Lady Millais, Lord and Lady Reay, the Countess Sydney, Lord and Lady de Vesci, Mr. Henry Irving, Mr. and Mrs. Bancroft, by members of the council, students and officers of the Royal Academy, the Society of Artistic Sculptors (Vienna), and by the London Hungarian Association." (http://glassby.com/Chapter1.htm) </blockquote> ===24 December 1890, Wednesday=== "The people of South London and adjacent suburbs have to be grateful to Mr. Frederick Horniman, a well-known City merchant residing at Dulwich, for a munificent and beneficial Christmas gift. This gentleman has, during thirty years, formed a collection, worth above £100,000, of specimens of art, European, Indian, Chinese, and Japanese, also of decorative manufactures, and of ethnology and natural history, and rare books and manuscripts, at Surrey House, Forest Hill, which he intends to present to the public. The museum was opened by Sir Morell Mackenzie on Wednesday afternoon, Dec. 24. It already comprises twenty-four rooms, containing many beautiful specimens of horse and chain armour, Elizabethan bed-room furniture, an old English parlour and pantry, an Oriental armoury, a bible and manuscript room, an Egyptian gallery, and ethnographical saloon, a book and embroidery saloon, a porcelain and glass room, and a zoological saloon, with two live Russian bears and a monkey. We may describe the museum further, after another visit. Our Artist has sketched, in the ethnograhical saloon, an idol's shrine, made of cocoanut-fibre, from Fiji. Mr. Horniman, in acknowledging a vote of thanks, said that in an adjoining house he had accumulated a vast library of bibles and entomological works and specimens. It was his intention to build a hall at the back of the present building to contain a thousand persons, while the galleries would contain a library, and a stage would be provided, so that both eye and ear could be amused. He also contemplated buying sufficient land to enable a public body to erect class-rooms and gymnasia. Three cheers were given for Mr. Horniman, and the company proceeded to inspect the museum." "(Mr. F. Horniman's Museum, Forest Hill." Illustrated London News (London, England), Saturday, January 03, 1891; pg. 7; Issue 2698, Col. C) ===25 December 1890, Thursday=== Christmas Day ===26 December 1890, Friday=== Boxing Day ==Works Cited== *"Besant Chronology.pdf." From Anderson, Nancy Fix, Walter L Arnstein, Deborah Logan, and Susie L Steinbach, Volume Editors. Lives of Victorian Political Figures, Part III: Queen Victoria, Florence Nightingale, Annie Besant and Millicent Garrett Fawcett by their Contemporaries. Volume 3 of Lives of Victorian Political Figures. Series Editors, Nancy LoPatin-Lummis and Michael Partridge. London: Pickering and Chatto, 2008. *Crawford, Elizabeth. The Women’s Suffrage Movement: A Reference Guide, 1866–1928. Google Books. Accessed 14 October 2010. op6nz3mqp5v3g2mx21y1nymz03u4xz9 0 264381 2840727 2839924 2026-10-16T18:54:45Z Scogdill 1331941 2840727 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Viscount Mandeville Vanity Fair 1882-04-22.jpg|alt=Old drawing for a magazine of an aristocratic man in a formal suit|thumb|"Kim," Viscount Mandeville, 1882]] == Overview == The Mandeville who was in a relationship with music-hall and vaudeville star Bessie Bellwood was Kim (George Victor Drogo) Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester (17 June 1853 – 18 August 1892). He was Viscount Mandeville from 18 August 1855 (when his grandfather died) to 22 March 1890 (when his father died).<ref name=":1" /> When he succeeded to the dukedom in 1890, he ended his relationship with Bellwood. His father was the 7th Duke and his mother was [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louise Cavendish]], "double Duchess" of [[Social Victorians/People/Manchester|Manchester]] and then [[Social Victorians/People/Devonshire|Devonshire]]. In 1882 Viscount Mandeville (right) was "Man of the Day" (#255) for ''Vanity Fair'', drawn by Leslie Ward ("Spy").<ref>"Viscount Mandeville Vanity Fair 1882-04-22.jpg." Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Viscount_Mandeville_Vanity_Fair_1882-04-22.jpg (retrieved 8 September 2026).</ref> Kim Montagu, Lord Mandeville ended the relationship with Bessie Bellwood sometime during 1890, presumably after acceding to the dukedom. In November of 1890, his son secretly married Helena Zimmerman. == Also Known As == *Family name: Montagu *The title Viscount Mandeville is a courtesy title for the heir apparent and eldest son of the [[Social Victorians/People/Manchester |Duke of Manchester]]. This title is one of only 2 (for the heir apparent of a duke) that is below the rank of Earl (the other is the heir apparent of the Duke of Somerset). (Is Mandeville a toponym?) *Viscount Mandeville **"Kim" (George Victor Drogo) Montagu [8th Duke], (18 August 1855 – 22 March 1890) **[[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drogo Montagu]], 9th Duke (22 March 1890 – 18 August 1892) **Alexander George Francis Drogo Montagu (2 October 1902 – 9 February 1947)<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-15|title=Alexander Montagu, 10th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Montagu,_10th_Duke_of_Manchester&oldid=983660353|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> *Viscountess Mandeville **Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu [8th Duchess] (22 May 1876 – 22 March 1890) **Helena Zimmerman Montagu (14 November 1890 – 18 August 1892) *Lord Kimbolton (Baron Kimbolton of Kimbolton is the courtesy title for the heir presumptive, the heir apparent's eldest son, so the son of Viscount Mandeville<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-09-21|title=Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Duke_of_Manchester&oldid=1375987697|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>) ** [[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drogo Montagu]], 9th Duke (1877 – 22 March 1890) == Acquaintances, Friends and Enemies == === "Kim" Montagu, 8th Duke, Lord Mandeville until 1890 === ==== Friends ==== * Edward Russell, 24th Baron de Clifford * Derrick Westenra, 5th Baron Rossmore * Francis Needham, 3rd Earl of Kilmorey === Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu === ==== Friends ==== *Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu was in the intimate circle of [[Social Victorians/People/Albert Edward, Prince of Wales |Albert Edward, Prince of Wales]]. ==Organizations== === "Kim" Montagu, 8th Duke, Lord Mandeville until 1890 === * Eton<ref name=":1" /> === Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu === * Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu was a member of the New York City social set called the Buccaneers when she was a teenager.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-06|title=Consuelo Montagu, Duchess of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Consuelo_Montagu,_Duchess_of_Manchester&oldid=982192002|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> Edith Wharton is said to have taken details from the 8th Duke's marriage for her novel ''The Buccaneers''.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-06|title=George Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Montagu,_8th_Duke_of_Manchester&oldid=982188929|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> == Timeline == '''1855 August 18''', the 6th Duke died. The families "placed in mourning" were the following, as listed in the ''Edinburgh Evening Post and Scottish Record'':<blockquote>He is succeeded in the Dukedom by his eldest son, Viscount Mandeville, M.P. By the melancholy event the families of the Marquess and Marchioness of Tweeddale, the Duchess of Wellington, the Duke of Montrose, Lord and Lady Olivia Ossulston [?], Lady Eliza [Elisa?] Steele, the Duke of Richmond, the Countess of St Germans, Lady Sophia Cecil, and many others of rank, are placed in mourning.<ref>"Death of the Duke of Manchester." ''Edinburgh Evening Post and Scottish Standard'' 22 August 1855, Wednesday: 2 [of 4], Col. 5c [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001177%2F18550822&page=2&article=025&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title ''Edinburgh Evening Post and Scottish Record''; n.p.</ref></blockquote>'''1855 October 11, Wednesday''', H. I. Cridland says in a "Notice,"<blockquote>I will hold Audit Days at Lyttelton, on Wednesday, 11th October, for the receipt of rents and other monies due to the 25th of September, on account of the Soames, Jackson, Ecclesiastical, and Lyttelton Trust Estates, the lands of Lord Mandeville, Lady Emily Bathurst, Lady Olivia Sparrow, Rev. J. P. Rhoades, Rev. Charles Hodge, Dr. Merrion C. T. Maunsell, George Hart, late William Draper, and J. E. Fitz Gerald, Esqrs. ... Tenants are requested to present their last receipt.<ref>"Notice." ''Lyttelton Times'' 6 October 1855, Saturday: 1 [of 10], Col. 3c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0003346%2F18551006&page=1&article=004&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Newspaper title ''The Lyttelton Times'', n.p. </ref></blockquote>This notice was repeated in the ''Lyttelton Times'' on 29 December 1855. '''1855 October 20, Saturday''', the [[Social Victorians/People/Wilton|Earl and Countess of Wilton]] hosted a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1850s#1855 October 20, Saturday|house party at Heaton Hall]], with a visit to a silk mill in town. [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Luise, Duchess of Manchester]] was present with the Duke and their son Lord Mandeville (Kim, later 8th Duke), who was 2 years old. '''1876 May 22''', Consuelo Iznaga y Clement and "Kim" (George Victor Drogo, 8th Duke) Montagu married in Grace Church, New York City.<ref name=":0" /> '''1889 December 23''', Lord Mandeville was involved in a [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Smith-Slavin 1889-12-23|boxing match in Bruges, Belgium between British Jem Smith and Australian Frank Slavin]], and the resulting social fallout. === 1890s === '''1890 January 6, Monday''', Lady Mandeville was present at [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#11 January 1890, Saturday|Merton with a small party and the Prince of Wales]] during the funeral of Empress Augusta. '''1890 January 10, Friday''', Lady Mandeville was invited to a [[Social Victorians/1890-01-10 Ulster Club Ball|ball at the Ulster Club, Belfast]]. The article in the ''Lady's Pictorial'' says the "principal families in the north of Ireland were invited,"<ref>"Court and Society Notes." ''Lady's Pictorial'' 18 January 1890, Saturday: 44 [of 60], Col. 1b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0005980%2F18900118&page=44. Same print title, p. 94.</ref> but Lord Mandeville is not mentioned. '''1890 January 13, Monday''', Lord Mandeville was an organizer of a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#Wallace-Camp Boxing Match|boxing match between "Nunc" (Edwin) Wallace and George Camp]]. This match was important and Wallace was very important in the history of this sport. Lord Mandeville was also reported to be at an [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Smith-Slavin 1889-12-23|unfair and notorious match in Bruges between a British and an Australian fighter]] that occurred on 23 December 1889. '''1890 January 14, Tuesday, probably, or January 7''', Lord Mandeville was "attacked" in a restaurant by a boxer:<blockquote>The "Evening Post" states that Charles Mitchell, the pugilist, attacked Lord Mandeville and Mr Abington at a West-End restaurant on Tuesday night. They were immediately separated.<ref>''Aberdeen Press and Journal'' 15 January 1890, Wednesday: 6 [of 8], Col. 4b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000032%2F18900115&page=6&article=097&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Aberdeen Weekly Journal'', p. 6.</ref></blockquote>'''1890 January 21, Tuesday''', on or about, Lady Mandeville attended the [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#1890 January 21, Tuesday|wedding of Baron S. Alfred Oppenheim and Miss Florence Hutchins]]. '''1890 January 28, Tuesday''', Lady Mandeville attended what was supposed to be [[Social Victorians/People/Lily Langtry#1890 January 28, Tuesday|Lily Langtry's opening-night performance at the St. James's]] with the Prince of Wales and some of his circle. Also on this date, the ''Dundee Evening Telegraph'' reported that Lady Mandeville [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#1890 January 28, Tuesday|had bought 30 "Exploration" shares]], which funded exploration expeditions with the possibility of rights to minerals or resources or the development of monopolies for goods that were "discovered."<ref>"Notes — Mainly Personal." ''Dundee Evening Telegraph'' 28 January 1890, Tuesday: 2 [of 4], Col. 2b [of my 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000453%2F18900128&page=2&article=001&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Evening Telegraph'', n.p.</ref> Her mother in law, [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louisa, Duchess of Manchester]] also had bought 30 shares, both small amounts compared to some others. '''1890 January 29, Wednesday''', Consuelo Lady Mandeville was a guest at the house party around the [[Social Victorians/Santurce Murrieta Wedding 1890-01-29|wedding of Miss Clarita de Murietta and the Duc de Santona]]. She had her eldest son with her, Lord Kimbolton (the 9th Duke of Manchester). Her mother in law, [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louise, Duchess of Manchester]] was also present. '''1890 February 6, Thursday''' '''(shortly before 6 February)''', Lord Mandeville attended a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#1890 February 6, Thursday|boxing match fought by the prize-fighter Pete Jackson]] at the New Pelican Club. '''1890 January 30, Thursday, through at least February 8, Saturday''', Lord Mandeville was among the [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#1890 February 8, Saturday|recent arrivals at Brighton]] although apparently after the most notable had already left. Certainly he does not appear to have been at the party the next evening that the Prince of Wales attended. '''1890 February 9, Sunday''', the Prince of Wales came after one of Consuelo's dinner parties:<blockquote>Lady Mandeville, who has been giving a series of small dinners in her house in Cumberland Place, had a dinner on Sunday. The Prince of Wales came in after dinner to meet a small party.<ref>"Society Gossip. (From ''The World''.)." ''Leighton Buzzard Observer and Linslade Gazette'' 11 February 1890, Tuesday: 6 [of 8], Col. 6b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001091%2F18900211&page=6&article=106&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Leighton Buzzard Observer'', p. 6. </ref></blockquote>'''1890 February 24, Monday''', Consuelo Lady Mandeville attended [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#24 February 1890, Monday|Lilly Langtry's performance as Rosalind in As You Like It at the St. James's Theatre]]. '''1890 February 25, Tuesday''', Consuelo Lady Mandeville attended a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#25 February 1890, Tuesday|party hosted by Mrs. Adair]]. Viscount Mandeville is not listed among those who attended. '''1890 March 4, Wednesday''', Consuelo's brother Fernando Yznaga married New York "beauty and society leader" Miss Mabel Wright.<ref>"Personal." ''American Register'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 5 [of 8], Col. 5a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0003338%2F18900322&page=5&article=070&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref> Presumably at least Consuelo was there? '''1890 March 10, Monday''', the Prince and Princess of Wales gave a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#10 March 1890, Monday10 March 1890, Monday|dance at Marlborough House in honor of their wedding anniversary]]. The Viscountess Mandeville is listed among the guests invited, but the Viscount is not mentioned. '''1890 March 22, Saturday''', the Portsmouth ''Evening News'' expressed outrage about a man with a reputation like Lord Mandeville's becoming 8th Duke of Manchester and joining the House of Lords:<blockquote>While the House of Commons were debating the necessity for a House of Lords, the Duke of Manchester was on his death bed in Naples. There is more in the incident than appears at first sight, for Viscount Mandeville succeeds to the Dukedom, with the attendant rights of presentation to seven livings and the privilege of mutilating or rejecting Bills demanded by the people and passed by their representatives in the Commons. {{Paragraph break}} It will hardly be urged by the moat zealous advocate of the Upper Chamber, as at present constituted, that the new Duke of Manchester, ''nee'' Viscount Mandeville, will bring much dignity, wisdom, or weight to the House of irresponsible legislators. This nobleman has had a merry time. The one sensible thing he did was to marry a charming and accomplished American lady, who, by consenting to share the name of Mandeville has kept its head above water. Viscount Mandeville himself has a weakness for bankruptcy proceedings, rows with cabmen, which music hall ladies come forward to take his part, and the class of events generally which do not approve themselves to the minds of the ordinary Briton. It is possible that Lord Mandeville may now discover that he has sown his wild oats, and may settle down with his beautiful and popular wife to the enjoyment of his 25,000 acres of land and £38,000 a-year. We have not to do with what Lord Mandeville may be. Our simple duty is to point out that it is an outrage on common decency and common sense that a man bearing the reputation of Lord Mandeville should have the right to step into the House of Lords whenever a vote is needed to swell the prejudice or sustain the selfishness that find among the Peers their natural home.<ref>"To-Day." ''Portsmouth Evening News'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 2 [of 4], Col. 1c [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000290%2F18900322&page=2&article=001&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Evening News'', n.p.</ref></blockquote>The ''Birmingham Daily Mail'' had a similar opinion, though perhaps slightly more optimistic:<blockquote>The Duke of Manchester, who expired last night at Naples, cannot be said to have been much of a public man. He led a quiet, retired life, and the announcement of his death would, if Lord Mandeville were not heir to the title, arouse but little interest. Lord Mandeville is, unfortunately for himself, more widely known than his father was. He developed tastes for gambling, with disastrous financial results, as the details of his bankruptcy made public last year, and more recently, his name has been publicly associated with those of prizefighters and music-hall singers. Altogether, he can hardly be termed a credit to the aristocracy of England, but the higher position to which he will now attain may cause him to alter his ways and try redeem the errors of the past.<ref>"Notes and News." ''Birmingham Mail'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 2 [of 4], Col. 3a [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000644%2F18900322&page=2&article=027&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Birmingham Daily Mail'', n.p.</ref></blockquote>On the same day, Consuelo's brother and new wife were reported to apparently be immigrating to the UK:<blockquote>Among the immigrants, says a London lady correspondent, is a New York belle who has just been married to Mr. Ferdinand Yznaga, brother to Lady Mandeville and of Lady Lister-Kaye. Young Mrs. Yznaga will enter London society under the wing of her sister-in-law, Lady Mandeville, and is expected to make as great a furore as did Mrs. Langtry a few seasons ago. Mr. Yznaga married a sister-in-law of Mr. Vanderbilt, who divorced him two years ago.<ref>"An American Belle." ''Huddersfield and Holmfirth Examiner'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 6 [of 16], Col. 4a [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0003869%2F18900322&page=6&article=006&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Huddersfield Examiner'', p. 6.</ref></blockquote>'''1890 November 14''', William Angus Drogo Montagu (9th Duke) and Helena Zimmerman married secretly, in London. '''1897 July 2''', the Duke and Duchess of Devonshire ( [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Luise Friederike Auguste Gräfin von Alten Montagu Cavendish]] and [[Social Victorians/People/Spencer Compton Cavendish|Spencer Cavendish]]) hosted the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House. Lord Charles Montagu, likely Charles William Augustus Montagu, attended, as did [[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drogo Montagu]]. == Demographics == ===Nationality=== *Consuelo Iznaga y Clement was Cuban-American. *Helena Zimmerman was American. *George, William and Alexander Montagu were British. === Residences === * 1890: "The family estates — 27,312 acres, with a nominal rent-roll of £40,000 — were chiefly situated in Huntingdonshire and Armagh."<ref>"Men and Things." (London) ''Echo'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 1 [of 4], Col. 6b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0004596%2F18900322&page=1&article=010&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, n.p.</ref> * In 1890 at the death of the 7th Duke, Kimbolton Castle: <blockquote>The Duke of Manchester... He was an old-fashioned Tory, and a man of simple tastes, whose chief interests were military and agricultural rather than political. Kimbolton Castle is a magnificent place, and the Duke's horses and troop of yeomanry were always the admiration of the Prince of Wales, the Marquis of Hartington, and many other visitors. Lord Hartington, it may be mentioned, was at Kimbolton when the news came of the  breaking out of the war between France and Germany [1871], he being a member of the Cabinet. The Duke had travelled much as a young man, and was familiar with the Continent, as also with South Africa, of which he was very fond. There is a private chapel at Kimbolton Castle, connected with which is a very extensive library containing some theological and historical volumes of great value. Notwithstanding his somewhat bluff manner the Duke was liked by the tenantry and poor from the kindly interest he took in their concerns. Even the poachers had a good word for his Grace. The feature, however, of the Duke's career was the marked contrast between his pursuits and those of the Duchess. The Duke loved every blade of grass, every tree and flower on his ancestral domain, and cared nothing for London life in its modern developments. Lord Mandeville [the 8th Duke] succeeds to the title, but the estates are heavily mortgaged.<ref>"Death of the Duke of Manchester." ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 6 [of 8], Col. 2b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000098%2F18900322&page=6&article=014&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p. </ref></blockquote> == Family == *Consuelo (María Consuelo) Iznaga y Clement Montagu, Duchess of Manchester (1853 – 20 November 1909), née Doña María Consuelo Iznaga y Clement<ref name=":0" /> *"Kim" (George Victor Drogo) Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester (17 June 1853 – 18 August 1892)<ref name=":1" /> #William Angus Drogo Montagu, 9th Duke of Manchester (3 March 1877 – 9 February 1947) #Jacqueline Mary Alva Montagu (27 November 1879 – 15 March 1895). #Alice Eleanor Louise Montagu (27 November 1879 – 10 January 1900) *[[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drogo Montagu]], 9th Duke of Manchester (3 March 1877 – 9 February 1947)<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-08|title=William Montagu, 9th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Montagu,_9th_Duke_of_Manchester&oldid=982513036|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> *Helena Zimmerman Montagu (25 September 1878 – 15 December 1971)<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-08|title=Helena, Countess of Kintore|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helena,_Countess_of_Kintore&oldid=982513630|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> #Mary Alice Montagu Gregory (26 October 1901 – 9 October 1962) #Alexander George Francis Drogo Montagu, 10th Duke of Manchester (2 October 1902 – 23 November 1977) #Edward Eugene Fernando Montagu (26 July 1906 – 4 May 1954/1956) #Ellen Millicent Louise Montagu Hofer Shairp (5 January 1908 – 2 August 1948) === Relations === The three Iznaga y Clement sisters were prominent in London "Society": *Consuelo (María Consuelo) Iznaga Montagu, Duchess of Manchester (1853 – 20 November 1909) *Emilie Iznaga y Clement () *Natividad (Natica) Iznaga y Clement Lister-Kaye () == Questions and Notes == *In a ''British Newspaper Archive'' search for name=mandeville keyword=#viscount for 18 August 1855–22 March 1890 (September 2026), first did "Publication date oldest first," but Kim was 2 years old when his grandfather died and his father acceded to the dukedom, so on p. 57 of the search results (the page containing 1 January 1856) I switched to "Publication date newest first." Decided it would be more fruitful to work backwards. == Papers, Memoirs and Biographies == * Personal correspondence: in the archive at Chatsworth House (group <code>CS8</code>) * The papers of Louise Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire DF14 contains correspondence to and from the 7th Duke and Duchess of Manchester. * Archives Hub: https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/ (for records of UK archives, including Northern Ireland, but not the Republic of Ireland) ** Chatsworth House: https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/search/locations/6e07905a-1893-3adb-93fa-6966fcfaf57e ** Louise Cavendish papers: https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/search/archives/7f2209dd-e364-3318-8a5e-62e0533d7a4c ** Devonshire Collection Archives: Family papers: https://www.chatsworth.org/visit-chatsworth/chatsworth-estate/art-archives/access-the-collection/archives-and-library/family-papers-guide/ == Footnotes == {{reflist}} m16331kt23iqd1rbb312fm53x8z2r52 0 264724 2840718 2840288 2026-10-16T15:41:29Z Scogdill 1331941 2840718 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Dress worn by Queen Victoria at her wedding to Prince Albert in 1840}} = Sandbox = Page to draft revisions for Wikipedia articles. For Gwladys Robinson, see Gwladys Lowther Robinson, [[Social Victorians/People/Ripon|Marchioness of Ripon]] and, earlier, [[Social Victorians/People/Lowther|Countess of Lonsdale]] ==References== {{reflist|2}} [[Category:1840 works]] [[Category:Royal wedding dresses|Victoria Queen]] [[Category:1840s fashion]] [[Category:British royal attire]] [[Category:Dresses in the Royal Collection of the United Kingdom|Victoria, Wedding]] [[Category:Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria]] = Victorian fashion = == Notes and Quotes == * Women followed Paris fashion in Europe and America, but London tailors led the way for men’s fashion. The Industrial Revolution actually impacted men’s fashion more than women’s. * Sewing machines in factories began mass producing cheap clothing for the largest group in the population, working class men. * Ready-made clothing affected the social structure, the economy, and gender differentiation. * Paper patterns, introduced in fashion magazines that targeted women, along with domestic sewing machines had more impact on women’s fashion than men’s. Haute couture was still bespoke (being individually constructed by tailors or dressmakers or fashion houses like Maison Worth). Sewing Machines and Clothes Before the industrial revolution wealthy people paid others to sew their clothes by hand and those who were of much lower economic status did all the manual labor necessary to feed and clothe the rich minority. The working class had to make all their own clothes. Sewing, however, came at the end of the process.  They began with raw wool cut from the backs of sheep or gathering flax.  Only the wealthy could afford to buy fabric.  They followed processes for cleaning and spinning the wool into thread and the processes of soaking and pulling out the fibrous strips to make into thread for linen fabric. After they had thread, it was tied to a loom so it could be woven into cloth.  Then it had to be cut or torn into pieces. For many families scissors were a luxury. And the last step is sewing the pieces together to create a garment. Machines could not only sew, they could process the raw materials into thread and weave it into fabric much  quicker. Regarding clothing, working class men and their families benefitted greatly from ready-made clothes. Manufacturers marketed to them because they were the largest class. For example,<blockquote>–Men’s shirts, made by machine, take 3 hours and 10 minutes each to do; by hand, 15 hours and 20 minutes; a lady’s dress, by machine, takes 12 hours 4 minutes; by hand 20 hours 35 minutes; . . . a common frock-coat, by the machine occupies 17 hours 20 minutes; by the hand, 27 hours and 40 minutes: a linen vest, by machine, 3 hours 44 minutes; by hand 7 hours 18 minutes; a fine overcoat, by machine, 28 hours 13 minutes; by hand 31 hours 20 minutes; . . . <ref>Mitchell, Rebecca, ed. "22. 'Progress of the Sewing Machine,' ''Bow Bells'' (19 April 1865), p. 283." Part 6: Production and Industry. ''Fashioning the Victorians: A Critical Sourcebook''. Bloomsbury Visual Arts, 2018.</ref></blockquote> === Industrial Revolution and Technological Advancements === * the railroad * mass production of fabrics for working-class men's clothing ** Jacquard looms * sewing machines * aniline dyes, including black === Expanding Middle Class === * gender roles getting more clearly defined and rigid (referring back to page overview) === French Revolution === Sarah Gharmallah Alzahrani and Safia Abdelaziz Saroukh (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Safia-Saroukh/publication/385099194_The_Semiotic_Dimension_of_Men's_Fashion_in_Modern_Eras/links/671686fbd796f96b8ec4f90e/The-Semiotic-Dimension-of-Mens-Fashion-in-Modern-Eras.pdf):<blockquote>The 19th century started with a fashion landscape that was changing dramatically and rapidly from the styles of a generation earlier. The French Revolution brought fashions that had been emerging since the 1780s to the forefront. Neoclassicism now defined fashion as both men and women taking inspiration from classical antiquity. For women, the high-waisted silhouette in lightweight muslin was the dominant style, while fashionable men looked to the tailors of Britain for a new, refined look [17]. [17]  Franklin, H. (Aug 18, 2020). Published on Jun 25, 2020, Retrieved: <nowiki>https://fashionhistory.fitnyc.edu/1800-1809/</nowiki> 11/11/2023. Edited. ...</blockquote>Brent Shannon:<blockquote>"Costume," wrote Max Beerbohm in 1896, "enables us to classify any 'professional man' at a glance, be he lawyer, leech or who not" (24–25). A man's profession and class were read by his jacket, his hat, what he rode in, and how he carried himself. "Perhaps there is a tendency among Englishmen to judge a man too much by the shape of his hat or the kind of collar he wears," conduct author John Wanamaker confessed; "But one must remember that in England if you ''wear'' the wrong thing, you will probably ''do'' the wrong thing, and generally ''be'' the wrong thing" (1).¹¹ Such assertions were predicated on the powerful Victorian conviction that outward appearance reflected inner qualities.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Cut of His Coat: Men, Dress, and Consumer Culture in Britain, 1860–1914|last=Shannon|first=Brent Alan|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=2006|location=Athens, Ohio}}</ref> (148)</blockquote> ==Women's fashion== == Men's fashion == (Two intros: one to Victorian Fashion, giving background for both women's and men's fashions; two to the decades for men's fashion) Among the influences on men's styles: * differentiation of genders (domestic ideology, ideology of the spheres) * the "Great Male Renunciation," the French Revolution and English tailoring * industrial revolution: mass production of fabrics and articles of clothing, especially for working-class men * sports and country clothing * Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, later King Edward VII, influence went beyond England; tailors led by him led fashion for the upper classes * then later, cult of youth * military uniforms * comfort and convenience * evolving definitions of gender, both femininity and masculinity evolved as concepts. The changing definitions of masculinity affected men's clothing. For the growing and rising middle classes, gender roles became more and more rigid around the concept of the separate spheres, the public for men and the private sphere for women. Cultural sources for men's clothing and men's fashion: industrial revolution; expanding middle class; technological advancements; an association in the culture between outward appearance and inward nature; French Revolution; Albert Edward, Prince of Wales Citation for Victorian Hell: <ref name=":29">{{Cite web|url=https://victorianhell.substack.com/p/victorian-mens-fashion-history-and|title=Victorian Men’s Fashion History and Clothing Guide|last="It's Monty, Actually"|date=31 October 2025|website=Victorian Hell|access-date=7 September 2026}}</ref> === Frock coats === * Apostol Mănescu, politician, wearing a frock coat, butterfly tie, black waistcoat with button chain and light coloured pants, drainpipe type. Circa 1866. Photo by Franz Duschek.jpg (1866)[[File:Apostol Mănescu, politician, wearing a frock coat, butterfly tie, black waistcoat with button chain and light coloured pants, drainpipe type. Circa 1866. Photo by Franz Duschek.jpg|thumb|Romanian (?) Politician, c. 1866, ill-fitting but probably handmade suit|center]] Full-length portrait of two young men wearing frock coats with sashes and pistols at their waists LCCN2006689564.tif (right)[[File:Full-length portrait of two young men wearing frock coats with sashes and pistols at their waists LCCN2006689564.jpg|thumb|1860, American, young men with frock coats, performers??|center]] * George Augustus Henry Sala.jpg (Mathew Brady, 1855–1865) * [[File:George Augustus Henry Sala.jpg|center|thumb|George Augustus Sala, 1855–1865, LoC]] ==== Dress and Conduct Manuals, Histories, Victorian Theory, Catalogs ==== # [Baker, William Henry.]  ''Clothes Dictionary''. Chicago, Ill.: Cahn, Wampold, 1901. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Clothes_dictionary;_(IA_clothesdictionar00bake).pdf. # [[c:File:Hint's_about_men's_dress,_right_principles_economically_applied_(IA_hintsaboutmensdr00barr).pdf|Hint's about men's dress, right principles economically applied (IA hintsaboutmensdr00barr).pdf]] (book, conduct manual, American, 1888) #[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Fashion-_the_power_that_influences_the_world_%28IA_fashionpowerthat00foxg%29.pdf?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&utm_campaign=index&utm_content=original Fashion- the power that influences the world (IA fashionpowerthat00foxg).pdf] (1871) (American, incl court dress, Victorian fashion theory, livery, "White, as it is the color of day, is expressive to us of the cheerfulness or gaiety which the return of day brings." [145], "Gentlemen's Furnishing and Goods," "Head and Foot Covering," Index) # [https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/How_to_behave_and_how_to_amuse._A_handy_manual_of_etiquette_and_parlor_games_%28IA_howtobehavehowto00sand%29.pdf?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&utm_campaign=index&utm_content=original How to behave and how to amuse. A handy manual of etiquette and parlor games (IA howtobehavehowto00sand).pdf] (1895; American; Men's Dress, p. 23; besides conduct and dress, it has parlor games) # [https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/The_etiquette_of_men%27s_dress_%28IA_etiquetteofmensd00cluc%29.pdf?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&utm_campaign=index&utm_content=original The etiquette of men's dress (IA etiquetteofmensd00cluc).pdf] (1888; American; some ads; anthology of individually written articles; lots of sports, outdoor events; search for "frock" — cutaway vs Prince Albert) #[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/S.W._Silver_%26_Co.%27s_handbook_for_transatlantic_travellers_.._%28IA_swsilvercoshandb00silv%29.pdf?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&utm_campaign=index&utm_content=original S.W. Silver & Co.'s handbook for transatlantic travellers .. (IA swsilvercoshandb00silv).pdf] (1883; American; lots of ads from SW Silver, with prices; has blank pages where ppl can write "Introductions" and "Engagements," but this is not a conduct book, it's travel guide / catalog to London) #[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/How_we_go_to_those_who_cannot_come_to_us.._%28IA_howwegotothosewh00roge%29.pdf?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&utm_campaign=index&utm_content=original How we go to those who cannot come to us.. (IA howwegotothosewh00roge).pdf] (Roger, Peet & Co.; American; catalog, spring 1891; pp. 11, clerical frock; 7 "Prince Alberts" double-breasted frocks; p. 23 shirts as underwear; has a thing on fitting and mail order; bathing suits, collars and cuffs; tennis shoes) == Victorian Men's Fashion (Intro to the Men's Fashion Section) == Museums and other historical sites have plenty of women’s clothes from the nineteenth century. There is great variety in both outer wear and underwear. “Men’s garments of the Victorian period have survived in far less quantity than women’s.” Buck p. 185 More waistcoats have survived than any other garment. The hardest garment to find are trousers. Very few survived the nineteenth century. Buck p. 185 By 1850 trousers dominated the fashion for men; the trouser straps under the shoe had disappeared; and a fly front had replaced the fall-front. Buck 185 It took most of the nineteenth century for men’s fashion to evolve into the coat, trousers and vest (waistcoat) that dominated the twentieth century and appears to be unchanging in the twenty-first century. “Men’s clothing, like women’s, was specific to each occasion and type of activity during the late nineteenth century.” Payne2, p. 518 For example, formal wear for social events was different from the casual, everyday wear for upper middle class and aristocratic men. Victorians also dressed in ensembles for hunting and riding (included knickerbockers–breeches that had a fuller cut). Casual and looser clothing was worn when participating in sports. Many different cuts of coats were available, like the Norfolk jacket, the morning coat, or the sack coat. “Tailored wool garments , originally inspired by the clothing of English country gentry, formed the backbone of men’s wardrobes in the early nineteenth century.” Men’s clothing began to change from styles that were colorful and flamboyant in the eighteenth century to styles that emphasized cut over color. By the end of the century men’s clothing had settled into a kind of uniform with coats and trousers usually made of the same fabric, often with a vest or waistcoat of the same fabric. The uniform included a shirt with a stiff collar, a necktie and very little jewelry. It took the entire nineteenth century to change to a rather static style that is still worn today. Ready-made clothing affected the social structure, the economy, and the gender differentiation. David Kutcha traces the origin of the 3-piece men's suit to King Charles II of England, who may be said to be wearing a coat, pants and a waistcoat, but otherwise is not wearing a "suit" we — or the Victorians — would recognize as such: <blockquote>... since 1666, male gentility has been associated with modesty and plainness in dress. Eschewing fashion as an increasingly feminized realm Charles II's vest inaugurated a new and essentially modern era of masculine aesthetics, one that reversed a long-held association between elaborate display and high social status. Manly thrift now displayed elite status.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Three-Piece Suit and Modern Masculinity, England 1550–1850|last=Kutcha|first=David|publisher=University of California Press|year=2002|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles}}</ref> (2)</blockquote>So it's really Cromwell who should get credit?? The French Revolution caused both men and women to change stylistic direction radically. For one generation, stylish women wore simple white muslin dresses without foundation garments underneath. The changes in men's fashion was more lasting: men turned away from the ornamentation and ruffles of the ''ancien régime'', choosing instead understated and subtle tailoring to indicate good taste and wealth. Poole "comfort and convenience" — trousers, sack coats, collars and cuffs without a shirt, wool rather than silks and satins; knee breeches constantly riding up men as leaders of fashion, in spite of our sense that men didn't do fashion in the way that women did, were more serious than that === Dandy Stuff === Beau Brummell: "Men began to aspire to fine cutting, tailoring, and perfect fit in their clothes, flawless grooming and manners in themselves. The Englishman George Bryan (Beau) Brummell deserves much credit for the ideal of meticulous masculine appearance."<ref name=":25">{{Cite book|title=The History of Costume: From Ancient Mesopotamia Through the Twentieth Century|last=Payne|first=Blanche|last2=Winakor|first2=Geitel|last3=Farrell-Beck|first3=Jane|publisher=Addison-Wesley Longman|year=1992|isbn=0-06-047141-7|edition=2nd|location=New York, New York}}</ref> (458) "From 1796 to 1816, the Beau set the pattern for cleanliness and liberal use of starch." (459) === Gender Ideologies === '''Victorian gender ideologies''' relegated men to the "public sphere" and women to the "domestic sphere." (??) More than that “the cult of youth . . . the secularization of sport and the influence of modern warfare in generating men’s fashions, the tendency to prefer modern ideas of comfort and convenience, and the transformation of fashion knowledge and fashion urbanism from print to hyperreality”<ref name=":26">McNeil, Peter. "Men's Fashion: 1800–2022." Chapter 22. ''The Routledge History of Fashion and Dress, 1800 to the Present''. Routledge, 2024. https://opus.lib.uts.edu.au/bitstream/10453/182707/2/Men%27s%20Fashion%20200822_24_12_20_09_29_44.pdf DOI: 10.4324/9780429295607-27.</ref> (McNeil 1 or 411) changed the perceptions of masculinity and femininity. === Class === The growing middle class involved among other things more and more jobs and careers for young men as clerks, office workers, they were junior, subordinate, and they were commuting on the railroads from suburbs. Carolyn Kirby:<blockquote>In western Europe the fashion for plain dark suits coincided with the rise of the affluent middle-classes in a world where the pace of industrialisation and the globalisation of trade was accelerating as never before. The sharp, dark business suit became the last word in male power-dressing. And so it remains to this day.<ref name=":27">{{Cite web|url=https://historiamag.com/invent-masculine-fashion/|title=The invention of masculine fashion|last=Kirby|first=Carolyn|date=3 December 2025|website=Historia: Magazine of the Historical Writers' Association|access-date=25 August 2026}}</ref></blockquote> === Bertie === Albert Edward, Prince of Wales was very concerned with fashion and authoritative about it, with a very specific eye to small details. He was increasingly influential in men's fashion from the last third of the 19th and into the 20th century, and many noticed what he did and copied him.<blockquote>When that great lover of pleasure, Edward VII, visited Marienbad incognito as the Duke of Lancaster, he was followed by tailors from Paris, Budapest, Vienna, and Berlin who photographed him and took notes about his clothes. Edward VII introduced many [423–424] novelties into men’s fashion. ... He is also credited with making fashionable the creased trouser in 1909 (his groom dried them with a board weight after heavy rain, resulting in the line), turned-up cuff trouser (after hitching his trouser bottoms at a dirty racing track) and, as his girth grew, undoing the bottom button of his waistcoat."<ref name=":26" /> (424)</blockquote>Cowles<blockquote>The Prince was not just ‘a swell’. In the jargon of the day he was ‘a heavy swell’, and apparently there was a world of difference between the two terms. A swell was a rich young aristocrat who lived in extreme comfort; but a heavy swell added showmanship to the comfort and lived in a stylish luxury that even the French were obliged to envy. And of course the heavy swell was the acme of sartorial elegance. The Prince did not mind changing his dress half a dozen times a day. He loved clothes, and since whatever he chose to wear became the prevailing fashion overnight, he soon was regarded as an expert on the subject. His tailor-in-chief made a fortune. For many years he patronised a Mr. Poole. He discovered this gentleman by accident. He went to the theatre one night to see a well-known actor by the name of Fecher playing ‘Robert Macaire’. As an impecunious adventurer [129–130] Fechter was obliged to wear a coat that was torn and dirty, but Bertie’s expert eye noticed the elegant cut. At the end of the performance he asked Fechter for the name of his tailor, and Mr. Poole’s future was assured. The Prince had so many clothes he could never travel with less than two valets; and two more valets were left at home cleaning, brushing and pressing his vast wardrobe. There were suits and coats for every variation of every climate the world over. There were over a hundred pieces of headgear; and since Bertie was an honorary admiral and an honorary general of most of the countries of Europe, there was an entire room devoted to uniforms, sashes, epaulettes, belts, buckles, swords, feathers and other regalia. ... Men’s clothes became of such importance that new [130–131] shops sprang up like mushrooms in Savile Row, Clifford Street and Bond Street. Most of the Prince’s innovations were inspired by comfort and convenience. He altered the cut of the evening dress waistcoat, he shortened the tails on the tail coat, he left his frock coat open (due to an increasing girth), he introduced the black homburg, and he attended race meetings, not in the frock coat hitherto ''de regueur'' but in tweeds. He tried having his trousers creased down the sides rather than the front and back, in order to hide his bandy legs, but this idea did not catch on, and he soon discarded it himself. But the prince was not the only arbiter of men’s fashions. The band of  "heavy swells" who followed his lead gave him plenty of competition. Lord Raglan and Lord Petersham invented coats which are still named after them. Lord Dupplin the dinner jacket and Lord Cardigan the button-up sweater. But Lord Hardwicke made the most spectacular contribution. Men’s silk hats were made of beaver which was left in its original rough, shaggy state. Lord Hardwicke polished his hat until he could see his face in it, and consequently was known as "Glossy Top". He is responsible for the top hat as we know it today.<ref name=":28">{{Cite book|title=Gay monarch, the life and pleasures of Edward VII|last=Cowles|first=Virginia|publisher=Harper|year=1956|location=New York, New York|archive-url=https://archive.org/details/gaymonarchlifepl0000cowl/}}</ref> (129–131)</blockquote> === Men’s Clothing 1830–1900 (Intro to the Decades) === “Tailored wool garments , originally inspired by the clothing of English country gentry, formed the backbone of men’s wardrobes in the early nineteenth century.”<ref name=":25" /> (458) Men’s clothing began to change from styles that were colorful and flamboyant in the eighteenth century to styles that emphasized cut over color. By the end of the century men’s clothing had settled into a kind of uniform with coats and trousers usually made of the same fabric, often with a vest or waistcoat of the same fabric. The uniform included a shirt with a stiff collar, a necktie and very little jewelry. It took the entire nineteenth century to change to a rather static style that is still worn today. (this is middle-class men for day wear?) The silhouette for men sometimes followed the same line as women’s clothing on the top half of their bodies. For example, as women’s sleeves grew into the huge leg-of-mutton fullness, the shoulders of men’s coats also had added fabric to make a pouf at the shoulder, thus emphasizing a broad shouldered look across the front. Men’s silhouettes changed subtly without the exaggerated fullness of women’s skirts or the raising and lowering of the neckline. Once men began to wear trousers, they did not go back to formal knee breeches (except in European courts or for court wear for Victoria). The line of men’s garments changed in smaller increments than women’s. Coats and trousers might fit tighter in some decades and looser in others. They were slim, then boxy, flared, then straight and evolved into the contemporary line we see on men today. Men's fashions in the 19th century have been less researched than women's fashions, in part because of fewer artifacts of what men wore were saved in museums for study. Photography, the first century that we have actual images (rather than artists' interpretations) of what people wore. ==== Court and Formal Dress ==== Livery, working class Formal dress was separate attire, used for specified occasions, varies by decade ==== Shirts ==== Shirts and collars separated: "by 1827 detachable collars became available."<ref name=":25" /> (477) Shirts were considered more like underwear early in the century but by the end of the 1800s, they were becoming the outside garments popular in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Neck treatments (and shirt cuffs) Shirts were treated as underwear early in the century but by the end of the 1800s, they were becoming the outside garments popular in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. ==== Coats and Jackets ==== The 1901 ''Clothes Dictionary'' says coats were "The principal garment of men's attire."<ref name=":30" /> (10) Several styles of coats were available to fashion-conscious aristocratic and upper-middle-class men. Men’s suits in this period were tailor made, fitted to one specific man. The factories, however, knew that the vast majority of men were working class and began to manufacture and sell ready-made shirts, coats and trousers. More clothes were available for working men and they cost less. The cheaper work clothes enabled upper-working-class men to own more than one set of clothes and to have more formal clothes for church or other events. Ready-made shirts were also available in generic sizes, small, medium and large. Generic sizing speeded up the mass production process and, since little of the shirts could be seen, they did not need custom fitting. Almost all of the coats Victorian men wore could be single or double breasted, with a couple of exceptions like morning coats and Norfolk jackets. On more formal occasions upper-class men wore a cutaway morning coat with light trousers during the daytime, and a dark tail coat and trousers in the evening. ==== Frock Coats ==== [[File:Frock coat MET CI38.23.39 F.jpeg|alt=Old-fashioned coat hanging on a mannequin|thumb|Frock coat, 1840, American]] Frock coats were introduced in the 1820s and worn throughout the nineteenth century with only minor changes to the line or fit. Sleeves were full at the top and waists were tight, creating an hourglass form. Initially frock coats were tightly fitted and closed with buttons. The more tailored frock coats had a waist seam and a flared skirt almost to the knees. The rate of fashion change notable in women's fashion was true for men's clothing as well. The frock coat persisted for a century, but it was in a state of constant (but subtle) evolution, with collars and lapels, coat length, the waist seam, the fullness of the coat itself as well as the sleeve, color, patterns like stripes or plaids. A Prince Albert is a double-breasted, very well-tailored, form-fitting frock coat.<ref name=":30">[Baker, William Henry.] ''Clothes Dictionary''. Chicago, Ill.: Cahn, Wampold, 1901. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Clothes_dictionary;_(IA_clothesdictionar00bake).pdf.</ref> (33) Gentlemen, clergy, military Men around the world and especially in the British Empire wore frock coats: images and descriptions exist of men wearing frock coats in India<ref>Woodyatt, Nigel Gresley. ''Under Ten Viceroys; The Reminiscences of a Gurkha''. London: H. Jenkins Limited, 1922. Pp. 31, 107, 1774.</ref>, Iran (Persia at that time)<ref>Sparroy, Wilfrid. ''Persian children of the royal family; the narrative of an English tutor at the court of H. I. H. Zillus-Sultán, G.C.S.I''. London and New York, J. Lane, 1902. Pp. 11, 29, 30.[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Persian_children_of_the_royal_family%3B_the_narrative_of_an_English_tutor_at_the_court_of_H._I._H._Zillus-Sult%C3%A1n%2C_G._C._S._I_%28IA_persianchildreno00sparrich%29.pdf?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&utm_campaign=index&utm_content=original https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Persian_children_of_the_royal_family%3B_the_narrative_of_an_English_tutor_at_the_court_of_H._I._H._Zillus-Sult%C3%A1n%2C_G._C._S._I_%28IA_persianchildreno00sparrich%29.pdf].</ref>, Japan<ref>Watson, W. Petrie. ''Japan, Aspects and Destinies''. New York, Dutton: 1904. P. 7, 19, 31.</ref>, Egypt and Turkey<ref>Butler, Alfred Joshua. ''Court Life in Egypt''. London: Chapman and Hall, 1887. P. 7.</ref>, .... ==== Trousers ==== Breeches: Men’s bifurcated garment that ended just below the knee Trousers: men’s bifurcated garment that went down to the ankles or foot The most sweeping change in men’s fashion before 1820 was in the length of their pants. Trousers that went from waist to foot were so much more comfortable and popular than knee breeches that they replaced what had dominated men’s wear since the sixteenth century. And trousers have been worn for over two centuries now. They were originally tailored but began to be mass produced. Although the aristocracy were required to wear knee breeches at court, they wore trousers more than they wore breeches, and they could afford to have their suits and shirts hand sewn and individually. Working class men had to contend with small, medium, and large from mass production. This bifurcated garment was modified in specific places, like the length, the fullness over the hips or the width of the leg. In summer trousers were lighter in color — "grayish blue, aqua and pearl gray." (Payne 2, 505) In winter trousers mixed darker colors like "steel gray and brown, black and brown, and black and green." (Payne 505) More on summer colors, winter colors? [Find quote about QV's men's court dress and the men being so cold] ==== Waistcoats ==== Victorian men put their creativity, color and specialty fabrics into their waistcoats. At the beginning of the century men's waistcoats were made from specialty fabrics, like velvet or brocade or a patterned silk, sometimes two at the same time: "During the 1820s and 1830s, men sometimes wore two waistcoats, in combinations like white velvet over rose-and-gold brocade."<ref name=":25" /> (474) Long after coats and trousers were made from the same dark wool, waistcoats continued to be colorful, making them the focus of the ensemble. By the end of the 19th century waistcoats made from the same fabric as the trousers and coat dominated men’s fashion. 1880s: "The term vest now applied to all but low-necked formal styles, which were still called waistcoats." (Payne 2 528) [[File:Homosexualitywilde.jpg|thumb|Oscar Wilde and Bosie Douglas, straw boater and derby, 1894]] ==== Overcoats ==== Overcoats became a significant fashion element and many styles were seen throughout the century. <ref name=":24" />Kay, Fiona and Neil R. Storey, ''Victorian Fashions for Women'', Pen & Sword History, Yorkshire - Philadelphia, 2022 Surtout: "An overcoat cut in the style of a frock coat."<ref name=":30" /> (39) ==== Hats ==== The upper-class continued to wear top hats, and [[bowler hats]] were worn by the working class. 1830s Men wore [[top hats]], with wide brims in sunny weather. 1830s - 1900 Top hats briefly became the very tall "stovepipe" shape, but a variety of other hat shapes were popular. ==== Shoes ==== [[File:Men's fashion silhouette of 1837.jpg|thumb|Men's coats, 1837]] [[File:Lev Wittgenstein by F. Kruger.JPG|thumb|Lev Wittgenstein by F. Kruger, 1836]] === 1830s and 1840s === [[File:Man's Frock Coat LACMA M.2007.211.61 (1 of 4).jpg|alt=Male mannequin wearing a light-colored thigh-length coat similar to a suit jacket and a top hat|thumb|Men's frock coat, c. 1845]] [[File:Stockholms mode-journal- Tidskrift för den eleganta werlden 1847, illustration nr 2.jpg|thumb|Stockholm's fashion magazine, 1847]]Some men wore corsets, so the waist was nipped in and the skirt of the frock coat flared out. The sleeves were slightly puffed at the shoulders. The trouser legs were straight with a strap under the instep. The figure on the left in the fashion plate from ''Modes de Paris Journal des Tailleurs'' (right) illustrates this silhouette very clearly. ==== Coats and Jackets ==== Frock coats became fashionable for day wear in the 1820s<ref name=":25" /> (474) and were worn throughout the century. Initially frock coats were tightly fitted and closed with buttons. The more tailored frock coats had a waist seam and a flared skirt almost to the knees. The main changes in frock coats in these two decades were in the colors and the neck treatment (collar and lapels). Initially frock coats were brightly colored, like "plum, mulberry, brown, bright blue, and bottle green,"<ref name=":25" /> (474) although the truly bright, saturated colors made possible by synthetic dyes were a couple of decades away still. Middle- and upper-class men limited their use of tailcoats to evening wear and more formal occasions. On more formal occasions, a cutaway morning coat was worn with light trousers during the daytime, and a dark tail coat and trousers was worn in the evening. ==== Shirts ==== Shirts were made of linen or cotton with low collars, occasionally turned down, and were worn with wide [[cravats]] or neck ties. Before shirts were mass produced, they were tailored for upper and wealthy middle-class men. ==== Trousers ==== Trousers or long pants had been introduced and were eagerly accepted by men because they were more comfortable and looser than the tight-fitting knee breeches and coats from earlier in the century. They were originally tailored but began to be mass produced. Although the aristocracy were required to wear knee breeches at court, they wore trousers more than they wore breeches. Aristocrats and upper middle class could afford the well-tailored cut and fit of individually hand sewn trousers and coats. "Trousers of the 1830s fit quite snugly ..., but in the 1840s they became looser."<ref name=":25" /> (477) Knee breeches still existed, but only for court wear, riding and country wear (in the form of knickerbockers). ==== Waistcoats ==== waistcoat; vest “Waistcoats [or vests] remained colorful, decorative items in men’s wardrobes after the rest of their costumes had become plain.” (Payne 2 460-462) They could be single- or double-breasted, with shawl or notched collars, and might be finished in double points at the lowered waist. Collars gradually lowered over the course of the two decades. Often the colorful vests were decorated with fur or velvet collars. ==== Overcoats ==== Men wore a variety of topcoats or overcoats The redingote was most popular in the 1830s and 1840s. Redingotes had a rolled collar, sleeves with fullness at the shoulders and upper arm and narrow at the elbows to the wrist. It was fitted at the waist and reached mid-calf. ==== Original Text ==== During the [[1840s in fashion|1840s]], men wore tight-fitting, calf length [[frock coat]]s and a [[waistcoat]] or vest. Sleeves were full at the top and waists were tight, creating an hourglass form. For more formal occasions, a cutaway morning coat was worn with light trousers during the daytime, and a dark tail coat and trousers was worn in the evening. Shirts were made of linen or cotton with low collars, occasionally turned down, and were worn with wide [[Cravat (early)|cravat]]s or neck ties. Men wore [[top hat]]s, with wide brims in sunny weather. === 1850s === The 1850s revealed several industrial inventions that significantly impacted clothing. First, the Industrial Revolution began (and still does today) with machines to weave fabric and machines to sew fabrics. Manufacturers quickly learned that the majority of the population was working class. Theirs were the simplest, least trimmed garments made in the nineteenth century. Second, mass production of shirts, trousers and coats changed how most people shopped for clothes. The aristocracy and upper middle class folks could still have their clothes made to specifically fit their bodies. Manufacturers knew that they could not mass produce clothing for each individual’s body. They invented generic sizing in small, medium, and large. They could, therefore, produce many more items of clothing with generic sizing. Third, Isaac Singer patented and began to manufacture home or domestic sewing machines (treadle machines) enabling more form-fitted '''dresses''' to be constructed for an individual’s specific shape and size. The fourth item to impact fashion and clothing was the invention of the paper pattern. These were introduced in fashion magazines targeting women. Almost all women were taught to sew by hand, whether they were aristocrats or working class. Sewing machines enormously speeded up the '''process of constructing from hours to minutes'''. Finally, aniline dyes made colors brighter and longer lasting. Prints and stripes, checks and plaids, fabrics had much more vibrant color with aniline dyes. The Industrial Revolution impacted the working class and changed their lives the most. children's clothes? Women made men's clothing too According to Judith Flanders, working-class men's clothes could be colorful. For example drivers of hansom cabs () dressed more up-scale, and drivers of hackneys () did not.<blockquote>While hackney drivers were also considered to be stereotypically shabby, hansom-cab drivers were generally represented as smartly dressed. A print in 1850 showed a driver in a snappy brown coat instead of the coachman’s heavy multiple-caped outfit, pale green striped trousers, short boots and top hat, the [167–168] reins held daintily in his gloved hands. Both cab and coach drivers wore top hats, but cabbies of a sporting bent later switched to bowlers, and in summer donned bright checked outfits.<ref name=":23">{{Cite book|title=The Victorian City: Everyday Life in Dickens' London|last=Flanders|first=Judith|publisher=Thomas Dunne Books|year=2012|location=New York, New York}}</ref> (167–168 [of 972])</blockquote> A variety of silhouettes was seen in the 1850s. Trousers were long and slim with a strap under the instep of the shoe. ==== Coats and Jackets ==== "Although the frock coat was worn throughout the century, it lost its dominant position in the 1850s, when the morning coat began to replace it."<ref name=":29" /> A jacket shorter than the frock coat or morning coat that had visible pockets began to be worn in about 1850. Cutaway tail coats were still reserved for formal occasions. All of these coats could be single or double breasted. They were called “ditto suits” by those who wore them because the coat, trousers, and waistcoat were all made from the same fabric. There were morning coats and cutaway morning coats; there were Norfolk jackets and ditto suits. The most formal were the cutaway tail coats for evening wear and balls; and the least formal were the boxy shaped sack coats. By the 1860s, it had become the most popular casual coat. ==== Shirts ==== During the [[1850s in fashion|1850s]], men started wearing shirts with high upstanding or turnover [[collar (clothing)|collars]] and [[necktie#Four-in-hand|four-in-hand necktie]]s tied in a bow, or tied in a knot with the pointed ends sticking out like "wings." ==== Trousers ==== Trousers had fly fronts and breeches were used for formal functions and knickers (short pants fuller cut than breeches) for horseback riding. Men's choice to wear trousers is an instance of the importance of comfort and convenience outweighing style and presentation, a value that increased in importance through the 20th century. ==== Waistcoats ==== Waistcoats remained the one garment that could be brightly colored and copiously trimmed on exotic fabrics. Waistcoats show that men were concerned with decorative elements in their ensemble. ==== Notes & Quotes ==== * transition from frock coats to ditto suits, 1850s (Payne, 463) ==== Hats ==== The upper-class continued to wear top hats, and [[bowler hat]]s were worn by the working class. Caps ==== Overcoats ==== Overcoats were cut fuller with wider sleeves and no extra fullness at the shoulder. Unlike the redingote, the overcoats had straight seams to the knee length. Many had wide lapels that reached below the waist. Working class men and their families benefitted more from the industrial revolution in regards to clothing.  Manufacturers marketed to them because because they were the largest class. [[File:Gazette of Fashion, February 1865, RP-P-2009-2675.jpg|thumb|1865, Frock coats, etc. (Paris)]] [[File:Gazette of Fashion, October 1864, RP-P-2009-2673.jpg|thumb|1864, Frock coats, etc., Paris]] [[File:Broadway fashions, New York LCCN2003677917.jpg|thumb|Butterick, Spring-Summer 1866, Broadway Fashions]] [[File:Four young men wearing frock coats - DPLA - 4706a21c9267c45034d51c8fc5309251 (page 1).jpg|thumb|1860s, working class?, ill fitting, frock coats, trousers, shirts, vest, derby hats]] === 1860s === [[File:Corporal frock coat 1862 med.jpg|thumb|Corporal frock coat 1862, 9-botton military]]The 1860s saw fewer inventions that influenced or changed the way people were acquiring clothes. But the changes begun by mass production continued with the working class. Little changed for the higher classes, except maybe paper patterns and sewing machines. The different shape and size in clothing continued to provide slightly different silhouettes for men in the upper and middle classes. As women's clothes grew more complex in cut and style, men's clothes became simpler in cut and style. ==== Coats and Jackets ==== Individualized fittings continued for upper class and wealthy middle class clients. (Working class as well as middle and upper class.) Working class was well over 60% of the population. For the largest class, ready-made garments were ideal for men and women who were working class. For the two upper classes morning coats still led the way but frock coats were still in demand and worn in business and more casual situations. Leisure wear like knickers and ditto suits became more popular in the 1860s. Haute couture wanted every occasion or event to have special clothing. In some ways men dressed more alike (coat, trousers, waistcoat) and in some ways there was more variety in the cut of their coats and in the manufactured clothing they could buy. Many upper class men still had their shirts custom made. Frock coats were shortened to knee-length and were worn for business, while the mid-thigh length [[sack coat]] slowly displaced the frock coat for less-formal occasions, with the overall effect of a looser silhouette. The Prince of Wales: "For the countryside such as at Sandringham, he permitted an informal dress code. The Henry Poole ledger marked as 'HRH 1865' is for an evening coat without tails, the first 'dinner jacket.'"<ref name=":26" /> (424) ==== Shirts ==== Ready-made shirts rarely were seen since shirts were more underwear than outerwear. Factories began to make and sell detachable collars and cuffs. It was more convenient to replace collars and cuffs each day than the time it took a servant (working class) to wash and starch enough to look like the celluloid many of those collars were made of. ==== Trousers ==== Trousers were cut full and boxy during most of the 1850s and 1860s. The strap under the shoe disappeared and trouser legs reached the back of the heel in length. Knickers were still worn for hunting or riding and breeches were still ''de rigueur'' at court. ==== Waistcoats ==== Waistcoats remained decorative and worn with most of the coats that were popular. The young “dandies” wore the most colorful and decorated waistcoats. These “dandies” gave their highest priority to their appearance. They were the avant garde of haute couture for men. ==== Necks ==== In the [[1860s in fashion|1860s]], men started wearing wider neckties that were tied in a bow or looped into a loose knot and fastened with a stickpin. ==== Hats ==== Top hats briefly became the very tall "stovepipe" shape, but a variety of other hat shapes were popular. ==== Overcoats ==== The single-breasted redingote continued in popularity among the aristocracy and upper middle-class.  These coats were often “in colors such as plum, mulberry, brown, bright blue, and bottle green . . . [with] contrasting velvet collars.” Payne2 p. 474 [[File:Mens Coats 1872 Fashion Plate.jpg|thumb|upright|Drawing of Victorian men 1870s]] [[File:Ashurst frock coat.jpg|thumb|Ashurst Frock coat]] [[File:Grand Duke Alexis Alexandrovich of Russia Wearing a Frock Coat; Standing (fbc266c2feca43f6ad5b44e031635a8d).tif|alt=Old photograph of a man wearing a dark thigh-length coat similar to a suit coat with light-colored trousers|thumb|Grand Duke Alexis Alexandrovich of Russia Wearing a Frock Coat, c. 1872]] [[File:Caillebotte Hugot.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Paul Hugot, 1878]] [[File:Oscar Wilde (1854-1900), by Hills & Saunders, Rugby & Oxford 3 april 1876.jpg|thumb|Oscar Wilde, 1876, ditto suit]] [[File:FrockCoat.jpg|thumb|English frock coat, 1870s]] === 1870s === To correct and prevent errors being made in court dress, in 1875 the Lord Chamberlain published ''Dress Worn by Gentleman at Her Majesty's Court'', "a summary of regulations for court uniform and dress."<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Dress_worn_by_Gentlemen_at_Her_Majesty_s/pvrbQCXq0MEC?hl=en|title=Dress worn by Gentlemen at Her Majesty's Court|last=Britain)|first=Victoria (Queen of Great|date=1875|language=en}}</ref> This is the kind of thing Bertie really cared about. Define court dress. A portly, boxy silhouette was sought for most of the 1870s. Older men whose stomachs had spread outward and thus looked prosperous to the Victorians were the ideal for men’s high fashion. Sack coats and trousers were cut a little wider in the legs. Corduroy for trousers and muslin for shirts was often used in working class clothing. ==== Coats and Jackets ==== There were minor changes to some of the coats Victorian men wore. Frock coats were shortened to the knee. Sack coats (or ditto coats — the forerunner of the suits worn by men in the western cultures of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries) were found to be so comfortable that most men of the upper and middle classes had a ditto suit. Men still wore morning coats and the aristocracy still wore cutaway coats with trousers to parties and balls but cutaway coats with knee breeches at court. ==== Shirts ==== Although ready-made shirts were available, the upper and middle classes still wore bespoke clothing hand-made, with better fabric and an excellent fit but stitched on machines. The suits and shirts made for the working class were of cheaper fabrics. ==== Trousers ==== Most men were wearing trousers  all of the time (except at court) and have worn them ever since. Trousers had button flies by the 1870s which most men found to be much more convenient than laces. Trousers did not “ride up” the leg in the way that knee breeches did when dancing or sitting. If a man did not have fashionable legs, they could be obscured behind trousers. ==== Waistcoats ==== White waistcoats began to be worn by men. Black were also worn when mourning. Changes in the waistcoat could be seen but were very subtle. For example, collars were lowered as the neckline grew deeper and deeper in front, revealing more of the fancy vest. ==== Overcoats ==== A longer version of the standard overcoat, “sometimes with fur collar, cuffs, and lining” was often worn for warmth. Payne2 p. 519 Added to overcoats, “Chesterfield coats were single-breasted, with fly fronts and velvet collars.”  Payne2 p. 519 ==== Original Text ==== During the [[1870s in fashion|1870s]], three-piece suits grew in popularity along with patterned fabrics for shirts. Neckties were the four-in-hand and, later, the [[Ascot tie]]s. A narrow ribbon tie was an alternative for tropical climates, especially in the Americas. Both frock coats and sack coats became shorter and more form fitting. Flat straw boaters were worn when boating. [[File:Elliott & Fry10a.jpg|thumb|William Gladstone, 1887, morning coat]] [[File:British politicians gambling at Ascot Wellcome V0050378.jpg|thumb|British Politicians Gambling at Ascot, 1884]] [[File:Scribner's magazine (1887) (14595087238).jpg|thumb|1887, types of American servants]] === 1880s === The silhouette narrowed and straightened. That is, the line went straight down without the flare of skirts on the coats. This smooth line had few decorations. Men wore hardly any jewelry. They might have a boutonniere or a ring.  Suits were not  decorated. All coats were straighter and shorter. Depending on the time of day, the Prince of Wales might change his clothes (thus, his silhouette) up to six times per day,<ref name=":28" /> (129) and some aristocrats and upper-class men would follow his lead. ==== Coats and Jackets ==== Although the frock coat was worn throughout the nineteenth century, the single fabric sack suit was worn for casual wear and was beginning to be seen as a businessman’s suit.  Morning coats were still in use for some events as well as casual occasions. The modern tuxedo or Cowes jacket appeared and was worn for formal occasions. The tuxedo is still worn as formal dress today. ==== Shirts ==== Shirts were still custom made for the rich and the working class bought ready-made shirts. The shirt remained basically the same but it could handle the different neck treatments.  Even mass produced shirts could have buttons or button holes for detachable collars and cuffs. ==== Trousers ==== Trouser legs began to decrease in width as the coat became narrower and emphasized strong vertical lines. ==== Waistcoats ==== During the 1880s waistcoats were called vests [is it regional?] and much of their bold trim and colorful fabric disappeared and vests were constructed from the same fabric as the coat and trousers. The business suit for men developed in the 1880s and was firmly established in the 1890s. ==== Overcoats ==== Versions of topcoats increased, adding an ulster overcoat for travel and an Inverness coat with up to five cape collars and a high curved collar. Double breasted topcoats were popular and some were knee-length and some calf-length. ==== Original Text ==== During the [[1880s in fashion|1880s]], formal evening dress remained a dark tail coat and trousers with a dark waistcoat, a white bow tie, and a shirt with a winged collar. In mid-decade, the dinner jacket or [[tuxedo]], was used in more relaxed formal occasions. The [[Norfolk jacket]] and tweed or woolen breeches were used for rugged outdoor pursuits such as shooting. Knee-length topcoats, often with contrasting velvet or fur collars, and calf-length overcoats were worn in winter. Men's shoes had higher heels and a narrow toe. [[File:American fashions - The Jno. J. Mitchell Co. Litho., New York. LCCN2006676665.jpg|thumb|Fashion plate from the Jno. J. Mitchell Co., New York, 1899]] [[File:Alfred Milner Vanity Fair 1897-04-15.jpg|thumb|Alfred Milner, 1897, Leslie Ward ("Spy"), for Vanity Fair]] [[File:Nobl-08.jpg|thumb|Sherlock Holmes, 1892, Sidney Paget]] [[File:PUK1894page380rector poor.jpg|thumb|Rector and Drinker, 1894]] === 1890s === The dominant silhouette for men became the sack suit in the 1890s and while changes in the sack have been subtle, it remains the dominant silhouette today. ==== Coats and Shirts ==== “Sacks became ''the'' favored style of suit coat,”(Payne2, p. 532) especially among the younger men. Frock coats were associated with older men along with the cutaway coat. There were many more choices for sports wear and leisure wear than ever before. Norfolk jackets were often worn while hunting. Most informal styles could be purchased ready made. The rich still had their clothing custom made by tailors but even working class men could purchase most ready-made versions of the coats, trousers, and vests. Shirts could be made of patterned fabric as well as solid colors and white.  Shirts were beginning to be acceptable as outer wear especially when worn as sporting clothing. ==== Trousers ==== Early in the 1890s, “slim, straight trousers were news.” (Payne 2, p. 532) Trousers could be plaid or checked as well as the same fabric as the coat and vest. ==== Waistcoats ==== Fancy fabrics and bold trim were not seen much as the more subdued vest dominated the fashion scene. ==== Overcoats ==== “Topcoats included fingertip-length styles made of twill covert cloth. Single-breasted, fly-front overcoats were fashionable too. Roomy overcoats with fur linings and collars warmed the wealthy. Inverness overcoats remained in vogue.” Payne2, p.532 ==== Original Text ==== Starting from the [[1890s in fashion|1890s]], the [[blazer]] was introduced, and was worn for sports, sailing, and other casual activities.<ref>{{cite web|last=Landow|first=George|url=http://www.victorianweb.org/art/costume/90s/2.html|title=Men's informal sporting dress, late 1880s and '90s}}</ref> Throughout much of the Victorian era most men wore fairly short hair. This was often accompanied by various forms of facial hair including moustaches, side-burns, and full beards. A clean-shaven face did not come back into fashion until the end of the 1880s and early 1890s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.victorianweb.org/art/costume/nunn21.html|title=Victorian Men's Fashions, 1850–1900: Hair}}</ref> Distinguishing what men really wore from what was marketed to them in periodicals and advertisements is difficult, as reliable records do not exist.<ref name="shannon597">{{cite journal|last=Shannon|first=Brent|title=Refashioning Men: Fashion, Masculinity, and the Cultivation of the Male Consumer in Britain, 1860–1914|journal=Victorian Studies|year=2004|volume=46|issue=4|pages=597–630|doi=10.1353/vic.2005.0022}}</ref> === Notes === *Men's suits buttoned higher up than today (Payne, 467) * Norfolk jackets and sack suits (Payne, 471) * formal attire, tuxedos with tails, cutaways (Payne, 469) * Keith Middlemas (https://archive.org/details/storyoffiesta00huxf/page/200/mode/2up?q=fashion) *Brent Shannon. "Refashioning Men: Fashion, Masculinity, and the Cultivation of the Male Consumer in Britain, 1860–1914." Victorian Studies 46, no. 4 (Summer 2004): 597–630. == Hats and headwear == [[File:Ford.madox.brown.last.emma.study.jpg|thumb|''Emma Hill'' by [[Ford Madox Brown]] (1853), a woman wearing a later version of the [[poke bonnet]]]] [[File:Hoed,_objectnr_KA_1237.tif|left|thumb|Perched bonnet style of the early 1870s.]] Hats were crucial to a respectable appearance for both men and women. === Men's Hats === The top hat, for example, was standard formal wear for upper- and middle-class men.[Payne] According to Blanche Payne, "The high top hat, usually black or dark gray, had reached its characteristic shape by 1798 and dominated the entire nineteenth century." (457–58) Although top hats were the dominant hat in the 19th century, other hats became popular for working classes and lower income middle class. “The style of an individual’s hat varied, depending on fashion and their social position, as well as their profession or chosen activity..” ''Goodman 53 of 460'' Other hats that became necessary and popular include the Derby, the straw Boater, and a flat cap with a short brim. In many cases the class, work activity and income could be determined by what kind of hat was on the head of the wearer. For some men, a hat supporting a particular sport or team was important. The Derby or Bowler hat was designed by William and Thomas Bowler, brother shopkeepers in 1849. ''(Goodman 55 of 460)'' It cost less than a top hat but  lasted longer and was soon worn by middle class bankers and clerks. Straw boaters were worn by the aristocracy for casual events and working class factory workers and agricultural laborers. By 1901 working class men had changed their preference to the flat caps which became the most popular hat for the workers. Headdress for men was an essential part of dress for the entire period of the Victorian age, from the 1830s through the end of the century. Judith Flanders describes the hats worn by men in London, <blockquote>It is difficult to bear in mind the importance of hats as not only markers of class and income, but also as indicators of respectability. [509–519] [George Augustus] Sala commented that "every" man throughout the history of the world "must, necessarily and habitually, wear some kind of covering to his head". Postmen wore hats, small children wore hats, field labourers and market gardeners wore hats, cricketers, skaters — all sportsmen — wore hats. It was, self-evidently, impossible to go outdoors without one. ... Those in professional occupations wore pot hats, as did clerks and all those with pretensions to middle-class status. Even doctors' delivery boys wore battered hand-me-down pot hats: "the nap rusty, the band a mournful strip of tarnished lace; but still a Hat", which "stamps him as being associated, in however slender a manner, with a learned profession". Cloth caps were for labourers, for costers and for boys. ... Artisans wore caps made out of paper, which they folded [510–511] themselves and so could easily replace as they became dirty.<ref name=":23" /> (509–511 [of 972]) </blockquote>A pot-hat is a kind of derby or bowler in men's hats. (Lewandowski, 237) ==== Original Text ==== Hats were crucial to a respectable appearance for both men and women. The top hat, for example, was standard formal wear for upper- and middle-class men.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Steele |first=Valerie |url=https://archive.org/details/fashioneroticism0000stee |title=Victorian Fashion. Fashion and Eroticism: Ideals of Feminine Beauty from the Victorian Era to the Jazz Age |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-19-503530-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/fashioneroticism0000stee/page/51 51]–84 |url-access=registration}}</ref> For women, the styles of hats changed over time and were designed to match their outfits. === Women's Hats === For a discussion of the history of plumes and feathers, see [[Social Victorians/Victorian Things#Ostrich Plumes and Prince of Wales's Feathers|Ostrich Plumes and Prince of Wales's Feathers in ''Victorian Things'']]. ==== Original Wikipedia Text ==== During the early Victorian decades, hats were modest in size and design, straw and fabric bonnets being the popular choice. [[Poke bonnet]]s, which had been worn during the late [[Regency period]], had high, small crowns and brims that grew larger until the 1830s, when the face of a woman wearing a poke bonnet could only be seen directly from the front. They had rounded brims, echoing the rounded form of the bell-shaped hoop skirts. Bonnets shrunk at the end of the 1860s and moved to a perched position in the early 1870s as hairstyles grew in scale and intricacy. This led to the popularization of hats, which became the headwear of choice for the remainder of the Victorian era.<ref name="g4223">{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=Cecil Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century |date=1990-05-01 |publisher=Courier Corporation |isbn=0-486-26323-1 |publication-place=New York |page=}}</ref> [[File:The_London_and_Paris_ladies'_magazine_(Apr_1885)_03.png|thumb|Flower pot style hat of 1885.]] The 1880s saw a hat inspired by the top hat for women known as the flowerpot hat, and the 1890s saw the popularity of the boater. The hats of the late Victorian era were covered with elaborate creations of silk flowers, ribbons, and above all, exotic plumes; hats sometimes included entire exotic birds that had been stuffed. Many of these plumes came from birds in the Florida everglades, which were nearly made entirely extinct by overhunting. By 1899, early environmentalists like [[Adeline Knapp]] were engaged in efforts to curtail the hunting for plumes. By 1900, more than five million birds a year were being slaughtered, and nearly 95 per cent of Florida's shore birds had been killed by [[Plume hunting|plume hunter]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Everglades National Park|url=https://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/parks/everglades/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090927085907/http://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/parks/everglades/|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 September 2009|publisher=PBS|access-date=7 November 2011}}</ref> == Shoes == The women's shoes of the early Victorian period were narrow and heelless, in black or white satin. By 1850s and 1860s, they were slightly broader with a low heel and made of leather or cloth. Ankle-length laced or buttoned boots were also popular. From the 1870s to the twentieth century, heels grew higher and toes more pointed. Low-cut pumps were worn for the evening.<ref name=":4" /> == Cosmetics == [[Victorian-era cosmetics]] were typically less obvious than ours. However, small amounts of pale face powder or powdered blush were widely used.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=Ruth |title=How to be a Victorian |date=2014 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-670-92136-2 |location=London}}</ref> Tints were sometimes added to face creams. Some cosmetics contained toxic or caustic ingredients like lead, mercury, ammonia, and arsenic {{Citation needed|date=October 2025}}. Hair color ==Mourning black== {{See also |Mourning stationery}} [[File:The royal children in mourning Mar 1862.jpg|thumb|Victoria's five daughters (Alice, Helena, Beatrice, Victoria and Louise), photographed wearing mourning black beneath a bust of their late father, Prince Albert (1862)]] [[File:Mourning dress MET 50.40.3a-b front CP4.jpg|alt=Black Victorian mourning dress|thumb|Mourning Dress, 1894–95]] In Britain, black is the colour traditionally associated with mourning for the dead. The customs and etiquette expected of men, and especially women, were rigid but evolving during much of the Victorian era. The expectations depended on a complex hierarchy of close or distant relationship with the deceased. (Davidoff) The closer the relationship, the longer the mourning period and the wearing of black. The wearing of full black was known as First Mourning, which had its own expected attire, including fabrics, and an expected duration of 4 to 18 months. Following the initial period of First Mourning, the mourner would progress to Second Mourning, a transition period of wearing less black, which was followed by Ordinary Mourning, and then Half-mourning. Some of these stages of mourning were shortened or skipped completely if the mourner's relationship to the deceased was more distant. Half-mourning was a transition period when black was replaced by acceptable colours such as lavender and mauve, possibly considered acceptable transition colours because of the tradition of [[Church of England]] (and [[Catholic Church|Catholic]]) clergy wearing lavender or mauve [[Stole (vestment)|stoles]] for funeral services, to represent the [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion of Christ]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Colors of the Church Year|url=http://fullhomelydivinity.org/articles/colors.htm|publisher=Consortium of Country Churches|access-date=6 November 2011|archive-date=13 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113075214/http://fullhomelydivinity.org/articles/colors.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> The mourning dress worn by Queen Victoria (below, right) "shows the traditional touches of mourning attire, which she wore from the death of her husband, Prince Albert (1819–1861), until her own death."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/155839?&searchField=All&sortBy=Relevance&deptids=8&ft=queen+victoria&offset=0&rpp=20&amp;pos=2|title=Mourning Dress, 1894–95|last=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|date=7 September 2019|website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|access-date=7 September 2019}}</ref> Dating from 1894–95, Queen Victoria wore this dress as a result of the death of the eldest son of the Prince and Princess of Wales, Eddy, in line to the throne. === Norms for mourning=== ''Manners and Rules of Good Society, or, Solecisms to be Avoided'' (London, Frederick Warne & Co., 1887) gives clear instructions, such as the following:<ref>{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|pages=378–83}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Relationship to deceased !! First mourning !! Second mourning !! Ordinary mourning !! Half-mourning |- | Wife for husband || 1-year, 1-month; [[bombazine]] fabric covered with [[Crape|crepe]]; [[widow's cap]], [[lawn cuff]]s, collars || 6 months: less crepe || 6 months: no crepe, silk or wool replaces bombazine; in last 3 months jet jewellery and ribbons can be added || 6 months: colours permitted are grey, lavender, mauve, and black-and-grey |- | Daughter for parent || 6 months: black with black or white crepe (for young girls); no linen cuffs and collars; no jewellery for first 2 months || 4 months: less crepe || – || 2 months as above |- | Wife for husband's parents || 18 months in black bombazine with crepe || – || 3 months in black || 3 months as above |- | Parent for son- or daughter-in-law's parent || – Black armband in representation of someone lost || – || 1-month black || – |- | Second wife for parent of a first wife || – || – || 3 months black || – |} The complexity of these etiquette rules extends to specific mourning periods and attire for siblings, step-parents, aunts and uncles distinguished by blood and by marriage, nieces, nephews, first and second cousins, children, infants, and "connections" (who were entitled to ordinary mourning for a period of "1–3 weeks, depending on level of intimacy"). Men were expected to wear mourning black to a lesser extent than women, and for a shorter mourning period. After the mid-19th century, men would wear a black hatband and black suit, but for only half the prescribed period of mourning expected of women. Widowers were expected to mourn for a mere three months, whereas the proper mourning period expected for widows was up to four years.<ref>{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|pages=378–9}}</ref> Women who mourned in black for longer periods were accorded great respect in public for their devotion to the departed, the most prominent example being Queen Victoria herself. It was not uncommon for a widow who did not remarry to wear half-mourning for the rest of her life, except when another death necessitated full mourning. For example, Alexandra, Princess of Wales wore half-mourning for the rest of her life after her eldest son Eddy died in 1894. Empress Elisabeth of Austria did the same, as did Empress Eugénie of France. They reverted to full mourning when appropriate, but they never wore less than half-mourning after their sons' deaths. Women with lesser financial means tried to keep up with the example being set by the middle and upper classes by dyeing their daily dress. Dyers made most of their income during the Victorian period by dyeing clothes black for mourning.<ref>{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|page=341}}</ref> == Technological advancement == The technological changes that affected the manufacture and consumption of clothing in the Victorian age included the following: * the mass production of fabrics — for example, "by the early 1850s there were thousands of steam-powered looms churning out millions of miles of fabric every year"  [62] * the invention of aniline dyes, which were much more vibrantly colored and resistant to fading than the natural dyes that had been used. — . Invented by chemist [[William Henry Perkin]] in 1856, the first aniline dye mauveine (or mauve) "wash[ed] the fashionable landscape in a haze of purple."<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|title=The Dress Diary: Secrets from a Victorian Woman's Wardrobe|last=Strasdin|first=Kate|publisher=Pegasus Books|year=2023|location=New York, New York}}</ref> (247) Other intense and, to the Victorians, intensely exciting colors followed, but the new synthetic additions to fabric sometimes included chemicals harmful to their wearers. For example, a "bright-magenta hue was achieved by adding arsenical-based chemicals to existing aniline dyes, brightening the already luminous shades – but these left residues themselves, along with a toxic labour trail in their wake."<ref name=":22" /> (255) Perhaps the most famous of these is arsenic green, used on fabrics, wallpapers, and trim: "The craze for artificial foliage to adorn the heads and dresses of women of fashion in the mid-nineteenth century had seen the proliferation of flower workshops, where young women in their hundreds laboured to produce the lifelike green leaves and blooms that would make a fetching headdress or would trail becomingly across the bodice of a gown. The lushness of the green was achieved by the application of a powder, a pigment that was created by mixing copper and the highly toxic chemical, arsenic trioxide. The physical effects of working with this poisonous compound were horrific. Contemporary medical drawings depict the green hue of the skin and dreadful open lesions on the hands of the maker, whilst the daily gradual ingestion of the powder by the flower girls was eventually fatal."<ref name=":22" /> (255) * the invention of a sewing machine that could be used in the home. Although sewing machines were already in use in the clothing industry, in 1858 Isaac Merritt Singer began to sell "lightweight domestic machines" for home sewing, radically increasing women's control over their own dress.<ref name=":24">{{Cite book|title=Victorian Fashions for Women|last=Kay|first=Fiona|last2=Storey|first2=Neil R.|publisher=Pen & Sword History|year=2022|isbn=978 1 39900 416 9|location=Yorkshire and Philadelphia|pages=}}</ref> (91 [of 298]) * the spread of journalism for women and fashion journalism * the Jacquard loom: "French inventor Joseph-Marie Jacquard’s loom attachment mechanized the weaving of figured fabrics by 1804."<ref name=":25" /> (454) Perhaps not at the same scale as these but as important in 1850s designs was a technology that turned iron into steel, which could then be drawn into fine wires.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=The Culture of Fashion|last=Breward|first=Christopher|publisher=Manchester University Press|year=1995|pages=145–180}}</ref> Steel was refined to a malleable state so that thin blades could be curved into concentric circles (called hoops) and connected with wires to form the cage. Technological advancements not only influenced the economy but brought a major change in the fashion styles worn by men and women. As the Victorian era was based on the principles of gender, race and class.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Graham|first1=P|title=The Victorian Era|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.261548|journal=Digital Library of India}}</ref> Much advancement was in favor of the upper class as they were the ones who could afford the latest technology and change their fashion styles accordingly. In 1830s there was introduction of horse hair crinoline that became a symbol of status and wealth as only the upper-class women could wear it. In 1850s there were more fashion technological advancements hence 1850s could rightly be called a revolution in the Victorian fashion industry such as the innovation of artificial cage crinoline that gave women an artificial hourglass silhouette without layers of petticoats, which was lighter and more hygienic.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shrimpton|first1=J|title=Victorian Fashion|publisher=Bloomsbury Shire Publications}}</ref> Synthetic dyes, such as [[mauveine]] (aniline purple), were introduced in 1856, adding bright colours to garments. In 1855's ''[[Haute couture]]'' was introduced as tailoring became more mainstream in years to follow.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aspelund|first1=Karl|title=Fashioning Society|publisher=Fairchild Books}}</ref> Charles Frederick Worth, a prominent English designer, became popular amongst the upper class though its city of destiny always is Paris. Haute couture became popular at the same time that sewing machines were invented.<ref name="Haute Couture">{{cite book|last1=Martin|first1=Richard|last2=Koda|first2=Harold|title=Haute Couture|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art}}</ref> Princess [[Eugénie de Montijo|Eugenie]] of France wore the Englishman dressmaker, Charles Frederick Worth's couture and he instantly became famous in France though he had just arrived in Paris a few years ago. In 1855, Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Britain welcomed [[Napoleon III]] and Eugenie of France to a full state visit to England. Eugenie was considered a fashion icon in France. Queen Victoria, who had been the fashion icon for European high fashion, was inspired by Eugenie's style and the fashions she wore.{{Citation needed|date=October 2025}} Later, Queen Victoria also appointed Charles Frederick Worth as her dress maker and he became a prominent designer amongst the European upper class. Charles Frederick Worth is known as the father of the haute couture as later the concept of labels were also invented in the late 19th century as custom, made to fit tailoring became mainstream.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Saillard|first1=Olivier|last2=Zazzo|first2=Anne|title=Paris Haute Couture|publisher=Skira Flammarion}}</ref> By the 1860s, when made-to-fit tailoring was popular in Europe, crinolines were considered impractical. In the 1870s, women preferred more slimmer silhouettes, hence bodices grew longer and the polonaise, a skirt and bodice made together, was introduced. In 1870s the Cuirass Bodice, a piece of armour that covers the torso and functions like a corset, was invented. Towards the end of Victoria's reign, dresses were flared naturally as crinolines were rejected by middle-class women. Designers such as Charles Frederick Worth were also against them. All these inventions and changes in fashion led to women's liberation as tailored looks improved posture and were more practical.<ref name="Haute Couture"/> dressmakers, couturiers, modistes == Home decor == {{main|Victorian decorative arts}} Home decor started spare, veered into the elaborately draped and decorated style we today regard as Victorian, then embraced the retro-chic of [[William Morris]] as well as pseudo-[[Japonaiserie]]. == Myths and Oversimplifications == === Modesty === {{main|Victorian morality}} {{Original research|section|date=May 2008}} [[File:1868-skirt-lengths-girl-ages-Harpers-Bazar.gif|thumb|upright|"The proper length for little girls' skirts at various ages", from ''[[Harper's Bazaar]]'', showing a 1900 idea of how the hemline should descend towards the ankle as a girl got older]]Many myths and exaggerations about the period persist to the modern day. Examples include the idea of men's clothing is seen as formal and stiff, women's as elaborate and over-done; clothing covered the entire body, and even the glimpse of an ankle was scandalous. Critics contend that [[corset]]s constricted women's bodies and lives. Homes are described as gloomy, dark, cluttered with massive and over-ornate furniture and proliferating [[bric-a-brac]]. Myth has it that even piano legs were scandalous, and covered with tiny [[pantalette]]s. === Tight Lacing === Tight-lacing, which was not possible until the development of the grommet in 1828, was famously controversial in the Victorian age, generating many column inches of profitable newspaper copy, in part because it was (and still is) fetishistic and subversive in that adolescent girls used it as a means of rebellion and upper-working- or lower-middle-class shop girls saw it as a means of upward mobility.<ref name=":21">{{Cite book|title=Fashion and Fetishism: Corsets, Tight-Lacing and Other Forms of Body-sculpture|last=Kunzle|first=David|publisher=History Press|year=2013|isbn=978 0 7524 9545 3|location=Stroud, Gloucestershire|pages=}}</ref> (71 [of 1182]) No evidence exists that tight lacing was widespread or particularly dangerous.<ref name=":21" /> () In truth, men's formal clothing may have been less colourful than it was in the previous century, but brilliant [[waistcoat]]s and [[cummerbund]]s provided a touch of colour, and [[smoking jacket]]s and [[robe|dressing gown]]s were often of rich Oriental [[brocade]]s. This phenomenon was the result of the growing textile manufacturing sector, developing mass production processes, and increasing attempts to market fashion to men.<ref name="shannon597"/> Corsets stressed a woman's sexuality, exaggerating hips and bust by contrast with a tiny waist. Women's [[evening gown]]s bared the shoulders and the tops of the breasts. The [[jersey dress]]es of the 1880s may have covered the body, but the stretchy novel fabric fit the body like a glove.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gernsheim |first=Alison |title=Victorian & Edwardian Fashion: A Photographic Survey |year=1981 |publisher=Dover Publications |location=New York |page=65|edition=New |isbn=0-486-24205-6}}</ref> Home furnishing was not necessarily ornate or overstuffed. However, those who could afford lavish draperies and expensive ornaments, and wanted to display their wealth, would often do so. Since the Victorian era was one of increased social mobility, there were ever more ''[[nouveaux riches]]'' making a rich show. The items used in decoration may also have been darker and heavier than those used today, simply as a matter of practicality. London was noisy and its air was full of [[soot]] from countless coal fires. Hence those who could afford it draped their windows in heavy, sound-muffling curtains, and chose colours that didn't show soot quickly. When all washing was done by hand, curtains were not washed as frequently as they might be today. There is no actual evidence that piano legs were considered scandalous. Pianos and tables were often draped with [[shawl]]s or cloths—but if the shawls hid anything, it was the cheapness of the furniture. There are references to lower-middle-class families covering up their [[pine]] tables rather than show that they couldn't afford [[mahogany]]. The piano leg story seems to have originated in the 1839 book, ''A Diary in America'' written by Captain [[Frederick Marryat]], as a satirical comment on American prissiness.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Marryat |first1=C.B. |title=A Diary in America: With Remarks on Its Institutions |date=1839 |publisher=Longman, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longmans |location=London, England |volume=2 |pages=246–247 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2-VEAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA246}} From pp. 246-247: "I was requested by a lady to escort her to a seminary for young ladies, and on being ushered into the reception-room, conceive my astonishment at beholding a square piano-forte with four ''limbs''. However, that the ladies who visited their daughters, might feel in its full force the extreme delicacy of the mistress of the establishment, and her care to preserve in their utmost purity the ideas of the young ladies under her charge, she had dressed all these four limbs in modest little trousers, with frills at the bottom of them!"</ref> Victorian manners may have been as strict as imagined—on the surface. One simply did not speak publicly about sex, childbirth, and such matters, at least in the respectable middle and upper classes. However, as is well known, discretion covered a multitude of sins. Prostitution flourished. Upper-class men and women indulged in [[adultery|adulterous]] liaisons. == Gallery == {{gallery |2=A mid-Victorian interior: ''Hide and Seek'' by [[James Tissot]], c. 1877 Image:Winterhalter Elisabeth.jpg|3=Dress designed by [[Charles Frederick Worth]] for [[Elisabeth of Bavaria|Elisabeth of Austria]] painted by [[Franz Xaver Winterhalter]].|4=File:Frith A Private View detail.jpg|5=[[William Powell Frith]]'s painting of 1883 contrasts women's [[Aesthetic dress]] (left and right) with fashionable attire (center).|6=File:Tissot lilacs 1875.jpg|7=Day dress, c. 1875 [[James Tissot]] painting.|8=File:James Abbot McNeill Whistler 011.jpg|9=[[James McNeill Whistler|Whistler]]'s [[Portrait of Lady Meux]], 1882 Image:Jeanna_Samary-Renoir.png|10=[[Pierre-Auguste Renoir|Renoir]]'s portrait of [[Jeanne Samary]] in an [[evening gown]], 1878|11=File:Melville_-_Queen_Victoria.jpg|12=Portrait by [[Alexander Melville (artist)|Alexander Melville]] of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], 1845|13=File:Henry Treffry Dunn Rossetti and Dunton at 16 Cheyne Walk.jpg|14=An artistic interior: [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] reading to [[Theodore Watts-Dunton]] in the drawing room at No. 16 [[Cheyne Walk]], 1882|15=File:Punch - Masculine beauty retouched1.png|16=Men's swimwear: Cartoon from ''[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]'' by [[George du Maurier]]}} == See also == * [[Emily Clapham]] * [[Victorian decorative arts]] * [[Victorian dress reform]] * [[Victorian morality]] * [[Victoriana]] * [[Women in the Victorian Era]] * [[Charles Frederick Worth]] === Time periods === * [[1830s in fashion]] * [[1840s in fashion]] * [[1850s in fashion]] * [[1860s in fashion]] * [[1870s in fashion]] * [[1880s in fashion]] * [[1890s in fashion]] === Women's clothing === * [[Corset]] * [[Corset controversy]] * [[Tightlacing]] * [[Bloomers (clothing)|Bloomers]] * [[Bodice]] === Contemporary interpretations === * [[Steampunk]] * [[Neo-Victorian]] * [[Lolita Fashion|Lolita]] == References == {{Reflist}} == Further reading == *{{cite book |author=Phipps, Elena| title= ''From Queen to Empress: Victorian dress 1837-1877'' | location=New York | publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art | year=1988 | isbn=0870995340| url= http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/69547/rec/235 | display-authors=etal}} * Sweet, Matthew – ''Inventing the Victorians'', St. Martin's Press, 2001 {{ISBN|0-312-28326-1}} == External links == * [http://www.victorians.co.uk/victorian-fashion Victorian Fashion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180407223711/http://www.victorians.co.uk/victorian-fashion |date=7 April 2018 }} * [https://www.victorianvoices.net/topics/fashion/index.shtml VictorianVoices.net] – Fashion articles and illustrations from Victorian periodicals; extensive fashion image gallery * [http://www.cracked.com/article_19575_5-ridiculous-sex-myths-from-history-you-probably-believe.html Victorian myths] * [http://www.victorianstation.com/lifestylemenu.htm Victorian fashion, etiquette, and sports] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103162620/http://www.victorianstation.com/lifestylemenu.htm |date=3 January 2018 }} * [http://www.thesmartset.com/article/article12180701.aspx Background on "A Diary in America"] * [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/webtours/VQ_P2_17_EN.html Form and Fashion] — the evolution of women's dress during the 19th century (many photographs) * [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/games/jeu2/ Educational Game: Mix and Match] — build a 19th-century dress using a virtual mannequin * {{cite web |publisher= [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] |url= http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/v/victorian-dress-at-v-and-a/ |title= Victorian Dress |work= Fashion, Jewellery & Accessories |date= 14 January 2011 |access-date= 2011-04-03}} *[http://cv.vic.gov.au/stories/creative-life/fashion-detective-fashion-fiction-and-forensics/ Fashion detective: Fashion, Fiction and Forensics in nineteenth century Australian fashion] on Culture Victoria {{Timeline of clothing and fashion|state=collapsed}}{{Victorian era|state=collapsed}} [[Category:Victorian fashion| ]] [[Category:19th-century fashion|*]] [[Category:1900s fashion]] [[Category:History of Western fashion]] [[Category:19th century in the arts]] =From ''Women in the Victorian era''= ===Victorian women's fashion=== {{Multiple issues|{{tone|date=March 2023}} {{more footnotes needed|date=March 2023}}|section=y}}{{Further|Victorian fashion}} The ideal Victorian woman was pure, chaste, refined, and modest. This ideal was supported by etiquette and manners. The etiquette extended to the pretension of never acknowledging the use of undergarments (sometimes generically referred to as "unmentionables"). The discussion of such a topic, it was feared, would gravitate towards unhealthy attention on anatomical details. As one Victorian lady expressed it: "[those] are not things, my dear, that we speak of; indeed, we try not even to think of them", in contrast to current norms.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=C. Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-486-26323-6 |pages=20}}</ref> The pretence of avoiding acknowledgement of anatomical realities met with embarrassing failure on occasion. In 1859, the Hon. Eleanor Stanley wrote about an incident where the [[Louisa Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire|Duchess of Manchester]] moved too quickly while manoeuvring over a [[stile]], tripping over her large [[hoop skirt]]: {{blockquote|[the Duchess] caught a hoop of her cage in it and went regularly head over heels lighting on her feet with her cage and whole petticoats above, above her head. They say there was never such a thing seen – and the other ladies hardly knew whether to be thankful or not that a part of her undergarments consisted in a pair of scarlet tartan [[knickerbockers (clothing)|knickerbockers]] (the things Charlie shoots in) which were revealed to the view of all the world in general and the [[Aimable Pélissier|Duc de Malakoff]] in particular".<ref>{{cite book|last=Cunnington|first=C. Willett|title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations|year=1990|publisher=Dover Publications|isbn=978-0-486-26323-6|pages=20–1}}</ref>}} However, despite the fact that Victorians considered the mention of women's undergarments in mixed company unacceptable, men's entertainment made great comedic material out of the topic of ladies' [[bloomers (clothing)|bloomers]], including men's magazines and music hall skits.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=C. Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-486-26323-6 |pages=22}}</ref> Victorian women's clothing followed trends that emphasised elaborate dresses, skirts with wide volume created by the use of layered material such as [[crinoline]]s, hoop skirt frames, and heavy fabrics. Because of the impracticality and health impact of the era's fashions, a [[Victorian dress reform|dress reform movement]] began among women. The ideal silhouette of the time demanded a narrow waist, which was accomplished by constricting the abdomen with a laced [[corset]]. While the silhouette was striking, and the dresses themselves were often exquisitely detailed creations, the fashions were cumbersome. At best, they restricted women's movements and at worst, they had a harmful effect on women's health. Physicians turned their attention to the use of corsets and determined that they caused several medical problems: compression of the thorax, restricted breathing, organ displacement, poor circulation, and prolapsed uterus.<ref name="O'Connor"/> Articles advocating the reform of women's clothing by the British National Health Society, the Ladies' Dress Association, and the [[Rational Dress Society]] were reprinted in ''The Canada Lancet'', Canada's medical journal. In 1884, Dr J. Algernon Temple of Toronto even voiced concern that the fashions were having a negative impact on the health of young women from the working classes. He pointed out that a young working-class woman was likely to spend a large part of her earnings on fine hats and shawls, while "her feet are improperly protected, and she wears no flannel petticoat or woollen stockings".<ref name="O'Connor"/> [[File:Bloomers.jpg|thumb|1850s illustration of a woman wearing [[bloomers]]]] [[Florence Pomeroy]], Lady Haberton, was president of the Rational Dress movement in Britain. At a National Health Society exhibition held in 1882, Viscountess Haliburton presented her invention of a "[[divided skirt]]", which was a long skirt that cleared the ground, with separate halves at the bottom made with material attached to the bottom of the skirt. She hoped that her invention would become popular by supporting women's freedom of physical movement, but the British public was not impressed by the invention, perhaps because of the negative "unwomanly" association of the style with the American [[Bloomers]] movement.<ref>{{cite book|last=Murray|first=Janet Horowitz|title=Strong-Minded Women and Other Lost Voices from 19th Century England|year=1982|publisher=Pantheon Books|location=New York|isbn=0-394-71044-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/strongmindedwome00jane/page/68 68–70]|url=https://archive.org/details/strongmindedwome00jane/page/68}}</ref> [[Amelia Jenks Bloomer]] had encouraged the wearing of visible bloomers by feminists to assert their right to wear comfortable and practical clothing, but it was no more than a passing fashion itself among radical feminists. The movement to reform women's dress would persist and have long-term success, however; by the 1920s, [[Coco Chanel]] was successful at selling a progressive, far less restrictive silhouette that abandoned the corset and raised hemlines. The new silhouette symbolised modernism for trendy young women and became the 20th century standard. Other Paris designers continued reintroducing pants for women and the trend was gradually adopted over the next century. Fashion trends, in one sense, travelled "full circle" over the course of the Victorian era. The popular women's styles during the [[Georgian era]], and at the very beginning of Victoria's reign, emphasized a simple style influenced by flowing gowns worn by women in [[Ancient Greek clothing|Ancient Greece]] and [[Clothing in ancient Rome|Rome]]. The [[Empire waist]] silhouette was replaced by a trend towards ornate styles and an artificial silhouette, with the restrictiveness of women's clothing reaching its low point during the mid-century passion for narrow corseted waists and hoop skirts. The iconic wide-brimmed women's hats of the later Victorian era also followed the trend towards ostentatious display. Hats began the Victorian era as simple [[Bonnet (headgear)|bonnets]]. By the 1880s, milliners were tested by the competition among women to top their outfits with the most creative (and extravagant) hats, designed with expensive materials such as silk flowers and exotic plumes such as ostrich and peacock. As the Victorian era drew to a close, however, fashions were showing indications of a popular backlash against excessive styles. Model, actress and socialite [[Lillie Langtry]] took London by storm in the 1870s, attracting notice for wearing simple black dresses to social events. Combined with her natural beauty, the style appeared dramatic. Fashions followed her example (as well as Queen Victoria's wearing of mourning black later in her reign). According to [[Harold Koda]], the former Curator-in-chief of the [[Costume Institute at The Met|Metropolitan Museum of Art's Costume Institute]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/about-the-museum/press-room/exhibitions/2014/death-becomes-her|title=Death Becomes Her: A Century of Mourning Attire : October 21, 2014-February 1, 2015|website=Metmuseuim.org|access-date=7 November 2021}}</ref> "The predominantly black palette of [[mourning]] dramatizes the evolution of period silhouettes and the increasing absorption of fashion ideals into this most codified of etiquettes," said Koda, "The veiled widow could elicit sympathy as well as predatory male advances. As a woman of sexual experience without marital constraints, she was often imagined as a potential threat to the social order." ====Evolution of Victorian women's fashion==== <gallery> File:Fashion plate December 1844.jpg|Ladies' December Fashions (1844). Hand-coloured steel engraving from a women's magazine. File:Thegalleryofhmscalcutta james tissot 1876.jpg|''[[The Gallery of HMS Calcutta]]'' by [[James Tissot]] (1876). [[Bustle]]s were fashionable in the 1870s and 1880s. File:Mrs lillie langtry george frederic watts 1880.jpg|''Mrs. Lillie Langtry'' by [[George Frederic Watts]] (1880). File:Five-women-on-queenslander-steps-r.jpg|Fashionable women in [[Queensland]], Australia around 1900. </gallery> {{Short description|Irish writer (born 1963)}} {{Use Irish English|date=August 2025}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}} {{Infobox writer | name = Darach Ó Scolaí | image = Darach Ó Scolaí.JPG | alt = Man holding prize-winning book | caption = Ó Scolaí in 2019 | birth_name = Darach Ó Scolaí | birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1963|df=y}} | birth_place = [[County Galway]], The Republic of Ireland | death_date = | death_place = | occupation = Writer, artist, publisher | alma_mater = [[University of Galway]] | years_active = 1998–present | genre = Novel, retelling, translation, play, screenplay, illustrated book for children and adults | other_names = | spouse = | children = 3 | awards = [[Awards and Honors received by Darach Ó Scolaí|Awards and Honors]] | signature = | website = }}[[File:Darach Ó Scolaí.JPG|thumb|Darach Ó Scolaí, holding ''Oileán an Órchiste'' (his translation of Robert Louis Stevenson's ''Treasure Island'')]] == Darach Ó Scolaí == Darach Ó Scolaí (<small>Irish:</small> [/ˈda.rax/ /oː/ /sˠkˠoː/l̪ˠəi/]; born 1963<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://portraidi.ie/en/darach-o-scolai/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=20 October 2017|website=Portráidí (Portraits of Irish-Language Writers)|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref>) is an Irish author who works in a number of genres, from novels, plays and screenplays to illustrated books for children and adults. He began his literary career in 1998 writing screenplays, stage plays, retellings and translations; he began to publish novels in 2008. Ó Scolaí is widely recognized as a leading figure in contemporary Irish literature, known as “one of the most important Irish language writers of his generation”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poirtéir|first=Cathal|date=2022|title=? Suil an Daill: Constant Tensions and Shifting Allegiances|url=https://booksirelandmagazine.com/suil-an-daill-constant-tensions-and-shifting-allegiances/|journal=Books Ireland}}</ref> and "one of the great Irish language novelists [duine d’úrscéalaithe móra na Gaeilge]."<ref name=":17" /> His writing has been called “the high literature of the Irish language.”<ref>Ó Coimín, Maitiú. ''Nós'' 2 February 2018). Qtd. in "Táin Bó Cuailnge." ''Leabhar Breac''. Retrieved 25 August 2025.</ref> Much of his fiction is based on a knowledge of traditional Irish tales and narrative practices as well as Irish history. He specializes in literary and [[wikipedia:Historical_fiction|historical fiction]], or as novelist Alan Titley says, Ó Scolaí’s “peak (for now), or at least his greatest imaginative interest, is the historical novel [tá an chuma air gurb é a bhuaic (go fóill), nó ar a laghad, a mhórspéis samhlaíochta, an t-úrscéal staire].”<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Titley|first=Alan|date=Fall 2020|title=An Stíl Go Deo!: Soather Dharach Uí Scolaí (The style would be forever!: Worker Darach Ó Scolaí)|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27046090|journal=Comhar|volume=80, No. 10|pages=27|via=JSTOR}}</ref> His retellings of old stories and tales from their original Middle and Early-Modern Irish into Modern Irish ([[wikipedia:Irish_language|Gaeilge]]) are respected for their accessibility to students and language learners as well as for their artistry. Ó Scolaí also regularly reviews books and lectures and writes on literature and culture. Beyond his writing, Ó Scolaí is a publisher and has co-produced a number of film, television shows and stage plays. == Life == Ó Scolaí was born in Dublin and raised in the Galway [[wikipedia:Gaeltacht#Galway Gaeltacht|Gaeltacht]] (Irish-speaking) regions of Cois Fharraige on the north shore of Galway Bay, in the Republic of Ireland, where he lives now with his wife and children in Lochán Beag (Indreabhán).<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|date=30 October 2024|title=Duais don úrscéal liteartha is fearr buaite ag Darach Ó Scolaí ag Oireachtas na Samhna|url=https://tuairisc.ie/duais-don-ursceal-liteartha-is-fearr-buaite-ag-darach-o-scolai-ag-oireachtas-na-samhna/|journal=Tuairisc}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ní Scolaí|first=Aifric|date=2024|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|url=https://www.taiscecf.ie/ealaiontoiri?category=Scr%C3%ADbhneoir|journal=Taisce Chois Fharraige}}</ref> He graduated the [[wikipedia:University_of_Galway|University of Galway]] (then University College Galway) with a B.A. in 1983.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.linkedin.com/in/darach-ó-scolaí-20026920/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|last=Ó Scolaí|first=Darach|date=August 2025|website=LinkedIn}}</ref> === Writing and Publishing === Ó Scolaí writes in Irish ([[wikipedia:Irish_language|Gaeilge]]), his native language, and lives in an area defined for the predominant presence of Irish as the vernacular language, the language spoken at home. Irish was the language of his parents' home and is the language of children as well. He is fluent in Irish and English and conversant in French. None of his works has been translated into English. ==== Leabhar Breac ==== In 1995 Darach Ó Scolaí and his brother Caomhán Ó Scolaí — a [[wikipedia:Typography|typographer]] and designer — founded the publishing house Leabhar Breac at Indreabhán (Inverin), County Galway. Their father “Séamas Ó Scolaí was an editor at An Gúm and worked on the Irish-English dictionary team [bhí a n-athair Séamas Ó Scolaí ina eagarthóir sa Ghúm agus d’oibrigh sé ar fhoireann an fhoclóra Gaeilge-Béarla].”<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/about-us/|title=About Us|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 July 2025}}</ref> Darach Ó Scolaí has been publisher and literary editor at Leabhar Breac since its founding. Named for [[wikipedia:An_Leabhar_Breac|An Leabhar Breac (The Speckled Book)]], Leabhar Breac publishing house has more than 140 books in print.<ref name=":0" /> Leabhar Breac aims to publish Irish-language books that meet “a high literary and artistic standard.”<ref name=":0" /> Besides the content, Leabhar Breac is known for the typically "superb [thar cionn]" quality of the design and production of the "physical book [leabhar fisiciúil]."<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Ní Mhuilneoir|first=Gráinne|date=30 July 2024|title=‘Bláthnaid’ – leabhar álainn i sraithín álainn faoi mhná|url=https://tuairisc.ie/blathnaid-leabhar-alainn-i-sraithin-alainn-faoi-mhna/|journal=Tuairisc}}</ref> Its books regularly win awards for literary and artistic quality. Leabhar Breac also publishes translations for children and adults from various early versions of Irish as well as from French and English (and has published translations of books for young readers from Spanish, Catalan, and Italian as well). Leabhar Breac prints its books in Ireland. === Stage and Screen === ==== Rosg ==== In 1998 along with Ciarán Ó Cofaigh,<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.rosg.ie/en/about/History_6/|title=About Us: History|date=July 2025|website=Rosg|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Ó Scolaí co-founded the film and television production company [http://www.rosg.ie/en/ Rosg] and was co-director until 2006. Rosg produced Ó ScolaÍ’s films ''Cosa Nite'' (1999), ''An Leabhar'' (2001) and ''Na Cloigne'' (2010). He left Rosg in 2006 to devote his time to other artistic activities. ==== Ealaín ar Oileán ==== In 2004, along with Val Balance, Ó Scolaí co-founded the annual artists' symposium Ealaín ar Oileán (trans., Art on an Island). The Irish-language symposium was held annually in the Áras Éanna arts and cultural center on Inis Oírr ([[wikipedia:Inisheer|Inisheer]], the smallest of the [[wikipedia:Aran_Islands|Aran Islands]]) from 2004 to 2013. Ó Scolaí was its co-director from its founding<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darach_Ó_Scolaí.|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=3 February 2024|website=Vicipéid|access-date=1 July 2025}}</ref> until 2013. Besides being its co-director, Ó Scolaí has taken part in this conference as an artist<ref>{{Cite journal|date=16 January 2005|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050116163252/http://bliainiris.com/authors/darach_oscolai.html|journal=Bliainiris}}</ref> and writer<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://ealainaroilean.ie/ealainaroilean.html|title=The Conference|date=7 September 2013|website=Ealaín ar Oileán|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130907083744/http://ealainaroilean.ie/ealainaroilean.html|archive-date=7 September 2013|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref>. ==== Salamandar ==== In 2006 Ó Scolaí founded the stage production company Salamandar and directed his own play ''An Braon Aníos''. His plays ''An tSeanbhróg'' (2009) and ''Craos'' (2008) were also produced by Salamandar.<ref name=":19">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/darach-o-scolai/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 July 2025}}</ref> == Works == === Novels === * [[wikipedia:An_Cléireach|''An Cléireach'' (trans., ''The Clerk'')]], Leabhar Breac, 2007. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2007; The Ó Súilleabháin Award (Book of the Year) in 2008, and "named as ‘the best novel since the turn of the Century’ by Comhar."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/an-cleireach/|title=An Cléireach - Leabhar Breac - Irish language novel|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-10-24}}</ref> * ''Na Comharthaí'' (trans., ''The Signs''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * ''Súil an Daill'' (trans., ''The Eye of the Blind''), Leabhar Breac, 2021. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2019.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/suil-an-daill/|title=Súil an Daill|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Bódléar'', Leabhar Breac, 2024. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2024<ref name=":7" />; The Ó Súilleabháin Award (Book of the Year) in 2025; featured in the 2025 Listen-Up Irish Summer Challenge for students of the Irish language.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://connachttribune.ie/novel-approach-helps-people-learn-irish-in-a-creative-way/|title=Novel approach helps people learn Irish in a creative way|last=Murphy|first=Judy|date=3 October 2025|work=Connaught Tribune|access-date=24 October 2025}}</ref> === Retellings, Translations and Editions === The retellings and translations are into modern Irish. * ''Feis Tigh Chonáin'' (trans., ''The Feast of Conán's House''), Leabhar Breac, 2000; a retelling of a 15^th-century tale from the [[wikipedia:Fenian_Cycle|Fenian Cycle]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/feis-tigh-chonain/|title=Feis Tigh Chonáin|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''An Ceithearnach Caolriabhach'' (trans., ''The Narrow-Striped Kern''), Leabhar Breac, 2002; a retelling from c. 1500, also illustrated by Darach Ó ScolaÍ.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/an-ceithearnach-caolriabhach/|title=An Ceithearnach Caolriabhach|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' (trans., ''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''), Leabhar Breac, 2017, both a modern edition of an 11th-century epic and an annotated edition.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/tain-bo-cuailnge-2-2/|title=Táin Bó Cuailnge|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> "''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' won the Aodán Mac Poilín Memorial Prize 2017."<ref name=":19" /> * ''Deirdre'', Leabhar Breac, 2023, a “picture book for adults” with artist Anastasia Melnykova.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/deirdre/|title=Deirdre|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Part of the [[wikipedia:Ulster_Cycle|Ulster Cycle]], ''Deirdre'' is a retelling of the story of possibly the most widely known Irish figure from the early tales and sagas.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology|last=MacKillop|first=James|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=9780198609674|pages=181}}</ref> * ''Bláthnaid'', Leabhar Breac, 2024, a “picture book for adults” with artist Anastasia Melnykova; “one of the great stories of the [[wikipedia:Ulster_Cycle|Ulster Cycle]].”<ref name=":4" /> * ''Sadhbh,'' Leabhar Breac, 2025, a picture book for adult readers, illustrated by Alé Mercado; a retelling of the medieval tale ''Ceasacht Inghine Ghuile (''trans., ''The Complaint of Guile's Daughter'').<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/tales-of-wonder/|title=Tales of Wonder|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Eoghan Béal'', Leabhar Breac, 2025, a picture book for adult readers illustrated by Alé Mercado<ref name=":5" />; a retelling of the medieval tale ''[https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caithr%C3%A9im_Cellaig Cathréim Ceallaigh]'' from ''The Yellow Book of Leacan.''<ref name=":5" /> === For Young Readers === Ó Scolaí has written illustrated books for young readers (8–10 years old) in two series, the Fionn Series and the Scéalta Staire series, and translated a large number of classics and popular books for children of all ages. The number of these written and translated works suggests a commitment to children and their literacy in Irish. The Fionn Series “is a retelling ... of the great legends of the Fianna for the young Irish readers of today.”<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/8-9/doiteoir-na-samhna/|title=Dóiteoir na Samhna|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> [[wikipedia:The_Boyhood_Deeds_of_Fionn|Macgnímartha Finn (The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn)]] is a medieval story in the [[wikipedia:Fenian_Cycle|Fenian Cycle]]. * ''An Bradán Feasa'' (trans., ''The Salmon of Knowledge''), Leabhar Breac, 2010, “shortlisted for the Réics Carlo award 2010.”<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/8-9/an-bradan-feasa/|title=An Bradán Feasa|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Dóiteoir na Samhna'' (trans., ''The Halloween Burner''), 2010.<ref name=":6" /> * ''Bodach an Chóta Lachna'' (trans., ''The Churl in the Dun Coat''), 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/7-8/bodach-an-chota-lachna/|title=Bodach an Chóta Lachna|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> The Scéalta Staire (Historical Stories) series<ref name=":9" /> * ''Mánas Ó Dónaill'', 2000. * ''Seán Ó Néill'', Leabhar Breac, 2000. * ''Gráinne Mhaol Ní Mháille'', Leabhar Breac, 2003. * ''Tadhg Dall Ó hUiginn'', Leabhar Breac, 2003. ==== Translations ==== * Robert Louis Stevenson, ''Oileán an Órchiste'' (trans. of ''Treasure Island''), Leabhar Breac, 2014.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-06-19|title=Oireachtas na Gaeilge|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oireachtas_na_Gaeilge&oldid=1296394643|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> * Robert Louis Stevenson, ''An Fuadach'' (trans. of ''Kidnapped''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. * Clement Clarke Moore, ''Cuairt San Nioclás'' (trans. of ''A Visit from St. Nicholas'', or "'Twas the Night Before Christmas"), Leabhar Breac, 2022. '''''The Corto Maltese Graphic Novels''''' Written in Italian by Hugo Pratt and translated by Ó Scolaí, both adults and teenagers read this series of Italian adventure graphic novels.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-07-01|title=Corto Maltese|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Corto_Maltese&oldid=1298285365|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> Ó Scolaí's '''translation of ''Corto Maltese''''' was listed in 2017 among "The 30 Irish books that Irish people love."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ó Murchú|first=Eoin P.|date=09/06/2017|title=Na 30 leabhar Gaeilge is fearr leis na Gaeil [The 30 Irish books that Irish people love]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/an-30-leabhar-gaeilge-is-fearr-leis-na-gaeil/|journal=Nós}}</ref> * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Port na Farraige Goirt'', Leabhar Breac, 2013. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: The Golden House in Samarkand'', 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Na Liopard-Fhir ó Rufiji'' (trans. of ''Corto: The Leopard Men of Rufiji''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: In Ainm Dé Uilthrócairigh'' (trans. of ''Corto: In the Name of God All-Merciful''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Tóraíocht Eile'' (trans. of ''Corto: Another Quest''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Sa tSibéir'' (trans. of ''Corto: In Siberia''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. '''''Other Translations for Children''''' Ó Scolaí has translated into Irish six books from the ''Le Pavillon Noir'' (trans., ''Jolly Roger'') series by Alain Surget; four books from the ''Catalan First Steps'' series by Enric Lluch Girbés and the ''Caitlín & Cormac'' series by Joan Carles; three books from the ''Louisette le Taupe'' series by Bruno Heitz, and three books from the ''Loup'' series by Orianne Lallemand. === Plays and Screenplays === ==== Stage Plays ==== Ó Scolaí was writer and director of the original productions of two plays in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (trans., ''Three Drops'') trilogy; ''Coinneáil Orainn'' was directed by Darach Mac Con Iomaire and staged by An Taibhdhearc. All three plays have been published in book form by Leabhar Breac. * ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32553|title=Coinneáil Orainn|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904.|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> The first play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy. [[wikipedia:Taibhdhearc_na_Gaillimhe|An Taibhdhearc]], the national Irish-language theatre of Ireland, toured the country in 2005 with ''Coinneáil Orainn''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/coinneail-orainn/|title=Coinneáil Orainn|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Walter Macken Prize, 2005; BBC Stewart Parker Award, 2006.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/person/darach-scola|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904.|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Branwen'', 2006, by Darach Ó Scolaí and Ifor ap Glyn, in Irish, Welsh and English, co-produced by Project Arts Centre and Llwyfan Gogledd Cymru, toured the Republic of Ireland and Wales.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32418|title=Branwen|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''An Braon'' Aníos (trans., ''Rising Damp''), 2006, directed by Ó Scolaí.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32461|title=An Braon Aníos|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> The second play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy. “The Salamandar company toured the country in 2006-07 with this play, and Salamandar also produced a radio version of the play for RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta in 2009.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/an-braon-anios/|title=An Braon Aníos|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Craos'' (trans., ''Gluttony''), 2008, directed by Ó Scolaí.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32867|title=Craos|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> The third play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy, it toured to Cork and Belfast.<ref name=":13" /> A review of the 2008 Salamander performance in the ''Irish Times'' says, “a humorous play which offers plenty to think about, fine acting, and sparklingly witty dialogue.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/craos-2/|title=Craos|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''A+E'', 2008, by Ríonach Ní Néill and Darach Ó Scolaí, "dance and music drama," co-produced by Ciotóg and Salamandar.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32962|title=A+E|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''An tSeanbhróg'' (trans., ''The Old Shoe''), 2009, produced by Salamander<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=33042|title=An tSeanbhróg|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> and staged in the Axis Arts Centre, Dublin, and the Letterkenny Arts Centre. * '''In ''Mhuir Fhíondorcha/The Wine-Dark Sea: The Homer Project'', Ó Scolaí's translation of Homer's Cyclops story, performed at the 2019 IMRAM festival'''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/imram-a-festival-celebrating-the-irish-language-1.4047610|title=Imram: a festival celebrating the Irish language. Liam Carson reveals the myths and legends appearing in this year’s programme|last=Carson|first=Liam|date=11 October 2019|work=The Irish Times|access-date=15 October 2025}}</ref> ==== Screenplays ==== * ''Cosa Nite'' (trans., ''Washed Feet''), short film, 1998 (dir. Dearbhla Walsh, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg); "a prose version of ''Cosa Nite'' was published (Rosg 2000)."<ref name=":9" /> Nominated for an Irish Film and Television Award.<ref>{{Citation|title=Cosa Nite (Short 1998) - Awards - IMDb|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0191917/awards/|accessdate=2025-08-25|language=en-US}}</ref> * ''Na Glúnta'' (trans., ''The Generations''), 2001<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iftn.ie/production/production_companies/production_sub/feature/?act1=record&aid=70&rid=3917&tpl=filmography_dets&only=1&force=1|title=Na Glúnta {{!}} The Irish Film & Television Network|website=www.iftn.ie|access-date=2025-08-25}}</ref>, co-directors Ciarán Ó Cofaigh & Darach Ó Scolaí, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg. * ''An Leabhar'' (trans., ''The Book''), short film, 2000, (dir. Robert Quinn, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg) Rosg, 2000.<ref>{{Citation|title=An Leabhar|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0963767/|publisher=Bord Scannán na hÉireann / The Irish Film Board, ROSG|accessdate=2025-08-25|first=Robert|last=Quinn|others=Colm O&apos;Maonlai, Peadar O&apos;Treasaigh, Diarmuid Mac an Adhastair}}</ref> * ''Na Cloigne'' [trans., The Heads], 3-episide series, 2010 (dir. Robert Quinn, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg), TG4.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1607924/|title=Na cloigne|date=2010|website=IMDb|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> === Nonfiction === Ó Scolaí's essays and lectures are published and his interviews are broadcast regularly, making for a large body of nonfiction critical and analytical work. Here are a few, almost all published in [https://comhar.ie/iris/scribhneoiri/darach-o-scolai/ Comhar]: * “Ceol Ciúin na nÉagmaise” (trans., “The Silent Music of Absence ['''the Fall?''']”), an essay on the 2014 Nobel Prize winner for literature, [[wikipedia:Patrick_Modiano|Patrick Modiano]], ''Comhar'', December 2014. * The Ó Cadhain Lecture: [https://leachtaiuichadhain.clo.ie/leachtai/2014 “Cuimhne agus Díchuimhne (trans., “Memory & Forgetfulness"]), 2014. * “Rithim agus Réim” ("Rhythm and Register"), a public lecture in the University College Dublin lecture series “Ó Thrácht go Twitter” (trans., "From Talk to Twitter"), 2014. * Review of Pádraig Ó Cíobháin’s ''Dréachta Chrích Fodla'', '''Comhar?, ??'''. * “Na Geilt i mBun an Tí” (trans., "The Madmen in Charge"), a talk at the Merriman Winter School, Comhar April 2012.<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|url=http://darachoscolai.ie/beathaisneis.html|title=Darach Ó Scolaí: Beathaisnéis|website=darachoscolai.ie|access-date=2025-09-26}}</ref> * The EFACIS podcast: Síle Ní Choincheannain talks to Darach Ó Scolaí about the historical novel. == Critical Reception == Ó Scolaí’s style has been called “crisp and elegant, and rich in language while being highly readable,”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Heussaf|first=Anna|date=Summer 2025|title=Bláthnaid—A tale of love, violence and sorcery retold for readers today|url=https://booksirelandmagazine.com/blathnaid-a-tale-of-love-violence-and-sorcery/|journal=Books Ireland}}</ref> with “an unsurpassed richness and precision of language.”<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Ó Cróinín|first=Breandán|date=Summer 2025|title=unknown|journal=The Limerick Leader}}</ref> “Whimsical, hilarious, and subtly learned” is how Éilis Ní Dhuibhne described his writing.<ref name=":20" /> === Original Works === Ó Scolaí’s first novel, the 2007 ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'') won two prizes and was described as “one of the great historical novels in the Irish language and among the best books written in the language since the beginning of this century.”<ref name=":12" /> Novelist Alan Titley says, “In ''An Cléireach'' Ó Scolaí creates the Ireland of war in the 17th century more fully than any other Irish writer on the subject of war since ''L’Attaque'' Eoghain Ó Thuairisc around 1798 [In ''An Cléireach'' cruthaíonn Ó Scolaí Éire an chogaidh san 17ú haois níos iomláine ná mar a dhein aon scríbhneoir Gaeilge eile ar ábhar cogaidh ó ''L’Attaque'' Eoghain Uí Thuairisc timpeall ar 1798].”<ref name=":11" />{{rp|25, Col. 1a}} Not all the reviews of this first novel were so positive, however; Proinsias O' Drisceoil says for the Irish Times says,<blockquote>This then is a novel in search of a plot, a story that attempts to attain a significance that eludes it.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/a-disaffected-clerk-in-the-confederates-1.943070|title=A disaffected clerk in the confederates|last=O' Drisceoil|first=Proinsias|date=5 July 2008|work=The Irish Times|access-date=16 October 2025}}</ref></blockquote> In the ''Oxford Handbook of Modern Irish Fiction'' Pádraig Ó Siadhail analyzes rather than reviews ''An Cléireach'': <blockquote>In ''An Cléireach'', Ó Scolaí revisits the trauma of Cromwellian Ireland. The primary narrative device is once again the first-hand account, in this case by Tadhg Ó Dúbháin, a clerk and quartermaster in the Confederate Army in 1650. We sample the hardships, the friendships, the tensions, the rivalries, and the petty jealousies amongst comrades in arms, including remnants of the Gaelic literary class, as the Confederate soldiers, increasingly a rabble more than a cohesive unit, retreat in advance of Cromwell’s forces. ''An Cléireach'' concludes with the narrator and his family in exile in continental Europe. But along the retreat route, and central to the novel, members of the Confederate army camp, rest up, and tell versions of a story about the keeper of the treasured manuscript "Saltair an Easpaig" (The Bishop’s Psalter). Their versions raise issues about memory construction, the limitations of individual perspectives, personal agendas, and how minor changes in the telling of a story can alter our understanding of history, Thus, ''An Cléireach'' complements ''Fontenoy'' in moving beyond more realistic recreation of a historical event or period to interrogate the notion of history as construct.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Modern Irish Fiction|last=Ó Siadhail|first=Pádraig|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2020|isbn=9780198754893|editor-last=Harte|editor-first=Liam|pages=598–99|chapter=Contemporary Irish Fiction}}</ref> </blockquote> Of ''Súil an Daill,'' in ''Nós'', Cathal Seoighe says, "The book deserves a significant place among the collection of high-quality books published in recent years that would make you feel sorry for someone who does not speak Irish [Tá áit shuntasach ag dul don leabhar i measc an chnuasaigh leabhair ar ardchaighdeán a foilsíodh le roinnt blianta anuas a d’fhágfadh trua agat don té atá gan Ghaeilge]."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seoighe|first=Cathal|date=09/26/2022|title=‘Dar leathmhagairle an diabhail, is leabhar den scoth é seo!’ ['According to the devil’s half-wit, this is a great book!’]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/dar-leathmhagairle-an-diabhail-is-leabhar-den-scoth-e-seo/|journal=Nós}}</ref> ''Bódléar'', Ó Scolaí's most recent book, is a “beautiful novel. There is magic and craftsmanship in it. A small miracle of a book and it is highly recommended.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/bodlear-mioruilt-bheag-de-leabhar/|title=Bódléar: Míorúilt bheag de leabhar (Bódléar: A Small Miracle of a Book)|last=Ní Ghairbhí|first=Róisín|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Éilis Ní Dhuibhne in the ''Irish Times'' says,<blockquote>what a gem! An affectionately gentle satire of the Irish poetic scene during one creatively fluid 19th-century year, the story focuses on a Maigue poet and schoolteacher who goes on a trip to France and returns with camembert, a cafetiere, ‘Fleurs du Mal’, and a mission to convert the local traditionalists to la modernité. Whimsical, hilarious, and subtly learned, it’s absolutely delightful!<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Ní Dhuibhne|first=Éilis|date=30 June 2025|title=Éilís Ní Dhuibhne on the best Irish language books of 2025 so far: Including a history of the Gaeltacht Civil Rights Movements, a gem of a novel by Darach Ó Scolaí and Joe McHugh’s entertaining account of learning Irish|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/review/2025/06/30/eilis-ni-dhuibhne-on-the-best-irish-language-books-of-2025-so-far/|journal=The Irish Times|pages=22}}</ref></blockquote> === Retellings and Translations === ==== ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' ==== ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' [''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''] is a modern edition of an 11th-century epic into modern Irish.<ref name=":3" /> Gearóid Denvir reviewed ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' for ''Comhar'':<blockquote>Darach Ó Scolaí has ​​achieved a feat in this challenging reworking. He has found a high level of the Irish language to tell his story – as he has done before in his groundbreaking novel An Cléireach (2007, Leabhar Breac) and in his other prose works. This book is a decoration of the language, literature and culture of the Irish language, following the path of the old storytellers and writers and presenting material from the tradition to his own generation according to the understandings of his own time. The book will be a classic that will be of great interest to all readers of the Irish language, both ordinary readers, students, scholars and writers, and there should be a copy in every home in the country. [Tá éacht déanta ag Darach Ó Scolaí san athleagan dúshlánach seo. Tá réim ard den teanga Ghaeilge aimsithe aige lena scéal a inseacht – mar a rinne sé cheana ina úrscéal ceannródaíoch An Cléireach (2007, Leabhar Breac) agus i saothair eile phróis dá chuid. Is maisiú ar an teanga agus ar litríocht agus cultúr na Gaeilge an leabhar seo a leanas conair na seanscéalaithe agus na seanscríobhaithe agus ábhar de chuid an traidisiúin á chur i láthair a ghlúine féin aige de réir thuiscintí a linne féin. Clasaic a bheas sa leabhar a gcuirfidh léitheoirí uilig na Gaeilge, idir ghnáthléitheoirí, mhic léinn, scoláirí agus scríbhneoirí spéis thar na bearta ann, agus ba cheart cóip a bheith i chuile theach sa tír.]<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Denvir|first=Gearóid|date=April 2018|title=Táin Bó Cuailgne|url=https://comhar.ie/iris/78/4/leirmheas/|journal=Comhar|via=JSTOR}}</ref> </blockquote>Cathal Poirtéir says, "The freshness and richness of Ó Scolaí’s version are a joy …. The author delights us with the linguistic and stylistic richness of the ancient epic in a modern-Irish version that reflects the original’s spirit and language."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poirtéir|first=Cathal|date=May/June 2018|title=Leabhair Idir Lámha|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26564180|journal=Books Ireland|pages=46–47|via=JSTOR}}</ref>{{rp|47}} Novelist and academic Alan Titley calls Ó Scolaí's "a wonderful gutsy telling" of ''Táin Bó Cuailnge''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/2023/03/11/the-tain-retold-maeve-and-ailills-spat-could-be-out-of-a-soap-opera/|title=The Táin retold: ‘Maeve and Ailill’s spat could be out of a soap opera’|last=Titley|first=Alan|date=11 March 2023|work=The Irish Times|access-date=16 October 2025}}</ref> ==== ''Deirdre'' ==== Marie Whelton, in "Léann Teanga" ("Language Studies"), in the 2024 ''An Reiviú'' says,<blockquote>this version [of ''Deirdre''] by Darach Ó Scolaí succeeds in skillfully capturing and portraying the complexity of gender and power issues in the ‘Deirdre’ tradition [éiríonn leis an leagan seo le Darach Ó Scolaí castacht cheisteanna na hinscne agus na cumhachta i dtraidisiún scéal Dheirdre a ghabháil agus a léiriú go sciliúil]. … There is no doubt that this new version greatly contributes to the legacy of the story and that it revives that legacy thoughtfully and artistically [Níl amhras faoi ach go gcuireann an leagan úr seo go mór le hoidhreacht an scéil agus go ndéanann sé an oidhreacht sin a athbheochan go tuisceanach agus go healaíonta.].<ref name=":16">{{Cite web|url=https://www.tara.tcd.ie/tara8/server/api/core/bitstreams/3c20175a-7631-44b2-8b0f-f454edd712b4/content|title=An Artistic Retelling of Deirdre's Tale and the Defeat of Conor Review of Deirdre or the Ship of Mac Uisnigh by Darach Ó Scolaí [Athinsint Ealaíonta ar Oidhe Dheirdre agus ar Ansmacht Chonchúir Léirmheas ar Deirdre nó Loingeas Mhac Uisnigh le Darach Ó Scolaí]|last=Whelton|first=Marie|date=2024|website=The Review [An Reiviú], Language Studies [Léann Teanga]|access-date=25 September 2025}}</ref></blockquote> === Works for Young Readers === Meadhbh Ní Eadhra said of ''Bodach an Chóta Lachna'' that it was "Beautiful Irish, but easy to understand for young readers."<ref>Ní Eadhra, Meadhbh. In ''Gaelscéal'', qtd. in "Bodach an Chóta Lachna" https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/7-8/bodach-an-chota-lachna/.</ref> == Awards and Honors == Ó Scolaí's works are regularly nominated and make the short list for prizes, an honor in itself, but they are generally not listed here unless they are named as the first-place winner in their category. === Oireachtas Prize === The Oireachtas Prize is the literary prize awarded by [[wikipedia:Oireachtas_na_Gaeilge|Oireachtas na Gaeilge]], the annual arts festival dedicated to Irish language, arts and culture. Darach Ó Scolaí has won the Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction three times, once for ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'') in 2007, for ''Súil an Daill'' (''The Eye of the Blind'') in 2021 and for ''Bódléar'' in 2024. * 2007, for ''An Cléireach'' (trans., ''The Clerk'') — “(a special prize commemorating the 400th anniversary of the foundation of Coláiste na nGael in Louvain, awarded under the auspices of the Franciscan Province of Ireland). The prize of €10,000 was the largest prize ever awarded to an Irish language novel [(duais speisialta chomórtha 400 bliain bhunú Choláiste na nGael i Lobháin a bronnadh faoi urraíocht Phroibhinse Phroinsiasach na hÉireann). Ba é an duais €10,000 sin an duais ba mhó a bronnadh riamh ar úrscéal Gaeilge].”<ref name=":18" /> * 2021, for ''Súil an Daill'' (''The Eye of the Blind'') * 2024, for ''Bódléar'' === Ó Shúilleabháin Award, Irish language “Book of the Year” === The first prize of this award includes €5,000 to the publisher and €2,500 to the author of the winning work.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|date=15 August 2023|title=20 saothar san iomaíocht do ‘Leabhair Ghaeilge na Bliana 2023’|url=https://tuairisc.ie/20-saothar-san-iomaiocht-do-leabhair-ghaeilge-na-bliana-2023/|journal=Tuairisc}}</ref> * ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'').<ref>{{Cite web|url=http:/www.gaelport.com/uploads/documents/edition19.html|title=Eagrán / Edition 19 - 04 11 2008|date=4/11/2008|website=Internet Archive|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525011340/http:/www.gaelport.com/uploads/documents/edition19.html|archive-date=25 May 2013|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'', 2018. * ''Bódléar'', 2025. ==== De Bhaldraithe Award ==== The Gradam de Bhaldraithe is awarded to the best work in translation.<ref name=":10" /> * ''Cuairt San Nioclás,'' a translation of Clement Clarke Moore's ''A Visit from St. Nicholas'', or "'Twas the Night Before Christmas."<ref name=":10" /> ==== Other ==== * Walter Macken Prize, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005 * Bháiteir Uí Mhaicín Memorial Award, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/gaeilge/tuarascail/duais-oireachtais-1.501571|title=Oireachtas Prize: Over €50,000 was awarded to writers in the Oireachtas Literary Competitions at an event in Dublin last night. Winners… [Duais Oireachtais: Bronnadh breis agus €50,000 ar scríbhneoirí i gComórtais Liteartha an Oireachtais ar ócáid i mBaile Átha Cliath aréir. Bhuaigh…]|work=5 October 2005|access-date=15 October 2025}}</ref> * BBC Stewart Parker Award, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2006 * The Aodán Mac Póilín Commemorative Prize, for ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' (trans., ''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''), 2017 == External Links == * Leabhar Breac website: https://leabharbreac.com/en/ * Leabhar Breac Facebook pages: * Rosg website: [http://www.rosg.ie/en/ <nowiki>http://ww</nowiki>w.rosg.ie/en/] * Art on the Island (Ealaín ar Oileán) website, archived at the Wayback Machine: https://web.archive.org/web/20130601000520/http://ealainaroilean.ie/ 31 March 2012, 1 June 2013 and 8 January 2014 * Darach Ó Scolaí's website Archived 25 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine: https://web.archive.org/web/20150925103456/http://darachoscolai.ie/ * Youtube video of [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OlP2AmSBzXc Breandán Ó Cróinin introducing Deirdre at the book launch] in the pub Tigh Mholly (Molly’s House). == Primordial Ooze == * Known for his sensitivity to language and voices. * Finish scanning through JSTOR * Scan through Irish Times, 56 hits * Check Goodreads * Check YouTube (In the spring of 2013, the arts programme Imeall interviewed the author on TG4.) * Check both Wikipedias for pages on the origins of the retold tales (like Deirdre) and link to this article * Propose link from University of Galway page once Darach’s is up * Write Irish National Biography (<nowiki>https://www.dib.ie</nowiki>) to propose an article about Darach once the Wikip article is done? See what they say. * Link to Ó Scolaí from the Wikipedia * Make sure links '''to''' Wikipedia in the actual encyclopedia work right === Not Placed Yet === * "So here are the books that Irish people love the most! [Mar sin seo iad na leabhair is gile leis na Gaeil!]" — "32. An Cléireach – Darach Ó Scolaí (2)" [18 books got 2 votes, and then they're alphabetized by author's last name, so the 32 of 34 doesn't signify the specificity it seems to]<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Ó Murchú|first=Eoin P.|date=9 June 2017|title=Na 30 leabhar Gaeilge is fearr leis na Gaeil. [The 30 best Irish books for Irish people]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/an-30-leabhar-gaeilge-is-fearr-leis-na-gaeil/|journal=Nós}}</ref> * "Below is a list of those 111 works – a list that shows a great deal of diversity in the reading habits of Irish speakers.Here is a list of those 111 works – a list that shows a great deal of diversity in the reading habits of Irish speakers [Anseo thíos tá liosta den 111 saothar sin – liosta a léiríonn éagsúlacht an-mhór i nósanna léitheoireachta Gaeilgeoirí.Anseo thíos tá liosta den 111 saothar sin – liosta a léiríonn éagsúlacht an-mhór i nósanna léitheoireachta Gaeilgeoirí]." "Corto Maltese – Hugo Pratt (aistrithe ag Darach Ó Scolaí)"<ref name=":14" /> * "Ceann eile de bhuaicphointí na hÉigse a bheidh sa seisiún le Darach Ó Scolaí, duine d’úrscéalaithe móra na Gaeilge, agus duine de chomhbhunaitheoirí teach foilsitheoireachta Leabhar Breac. [Another highlight of the Éigse will be the session with Darach Ó Scolaí, one of the great Irish language novelists, and one of the co-founders of the publishing house Leabhar Breac.]"<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Nós|date=4 May 2023|title=Éigse na Bruiséile le filleadh i mí na Bealtaine. [Éigse na Bruséile to return in May]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/eigse-na-bruiseile-le-filleadh-i-mi-na-bealtaine/|journal=Nós}}</ref> === Things Taken Out for Now === “’The play is a comedy about language, lies, bureaucracy and Gaeltacht grants, in the tradition of Myles na Gcopaleen,’ according to Norma-Jean Kenny in the ''Galway Advertizer'', ‘in which the author comments and criticizes the institutions of the Irish language in Ireland without ceasing.’" Supposedly a quotation by Gearóid Denvir reviewing ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' for ''Comhar'' (but I don't find it in the article): This book has long been needed by Irish language readers and there is no doubt that it will become a classic in time and surpass Thomas Kinsella’s English version. This version remains faithful to the language of the original while at the same time finding an appropriate language in today’s Irish. Ó Scolaí masterfully overcomes the difficulties of the original’s rhetorical difficulties and the versions of the original poetic texts are extremely effective.[supposedly <ref name=":15" />] “The biggest prize ever awarded for a novel in Irish was presented at a special ceremony in the National Concert Hall in Dublin, today (Thursday, 4 October 2007). Darach Ó Scolaí, writer, artist & playwright from Casla, Co. Galway, was awarded €10,000 for his literary novel, ‘An Ardscoil’. This work, under the new title ‘An Cléireach’, will be launched at Oireachtas na Samhna in Westport in November. This is the first novel from his pen, a story set in the late seventeenth century. This competition was sponsored by the Franciscan Province of Ireland.” (archive, Oireachtas na Gaeilge site, 04 October, 2007) ''Súil an Daill'' (trans., ''The Eye of the Blind''), Leabhar Breac, 2021. number 2 in ''Comhar'' literary magazine’s list of best books of 2021. '''{6}.''' *William Shakespeare, ''Romeo agus Juliet'' (trans. of ''Romeo and Juliet''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. *Jonathan Swift, ''Camchuairt Ghuilivéir'' (trans. of ''Gulliver's Travels''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. *Hugo Pratt, ''Corto Maltese'' '''''Flag of Bones (Bratach na gCnámh) Series''''' Leabhar Breac published the Bratach na gCnámh series of books for young readers. Written in French by Alain Surget, illustrated by Annette Marnat and translated by Darach Ó Scolaí, this series uses the history of Caribbean Sea pirates<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/alain-surget/|title=Alain Surget Archives|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-09-30}}</ref>: *Alain Surget, ''Éalú as Páras'' (''Escape from Paris''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011. * Alain Surget, ''Oilean na Siorcanna'' (''Shark Island''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011. * Alain Surget, ''Long na dTaibhsi'' (''Ship of the Ghosts''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011. * Alain Surget, ''San Ochtapas Dubh'' (''In the Black Octopus''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. * Alain Surget, ''San Ionsai ar Veracruz'' (''The Attack on Veracruz''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. '''''For "First Readers" (children to 6 years old or so)''''' These books were written originally in Catalan by Spanish author Enric Lluch Girbés and translated into Irish by Ó ScolaÍ: *Enric Lluch, ''Ag Péinteáil an Tí'' (''Painting the House''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''An Colúr Bacach'' (''The Lazy Dove''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''An Phluais'' (''The Cave''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''Madra Dhaideo'' (''Grandpa's Dog''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''Fiacail Mháire'' (''Mary's Tooth''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. '''''Bruno Heitz''''' Leabhar Breac published a series of 3 Heitz books for small children. Published originally in French, this series of three comic books is about a blind mole named Cáitín Chaoch in Irish (and ''Louisette la taupe'' in French).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/bruno-heitz-en/|title=Bruno Heitz Archives|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-10-02}}</ref> Ó Scolaí translated these: *Bruno Heitz (author and illustr.), ''Práinneach'' (''Urgent''), Leabhar Breac, 2020 *Bruno Heitz (author and illustr.), ''Preab san Aer'' (''Bounce in the Air''), Leabhar Breac, 2020. '''''Books for Toddlers''''' Leabhar Breac has published 14 books written by French author Orianne Lallemand's and illustrated by Eleonore Thuillier, about Lallemmand's popular character Loup, Wolf. These are translated by Ó Scolaí: *Orianne Lallemand, ''An Mac Tire a Raibh Faitios an Domhain Air'' (trans. of ''The Son Who Saw the World in His Eyes''), Eleonore Thuillier  Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2018. *Orianne Lallemand, ''Macan agus an Goban'' (trans. of ''Macan and the Goblin''), Eleonore Thuillier (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2018. * Orianne Lallemand, ''A Mac Tíre a Chuaigh go Tóin na Farraige'' (trans. of ''The Wolf Who Went to the Bottom of the Sea''), Éléanore Thuillier  (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2019. '''''Board Books (for babies)''''' J. C. (Joan Carles) Girbés Aparisi is a Catalan author and editor. These books were written in Catalan and translated by Ó Scolai. *J. C. Girbés, ''An Phicnic'' (''The Picnic''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. * J. C. Girbés, ''An Chóisir'' (''The Party''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. *J. C. Girbés, ''Lá Mór Fada'' (''A Long Day''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2014. *J. C. Girbés, ''Tabhair Leat do Leabhar'' (''Bring Your Book''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2014. ==== Gradam Réics Carló ==== The Réics Carló prize is awarded for the best book in the Irish language for young readers. It is named for one of the characters of 20th-century writer [[wikipedia:Cathal_Ó_Sándair|Cathal Ó Sándair (Charles Saunders)]]. * ''An Bradán Feasa'' was “shortlisted for the Réics Carlo award 2010.”<ref name=":9" /> == References == {{reflist}} qbk21c52tgtkuc4hizfoqiqjcp0l2o5 0 266507 2840758 2410716 2026-10-16T23:13:44Z Ella Kay244 3107007 Fixed the correction in the opening paragraph and re worded it to improve the clarity of ideas. I added an updated citation 2840758 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Basic psychological need theory:<br>What is basic psychological need theory and how can it be applied?}} {{MECR3|1=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NmogkSQ9oAE}} __TOC__ == Overview == According to the basic psychological need theory (BPNT), people have a limited number of psychological needs. It is important for these needs to be satisfied for the wellbeing of the individual. The specific psychological needs that individuals should retain have often been debated however, there are generally three well agreed upon needs: Autonomy, Competence, and relatedness (Gunnell et al., 2013; Zou et al., 2026). BPNT is the consideration of whether the needs are satisfied, not satisfied or have been frustrated. The frustration of the psychological needs results in a higher risk experience compared to the satisfaction of needs. [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]] refers to the capacity to make informed and independent decisions. This is crucial in human psychology because its satisfaction results in a sense of integrity. After all, the thoughts and actions of the individual are authentic. However, when frustrated, pressure and conflict can easily be felt because one is being pushed in a direction they are not willing to go. [[wikipedia:relatedness|relatedness]] refers to the fact of being connected which is satisfied through bonding and care. The satisfaction of [[wikipedia:relatedness|relatedness]] makes the individual feel significant to others. Its frustration, however, causes social alienation, exclusion, and the feeling of loneliness. [[wikipedia:Competence|Competence]] refers to the ability to do something effectively and efficiently. [[wikipedia:Competence|Competence]] improves one's performance at a task because of the mastery of the task. This is satisfied by engaging in activities where one can make use of their skills and expertise. Frustration causes feelings of failure and helplessness. The basic psychological need theory is supported by outside research and theories such as; [[wikipedia:Maslow's theory|Maslow's theory]], Consistency theory, and [[self-determination theory]]. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} Key points * The basic psychological need theory is based on the argument that individuals have limited basic psychological needs. * BPNT is supported by other theories; Maslow's theory, Consistency theory, and self-determination theory.&nbsp; * There are criteria for psychological needs determination * Psychological needs satisfaction has a social contribution {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Basic criteria for basic psychological needs theory == The focus of BPNT is on psychological needs. However, this does not mean that other basic needs like food, water and shelter should be ignored within the theory. There is an interrelation between psychological and physiological needs and different researchers have done studies on dynamic relations. For instance, to develop and maintain a healthy lifestyle are {{gr}} affected by the satisfaction of needs and also frustrations. The healthy lifestyle feeds back on the need-based experiences of the individual.{{fact}} Additionally, this is similar to the way that physiological needs have to be fulfilled for physical growth and wellbeing then psychological needs have to be satisfied for psychological growth and wellness to occur. The frustration of these needs, on the other hand, reduces flourishing and also increases the probability of feeling ill about the self and psychopathology. This proves that under BPNT there are psychological nutrients that must be satisfied to achieve growth and wellness and adjustment should be done to improve the outcomes where needed. The psychological needs result in functional costs when they are frustrated because the level of happiness is lowered and maladjustment begins to occur.{{fact}} BPNT recognises that there are drivers of human action that are essential for psychological growth and activity. Every fully functioning individual has [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]], [[wikipedia:relatedness|relatedness]], and [[wikipedia:Competence|Competence]] needs that must be met. This is an assumption of this theory which has been supported by different studies that identify the mechanistic correlation of needs and experiences{{fact}}. A study by Lee and Reeve (2020) indicates that the brain morphometry of an individual, particularly the ventral striatum grey matter volume, correlates needs satisfaction with the experiences of participants{{explain}}. Further, basic psychological needs in BPNT should be distinguishable from other basic needs. This is true for both the experimental level and dynamic levels. At the experimental level, each need is associated with different experience sets. Dynamically, if a need is satisfied through the frustration of another then that need is not basic but rather derivative. Such needs which arise from the frustration of basic psychological needs are need-substitutes or compensatory preferences. For instance, in the need for security, [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]] is frustrated because one is in conditions that are controlled which makes them feel caged and unable to express their thoughts and ideas. {{fact}} Another criterion for the determination of basic needs is the universal nature of needs. Psychological needs are intrinsic and therefore, are universally applicable. They affect all people across their different demographic traits, i.e.{{inline comment|spell out - online use i.e. and e.g. within parentheses}} [[wikipedia:age|age]], [[gender]], [[wikipedia:nationality|nationality]], etc. This, therefore, raises the question of whether a need has to be desired for satisfaction or frustration to be derived from it. The concept of individual differences in need strengths has been subject to attention regarding other theories such as the motive disposition theory{{fact}}. The claim on universality by BPNT suggests that the differences are insignificant in influencing the need satisfaction or frustration compared to the expected effects. It is also important to note that this universality claim cannot be interpreted too rigidly because there are factors that will affect need fulfilment like culture, history, and personality.{{fact}} == Self-determination theory == [[File:Venn diagram.pdf|thumb|Self-determination theory]] Self-determination theory is a psychological framework for understanding human motivation. It was developed by psychologists Richard Ryan and Edward Deci and grew out of research on intrinsic motivation, or the internal desire to do something for its own sake, not for an external reward. Self-determination theory states that people are driven by three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and [[wikipedia:relatedness|relatedness]].{{fact}} Self-determination is an important concept in psychology because it represents the ability of an individual to make choices in their lives for their health and wellbeing. With self-determination, people have control over their life choices which influences their [[motivation]]. When people feel that they have more control over the outcome, they are more willing to take action. Having high self-determination is important in different aspects of life. According to the self-motivation theory, [[motivation]] comes from three innate and universal psychological needs; [[wikipedia:Competence|Competence]], connection, and [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]]. This theory is, therefore, based on the concept of intrinsic [[motivation]] brought about by engaging in rewarding activities. This theory was developed from the work of Edward Deci and Richard Ryan in their 1985 book "Self-Determination and Intrinsic [[Motivation]] in Human Behaviour" (Deci and Ryan, 2000). In this book, they developed a theory suggesting that people are motivated by the need to grow and gain a level of self-fulfilment. It, however, has two key assumptions; that the behaviour of individuals is driven by the need for growth and that autonomous [[motivation]] is essential for human progress. == Other psychological theory == Other theories also mention the basic psychological need.{{fact}} ===Maslow's theory === [[File:Maslows hierarchy of needs.JPG|thumb|Maslow theory ]] [[wikipedia:Maslow's theory|Maslow's theory]] is a psychological motivational theory that is made up of a five-level model of human needs. The model is depicted as a pyramid at the needs that are arranged in levels. According to [[wikipedia:Maslow's theory|Maslow's theory]], the needs at the lowest level of the pyramid are more basic than the others and therefore, must be satisfied first, then an individual can move on to other needs. From the bottom of the hierarchy, human needs are; physiological needs, safety needs, [[love]], and belonging needs, esteem needs, and [[wikipedia:self-actualization|self-actualisation]]. The model is also divided into two where the first four levels are known as deficiency needs and the topmost is a growth need.{{fact}} ===Consistency theory=== Consistency theory suggests that people are mostly influenced by the need to maintain a level of congruence among their cognitions. This theory was originally introduced by Fritz Heider, Leon Festinger among others{{fact}}. It was first applied to the work behaviour theory by Abraham Korman in 1970. This work behaviour theory is based on two premises; balance notion and self-image standard. In this theory, workers will do and find it more satisfying if the work maximises their sense of cognitive balance and is consistent with their self-image. This theory is, therefore, a motivational theory based on psychological needs.{{fact}} == Associated criteria for psychological need determination == Additional criteria can be derived to explain how the psychological needs work better. One such derived criterion is the costs and benefits of satisfaction or frustration of needs are pervasive which makes them relevant in different outcomes. This is to means {{gr}} that different behavioural, cognitive, or [[motivation]] outcomes should follow the pattern of satisfaction or frustration of needs. This should also be applicable at different levels such as personal and societal or conscious to unconscious. This is important for understanding the behaviour of a toddler in exploration driven by a curiosity about their environment (Klassen, Perry, & Frenzel, 2012). The outcomes from such exploration are different and this is influenced by the satisfaction and frustration of their curiosity needs. Another associated criterion is the concrete nature of the experiences and behaviours associated with need satisfaction and frustration. The content must be specified to ensure that it is clear whether the psychological need has been met or not. For instance, in the formation of harmonious relationships, or extension of one's skills, there are specific behaviours that portray a psychological need to be satisfied. On the other hand, if one experiences failure or is lonely then this meets that the need has been frustrated. The understanding of these concrete behaviour should be based on the natural language of people when they reflect on an experience they have undergone. Different qualitative studies have been done to examine the needs-based experiences people have{{fact}}. A semi-structured interview on Singaporean youth showed that they highly valued [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]], [[wikipedia:Competence|Competence]], and [[wikipedia:relatedness|relatedness]] but noted that they often experienced the frustration of these needs{{fact}}. This study has helped to solidify the concept of concrete presentation of the outcomes of need satisfaction and frustration{{fact}}. The third derived criteria are that the basic needs should influence the actions of an individual. This means that the needs should help people to prefer doing certain activities over others. This is in line with the growth-oriented character of the basic psychological needs in BPNT. People are more attracted to activities, goals, and relationships that promote their sense of volition, mastery, and connection. Additionally, people are also drawn to contexts that support the satisfaction of their needs. Such contexts serve to make the satisfaction of needs easier as opposed to frustration{{gr}}. Need frustration also plays an important role in influencing behaviour because it mobilises corrective behaviour change and the development of coping responses (Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2003). Lastly, basic needs in BPNT are essential in the explanation of social contexts and their effects on developmental outcomes. BPNs are influenced by context which means they will vary depending on the context{{vague}}. The social environment as well as the individual's psychological adjustment are important in understanding the expected development outcomes as a result of need satisfaction and frustration (Evelein, Korthagen, & Brekelmans, 2008). == Extension of the list of basic psychological needs == The issue of whether the current list of basic psychological needs in BPNT needs extension or not has been an ongoing debate over time{{fact}}. Different studies have revealed that there are other sets on{{gr}} needs beyond the three current ones. However, these studies{{fact}} also show that the three are the most important needs because of their effects upon satisfaction or frustration. A study by Sheldon et al (2001) examining the roles of {{what}} candidates needs to include other needs such as security, popularity, pleasure, self-actualisation, luxury, physical thriving, and self-worth. This study revealed that the three basic needs in BPNT have an important role because they ranked top in both satisfaction and frustration cases. A similar pattern was seen in a study by Jang et al. (2009) in which Korean and American students were examined for the most satisfying needs in the school setting. [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]], [[wikipedia:Cometence|Competence]], and [[wikipedia:relatedness|relatedness]] are seen to be associated which means they remain significant even without the satisfaction of other needs such as shelter and respect. Other studies have focused on specific alternative psychological needs. However, even for these studies, some of these recommended needs cannot be included because they do not satisfy several criteria. For example, self-esteem is a need that is often mentioned as basic because of the experience of the individual upon satisfaction. However, it is still not considered a basic need in BPNT because it does not operate independently of the other ARC ([[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]], [[wikipedia:relatedness|relatedness]], and [[wikipedia:Competence|Competence]]) needs. Then the ARC needs are frustrated then there are concerns about self-worth as well which supports that the dynamics of self-esteem are dependent on the basic needs (Klassen, Perry, & Frenzel, 2012){{awkward}}. Some of the proposed new candidate needs are thought-provoking such as adding the need for novelty, novelty-variety, morality, and beneficence. They help to sharpen thinking on the criteria of selecting basic needs. The evidence provided by different researchers is promising but is based on the premise of the evidence of proposed candidate needs. Advancements in this research{{fact}} have shown that they can be incorporated into new basic needs if they are well described. Novelty-variety refers to the perception of an individual when he or she does something new. This includes the possibility of combining the activities into different groups for different experiences. A study by Bagheri & Milyavskaya (2020) showed {{how}} that novelty-variety can be analytically separated from the other basic needs which is one of the essential criteria for determining a basic need. Additionally, it comes with a cost to well-being when frustrated experimentally and lastly its impact does not depend on the demographic characteristics of the individual. This specific need, therefore, meets three of the five criteria for basic psychological needs.{{fact}} In another study, Gonzalez-Cutre et al. (2020), novelty is defined as the need to experience something different from one's daily routine. This study revealed that novelty satisfaction influenced the [[motivation]] of individuals in exercising which contributed to growth in their well-being. Its frustration, on the other hand, resulted in a decline in well-being. The findings of this study differ from Bagheri and Milyavskaya (2020) because it includes the role played by openness in novelty satisfaction and its contribution to wellbeing. Morality is defined as {{gr}} a study by Prentice et al (2020) as a viable fourth need based on initial empirical evidence. An earlier study by the same researchers{{fact}} had shown that the satisfaction of moral needs was evident when the participants were asked to talk about events where they had different experiences of satisfaction or frustration. From this study, morality satisfaction revealed that it had a unique variance above and beyond that of BPNT's basic needs. Additionally, its contribution to the social issue shows that it is related to the enactment of moral behaviours and wellness which satisfies the criterion on [[intrinsic motivation]]. The need, therefore, satisfies at least two of the BPNT criteria for basic psychological needs.{{fact}} From these studies, it is evident that the needs of novelty, novelty-variety, and morality satisfy some of the criteria for basic psychological needs. This means they can start to be examined further if they fit into the shortlist for an addition. This examination is done through the determination of beneficence satisfaction or frustration. Beneficence satisfaction refers to the feeling of impacting others positively while beneficence frustration is affecting others negatively (Olafsen, Deci, & Halvari, 2018). Even though beneficence frustration is often associated with ill-being, it cannot predict the incremental variance above the frustration of [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]], [[wikipedia:Competence|Competence]], and [[wikipedia:relatedness|relatedness]]. From understanding the criterion on essentialness, both satisfaction and frustration affect enhancing well-being.{{fact}} == Importance of needs == All humans have certain basic needs that drive their behaviour as they want to achieve these needs. As such, basic [[psychological needs]] are important motivational tools for all humans as popularised by Abraham Maslow. Maslow stated that these needs are not all satisfied at the same time which resulted in the need for a hierarchy known as the [[wikipedia:Maslow's theory|Maslow's theory]] (Ryan & La Guardia, 2000). Maslow, therefore, lists the needs from the most basic to the most complex under the assumption that one level must be satisfied before moving on to the next. The social importance of these needs varies depending on their satisfaction or frustration.{{fact}} === Needs satisfaction === One important social application of the basic [[psychological needs]] is the sense of security that individuals [[achieve]]. The satisfaction of the three needs makes individuals feel secure in their environment and with life. This includes physical security which entails protection from physical harm and having enough food and water to live. There is also emotional security and financial security which also influences the thoughts and behaviour of an individual.{{fact}} The second important social application is the provision of comfort in the given environment. This can only be achieved after one has achieved a sense of security in their lives. Comfort also occurs in different levels such as physical comfort, emotional, and financial comfort (Van den Broeck, Ferris, Chang, & Rosen, 2016). This is beyond just having enough to survive which motivates people to work towards having that level of comfort. Leisure is also a social benefit of basic needs [[satisfaction]]. This comes from the need by humans to take time away from the usual routine to relax and have fun either alone or with others. Leisure is only achieved after satisfying security and comfort but is not an absolute basic need for survival. Spending too much leisure time can hurt the individual's life such as achieving their future goals (López Walle, Balaguer Solá, Castillo Fernádez, & Tristán Rodríguez, 2012). This is not to negate the importance of leisure in the promotion of health and wellness. Leisure time also improves the productivity of an individual because it prevents burnout{{fact}}. The last importance of satisfaction of these needs is [[love]] which is arguably one of the most important basic needs. [[Love]] occurs in two levels, self-love and love for others. [[Self-love]] is crucial because if a person does not [[love]] him or herself, he or she can engage in behaviours that are self-destructive such as the use of drugs and alcohol. This stops the person from reaching higher levels of needs like respect and life’s purpose. [[Love]] for others, on the other hand, is essential for the creation of long-term and meaningful relationships. Not loving others may cause a person to do things that make other people not [[love]] them as well and one will experience loneliness. {{fact}} For example, set-top box providers like Tata Sky, Sun Direct etc. follow need satisfaction selling. They have different packages so as to meet the needs of different types of customers. They also have special packages where the customer can choose the channels they want based on their interest and that particular package will be provided to the customer.{{fact}} === Needs frustration === Frustration is a common emotional response to opposition, related to anger, annoyance and disappointment. Need frustration is referred to as perception of the basic [[psychological needs]] are being thwarted, which is undermining, alienating and pathogenic.{{fact}} [[File:Frustration (18454943).jpeg|thumb|Frustration is a common emotional response to opposition, related to anger, annoyance and disappointment.]] Need frustration is a separate psychological process than need satisfaction{{fact}}. There are some neuroscience studies that could be related to relatedness frustration{{fact}}, though there are few neuroscience studies about either [[wikipedia:Cometence|Competence]] need frustration or [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]] need frustration. For example, Eisenberger, Lieberman, and Williams (2003) conducted a neuroscience study about social rejection. In this study, the feeling of social rejection was manipulated as participants played a game of cyber ball but were for a time socially excluded. During episodes of social exclusion, participants showed activations in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), anterior insular cortex (AIC), and ventral prefrontal cortex. These findings suggest that the ACC and AIC play key roles, not only when people experience satisfaction from social interactions, but also when they experience frustration from social interactions. This neural pattern is understandable because the AIC is a well-known brain region for the processes of [[emotion]], feeling, and [[motivation]] of both positive valence and negative valence (Damasio et al., 2000) and because it is frequently observed that the neural signals from the AIC are rapidly relayed to the ACC (Allman et al., 2010). There is an example of the frustration that might be following the death or bankruptcy of either party{{fact}}{{gr}}. If you have drafted the contract so that it contains provisions that cause the contract to become frustrated because of certain events occurring, this may also be a ground for enlivening the doctrine of frustration{{explain}}. {{fact}} ==Conclusion == BPNT is an important theory in the social setting{{ic|also in non-social settings?}}. It contributes to the advancement of society through helping in the advancement of individuals within a society{{vague}}. The satisfaction of the three basic needs is important in the social setting because society as a whole benefits from people who have the [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]], [[wikipedia:relatedness|relatedness]], and [[wikipedia:Competence|Competence]]. The progress of society depends on its ability to have costs and benefits of needs satisfaction because it guides the behaviour of people. Secondly, BPNT is essential for the success of a community through the [[motivation]] of the people to work towards achieving and satisfying these needs. The behaviour of individuals is influenced by the goals they aim to achieve within a given time. Individual [[motivation]] translates to the [[motivation]] of the entire society and consequently its success. However, this cannot be achieved without people working together for a common purpose. The third social contribution is that BPNT helps people in the formation of meaningful relationships and friendships within their environment (Li, Wang, & Kee, 2013). These relationships make life better because needs such as love are satisfied with such an [[environment]]. ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Cognitive_evaluation_theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Positive_psychology|Positive psychology]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self-determination_theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{reflist}} {{Hanging indent|1= Allman, J. M., Tetreault, N. A., Hakeem, A. Y., Manaye, K. F., Semendeferi, K., Erwin, J. M., Park, S., Goubert, V. & Hof, P. R. (2010). The von Economo neurons in frontoinsular and anterior cingulate cortex in great apes and humans. ''Brain Structure and Function, 214,''(5-6), 495– 517. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-010-0254-0. Bagheri, L., & Milyavskaya, M. (2020). Novelty–variety as a candidate basic psychological need: New evidence across three studies. ''Motivation and Emotion'', ''44''(1), 32-53. [[DOI: 10.1007/s11031-019-09807-4]] Damasio, A. R., Grabowski, T. J., Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Ponto, L. L. B., Parvizi, J., & Hichwa, R. D. (2000). Subcortical and cortical brain activity during the feeling of self-generated emotions. ''Nature Neuroscience, 3''(10), 1049–1056. https://doi.org/10.1038/79871. Deci, E. L. & Vansteenkiste, M., Ricerche di Psichologia. (2003). ''Self-determination theory and basic need satisfaction: Understanding human development in positive psychology.''logy. KUL. Research centre for motivation and time perspective, Leuven. Eisenberger, N. I., Lieberman, M. D., & Williams, K. D. (2003). Does rejection hurt? An fMRI study of social exclusion. ''Science, 302''(5643), 290–292. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1089134. Evelein, F., Korthagen, F., & Brekelmans, M. (2008). Fulfilment of the basic psychological needs of student teachers during their first teaching experiences. ''Teaching and teacher Education'', ''24''(5), 1137-1148. [[DOI: 10.1016/j.tate.2007.09.0011148.]] González-Cutre, D., Jiménez-Loaisa, A., Alcaraz-Ibáñez, M., Romero-Elías, M., Santos, I., & Beltrán-Carrillo, V. J. (2020). Motivation and physical activity levels in bariatric patients involved in a self-determination theory-based physical activity program. ''Psychology of Sport and Exercise'', ''51'', 101975. [[DOI: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2020.1017951795.]] Gunnell, K. E., Crocker, P. R., Wilson, P. M., Mack, D. E., & Zumbo, B. D. (2013). Psychological need satisfaction and thwarting: A test of basic psychological needs theory in physical activity contexts. ''Psychology of Sport and Exercise'', ''14''(5), 599. [[DOI: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2013.03.007-607.]] Jang, H., Reeve, J., Ryan, R. M., & Kim, A. (2009). Can self-determination theory explain what underlies the productive, satisfying learning experiences of collectivistically oriented Korean studnts?. ''Journal of educational Psychology'', ''101''(3), 644-661. [[DOI: 10.1037/a0014241 644.]] Klassen, R. M., Perry, N. E., & Frenzel, A. C. (2012). Teachers' relatedness with students: An underemphasized component of teachers' basic psychological needs. ''Journal of Educational Psychology'', ''104''(1), 150-165. [[DOI: 10.1037/a0026253 150.]] Korman, A. K. (1970). Toward an hypothesis of work behaviour. ''Journal of Applied psychology'', ''54''(1p1), 31-41. [[DOI: 10.1037/h0028656, 31.]] Lee, W., & Reeve, J. (2020). Brain gray matter correlates of general psychological need satisfaction: A voxel-based morphometry study. ''Motivation and Emotion'', ''44''(1), 151-158. [[DOI: 10.1007/s11031-019-09799-1 -158.]] Li, C., Wang, C. J., & Kee, Y. H. (2013). Burnout and its relations with basic psychological needs and motivation among athletes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Psychology of Sport and Exercise'', ''14''(5), 692-700. [[DOI: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2013.04.009-700.]] López Walle, J. M., Balaguer Solá, I., Castillo Fernádez, I., & Tristán Rodríguez, J. L. (2012). Autonomy support, basic psychological needs and well-being in Mexican athletes. ''The Spanish journal of psychology'', ''15''(3), 1283. [[ISSN: 1138-74161292.]] Olafsen, A. H., Deci, E. L., & Halvari, H. (2018). Basic psychological needs and work motivation: A longitudinal test of directionality. ''Motivation and Emotion'', ''42''(2), 178-189. [[DOI: 10.1007/s11031-017-9646-2-189.]] Prentice, M., Jayawickreme, E., & Fleeson, W. (2020). An experience sampling study of the momentary dynamics of moral, autonomous, competent, and related need satisfactions, moral enactments, and psychological thriving. ''Motivation and Emotion'', ''44'', 244-256. [[DOI: 10.1007/s11031-020-09829-3-256.]] Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. ''American psychologist'', ''55''(1), 68-78. [[DOI: 10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68,]] Ryan, R. M., & La Guardia, J. G. (2000). ''What is being optimized?: Self-determination theory and basic psychological needs.'' In S. H. Qualls & N. Abeles (Eds.), ''Psychology and the aging revolution: How we adapt to longer life'' (p. 145–172). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10363-008 Ryan, R. M., & La Guardia, J. G. (2000). What is being optimized?: Self-determination theory and basic psychological needs. ''APA Psycnet''. https://doi.org/10.1037/10363-008 Sheldon, K. M., Elliot, A. J., Kim, Y., & Kasser, T. (2001). What is satisfying about satisfying events? Testing 10 candidate psychological needs. ''Journal of personality and social psychology'', ''80''(2), 325. [[DOI: 10.1037//O022-3514.80.2.325]] Van den Broeck, A., Ferris, D. L., Chang, C. H., & Rosen, C. C. (2016). A review of self-determination theory’s basic psychological needs at work. ''Journal of Management'', ''42''(5), 1195-1229. [[DOI: 10.1177/0149206316632058]] Zou, W., Meadows, C. C. Z., Huang, L., & Wang, B. (2026). Psychological determinants of menstrual product preferences: Applying self-determination theory to women’s reproductive health decision-making. ''journal of Health Psychology, 31'' (9), 3512–3527. https://doi.org/10.1177/13591053251407843 }} ==External links== * [http://selfdeterminationtheory.org Self-determination theory] (selfdeterminationtheory.org) *[https://conceptually.org/concepts/dual-processing-theory Dual Process Theory - Explanation and examples] (conceptually.org) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Psychological]] ckvjfl7bdmn01h2bdlyua35d8bvlgyp 0 269370 2840829 2840018 2026-10-17T04:24:40Z James500 297601 /* Japan */ Add 2840829 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} See also [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]. See [[w:Category:Bibliographies of countries or regions]] and [[w:Category:Works about countries]]. This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of countries (including former countries). ==Countries== *Bateman and Egan (eds). The Encyclopedia of World Geography: A Country by Country Guide. 1993. Revised 1997. *Peter Stalker. Handbook of the World. 2000. A Guide to Countries of the World. (Oxford Guide to Countries of the World. 2nd Ed: 2004, 2nd Revised Ed: 2007 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GtztAAAAMAAJ], 3rd Ed: 2010 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gvKvfxkbZ1AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Countries of the World and Their Leaders Yearbook. Gale. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5etKAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p41OAAAAIAAJ] *Hutchinson Guide to Countries of the World [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgpjUe4kN_IC] *The World Guide: Global Reference, Country by Country. 11th Ed: 2007 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EoWoLgAACAAJ] *Spence. The World Today: A Nation-by-Nation Guide. Cassell. 1994. 1999. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ub8qOQAACAAJ] *Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I0oYAQAAMAAJ] *Kurian. Encyclopedia of the World's Nations. Facts on File. Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Y1EnAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lz0RAQAAMAAJ] *Michael O'Mara. Facts about the World's Nations. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mygYAAAAIAAJ] *Status of the World's Nations. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sftEyRbAXMUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kw2U_Cg2gKYC&pg=PP3#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *[[s:Author:John Alexander Hammerton|Hammerton, John Alexander]] (ed). Countries of the World. Published at the Fleetway House. 6 vols. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e6IaAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K5oaAQAAMAAJ] *[[s:Author:Robert Brown (1842-1895)|Brown, Robert]]. The Countries of the World. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nO0DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP13#v=onepage&q&f=false] *A Morely Dell. The Countries of the World. (Harrap's New Geographical Series). 1932. (School certificate). Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oSS9PB_Jf7AC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BicVAAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5qBOAAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbwcAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sc1AAAAAIAAJ] General series: *National Geographic Countries of the World [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IT2wfzVIPykC] *Countries of the World. Evans Brothers. (GCSE) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=a3sZvWc7E1EC&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *One Europe. Longman. [https://search.worldcat.org/en/title/west-germany-adapted-by-lj-russon-from-the-original-german-by-sylvia-lof-ingrid-mallberg-dietrich-rosenthal/oclc/561591761] *Collier's Nations of the World. The Nations of the World: An Historical Series. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VJY-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PP8#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Collier's History of Nations. The History of Nations. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fmSUfTY5E80C] *The Story of the Nations. T Fisher Unwin. *The World and Its Peoples. (The Illustrated Library of the World and Its Peoples). Greystone Press, New York. *World and Its Peoples. Marshall Cavendish. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oms5xjI7ba0C&pg=PA141#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==England== ===Counties=== See [[s:Portal:Counties]] * Harrison, "County Bibliography" (1886) 3 Library Chronicle [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wz9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA49#v=onepage&q&f=false 49] General series *Victoria County History *Oxford County Histories *Pinnock's County Histories *Shire County Guides. Shire Publications. *Cambridge County Geographies *Pike's New Century Series *[[s:Page:County Churches of Cornwall.djvu/6|County Churches]]. G Allen. Avon *Moore. Avon Local History Handbook. Phillimore. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h0kjAAAAMAAJ] Bibliography, p 102 Bedfordshire *Conisbee, Lewis Ralph. A Bedfordshire Bibliography. Bedfordshire Historical Record Society. Bedford. 1962. Supplements 1967, 1971, 1978. Third supplement by Threadgill. Review: 6 Archives 52 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oOMZAAAAYAAJ]. See also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MjspAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PejgAAAAMAAJ] *Godber. History of Bedfordshire. 1969. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jdvwPQAACAAJ] *Pinnock. The History and Topography of Bedfordshire [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9bJYAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Parry. Select Illustrations, Historical and Topographical, of Bedfordshire [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UTUJAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Blyth. The History of Bedford and Visitor's Guide. 1873 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IuIGAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Cambridge County Geographies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kTc8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Buckinghamshire *Reed. A History of Buckinghamshire. 1993 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BtkWAQAAIAAJ] Cambridgeshire *Carter. History of the County of Cambridge [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jXpbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Babington. Ancient Cambridgeshire [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DPrCAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Devon *Ravenhill and Rowe. Devon Maps and Map-makers [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tjf2yAEACAAJ] *Wright. A Plea for a Devonshire Bibliography. 1885 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8ZUDAAAAQAAJ] Derbyshire *Woore. A Catalogue of Local Maps of Derbyshire, C.1528-1800. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oWmCMwEACAAJ] *O'Neal. A Bibliography of Derbyshire Lead Mining. 1961 Essex *Cunnington. Catalogue of Books, Maps and Manuscripts, relating to or connected with the County of Essex. 1902 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oIcqpibGE4MC] *"The Bibliography of Essex" (1882) 1 Antiquarian Magazine & Bibliographer [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dEkEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA72#v=onepage&q&f=false 72]. See also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dEkEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA283#v=onepage&q&f=false p 283]. *"The Bibliography of Essex" (1891) 5 The Essex Naturalist 30 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iIo1AQAAMAAJ] *Moon. Essex Literature. 1900. Review: 61 Literary World 438 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2T0ZAAAAYAAJ] See also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Y4UAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=C_pEAAAAMAAJ] *Fenn and Lowery, "An Essex Bibliography", Journal of the South West Essex Technical College, vols 2 & 3 *Victoria County History bibliography. 1959 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2EJAQAAIAAJ] *O'Leary, John Gerard. A Supplement to the Essex Bibliography. Dagenham. 1962. *A Bibliography of Essex Archaeology & History *Essex and Dagenham: A Catalogue of Books, Pamphlets and Maps. Dagenham. 1961 *Essex Archaeology and History: The Transactions of the Essex Society for Archaeological and History [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CtFAAAAAYAAJ] *Essex Naturalist: Being the Journal of the Essex Field Club *Wright. The History and Topography of the County of Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SgQVAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP9#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ogborne, The History of Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IeVSAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Suckling. Memorials of the Antiquities and Architecture, Family History and Heraldry of the County of Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bcw_AAAAcAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hunter, The Essex Landscape: A Study of Its Form and History [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=w9kWAQAAIAAJ] *Cambridge County Geography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GPHa_X_0qo0C&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Sokoll. Essex  Pauper Letters, 1731-1837 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rCLia7XlqtMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Morant. The History and Antiquities of Colchester in the County of Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DDgtAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP9#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Wallen. The History and Antiquities of the Round Church at Little Maplestead, Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FPYVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kent *Smith. Bibliotheca Cantiana. 1837. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1dJDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP11#v=onepage&q&f=false] Leicestershire *Kirkby, C V (compiler). Catalogue of the books, pamphlets, &c., relating to Leicestershire in the Central Reference Library. Leicester Free Public Libraries. 1893. Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3boqAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA84#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UcHnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA728#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Leicestershire and Rutland Bibliography, 1963-65 (1966) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-OhVAAAAYAAJ 40] Leicestershire Archaeological and Historical Society: Transactions (1964/5) 92. Available as pdf from University of Leicester. *Leicestershire and Rutland Bibliography, 1961-63. Available as pdf from University of Leicester. *Leicestershire and Rutland Bibliography, 1960-61. Available as pdf from University of Leicester. *A Bibliography of the Small Towns in Leicestershire and Rutland, 1600–1850. (Dissertation). [https://repository.lboro.ac.uk/articles/educational_resource/A_bibliography_of_the_small_towns_in_Leicestershire_and_Rutland_1600_1850/9414200] *Loughborough's Heritage: A Bibliography of the Holdings of Leicestershire Libraries and Information Service and Record Office. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Bwx2zgEACAAJ] *Keith Ambrose and Frank Williams, "Bibliography of the Geology of Leicestershire and Rutland: Part 2: 1971-2003" (2004) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=U-tQAQAAIAAJ 16] The Mercian Geologist 5. Available as pdf from East Midlands Geological Society. *Parsons and Brandwood. A Bibliography of Leicestershire Churches. 1978. *Education in Leicestershire: A Bibliography. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X6EfzQEACAAJ] Sussex *Brent, Fletcher and McCann. Sussex in the 16th and 17th Centuries: A Bibliography. 2nd Ed [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I7UtAAAAYAAJ] *Farrant. Sussex in the 18th and 19th Centuries: A Bibliography. 1st Ed: 1973, 2nd Ed: 1977 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MLUtAAAAYAAJ], 3rd Ed: 1979 ==France== Bibliography: *Bibliographie de la France. Commentary: Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science, vol 37, supplement 2, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=10rgjNvOV8oC&pg=PA145#v=onepage&q&f=false p 145]; The Bookseller, 6 January 1881, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4dsiAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA10#v=onepage&q&f=false p 10]; Stein, Manuel de bibliographie générale, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lJYPyKjV1qYC&pg=PA23#v=onepage&q&f=false p 23]. *Girault de Saint-Fargeau. Bibliographie historique et topographique de la France. 1845 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kClB9CQNZoMC&pg=PP9#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Catalogue d'une collection d'ouvrages sur l'histoire des provinces de la France. 1842 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qQBX5WZouzAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Landscape: *Beaujeu-Garnier. France. (The World's Landscapes). 1975. [https://books.google.com/books?id=nwxDAQAAIAAJ] Agenais: *Andrieu. Bibliographie générale de l’Agenais et des parties du Condomois et du Bazadais. 1886 to 1891. Reprinted 1969. Alsace: *Ristelhuber. Bibliographie alsacienne. 1869 to 1873 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mhLAQAAMAAJ&pg=PP13#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Bibliographie alsacienne: Revue critique des publications concernant l'Alsace. 1918 to 1936 *Ritter. Répertoire bibliographique des livres imprimés en Alsace aux XVe et XVIe siècles [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DewaAQAAMAAJ] Angoumois: *Castaigne. Essai d'une bibliothèque historique de l'Angoumois, ou Catalogue raisonné des principaux ouvrages qui traitent des différentes branches de l'histoire de cette province. 1847 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R-UanmmlvAEC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] Anjou: *Braguier and Braguier. Archéologie en Anjou: bibliographie. 1984 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LvsmAQAAIAAJ] Auvergne: *Gonot. Catalogue des ouvrages imprimés et manuscrits concernant l'Auvergne, extrait du catalogue général de la Bibliotlèque de Clermont-Fd (Puy-de-Dome). 1849. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yCFtbObRCbUC&pg=PP13#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Catalogue des livres et estampes concernant l'ancienne Province d'Auvergne (Puy-de-Dôme, Cantal, Haute-Loire) réunis par feu M. G. Desbouis. 1865. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ui4S8_D0N74C&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] Béarn *"Bibliographie Béarnaise", Revue de Pau et du Béarn [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FuZnAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FQYqvPo9D9IC&pg=PA158#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RL9VAAAAYAAJ] Brittany *Sacher. Bibliographie de la Bretagne, ou Catalogue général des ouvrages historiques, littéraires et scientifiques parus sur la Bretagne, avec la liste des revues publiées en cette province, les prix approximatifs des volumes rares, etc. 1881 [https://archive.org/details/bibliographiede00sach] Burgundy: *Milsand. Bibliographie bourguignonne; ou, Catalogue méthodique d'ouvrages relatifs à la Bourgogne: Sciences - Arts - Histoire. 1885 [https://archive.org/details/bibliographiebo00milsgoog] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographiebo00sciegoog] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CxIIAAAAQAAJ] *Catalogue des manuscrits de la Bibliothèque royale des ducs de Bourgogne. 1842 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX5MAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *The Companion Guide to Burgundy [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NraRP0AkDT0C&pg=PP3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lecat. The Golden Book of Burgundy. (The Golden Book) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FyzR9qU1Zl4C&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Gwynn. Burgundy: With Chapters on the Jura and Savoy. (Kitbag Travel Books). 1935 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ny1LAAAAMAAJ] *Bazin. Wonderful Burgundy. 1988. 1997 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Yt1CRdICWCUC] *Bailey. Burgundy. (Insight Guides). 1993 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q69a1dMW2NQC] *Dunlop. Burgundy. Hamilton.1990 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S_1OAAAAMAAJ] Champagne: *Lhermitte. Ouvrages sur la Champagne: contribution à la bibliographie champenoise. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jbPfAAAAMAAJ] Dauphiné: *Mélanges biographiques et bibliographiques relatifs à l'histoire littéraire du Dauphiné par Colomb de Batines et Ollivier Jules. 1837 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2F5MAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Lorraine: *Bibliographie lorraine. Académie nationale de Metz [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n-DfAAAAMAAJ] Maine: *Desportes. Bibliographie du Maine, précédée de la description topographique et hydrographique du diocése du Mans, Sarthe et Mayenne. 1844. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hSk-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Normandy: *Frère. Manuel du bibliographe Normand ou dictionnaire bibliographique et historique. 1858 to 1860. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dp6geJClg1YC&pg=PP13#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1] ==Japan== Bibliography and literature *Hideo Kaneko. "Japanese Literature and Bibliography". Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds). Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Marcel Dekker. 1977. vol 21. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H1pNvzr_n98C&pg=PA131#v=onepage&q&f=false 131] to 176. Bibliography *Jozef Rogala. A Collector's Guide to Books on Japan in English: An Annotated List of Over 2500 Titles with Subject Index. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7KI9ao-w2FEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ria Koopmans-de Bruijn. Area Bibliography of Japan. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies). Scarecrow Press. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hlx2OMjgUi0C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Frank Joseph Shulman. Japan. (World Bibliographical Series, vol 103). Clio Press. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LsoUAQAAIAAJ] *Eibun Nihon Kankei Tosho Mokuroku, 1945-1981. (Japanese: 英文日本関係図書目録, 1945-1981). (English: Catalogue of Books in English on Japan, 1945-1981). Japan Foundation. Tokyo. 1986. *Japan: analytical bibliography: with supplementary research aids: and selected data on Okinawa . . . Department of the Army. Washington. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h4d4nYxrxtMC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Books on Japan in Western Languages. The International Christian University Library. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2bQAAAAMAAJ] *Books on Japan: A List of Acquisitions, 1955-1970. International House of Japan Library. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F8sWAQAAIAAJ] *Fukuda. Union Catalog of Books on Japan in Western Languages. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HKYyAQAAIAAJ] *A Classified List of Books in Western Languages Relating to Japan. University of Tokyo Press. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=U8MUAQAAIAAJ] *Katsuji Yabuki (ed). Japan Bibliographic Annual. Published by the Hokuseido Press for the Japan Writers Society. 1956 and 1957. **Japan Bibliographic Annual 1956. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9XLQAAAAMAAJ] **Japan Bibliographic Annual 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vesSAAAAIAAJ]. Reviews: (1957) 13 Monumenta Nipponica 166 (April-July) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8S1yb-iwrOwC] (1957) 25 The Oriental Economist 212 (April) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QELoAAAAMAAJ] *Haring. Books on Japan: A Reference List. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RbDoAAAAMAAJ] *Borton. A Selected List of Books and Articles on Japan in English, French, and German. 1940: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YYIsAAAAYAAJ]. Revised and enlarged. Harvard University Press. 1954: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F8O2VwJUPUkC]. **A Selected List of Books on Japan in Western Languages (1945-1960). (Studies on Asia Abroad, vol 1). The Information Centre of Asian Studies, The Toyo Bunko. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i1_QAAAAMAAJ] *Oskar Nachod. Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0001oska/page/n8/mode/1up vol 1]. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/n6/mode/1up vol 2]. *Fr. von Wenckstern. A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire: being a Classified List of All Books, Essays and Maps in European Languages relating to Dai Nihon (Great Japan) published in Europe, America and in the East from 1859-93 . . . 1895. vol 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v7lO4ddqDywC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Volume 2, from 1894 to the middle of 1906. 1907. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/n6/mode/1up] *Hyman Kublin. What Shall I Read on Japan? An Introductory Guide. Japan Society, New York. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yRRUAAAAYAAJ] Japanese studies *An Introductory Bibliography for Japanese Studies. The Japan Foundation. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=53O6AAAAIAAJ] *Richard Perren. Japanese Studies from Pre-History to 1990: A Bibliographical Guide. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CN9RAQAAIAAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. "Bibliographies" at pp 1 to 3. *K.B.S. Bibliography of Standard Reference Books for Japanese Studies, with Descriptive Notes. University of Tokyo Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=95wbAAAAMAAJ] *[[w:en:Monumenta Nipponica|Monumenta Nipponica]] *[[w:en:Japan Forum|Japan Forum]]. British Association for Japanese Studies. [https://www.tandfonline.com/journals/rjfo20] *Japanese Studies. Japanese Studies Association of Australia. ISSN 1037-1397. [https://www.tandfonline.com/journals/cjst20] *[[w:en:The Journal of Japanese Studies|The Journal of Japanese Studies]]. University of California Press. *Nichibunken Newsletter. [[w:en:International Research Center for Japanese Studies|International Research Center for Japanese Studies]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5TnjAAAAMAAJ] [https://www.nichibun.ac.jp/en/publications/data/news/] [https://newsletter.nichibun.ac.jp/en/] History and culture *John W Dower. Japanese History & Culture from Ancient to Modern Times: Seven Basic Bibliographies. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NX67AAAAIAAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. "Bibliographies & Research Guides" at chapter 6. Research guides *Mindy L Kotler. Information Gathering on Japan: A Primer. Search Associates. 1988. ISBN 9780962546006. Catalogue: [https://search.worldcat.org/zh-cn/title/Information-gathering-on-Japan-Joho-:-a-primer/oclc/20530148]. Review: (1989) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NZLiAAAAMAAJ 27] Choice 82 Encyclopedias See also [[w:ja:Japanese encyclopedias]] *Louis Frédéric. [[w:Japan Encyclopedia|Japan Encyclopedia]]. Translated by Käthe Roth. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p2QnPijAEmEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Louis Frédéric. Le Japon: Dictionnaire et Civilisation. Robert Lafont. Paris. 1996. ISBN 2-221-06764-9. *Japan: An Illustrated Encyclopedia. Kodansha. 1993. **Japan: Profile of a Nation. Kodansha. 1995. Revised Edition. 1999. *[[w:Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan|Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan]]. 1983. Supplement. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WvApAQAAMAAJ] *Dorothy Perkins. Encyclopedia of Japan: Japanese History and Culture, from Abacus to Zori. Facts on File. A Roundtable Press Book. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JLKGAAAAIAAJ] *Pictorial Encyclopedia of Modern Japan. Gakken. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0FgKAQAAIAAJ] *Boye Layfayette De Mente. Japan Encyclopedia. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=f9c7AAAAMAAJ] **Boye De Mente. Everything Japanese. [The Authoritave Reference on Japan Today]. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Duku89bARgoC] Biographical dictionaries *Wispelway. Japanese Biographical Index [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4UkhAAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Seiichi Iwao. Biographical Dictionary of Japanese History. Kodansha International. 1978.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TkQOAQAAMAAJ] *Senʼichi Hisamatsu. Biographical Dictionary of Japanese Literature. Kodansha International. 1976. [https://books.google.com/books?id=X3lkAAAAMAAJ] *Yutaka Tazawa (ed). Biographical Dictionary of Japanese Art. Kodansha International. 1981. [https://books.google.com/books?id=7ozrAAAAMAAJ] *Japan Biographical Encyclopedia & Who's Who. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lV_VAAAAMAAJ 25] Contemporary Japan 280 **Japan Biographical Encyclopedia & Who's Who (2nd Edition) 1961. The Japan Biographical Research Department, The Rengo Press Ltd. Preface dated October 1960. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-SZSAAAAMAAJ] ***1961 Supplement. December 1961. *Shunjiro Kurita. Who's Who in Japan. [https://archive.org/details/WhosWhoInJapan1913/page/n24/mode/1up 2nd Ed]. Reference books *Nihon No Sanko Tosho. Volume 1: 1965. Volume 2: 1972. **Guide to Japanese Reference Books. American Library Association. Chicago. 1966: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0rflAAAAMAAJ]. Supplement. 1979: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j05_F9OHzkQC]. Commentary: Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science, vol 21, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H1pNvzr_n98C&pg=PA149#v=onepage&q&f=false p 149]. Media *[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-15217593 Japan media guide]. News. BBC. 20 March 2023. *Masaaki Kasagi. Mass Media in Japan. (Orientation seminars on Japan, number 14). 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=odkgAAAAIAAJ] *Routledge Handbook of Japanese Media [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zilKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Publishers *[https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/international/international-book-news/article/99729-get-to-know-these-japanese-publishing-companies.html Get to Know These Japanese Publishing Companies]. Publishers Weekly. 20 February 2026. Press and journalism *[https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/digital-news-report/2025/japan Japan]. Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism. 17 June 2025. *Marjane Aalam and Philippe Régnier. The Japanese Press and Information System. The Graduate Institute of International Studies. Geneva. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RTcbAQAAIAAJ] *The Japanese Press: Past and Present. Japan Newspaper Publishers' and Editors' Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5tcQAAAAIAAJ 1949]. *Anthony Rausch. Japanese Journalism and the Japanese Newspaper: A Supplemental Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mZrToQEACAAJ] *Frank L Martin. The Journalism of Japan. 1918. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ruYzAQAAMAAJ] *William De Lange. A History of Japanese Journalism. Japan Library. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Rd5tb0cuz8QC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kanesada Hanazono. The Development of Japanese Journalism. Osaka. 1924. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z99ZAAAAMAAJ] *Kanesada Hanazono. Journalism in Japan and Its Early Pioneers. 1926. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IGTFfLc4bq0C] *César Castellvi. A Sociology of Journalism in Japan: The Last Empire of the Press. 2024. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=a2z8EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false] *"Japan". Christopher H Sterling (ed). Encyclopedia of Journalism. A Sage Reference Publication. 2009. ISBN 9780761929574. vol 3. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZQhDq8fPj2IC&pg=PA809#v=onepage&q&f=false 809] to 815. Press annuals *The Japanese Press. (Nihon Shinbun Kyokai). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AfvyAAAAMAAJ 1979] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Au3yAAAAMAAJ 1998] Summaries of the press *Daily Summary of Japanese Press Foreign correspondents *Foreign Correspondents in Japan: Reporting a Half Century of Upheavals, from 1945 to the Present. Tuttle. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YI3TAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Periodicals *G Raymond Nunn (comp). Japanese Periodicals and Newspapers in Western Languages: An International Union List. Mansell. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEROAQAAIAAJ] *Japan Periodicals. Keizai Koho Center. 3rd Ed [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ATm0AAAAIAAJ]. Japan Periodicals, 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PkMyAAAAMAAJ] *Japanese Periodicals Index **Humanities and Social Sciences [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nXX_RpPGf3AC] **Natural Sciences [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FCJIAAAAYAAJ] *Current Japanese Periodicals [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FjO5AAAAIAAJ] *Check-list of Japanese Periodicals Held in British University and Research Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VZgsAAAAYAAJ] *Union List of Current Japanese Periodicals in the East Asian Libraries of Columbia, Harvard, Princeton, and Yale Universities. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yw7kAAAAMAAJ] *List of Japanese Periodicals in the Library of the School of Oriental & African Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RREjAQAAIAAJ] *Gianni Simone. [https://www.japantimes.co.jp/community/2011/04/26/issues/english-mags-approach-milestone-crossroads/ English mags approach milestone, crossroads]. The Japan Times. 26 April 2011. *Japan Report (1955 onwards) (Consulate General of Japan, Japan Information Center). Vol 39 published in 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MX4BN_frv4IC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] editions:jYuMSMIQC-AC **Japan Information *Japan Now [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nul7DRQaexMC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Japan Quarterly. (Asahi Shimbun). 1954 to 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nZMMAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_RwVAAAAMAAJ] 189 issues. *Japan Illustrated: The Japan Times Quarterly [Pictorial] Magazine (October 1963 to Summer 1977) 15 vols [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=D7UThOmE8T4C] *[[w:Japan Spotlight|Japan Spotlight]]. Economy, Culture & History: Japan Spotlight: Bimonthly. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i7C0AAAAIAAJ] *Focus Japan. (Japan External Trade Organization, JETRO). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2fG2hsEZpRkC] *The Japan Journal [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2V3hAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CJwoAQAAMAAJ] *Japan Magazine. Muromachi Publicity Corporation. (vols 1 to 5: 1957 to 1963). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Swd18PnVeUgC] *The Japan Magazine: A Representative Monthly of Things Japanese [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ubGKo-p6O_0C] [https://archive.org/details/jm-1914-v4.9-5.2/mode/1up] *Transactions and Proceedings of the Japan Society, London [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B75nnph5qHgC&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Bulletin. [Bulletin of the Japan Society, London.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pd9KvyhnpjMC] **The Japan Society of London Bulletin [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XxlxAAAAMAAJ] *About Japan. Japan Society, New York. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nf5OAQAAIAAJ] **News Bulletin [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_QcA3AQAAIAAJ/page/n2/mode/1up] *[[w:en:Metropolis (free magazine)|Metropolis]] (metropolisjapan.com) *[[w:en:Tokyo Weekender|Tokyo Weekender]] (トーキョー・ウィークエンダー) [https://www.tokyoweekender.com/japan-life/news-and-opinion/nhk-world-features-the-tokyo-weekender-magazine/] *The Japan Gazette [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WSopAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *The Tokio Times [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UDfiFBu0vB4C&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *[[w:en:Look Japan|Look Japan]]. (Look Japan Ltd). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QnO6AAAAIAAJ]. Commentary: Gale Directory of Publications and Broadcast Media [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ve4dAQAAMAAJ] *[[w:en:Japan Echo|Japan Echo]]. 1974 to 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Cmq6AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fpmEPpl-85UC] *PHP Intersect. (Where Japan Meets Asia and the World). PHP Institute. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i74TAQAAMAAJ] **Intersect Japan [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sL8TAQAAMAAJ] *Japan Digest [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8AcOAQAAMAAJ] *Speaking of Japan [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=U7S0AAAAIAAJ]. [Speeches.] *The Hansei Zasshi: A Monthly Magazine [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6qBhfHZo7Q0C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false][https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dyIsvnYjpwEC&pg=PP6#v=onepage&q&f=false] **The Orient. 1899 onwards [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nS1omYYnnd4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Today's Japan. Orient/West Incorporated. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g2ASAAAAMAAJ] *Japan Review: Bulletin of the International Research Center for Japanese Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GggOAQAAMAAJ] *[https://www.bloomberg.com/account/newsletters/next-japan Next Japan]. Bloomberg. *Niponica. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X2scKgfQS5oC] Newspapers See also [[w:List of newspapers in Japan]] *Haruhara Akihiko, "English-language newspapers in Japan" (1994) 41 Japan Quarterly [https://www.proquest.com/openview/8e2b760f2a2fa37ba164ea675c095353/1 474] (Issue 4: October 1994) *James Charles Tanner. English Language Newspapers in Bakumatsu Japan. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Bn2zgzZy_3oC] *[https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2009/03/03/reference/newspapers-here-soldiering-on/ Newspapers here soldiering on]. The Japan Times. 3 March 2009. *[[w:The Japan Times|The Japan Times]] **The Japan Times: Weekly Edition [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KoQ-AQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yYQ-AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Japan Daily Mail *Japan Weekly Mail *The Japan Chronicle **Weekly Edition [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vXdRAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *The Japan News. (The Japan News by The Yomiuri Shimbun) **Yomiuri Japan News (from 1955) **The Yomiuri (from 1958) **The Daily Yomiuri (from 1970) *The Asahi Shimbun: Asia & Japan Watch. [https://www.asahi.com/sp/ajw/] **Asahi Evening News (from 1954) ***Tokyo Evening News (1952 to 1954) [https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/books/R100000002-I000000145073] *The Mainichi. [https://mainichi.jp/english/] **Mainichi Daily News (1922 to 2001) [https://www.nytimes.com/2001/02/27/business/worldbusiness/IHT-tech-briefstop-the-presses.html] [https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/books/R100000002-I000000144910] Sports newspapers; sports dailies *Louise do Rosario, "News-stand stars" in "Japan" (1992) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T_GzAAAAIAAJ 155] [[w:en:Far Eastern Economic Review|Far Eastern Economic Review]], 24 to 31 December 1992, p 21 *[[w:ja:岡崎満義|Mitsuyoshi Okazaki]], "Unsportsmanlike Journalism: Japan's sports dailies may be popular, but are they sporting?" in "Sport", [[w:en:Look Japan|Look Japan]], [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lD3tAAAAMAAJ January 1995], p 39 News *[[w:en:Japan Today|Japan Today]] (ジャパントゥデイ). GPlusMedia. Gakken Holdings. Annuals and year books *This is Japan. Asahi Shimbun. 1954 to 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2X9DAQAAIAAJ]. Commentary: A Victorian Sailor's Grave in the Seto Inland Sea, p 244 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OegkAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA244#v=onepage&q&f=false] *The Japan Year Book. The Japan Year Book Office. 1905 onwards. [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_arFPAAAAMAAJ/page/n10/mode/1up 1906]. [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.553496/page/n27/mode/1up 1915]. *The "Japan Gazette" Japan Year Book. The Japan Gazette. [https://archive.org/details/japan-year-book-1913-1914/page/n15/mode/1up 1913-14] *The Japan Times Year Book *New Japan. Mainichi Newspapers. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gRFCAQAAIAAJ] Almanacs *Asahi Shimbun Japan Almanac. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SEEEAQAAIAAJ 1995]. *Japan Almanac. (The Mainichi Newspapers). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ufAIAQAAIAAJ 1972]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X4eXWRkbtFsC 1973]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7rMrAAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=krMrAAAAIAAJ] *[[w:Boyé Lafayette De Mente|Boye De Mente]]. Passport's Japan Almanac. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=741wAAAAMAAJ] General *Japan: A Country Study. (Area Handbook series). 4th Ed: 1983: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HkM5N3JNc5IC]. 5th Ed: 1992: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ze-wupXxpvEC] *Area Handbook for Japan. 2nd Ed: 1964: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WucdAAAAMAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 3rd Ed: 1974: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LG2aoq1U_eoC&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] (DA Pam 550-30). *Colin Simpson. Picture of Japan. **Japan: An Intimate View. A S Barnes. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3hkeAAAAMAAJ] **This is Japan. Angus & Robertson. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HJEJAQAAIAAJ] *Japan. (The World and Its Peoples). Greystone Press, New York. 1964. Volume 1: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yysUAQAAMAAJ]. Volume 2 "Japan Korea", including Korea: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQAUAQAAMAAJ]. See pp 1 to 375 for Japan, and pp 376 to 379 for Ryukyu and Bonin Islands. *Japan. (World and its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia, volume 8). Marshall Cavendish. 2008. ISBN 9780761476412. *Edward Seidensticker. This Country, Japan. Kodansha International. 1979. ISBN 9780870112294. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=88wwAQAAIAAJ] *Hall and Beardsley. Twelve Doors to Japan. McGraw-Hill. New York. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0KpxAAAAMAAJ] *"Japan". Louis Barron (ed). "Asia & Australasia". Moshe Y Sachs (ed and pub). Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations. Worldmark Press, Inc. Harper & Row New York. 1963. pp 145 to 160. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I0oYAQAAMAAJ] **"Japan". Asia & Oceania. 7th Ed: 1988. ISBN 0-471 62406-3. vol 4. pp 153 to 168. **"Japan". Asia & Oceania. 8th Ed: 1995. Gale Research Inc. ISBN 0-8103-9882-6. vol 4. pp 203 to 220. *James E Hoare. "Japan". East and Southeast Asia. The World Today Series 2023–2024. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3GfQEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA107#v=onepage&q&f=false 107] to 133. *Japan. (Library of Nations). Time Life Books. 1985. ISBN 0809453347. ISBN 0705408485. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P1NJwcWAnboC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ui2CvuyM4JkC] Handbooks *Patrick Heenan (ed). The Japan Handbook. (Regional Handbooks of Economic Development). 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IMG2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Introduction *Introducing Japan Through Books: A Selected Bibliography. Public Information Bureau, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Japan. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FvsyAQAAIAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vj0XAQAAMAAJ]. *Donald Ritchie. Introducing Japan. 1st Ed: 1978. Revised Ed: 1986. 6th printing: 1989: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FE-nxxoKayQC]. 2nd Revised Ed: 1990. 2nd printing: 1991: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hz4UAQAAIAAJ]. 1994: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FMvT6m4SgIQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Herschel Webb. An Introduction to Japan. Columbia University Press. 2nd Ed: 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YQ8MAQAAIAAJ]. *Introducing Modern Japan. A publication of the Japan Information and Culture Center, Embassy of Japan. Today and yesterday *Ray Downs. Japan Yesterday and Today. Praeger Publishers. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PwKxAAAAIAAJ] Today *Roger Buckley. Japan Today. Cambridge University Press. 3rd Ed [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=thyqBtJp2DcC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Contemporary *Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Japan. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yfH3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2011#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Duncan McCargo. Contemporary Japan. 3rd Ed: 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8I5KEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jeff Kingston. Contemporary Japan: History, Politics, and Social Change since the 1980s. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=enJQZA3R4FMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [Series] *Routledge Contemporary Japan Series Modern *Hugh Cortazzi. Modern Japan: A Concise Survey. Palgrave Macmillan. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Cf--DAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] The Japanese *Peter Tasker. The Japanese: Portrait of a Nation. 1989 [https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1N8ld78wwQC] **The Japanese: A Major Exploration of Modern Japan. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CW-6AAAAIAAJ] **Inside Japan: Wealth, Work and Power in the New Japanese Empire. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2OJuAAAAMAAJ] *Edwin O Reischauer. The Japanese. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zrEqAAAAYAAJ] *Edwin O Reischauer and Marius B Jansen. The Japanese Today: Change and Continuity. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BTPNlLIy2soC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japaneseness *Ray T. Donahue (ed). Exploring Japaneseness: On Japanese Enactments of Culture and Consciousness. Ablex Publishing. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V_NwAAAAMAAJ] *Yoji Yamakuse. Japaneseness: A Guide to Values and Virtues. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tB0iDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Travel books *DK Eyewitness Travel: Japan. Reprinted with revisions. 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g2NaBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vg15DQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Dodd and Richmond. The Rough Guide to Japan. 2nd Ed: 2001: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pRGq95ytWZoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Frommer's Japan. 5th Ed: 2000: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-QC8mVyvPa8C]. *Fodor's Japan YYYY. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aH2Ow27HUQ0C 1986]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gTTf6nbv20C 1987]. 1988. **Fodor's YY Japan. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9QMHllzldlYC 91]. 92. 93. **Fodor's Japan. 13th Ed: 1996: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cZxZAAAAYAAJ] *The New Official Guide: Japan. Japan Travel Bureau. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HoxxAAAAMAAJ] *Here is Japan. Asahi Broadcasting Corporation. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8QXRCTMNG7MC] *Japan. (Nagel Travel Guide Series, vol 32). 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QsbXAAAAMAAJ] *Clark. All the Best in Japan: with Manila, Hong Kong, and Macao. ("All the Best" series). 1959. Reprinted 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yUq4YaaryrwC]. Reviews: [https://archive.dartmouthalumnimagazine.com/article/1958/6/1/all-the-best-in-japan] (1958) 110 Travel 51 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UVwXAQAAMAAJ] 3 Bulletin of the Japan Society, London, No 11: June 1960, p 25 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oy74hRRXk4C] **All the Best in Japan and the Orient. 1967. Night *Taizo Fujimoto. The Nightside of Japan. T Werner Laurie. Essex Street, Strand, London. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/nightsideofjapan00fujirich/page/n6/mode/1up] Exhibitions *Patricia Morison. "Fun and games with Japanese angst". The Financial Times. Weekend 21/22 September 1991. No 31562. Section II: "Weekend FT". Weekend 21/22 September 1991. Page xx. ["Visions of Japan" exhibition, Victoria and Albert Musuem, ending 5 January 1992.] Languages See [[Universal Bibliography/Languages/Japanese|Japanese]] Literature See [[Universal Bibliography/Literature#Japanese|Japanese literature]] Music See [[Universal Bibliography/Music#Japanese and Japan|Music of Japan]] Cinema See [[Universal Bibliography/Cinema#Japanese|Cinema of Japan]] Television See [[Universal Bibliography/Television#Japanese|Japanese television]] Culture See [[Universal Bibliography/Culture#Japanese|Culture of Japan]] ==Korea== *Korea Journal [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O6XfBexsp6gC] Bibliography and literature *Thomas H Kang. "Korean Literature and Bibliography". Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds). Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Marcel Dekker. 1977. vol 21. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H1pNvzr_n98C&pg=PA176#v=onepage&q&f=false 176] to 240. [[Category:Countries]] kt7dbmmcpgaklfcc01xz48hnc31azuv 0 305491 2840706 2840552 2026-10-16T14:45:27Z ~2026-53155-18 3112031 /* */ 2840706 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Dynamic List}} {| class="wikitable" !Generation !Mccrindle !Pew !Strauss-Howe !Japanese Traditional Generations !GenWHY |- |Arthurian | rowspan="19" |N/A | rowspan="19" |N/A |1433-1460 (28) | | |- |Humanist |1461-1482 (22) | | |- |Reformation |1483-1511 (29) | | |- |Reprisal |1512-1540 (29) | | |- |Elizabethan |1541-1565 (25) | | |- |Parliamentary |1566-1587 (22) | | |- |Puritan |1588-1617 (30) | | |- |Cavalier |1618-1647 (30) | | |- |Glorious |1648-1673 (26) | | |- |Enlightenment |1674-1700 (27) | | |- |Awakening |1701-1723 (23) | | |- |Liberty |1724-1741 (18) | | |- |Republican |1742-1766 (25) | | |- |Compromise |1767-1791 (25) | | |- |Transcendental |1792-1821 (30) | | |- |Gilded |1822-1842 (21) | | |- |Progressive |1843-1859 (17) | | |- |Missionary |1860-1882 (23) |明治一桁世代 (Meiji Hitoketa Sedai) 1868-1876 (9) | |- |Lost |1883-1900 (18) |明治二桁世代 (Meiji Futaketa Sedai) 1877-1911 (35) | |- |G.I. |?-1924 |?-1927 |1901-1924 (24) |大正世代 (Taisho Sedai) 1912-1925 (14) |?-1927 |- |Silent |1925-1945 (21) |1928-1945 (18) |1925-1942 (18) |昭和一桁世代 (Showa Hitoketa Sedai) 1926-1934 (9) 焼け跡世代 (Yakeato Sedai) 1935-1946 (12) |1928-1945 (18) |- |Baby Boom |1946-1964 (19) |1946-1964 (19) |1943-1960 (18) |団塊世代 (Dankai "Boomer" Sedai) 1947-1950 (4) - cusp しらけ世代 (Shirake Sedai) 1951-1964 (14) |1946-1965 (20) |- |Generation X |1965-1979 (15) |1965-1980 (16) |1961-1981 (21) |バブル世代 (Baburu "Bubble" Sedai) 1965-1970 (6) - cusp 氷河期世代* (Hyougakki "Ice Age" Sedai) 1971-1981 (11) |1966-1985 (20) |- |Millennial |1980-1994 (15) |1981-1996 (16) |1982-2005 (24) |プレッシャー世代 (Puresshaa "Pressure" Sedai) 1982-1986 (5) - cusp ゆとり世代 (Yutori Sedai) 1987-1996 (10) |1986-2005 (20) |- |Generation Z |1995-2009 (15) |1997-2012 (16) |2006-2029 (24) |脱ゆとり・さとり世代 (Datsu Yutori / Satori Sedai) 1997-2002 (6) - cusp コロナ世代** (Korona "COVID" Sedai) 2001-2014 (14) |2006-2025 (20) |- |Generation Alpha |2010-2024 (15) |2013-? |2030-? |TBD |2026-? |- |Generation Beta |2025-2039 (15) |TBD |TBD |TBD |TBD |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> = This can further be divided up into 団塊ジュニア世代 (Dankai Jr. "Boomer Jr." Sedai) (early 1970s) and the rest ポスト団塊ジュニア世代 (Post Dankai Jr. Sedai) (late 1970s-1981) <nowiki>**</nowiki> = (As of 2024) it is generally accepted as someone who was 5 (turning 6) to 19 years old in 2020 (start of COVID-19 pandemic), which likely affected their school years (K-12 and university). According to a 2022 survey from Japanese high school students, they considered themselves as コロナ世代. (However, it won't be confirmed until c. 2032 when all of them are 18 or older to see if this name stays). In the context of working, however, it can be defined as 1998-2006 (age 18-26 in 2024). This is because during the COVID pandemic (2020-2024), they became adults and were in university during part or all of this time period. There is also a chance that this could be the last Japanese traditional generation name because Japanese people are beginning to use the English generation names (e.g., Z世代・α世代). {| class="wikitable" ! rowspan="2" |Birth year range ! colspan="5" |English Generation !Japanese Generation |- !McCrindle !Pew !Strauss-Howe ! colspan="2" |Summary ! |- |1433-1460 | rowspan="23" |N/A | rowspan="25" |N/A |Arthurian | colspan="2" |Arthurian | rowspan="18" |N/A |- |1461-1482 |Humanist | colspan="2" |Humanist |- |1483-1511 |Reformation | colspan="2" |Reformation |- |1512-1540 |Reprisal | colspan="2" |Reprisal |- |1541-1565 |Elizabethan | colspan="2" |Elizabethan |- |1566-1587 |Parliamentary | colspan="2" |Parliamentary |- |1588-1617 |Puritan | colspan="2" |Puritan |- |1618-1647 |Cavalier | colspan="2" |Cavalier |- |1648-1673 |Glorious | colspan="2" |Glorious |- |1674-1700 |Enlightenment | colspan="2" |Enlightenment |- |1701-1723 |Awakening | colspan="2" |Awakening |- |1724-1741 |Liberty | colspan="2" |Liberty |- |1742-1766 |Republican | colspan="2" |Republican |- |1767-1791 |Compromise | colspan="2" |Compromise |- |1792-1821 |Transcendental | colspan="2" |Transcendental |- |1822-1842 |Gilded | colspan="2" |Gilded |- |1843-1859 |Progressive | colspan="2" |Progressive |- |1860-1867 | rowspan="3" |Missionary | colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Missionary |- |1868-1876 |明治一桁世代 (Meiji Hitoketa Sedai) |- |1877-1882 | rowspan="3" |明治二桁世代 (Meiji Futaketa Sedai) |- |1883-1900 |Lost | colspan="2" |Lost |- |1901-1911 | rowspan="2" |G.I. | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |G.I |- |1912-1924 | rowspan="2" |大正世代 (Taisho Sedai) |- |1925 | rowspan="5" |Builder | rowspan="4" |Silent | rowspan="2" |G.I | rowspan="2" |Silent |- |1926-1927 | rowspan="2" |昭和一桁世代 (Showa Hitoketa Sedai) |- |1928-1934 | rowspan="3" |Silent | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Silent |- |1935-1942 | rowspan="3" |焼け跡世代 (Yakeato Sedai) |- |1943-1945 | rowspan="4" |Baby Boom |Silent |Baby Boom |- |1946 | rowspan="4" |Baby Boom | rowspan="4" |Baby Boom | colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Baby Boom |- |1947-1950 |団塊世代 (Dankai "Boomer" Sedai) |- |1951-1960 | rowspan="2" |しらけ世代 (Shirake Sedai) |- |1961-1964 | rowspan="5" |Generation X |Baby Boom |Generation X |- |1965-1970 | rowspan="2" |Generation X | rowspan="3" |Generation X | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Generation X |バブル世代 (Baburu "Bubble" Sedai) |- |1971-1979 | rowspan="3" |氷河期世代* (Hyougakki "Ice Age" Sedai) |- |1980 | rowspan="4" |Generation Y | rowspan="2" |Generation X | rowspan="2" |Millennial |- |1981 | rowspan="4" |Millennial |- |1982-1986 | rowspan="5" |Millennial | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Millennial |プレッシャー世代 (Puresshaa "Pressure" Sedai) |- |1987-1994 | rowspan="2" |ゆとり世代 (Yutori Sedai) |- |1995-1996 | rowspan="4" |Generation Z | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" |Generation Z |- |1997-2002 | rowspan="4" |Generation Z |脱ゆとり・さとり世代 (Datsu Yutori / Satori Sedai) |- |2003-2005 | |- |2006-2009 | rowspan="4" |Homeland | colspan="2" |Generation Z | |- |2010-2012 | rowspan="2" |Generation Alpha |Generation Z |Generation Alpha | |- |2013-2024 | rowspan="3" |TBD | colspan="2" |Generation Alpha | |- |2025-2029 | rowspan="2" |Generation Beta | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |TBD | |- |2030-2039 |TBD | |} {| class="wikitable" !Generation !Strictest !Probable !Broadest |- |Arthurian |1433-1460 (28) |1433-1460 (28) |1433-1460 (28) |- |Humanist |1461-1482 (22) |1461-1482 (22) |1461-1482 (22) |- |Reformation |1483-1511 (29) |1483-1511 (29) |1483-1511 (29) |- |Reprisal |1512-1540 (29) |1512-1540 (29) |1512-1540 (29) |- |Elizabethan |1541-1565 (25) |1541-1565 (25) |1541-1565 (25) |- |Parliamentary |1566-1587 (22) |1566-1587 (22) |1566-1587 (22) |- |Puritan |1588-1617 (30) |1588-1617 (30) |1588-1617 (30) |- |Cavalier |1618-1647 (30) |1618-1647 (30) |1618-1647 (30) |- |Glorious |1648-1673 (26) |1648-1673 (26) |1648-1673 (26) |- |Enlightenment |1674-1700 (27) |1674-1700 (27) |1674-1700 (27) |- |Awakening |1701-1723 (23) |1701-1723 (23) |1701-1723 (23) |- |Liberty |1724-1741 (18) |1724-1741 (18) |1724-1741 (18) |- |Republican |1742-1766 (25) |1742-1766 (25) |1742-1766 (25) |- |Compromise |1767-1791 (25) |1767-1791 (25) |1767-1791 (25) |- |Transcendental |1792-1821 (30) |1792-1821 (30) |1792-1821 (30) |- |Gilded |1822-1842 (21) |1822-1842 (21) |1822-1842 (21) |- |Progressive |1843-1859 (17) |1843-1859 (17) |1843-1859 (17) |- |Missionary |1860-1882 (23) |1860-1882 (23) |1860-1882 (23) |- |Lost |1883-1900 (18) |1883-1900 (18) |1883-1900 (18) |- |G.I. |1901-1924 (24) |1901-1924 (24) |1901-1927 (27) |- |Silent |1928-1942 (15) |1925-1945 (21) |1925-1945 (21) |- |Baby Boom |1946-1960 (15) |1946-1964 (19) |1943-1964 (22) |- |Generation X |1965-1979 (15) |1965-1980 (16) |1961-1981 (21) |- |Millennial |1982-1994 (13) |1981-1996 (16) |1980-2005 (26) |- |Generation Z |1995-2012 (18) |1997-2009 (13) |1995-2012 (18) |- |Generation Alpha |2013-2024 (12) |2010-2024 (15) |2010-2029 (20) |- |Generation Beta |2025-? |2025-? |2025-? |} == Notes == [a] Mccrindle's 'Builders' aligns best with other models' Silent Generation [b] Mccrindle's 'Generation Y' aligns best with other models' Millennial Generation [c] Whilst not explicit, any direct successor of Generation Z proposed by Pew Research Center must align best with other Mccrindle's 'Gen Alpha' and S&H's 'Homeland Generation' == References == https://mccrindle.com.au/article/topic/demographics/the-generations-defined/ https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2019/01/17/where-millennials-end-and-generation-z-begins/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strauss%E2%80%93Howe_generational_theory https://www.genwhy.com/_files/ugd/5ccc25_695074dbc5724d76ae103635b5d9ab5d.pdf 4hik1yy0ut60ax6c3h45c3nh9fx6zf4 2840707 2840706 2026-10-16T14:46:19Z ~2026-53155-18 3112031 /* Notes */ 2840707 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Dynamic List}} {| class="wikitable" !Generation !Mccrindle !Pew !Strauss-Howe !Japanese Traditional Generations !GenWHY |- |Arthurian | rowspan="19" |N/A | rowspan="19" |N/A |1433-1460 (28) | | |- |Humanist |1461-1482 (22) | | |- |Reformation |1483-1511 (29) | | |- |Reprisal |1512-1540 (29) | | |- |Elizabethan |1541-1565 (25) | | |- |Parliamentary |1566-1587 (22) | | |- |Puritan |1588-1617 (30) | | |- |Cavalier |1618-1647 (30) | | |- |Glorious |1648-1673 (26) | | |- |Enlightenment |1674-1700 (27) | | |- |Awakening |1701-1723 (23) | | |- |Liberty |1724-1741 (18) | | |- |Republican |1742-1766 (25) | | |- |Compromise |1767-1791 (25) | | |- |Transcendental |1792-1821 (30) | | |- |Gilded |1822-1842 (21) | | |- |Progressive |1843-1859 (17) | | |- |Missionary |1860-1882 (23) |明治一桁世代 (Meiji Hitoketa Sedai) 1868-1876 (9) | |- |Lost |1883-1900 (18) |明治二桁世代 (Meiji Futaketa Sedai) 1877-1911 (35) | |- |G.I. |?-1924 |?-1927 |1901-1924 (24) |大正世代 (Taisho Sedai) 1912-1925 (14) |?-1927 |- |Silent |1925-1945 (21) |1928-1945 (18) |1925-1942 (18) |昭和一桁世代 (Showa Hitoketa Sedai) 1926-1934 (9) 焼け跡世代 (Yakeato Sedai) 1935-1946 (12) |1928-1945 (18) |- |Baby Boom |1946-1964 (19) |1946-1964 (19) |1943-1960 (18) |団塊世代 (Dankai "Boomer" Sedai) 1947-1950 (4) - cusp しらけ世代 (Shirake Sedai) 1951-1964 (14) |1946-1965 (20) |- |Generation X |1965-1979 (15) |1965-1980 (16) |1961-1981 (21) |バブル世代 (Baburu "Bubble" Sedai) 1965-1970 (6) - cusp 氷河期世代* (Hyougakki "Ice Age" Sedai) 1971-1981 (11) |1966-1985 (20) |- |Millennial |1980-1994 (15) |1981-1996 (16) |1982-2005 (24) |プレッシャー世代 (Puresshaa "Pressure" Sedai) 1982-1986 (5) - cusp ゆとり世代 (Yutori Sedai) 1987-1996 (10) |1986-2005 (20) |- |Generation Z |1995-2009 (15) |1997-2012 (16) |2006-2029 (24) |脱ゆとり・さとり世代 (Datsu Yutori / Satori Sedai) 1997-2002 (6) - cusp コロナ世代** (Korona "COVID" Sedai) 2001-2014 (14) |2006-2025 (20) |- |Generation Alpha |2010-2024 (15) |2013-? |2030-? |TBD |2026-? |- |Generation Beta |2025-2039 (15) |TBD |TBD |TBD |TBD |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> = This can further be divided up into 団塊ジュニア世代 (Dankai Jr. "Boomer Jr." Sedai) (early 1970s) and the rest ポスト団塊ジュニア世代 (Post Dankai Jr. Sedai) (late 1970s-1981) <nowiki>**</nowiki> = (As of 2024) it is generally accepted as someone who was 5 (turning 6) to 19 years old in 2020 (start of COVID-19 pandemic), which likely affected their school years (K-12 and university). According to a 2022 survey from Japanese high school students, they considered themselves as コロナ世代. (However, it won't be confirmed until c. 2032 when all of them are 18 or older to see if this name stays). In the context of working, however, it can be defined as 1998-2006 (age 18-26 in 2024). This is because during the COVID pandemic (2020-2024), they became adults and were in university during part or all of this time period. There is also a chance that this could be the last Japanese traditional generation name because Japanese people are beginning to use the English generation names (e.g., Z世代・α世代). {| class="wikitable" ! rowspan="2" |Birth year range ! colspan="5" |English Generation !Japanese Generation |- !McCrindle !Pew !Strauss-Howe ! colspan="2" |Summary ! |- |1433-1460 | rowspan="23" |N/A | rowspan="25" |N/A |Arthurian | colspan="2" |Arthurian | rowspan="18" |N/A |- |1461-1482 |Humanist | colspan="2" |Humanist |- |1483-1511 |Reformation | colspan="2" |Reformation |- |1512-1540 |Reprisal | colspan="2" |Reprisal |- |1541-1565 |Elizabethan | colspan="2" |Elizabethan |- |1566-1587 |Parliamentary | colspan="2" |Parliamentary |- |1588-1617 |Puritan | colspan="2" |Puritan |- |1618-1647 |Cavalier | colspan="2" |Cavalier |- |1648-1673 |Glorious | colspan="2" |Glorious |- |1674-1700 |Enlightenment | colspan="2" |Enlightenment |- |1701-1723 |Awakening | colspan="2" |Awakening |- |1724-1741 |Liberty | colspan="2" |Liberty |- |1742-1766 |Republican | colspan="2" |Republican |- |1767-1791 |Compromise | colspan="2" |Compromise |- |1792-1821 |Transcendental | colspan="2" |Transcendental |- |1822-1842 |Gilded | colspan="2" |Gilded |- |1843-1859 |Progressive | colspan="2" |Progressive |- |1860-1867 | rowspan="3" |Missionary | colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Missionary |- |1868-1876 |明治一桁世代 (Meiji Hitoketa Sedai) |- |1877-1882 | rowspan="3" |明治二桁世代 (Meiji Futaketa Sedai) |- |1883-1900 |Lost | colspan="2" |Lost |- |1901-1911 | rowspan="2" |G.I. | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |G.I |- |1912-1924 | rowspan="2" |大正世代 (Taisho Sedai) |- |1925 | rowspan="5" |Builder | rowspan="4" |Silent | rowspan="2" |G.I | rowspan="2" |Silent |- |1926-1927 | rowspan="2" |昭和一桁世代 (Showa Hitoketa Sedai) |- |1928-1934 | rowspan="3" |Silent | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Silent |- |1935-1942 | rowspan="3" |焼け跡世代 (Yakeato Sedai) |- |1943-1945 | rowspan="4" |Baby Boom |Silent |Baby Boom |- |1946 | rowspan="4" |Baby Boom | rowspan="4" |Baby Boom | colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Baby Boom |- |1947-1950 |団塊世代 (Dankai "Boomer" Sedai) |- |1951-1960 | rowspan="2" |しらけ世代 (Shirake Sedai) |- |1961-1964 | rowspan="5" |Generation X |Baby Boom |Generation X |- |1965-1970 | rowspan="2" |Generation X | rowspan="3" |Generation X | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Generation X |バブル世代 (Baburu "Bubble" Sedai) |- |1971-1979 | rowspan="3" |氷河期世代* (Hyougakki "Ice Age" Sedai) |- |1980 | rowspan="4" |Generation Y | rowspan="2" |Generation X | rowspan="2" |Millennial |- |1981 | rowspan="4" |Millennial |- |1982-1986 | rowspan="5" |Millennial | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Millennial |プレッシャー世代 (Puresshaa "Pressure" Sedai) |- |1987-1994 | rowspan="2" |ゆとり世代 (Yutori Sedai) |- |1995-1996 | rowspan="4" |Generation Z | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" |Generation Z |- |1997-2002 | rowspan="4" |Generation Z |脱ゆとり・さとり世代 (Datsu Yutori / Satori Sedai) |- |2003-2005 | |- |2006-2009 | rowspan="4" |Homeland | colspan="2" |Generation Z | |- |2010-2012 | rowspan="2" |Generation Alpha |Generation Z |Generation Alpha | |- |2013-2024 | rowspan="3" |TBD | colspan="2" |Generation Alpha | |- |2025-2029 | rowspan="2" |Generation Beta | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |TBD | |- |2030-2039 |TBD | |} {| class="wikitable" !Generation !Strictest !Probable !Broadest |- |Arthurian |1433-1460 (28) |1433-1460 (28) |1433-1460 (28) |- |Humanist |1461-1482 (22) |1461-1482 (22) |1461-1482 (22) |- |Reformation |1483-1511 (29) |1483-1511 (29) |1483-1511 (29) |- |Reprisal |1512-1540 (29) |1512-1540 (29) |1512-1540 (29) |- |Elizabethan |1541-1565 (25) |1541-1565 (25) |1541-1565 (25) |- |Parliamentary |1566-1587 (22) |1566-1587 (22) |1566-1587 (22) |- |Puritan |1588-1617 (30) |1588-1617 (30) |1588-1617 (30) |- |Cavalier |1618-1647 (30) |1618-1647 (30) |1618-1647 (30) |- |Glorious |1648-1673 (26) |1648-1673 (26) |1648-1673 (26) |- |Enlightenment |1674-1700 (27) |1674-1700 (27) |1674-1700 (27) |- |Awakening |1701-1723 (23) |1701-1723 (23) |1701-1723 (23) |- |Liberty |1724-1741 (18) |1724-1741 (18) |1724-1741 (18) |- |Republican |1742-1766 (25) |1742-1766 (25) |1742-1766 (25) |- |Compromise |1767-1791 (25) |1767-1791 (25) |1767-1791 (25) |- |Transcendental |1792-1821 (30) |1792-1821 (30) |1792-1821 (30) |- |Gilded |1822-1842 (21) |1822-1842 (21) |1822-1842 (21) |- |Progressive |1843-1859 (17) |1843-1859 (17) |1843-1859 (17) |- |Missionary |1860-1882 (23) |1860-1882 (23) |1860-1882 (23) |- |Lost |1883-1900 (18) |1883-1900 (18) |1883-1900 (18) |- |G.I. |1901-1924 (24) |1901-1924 (24) |1901-1927 (27) |- |Silent |1928-1942 (15) |1925-1945 (21) |1925-1945 (21) |- |Baby Boom |1946-1960 (15) |1946-1964 (19) |1943-1964 (22) |- |Generation X |1965-1979 (15) |1965-1980 (16) |1961-1981 (21) |- |Millennial |1982-1994 (13) |1981-1996 (16) |1980-2005 (26) |- |Generation Z |1995-2012 (18) |1997-2009 (13) |1995-2012 (18) |- |Generation Alpha |2013-2024 (12) |2010-2024 (15) |2010-2029 (20) |- |Generation Beta |2025-? |2025-? |2025-? |} == Notes == [a] Mccrindle's 'Builders' align best with other models' Silent Generation [b] Mccrindle's 'Generation Y' align best with other models' Millennial Generation [c] Whilst not explicit, any direct successor of Generation Z proposed by Pew Research Center must align best with other Mccrindle's 'Gen Alpha' and S&H's 'Homeland Generation' == References == https://mccrindle.com.au/article/topic/demographics/the-generations-defined/ https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2019/01/17/where-millennials-end-and-generation-z-begins/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strauss%E2%80%93Howe_generational_theory https://www.genwhy.com/_files/ugd/5ccc25_695074dbc5724d76ae103635b5d9ab5d.pdf ku6pi0mbm7z5u6gwhmxqaea79y8g8cv 2840709 2840707 2026-10-16T14:49:37Z ~2026-53155-18 3112031 /* */ 2840709 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Dynamic List}} {| class="wikitable" !Generation !Mccrindle !Pew !Strauss-Howe !Japanese Traditional Generations !GenWHY |- |Arthurian | rowspan="19" |N/A | rowspan="19" |N/A |1433-1460 (28) | | |- |Humanist |1461-1482 (22) | | |- |Reformation |1483-1511 (29) | | |- |Reprisal |1512-1540 (29) | | |- |Elizabethan |1541-1565 (25) | | |- |Parliamentary |1566-1587 (22) | | |- |Puritan |1588-1617 (30) | | |- |Cavalier |1618-1647 (30) | | |- |Glorious |1648-1673 (26) | | |- |Enlightenment |1674-1700 (27) | | |- |Awakening |1701-1723 (23) | | |- |Liberty |1724-1741 (18) | | |- |Republican |1742-1766 (25) | | |- |Compromise |1767-1791 (25) | | |- |Transcendental |1792-1821 (30) | | |- |Gilded |1822-1842 (21) | | |- |Progressive |1843-1859 (17) | | |- |Missionary |1860-1882 (23) |明治一桁世代 (Meiji Hitoketa Sedai) 1868-1876 (9) | |- |Lost |1883-1900 (18) |明治二桁世代 (Meiji Futaketa Sedai) 1877-1911 (35) | |- |G.I. |?-1924 |?-1927 |1901-1924 (24) |大正世代 (Taisho Sedai) 1912-1925 (14) |?-1927 |- |Silent |1925-1945 (21) |1928-1945 (18) |1925-1942 (18) |昭和一桁世代 (Showa Hitoketa Sedai) 1926-1934 (9) 焼け跡世代 (Yakeato Sedai) 1935-1946 (12) |1928-1945 (18) |- |Baby Boom |1946-1964 (19) |1946-1964 (19) |1943-1960 (18) |団塊世代 (Dankai "Boomer" Sedai) 1947-1950 (4) - cusp しらけ世代 (Shirake Sedai) 1951-1964 (14) |1946-1965 (20) |- |Generation X |1965-1979 (15) |1965-1980 (16) |1961-1981 (21) |バブル世代 (Baburu "Bubble" Sedai) 1965-1970 (6) - cusp 氷河期世代* (Hyougakki "Ice Age" Sedai) 1971-1981 (11) |1966-1985 (20) |- |Millennial |1980-1994 (15) |1981-1996 (16) |1982-2005 (24) |プレッシャー世代 (Puresshaa "Pressure" Sedai) 1982-1986 (5) - cusp ゆとり世代 (Yutori Sedai) 1987-1996 (10) |1986-2005 (20) |- |Generation Z |1995-2009 (15) |1997-2012 (16) |2006-2029 (24) |脱ゆとり・さとり世代 (Datsu Yutori / Satori Sedai) 1997-2002 (6) - cusp コロナ世代** (Korona "COVID" Sedai) 2001-2014 (14) |2006-2025 (20) |- |Generation Alpha |2010-2024 (15) |2013-? |2030-? |TBD |2026-? |- |Generation Beta |2025-2039 (15) |TBD |TBD |TBD |TBD |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> = This can further be divided up into 団塊ジュニア世代 (Dankai Jr. "Boomer Jr." Sedai) (early 1970s) and the rest ポスト団塊ジュニア世代 (Post Dankai Jr. Sedai) (late 1970s-1981) <nowiki>**</nowiki> = (As of 2024) it is generally accepted as someone who was 5 (turning 6) to 19 years old in 2020 (start of COVID-19 pandemic), which likely affected their school years (K-12 and university). According to a 2022 survey from Japanese high school students, they considered themselves as コロナ世代. (However, it won't be confirmed until c. 2032 when all of them are 18 or older to see if this name stays). In the context of working, however, it can be defined as 1998-2006 (age 18-26 in 2024). This is because during the COVID pandemic (2020-2024), they became adults and were in university during part or all of this time period. There is also a chance that this could be the last Japanese traditional generation name because Japanese people are beginning to use the English generation names (e.g., Z世代・α世代). {| class="wikitable" ! rowspan="2" |Birth year range ! colspan="5" |English Generation !Japanese Generation |- !McCrindle !Pew !Strauss-Howe ! colspan="2" |Summary ! |- |1433-1460 | rowspan="23" |N/A | rowspan="25" |N/A |Arthurian | colspan="2" |Arthurian | rowspan="18" |N/A |- |1461-1482 |Humanist | colspan="2" |Humanist |- |1483-1511 |Reformation | colspan="2" |Reformation |- |1512-1540 |Reprisal | colspan="2" |Reprisal |- |1541-1565 |Elizabethan | colspan="2" |Elizabethan |- |1566-1587 |Parliamentary | colspan="2" |Parliamentary |- |1588-1617 |Puritan | colspan="2" |Puritan |- |1618-1647 |Cavalier | colspan="2" |Cavalier |- |1648-1673 |Glorious | colspan="2" |Glorious |- |1674-1700 |Enlightenment | colspan="2" |Enlightenment |- |1701-1723 |Awakening | colspan="2" |Awakening |- |1724-1741 |Liberty | colspan="2" |Liberty |- |1742-1766 |Republican | colspan="2" |Republican |- |1767-1791 |Compromise | colspan="2" |Compromise |- |1792-1821 |Transcendental | colspan="2" |Transcendental |- |1822-1842 |Gilded | colspan="2" |Gilded |- |1843-1859 |Progressive | colspan="2" |Progressive |- |1860-1867 | rowspan="3" |Missionary | colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Missionary |- |1868-1876 |明治一桁世代 (Meiji Hitoketa Sedai) |- |1877-1882 | rowspan="3" |明治二桁世代 (Meiji Futaketa Sedai) |- |1883-1900 |Lost | colspan="2" |Lost |- |1901-1911 | rowspan="2" |G.I. | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |G.I |- |1912-1924 | rowspan="2" |大正世代 (Taisho Sedai) |- |1925 | rowspan="5" |Builder | rowspan="4" |Silent | rowspan="2" |G.I | rowspan="2" |Silent |- |1926-1927 | rowspan="2" |昭和一桁世代 (Showa Hitoketa Sedai) |- |1928-1934 | rowspan="3" |Silent | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Silent |- |1935-1942 | rowspan="3" |焼け跡世代 (Yakeato Sedai) |- |1943-1945 | rowspan="4" |Baby Boom |Silent |Baby Boom |- |1946 | rowspan="4" |Baby Boom | rowspan="4" |Baby Boom | colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Baby Boom |- |1947-1950 |団塊世代 (Dankai "Boomer" Sedai) |- |1951-1960 | rowspan="2" |しらけ世代 (Shirake Sedai) |- |1961-1964 | rowspan="5" |Generation X |Baby Boom |Generation X |- |1965-1970 | rowspan="2" |Generation X | rowspan="3" |Generation X | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Generation X |バブル世代 (Baburu "Bubble" Sedai) |- |1971-1979 | rowspan="3" |氷河期世代* (Hyougakki "Ice Age" Sedai) |- |1980 | rowspan="4" |Generation Y | rowspan="2" |Generation X | rowspan="2" |Millennial |- |1981 | rowspan="4" |Millennial |- |1982-1986 | rowspan="5" |Millennial | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Millennial |プレッシャー世代 (Puresshaa "Pressure" Sedai) |- |1987-1994 | rowspan="2" |ゆとり世代 (Yutori Sedai) |- |1995-1996 | rowspan="4" |Generation Z | rowspan="3" |Millennial | rowspan="3" |Generation Z |- |1997-2002 | rowspan="4" |Generation Z |脱ゆとり・さとり世代 (Datsu Yutori / Satori Sedai) |- |2003-2005 | |- |2006-2009 | rowspan="4" |Homeland | colspan="2" |Generation Z | |- |2010-2012 | rowspan="2" |Generation Alpha |Generation Z |Generation Alpha | |- |2013-2024 | rowspan="3" |TBD | colspan="2" |Generation Alpha | |- |2025-2029 | rowspan="2" |Generation Beta | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |TBD | |- |2030-2039 |TBD | |} {| class="wikitable" !Generation !Strictest !Probable !Broadest |- |Arthurian |1433-1460 (28) |1433-1460 (28) |1433-1460 (28) |- |Humanist |1461-1482 (22) |1461-1482 (22) |1461-1482 (22) |- |Reformation |1483-1511 (29) |1483-1511 (29) |1483-1511 (29) |- |Reprisal |1512-1540 (29) |1512-1540 (29) |1512-1540 (29) |- |Elizabethan |1541-1565 (25) |1541-1565 (25) |1541-1565 (25) |- |Parliamentary |1566-1587 (22) |1566-1587 (22) |1566-1587 (22) |- |Puritan |1588-1617 (30) |1588-1617 (30) |1588-1617 (30) |- |Cavalier |1618-1647 (30) |1618-1647 (30) |1618-1647 (30) |- |Glorious |1648-1673 (26) |1648-1673 (26) |1648-1673 (26) |- |Enlightenment |1674-1700 (27) |1674-1700 (27) |1674-1700 (27) |- |Awakening |1701-1723 (23) |1701-1723 (23) |1701-1723 (23) |- |Liberty |1724-1741 (18) |1724-1741 (18) |1724-1741 (18) |- |Republican |1742-1766 (25) |1742-1766 (25) |1742-1766 (25) |- |Compromise |1767-1791 (25) |1767-1791 (25) |1767-1791 (25) |- |Transcendental |1792-1821 (30) |1792-1821 (30) |1792-1821 (30) |- |Gilded |1822-1842 (21) |1822-1842 (21) |1822-1842 (21) |- |Progressive |1843-1859 (17) |1843-1859 (17) |1843-1859 (17) |- |Missionary |1860-1882 (23) |1860-1882 (23) |1860-1882 (23) |- |Lost |1883-1900 (18) |1883-1900 (18) |1883-1900 (18) |- |G.I. |1901-1924 (24) |1901-1924 (24) |1901-1927 (27) |- |Silent |1928-1942 (15) |1925-1945 (21) |1925-1945 (21) |- |Baby Boom |1946-1960 (15) |1946-1964 (19) |1943-1964 (22) |- |Generation X |1965-1979 (15) |1965-1980 (16) |1961-1981 (21) |- |Millennial |1982-1994 (13) |1981-1996 (16) |1980-2005 (26) |- |Generation Z |1995-2012 (18) |1997-2009 (13) |1995-2012 (18) |- |Generation Alpha |2013-2024 (12) |2010-2024 (15) |2010-2029 (20) |- |Generation Beta |2025-? |2025-? |2025-? |} == Notes == [a] Mccrindle's 'Builders' align best with other models' Silent Generation [b] Mccrindle's 'Generation Y' align best with other models' Millennial Generation [c] Whilst not explicit, any direct successor of Generation Z proposed by Pew Research Center must align best with other Mccrindle's 'Gen Alpha' and S&H's 'Homeland Generation' == References == https://mccrindle.com.au/article/topic/demographics/the-generations-defined/ https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2019/01/17/where-millennials-end-and-generation-z-begins/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strauss%E2%80%93Howe_generational_theory https://www.genwhy.com/_files/ugd/5ccc25_695074dbc5724d76ae103635b5d9ab5d.pdf oais07x6zw8cxmeg4iw1bm6o4ro1jh6 0 306701 2840816 2739753 2026-10-17T03:33:32Z Ella Kay244 3107007 /* Overview */ Changed to a narrative point of view for better reader engagement. I also changed it slightly to better introduce the theory and explain why you need to increase psychology needs. 2840816 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Work motivation and self-determination theory:<br>How does self-determination theory explain work motivation?}} {{MECR3|https://youtu.be/23ZCyFH6OlA}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} ;Scenario Imagine you are the head of a company. You start to notice a decline in the motivation and productivity among your workers. Despite your company’s competitive salaries, you are seeing an increase in turnover rates and a continued drop in employee motivation and engagement. To try and fix this issue you decide to bring in a psychologist to investigate. The psychologist tells you that your employees are all extrinsically motivated to work by their salaries, but they have no intrinsic motivation to come to work, this is why you are seeing low productivity. They tell you to increase intrinsic motivation you must work on helping your employees obtain their psychological needs of autonomy, competency and relatedness. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Edward L Deci.jpg|alt=Edward L. Deci, distinguished psychologist and professor|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Edward L. Deci, psychologist well known for his theories of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation]] The [[wikipedia:Self-determination_theory|Self-determination theory]] (SDT) was developed by Edward Deci (See figure 1) and Richard Ryan in 1985 (Bernstein, 1990). SDT is a theory of human motivation that at its core is based on the human needs of [[wikipedia:Autonomy|autonomy]], [[wikipedia:Competence|competence]] and relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 2000). The SDT has often been used to explain why people are motivated to work (Gangé & Deci, 2005). Work motivation asks why people are motivated to work. Whether it is for pleasure or the reward, people are generally motivated to work (Van den Broeck et al., 2021). The SDT provides an explanation of the reasons behind work motivation and also gives employers a clear guide as to how to motivate employees to be hard working, productive and dedicated to their roles (Van den Broeck et al., 2021). Without motivation one may never work as there is nothing to push the individual forward and move them towards a goal (Gangé & Deci, 2005). The SDT and its effect on the motivation to work has been heavily studied, which often tends to give emphasis on the factors of autonomy, competence and relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 2000). These factors are useful in driving employees to try their hardest and do their best (Deci & Ryan, 2005). Using the SDT, it is hoped that employees and employers can use this theory to create rewarding and motivating work spaces. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is motivation? * What is the Self-Determination Theory? * What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation? * What drives people to be motivated to work? * How is Self-Determination Theory significant to work motivation? * How do autonomy, competence and relatedness affect our work standard? * What other psychological theories relate to motivation? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is motivation?== [[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] is the force that drives us to achieve and maintain behaviours (Ilgaz & Eskici, 2019). Basic motivation is built into humans from a very young age (Ilgaz & Eskici, 2019). When a baby really wants something they are motivated to crawl (see figure 2) and eventually walk to get to the object (Ilgaz & Eskici, 2019). Motivation is crucial in setting and obtaining goals throughout life. From birth to death, humans rely on motivation to drive them forward towards their goals (Ilgaz & Eskici, 2019). [[File:A 9 - month - old baby crawls.jpg|alt=|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Baby crawls with the motivation of obtaining an object.]] === Intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation === Motivation tends to come in two forms; intrinsic and extrinsic (Gangé & Deci, 2005). Intrinsic motivation involves individuals engaging in an action or event because they want to do it, as it is interesting or enjoyable (Gangé & Deci, 2005). Extrinsic motivation tends to involve a person doing the activity as they will receive a reward for it, not because it is satisfying to them (Gangé & Deci, 2005). Work motivation can fall under one or even both of these categories (Gangé & Deci, 2005). If someone finds their job simply enjoyable and interesting and is not necessarily interested in the pay or consequences of the role, they are intrinsically motivated to do the work (Gangé & Deci, 2005). Whereas, if another individual is purely working for the benefits and pay, they are extrinsically motivated (Gangé & Deci, 2005). The key for employers is to provide a work place that falls in the middle of being both intrinsically and extrinsically motivating to their employees (Gangé and Deci, 2005). === What is work motivation? === [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Workplace motivation|Work motivation]] determines what is needed for employees to work their hardest, be productive and be committed to their company (Van den Broeck et al., 2021). Our motivation to work can be fuelled by many factors, including both intrinsic and extrinsic motivators, but the SDT explains that the main contributors to work motivation are autonomy, competence and relatedness (Van den Broeck et al., 2021). == What is self-determination theory? == SDT is a well studied and explored psychological theory of motivation (Urhahne & Wijnia, 2023). Since it was introduced in 1985 (Bernstein, 1990), it has proven to accurately answer the many questions researchers have of motivation. The SDT explains the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation through its three dimensions; autonomy, competence and relatedness (Olafsen et al., 2024). This theory proposes that these three dimensions are human needs for intrinsic motivation (Corduneanu et al., 2020). Recent studies have also proposed that a fourth dimension be added to the SDT; Beneficence (Corduneanu et al., 2020). Beneficence has not necessarily been formally added to the SDT however refers to individuals having a sense that they are positively impacting society (Corduneanu et al., 2020). Although this may be relevant to motivation, the founders of SDT have put their emphasis on the original three dimensions, which is what is more so focused on in modern psychological science (Corduneanu et al., 2020). The SDT can be used for assessing motivation in a variety of scenarios and is extremely relevant to work motivation (Nie et al., 2015). To be motivated to work is something that many people may struggle with. The SDT explains that for a company to successfully motivate their employees to work their hardest; Autonomy, competence and relatedness must be a part of their culture (Nie et al., 2015) === Other psychological theories of motivation === * [[wikipedia:Temporal_motivation_theory|Temporal Motivational Theory]] * [[wikipedia:Goal_theory|Goal Theory]] * [[wikipedia:Expectancy_theory|Expectancy Theory]] * [[wikipedia:Social_cognitive_theory|Social Cognitive Theory]] * [[wikipedia:Attribution_(psychology)|Attribution Theory]] == Autonomy, competence and relatedness == {{expand}} === Autonomy === The SDT is one of the only theories of human motivation that highlights autonomy as a human need, whether that be in the workplace and other situations (Ng et al., 2012). Autonomy is having the ability to be in control of ourselves and acting based on enjoyment and choice, rather than being controlled by others (Nie et al., 2015). The SDT explains that it is important for employers to allow autonomy so that workers feel as though they have freedom and flexibility (Nie et al., 2015). Allowing autonomy has shown greater performance, well-being and persistence within workplaces (Nie et al., 2015). === Competence === [[wikipedia:Competence|Competence]] within the SDT relates to the ability one has to confidently and successfully complete a task (Niemiec & Ryan, 2009). Studies have found that when workers feel competent they are more willing to work harder and stay in positions (Niemiec & Ryan, 2009). According to the SDT, feeling competent allows for employees to be more motivated to work and therefore positively impacts companies (Niemiec & Ryan, 2009). === Relatedness === Relatedness is the desire humans have to feel connection and have a relation to those around them (Olafsen et al., 2024). In a workplace setting, this may involve one feeling connected to their colleagues and a sense of community and support within the company (Olafsen et al., 2024). When employees have a sense of relatedness with their co-workers, they are more motivated to perform well and have a positive attitude towards work (Olafsen et al., 2024). <quiz display=simple> {Does autonomy, competence, and relatedness positively impact work motivation? |type="()"} + Yes - No {What is the proposed fourth dimension of the self-determination theory? |type="()"} - Competence - Relatedness - Automnomoy{{sp}} + Beneficence </quiz> ==Conclusion== STD is arguably one of the most influencial theories of motivation (Nie et al., 2015), emphasising the role of autonomy, competence and relatedness in driving human behaviour. Its consideration of how individials might percieve their control, their sense of capability, and the support they recieve from others has helped SDT hold a unique position in psychlogical research, addressing both why people behave in the way they do, but also the pros and cons of different ways of influencing behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2000). With these three components in mind, the SDT does explain work motivation. For people to feel motivated to work it is important to recognise that autonomy, competence and relatedness play an important role (Niemiec & Ryan, 2009). When workers feel as though they have choice and flexibility, {{missing}} feel as though they are good at their role and have sufficient support and positive colleague relationships, they are more likely to be productive and work their hardest (Olafsen et al., 2024). The SDT is a versatile theory that helps companies create workplace cultures that are motivating and therefore successful (Nie et al., 2015). == See also == {{ic|Use alphabetical order}} * [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Competence|Competence]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self-determination_theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Learned industriousness and motivation|Learned industriousness and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Workplace motivation|Workplace Motivation]] (Book chapter, 2010) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bernstein, D. J. (1990). Of carrots and sticks: A review of Deci and Ryan’s Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior - Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior by E. L. Deci and R. M. Ryan [Review of ''Of carrots and sticks: A review of Deci and Ryan’s Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior -- Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior by E. L. Deci and R. M. Ryan'']. ''Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior'', ''54''(3), 323-. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Corduneanu, R., Dudau, A., & Kominis, G. (2020). Crowding-in or crowding-out: the contribution of self-determination theory to public service motivation. ''Public Management Review'', ''22''(7), 1070–1089. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/14719037.2020.1740303</nowiki> Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “What” and “Why” of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior. ''Psychological Inquiry'', ''11''(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 Gagné, M., & Deci, E. L. (2005). Self-determination theory and work motivation. ''Journal of Organizational Behavior'', ''26''(4), 331–362. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.322 Hattie, J., Hodis, F. A., & Kang, S. H. K. (2020). Theories of motivation: Integration and ways forward. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''61'', 101865-?. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101865 Ilgaz, G., & ESKİCİ, M. (2019). Examination of Teacher Candidates’ Lifelong Learning Competence and Basic Motivation Resources as Parts of Sustainability. ''Sustainability'', ''11''(1), 23-.https://doi.org/10.3390/su11010023 Ng, J. Y. Y., Ntoumanis, N., Thøgersen-Ntoumani, C., Deci, E. L., Ryan, R. M., Duda, J. L., & Williams, G. C. (2012). Self-Determination Theory Applied to Health Contexts: A Meta-Analysis. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science'', ''7''(4), 325–340. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612447309 Nie, Y., Chua, B. L., Yeung, A. S., Ryan, R. M., & Chan, W. Y. (2015). The importance of autonomy support and the mediating role of work motivation for well-being: Testing self-determination theory in a Chinese work organisation. ''International Journal of Psychology'', ''50''(4), 245–255. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12110 Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, competence, and relatedness in the classroom: Applying self-determination theory to educational practice. ''Theory and Research in Education'', ''7''(2), 133–144. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477878509104318 Olafsen, A. H., Marescaux, B. P. C., & Kujanpää, M. (2024). Crafting for autonomy, competence, and relatedness: A self‐determination theory model of need crafting at work. ''Applied Psychology''. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12570 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 Steel, P., & König, C. J. (2006). Integrating Theories of Motivation. ''The Academy of Management Review'', ''31''(4), 889–913. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMR.2006.22527462 Urhahne, D., & Wijnia, L. (2023). Theories of Motivation in Education: an Integrative Framework. ''Educational Psychology Review'', ''35''(2), 45-. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09767-9 Van den Broeck, A., Howard, J. L., Van Vaerenbergh, Y., Leroy, H., & Gagné, M. (2021). Beyond intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: A meta-analysis on self-determination theory’s multidimensional conceptualization of work motivation. ''Organizational Psychology Review'', ''11''(3), 240–273. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/20413866211006173</nowiki> }} ==External links== {{ic|Use alphabetical order}} * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3sRBBNkSXpY What is Self-Determination Theory.] (Youtube) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/basics/motivation#:~:text=Motivation%20is%20the%20desire%20to,mental%20illnesses%20such%20as%20depression. Motivation] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-intrinsic-motivation-2795385 Intrinsic Motivation] (Very Well Mind) * [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-extrinsic-motivation-2795164 Extrinsic Motivation] (Very Well Mind) * [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8869198/ Work Motivation:The Roles of Individual Needs and Social Conditions.] (National Library of Medicine) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-determination theory]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Work]] 63rg7s9t7atyh2g20896o7rlxgjj72a 0 307222 2840821 2771289 2026-10-17T03:51:20Z Ella Kay244 3107007 added a senario to help introduce the topic 2840821 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Morbid curiosity:<br>What is it, what causes it, and how does it influence behaviour?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ == '''Overview''' == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Imagine this ... You are walking down your street, and you notice there has been a big car accident. You know you don’t need to go over to help us there are several ambulances and police cares already on the screen. Despite this, you can’t help but want to get closer for a better look. Once you do you can see just how badly damaged the cares are and this intrigues you even more you notice yourself glancing around trying to get more and more information as to what happened. Why is this? What are the forces at hand motivating you to keep looking at a horrible accident even when you know your presences isn’t offering anyone any help? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Morbid curiosity is an interest in subjects typically associated with fear, death, violence, or anything that evokes discomfort, fear, or disgust. While it might seem unsettling, this curiosity is a natural part of human psychology, manifesting in various forms throughout history and across cultures. Exploring morbid curiosity allows for a more profound insight into why people are drawn to taboo topics, how this curiosity shapes behaviour, and its potential impacts on mental health. This chapter educates on morbid curiosity's historical, cultural, biological, psychological, and social dimensions and its effects on media consumption, emotional responses, social interactions, and risk-taking behaviours. By fostering a deeper understanding of both the positive and negative impacts of morbid curiosity on mental health {{ic|the title and sub-title does not mention mental health}}, this chapter encourages critical thinking and self-awareness in how individuals engage with dark or taboo topics. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Learning Outcomes:''' * Understand what morbid curiosity is and the historical and cultural content surrounding it. * Comprehend the biological, psychological and social factors contributing to morbid curiosity. * Recognise how morbid curiosity influences media consumption, emotional responses, social interactions, and risk-taking behaviour. * Explore the positive and negative effects of morbid curiosity on mental health. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == '''What is Morbid Curiosity?''' == Morbid curiosity is the interest in unpleasant things, especially death (Scrivner, 2021). Morbid curiosity's origins as a subject of interest began in the late 19^th and early 20^th centuries, with early psychologists like Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung examining the human fascination with death, suffering, and horror. Freud linked it to his death drive, theorising that people have an unconscious drive toward destruction, aggression, and death (Freud, 1930). Similarly, Jung explored the concept through his theories of the shadow self, suggesting that people are drawn to their darker, unconscious impulses (Jung, 1971). Social psychology studied morbid curiosity more by the mid-20th century. Ernest Becker's "The Denial of Death" (1973) explored how people cope with their awareness of mortality, noting that individuals may confront death through morbid curiosity to manage existential anxieties (Becker, 1973). In the late 20^th and early 21^st centuries, cognitive psychology began to explore morbid curiosity, framing it within the broader context of curiosity and information-seeking behaviour. Neuroscientists have used brain imaging techniques to study how morbid curiosity manifests in the brain in recent years. Research has shown that viewing disturbing content activates the reward system, particularly the ventral striatum, linked to curiosity, pleasure, and novelty-seeking (Oosterwijk et al., 2020). Other studies have found that morbid curiosity is a natural part of exploratory behaviour, driven by a desire to learn about dangerous situations as a survival mechanism (Oosterwijk, 2017). === Historical Context === * [[wikipedia:Public_execution|Public Executions]]: In many societies across the world, public executions were popular events that attracted large crowds. People were fascinated by the spectacle of violence and often treated these events as communal entertainment (Foucault, 1977). * [[wikipedia:Memento_mori|Memento Mori]]: During the European Middle Ages, the artistic tradition of ''memento mori'' (latin for: "remember you must die") reminded people of their mortality. Skulls, skeletons, and other death-related imagery were typical in paintings, reinforcing the public’s morbid curiosity about death and the afterlife (Ariès, 1974). * [[wikipedia:True_crime|True Crime]]: In contemporary culture, the popularity of true crime documentaries, podcasts, and books reflects a widespread interest in criminal acts, violent events, and psychological mysteries. Shows like ''Making a Murderer'' or podcasts like ''Serial'' demonstrate how modern media capitalises on morbid curiosity (Surette, 2015). == '''What Causes Morbid Curiosity?''' == {{expand}} === Biological Factors === * [[Evolutionary psychology|Evolutionary]] Adaptation for Survival: From an evolutionary perspective, morbid curiosity may have developed as a survival mechanism. Being drawn to dangerous situations, such as observing the aftermath of predatorial behaviour, may have helped early humans learn about potential threats and how to avoid them (Berns, 2010). * Neurobiological [[wikipedia:Reward_system|Reward Systems]]: Morbid curiosity may also be linked to the brain's reward system. The dopaminergic system plays a role in curiosity and learning. When people engage with disturbing content, their brains may experience fear and pleasure, with dopamine release reinforcing the behaviour, similar to sensation-seeking behaviour (Zald & Zatorre, 2011). * [[wikipedia:Fear_conditioning|Fear Conditioning]] and Threat Monitoring: Research suggests that individuals might be drawn to morbid content due to heightened sensitivity within the amygdala to threat-related stimuli. By focusing on violent or dangerous events, the brain’s threat-monitoring system may stay vigilant, ensuring that individuals remain prepared for future threats (Dunsmoor et al., 2015). * [[wikipedia:Opponent-process_theory|Opponent-Process Theory]] (OPT): The Opponent-process theory of emotions suggests that experiencing negative emotions, like fear or disgust, may be followed by positive emotions, like relief or excitement. This emotional cycle could drive morbid curiosity, as people may be attracted to disturbing content for the pleasurable relief or excitement that follows the initial discomfort (Solomon, 1980). * [[wikipedia:Social_learning_theory|Social Learning]] and limitation: In dangerous or death-related scenarios, morbid curiosity could be tied to social learning mechanisms, where observing the reactions of others to traumatic events teaches individuals how to cope or react in similar situations (Bandura, 1977). === Psychological Factors === * Terror Management Theory (TMT): TMT posits that people are uniquely aware of their mortality, creating existential anxiety. Individuals seek ways to manage death-related thoughts associated with fears of mortality by developing psychological defence mechanisms. Morbid curiosity may emerge to understand death in a controlled manner, allowing individuals to distance themselves from their fear (Greenberg et al., 1997). * Sensation-Seeking Behaviour: Sensation-seeking is a personality trait that drives individuals to seek unique, intense, or dangerous experiences to experience fear, excitement or disgust. Individuals scoring high on sensation-seeking scales are more likely to be attracted to morbid content as it provides intense stimulation without harm (Zuckerman, 2007). * The Need for Cognitive Closure (NCC): NCC is a psychological theory that explains why some individuals are driven to seek definitive answers to distressing topics. Morbid curiosity may stem from this need to resolve uncertainty about unsettling subjects, such as death, violence, or suffering. People with high NCC may feel compelled to investigate morbid topics to gain closure on the mysteries of mortality or tragedy (Kruglanski, 2004). * Drive theory of curiosity (DTC): Daniel Berlyne suggested that curiosity is a primary human drive stimulated by different, complex, or obscure stimuli. Morbid curiosity can be understood as a response to these stimuli, as curiosity is driven by a desire to reduce uncertainty and arousal, explaining why people are drawn to disturbing situations like death and violence (Berlyne, 1954). * Catharsis Theory: Proposed by Aristotle and later expanded by Freud, the catharsis theory suggests people have an unconscious drive to witness emotionally intense events to purge their own emotions (Scheff, 2012). Morbid curiosity functions as a form of catharsis, allowing individuals to release pent-up emotions like fear, anxiety, or anger by engaging with disturbing or violent content (Feshbach, 1955). * Fear Regulation: People need to understand and control emotions related to danger and death. Morbid curiosity may be driven by the desire to master those fears. Exposure to morbid topics helps desensitise individuals so people can gradually gain mastery over their concerns in a controlled setting (Loewenstein, 1994). === Social and Cultural Factors === * Media Normalising Morbid Content: Mass media shapes public interest in morbid topics in modern societies. The increasing prevalence of crime shows, horror films, and disaster coverage has normalised and sensationalised these dark topics of fascination. Continuous exposure to such content can desensitise individuals to violence and suffering, reinforcing a cycle of engagement with morbid material (Surette, 2015). * Cultural Attitude Towards Death: Cultural differences in death strongly influence how morbid curiosity manifests. Societies that embrace death may channel morbid curiosity into rituals, celebrations, and practices that emphasise respect and remembrance. In Mexico, Día de los Muertos, or Day of the Dead, celebrates death as a joyful process where families honour their past loved ones by creating altars, offering food, and decorating with skull imagery (Brandes, 1998). Societies that view death as a taboo subject may suppress expressions of morbid curiosity but see it emerge in more covert ways. In 19th-century England, morbid curiosity was channelled into practices that emphasised remembrance of the dead while keeping death physically present, such as post-mortem photography (Ruby, 1995). *Taboo and Forbidden Knowledge: Morbid curiosity is often heightened by taboos, especially when death, violence, and suffering are considered uncomfortable topics. When discussing morbid subjects is restricted, this can increase curiosity as people become more drawn to what is controlled or limited. Freud described this phenomenon as the "return of the repressed". Repressed desires and fears resurface in distorted forms like morbid fascination (Freud, 1919). Dark Tourism is the desire to visit places associated with death and suffering. By visiting these sites, individuals seek to understand tragedy while challenging societal exclusion by confronting death and violence (Stone & Sharpley, 2008). *Social Identity and Group Behaviour: Social identity theory suggests that individuals are influenced by the behaviours and attitudes of their groups. Morbid curiosity can be shaped by group norms, peer influence, and collective behaviours to normalise interest in death and violence. Goth and horror fan communities actively embrace morbid curiosity as a shared cultural trait, often exploring themes of death, decay, and darkness in literature, art, and fashion (Hodkinson, 2002). *Trauma and Collective Memory: Trauma and collective memory shape morbid curiosity by influencing how societies remember tragic events. Communities that have experienced significant trauma may develop a collective fascination with these events as part of their process of remembering and understanding past horrors. This is especially evident in how countries memorialise violent events, like Holocaust memorials or war museums, which serve both to commemorate the dead and to satisfy a morbid curiosity about the atrocities of the past (Winter, 1995). *In some religious contexts, morbid curiosity is tied to ideas of the afterlife, divine punishment, or moral judgment. Religious narratives that emphasise death, suffering, and damnation may heighten curiosity about these topics as individuals seek to understand mortality. In Christian traditions, stories of martyrdom, divine judgment, and the afterlife have historically fuelled morbid curiosity. Medieval Christians were often captivated by images of hell and depictions of saints, reinforcing religious principles while satisfying a fascination with death and suffering (McDannell & Lang, 2001). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} ;Quiz {{expand}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} == '''How Does Morbid Curiosity Influence Behaviour?''' == Morbid curiosity prompts behaviours that satisfy the urge to understand an psychologically salient concept. === Media Consumption === The success of the horror genre, true-crime media such as podcasts and television shows, and prioritisation of violent stories in news coverage indicates a supply/demand with morbid curiosity providing a considerable mediator to this relationship (Scrivener, 2021). {{Robelbox|theme=10|title=Case study|width=20}}[[File:Remote pointed at TV.jpg|thumb|Remote pointed at television (TV)]] In early 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the film Contagion saw a significant spike in viewership/watchers (Scrivener, 2021a). Although it could be claimed there were educational basis for this by understanding the increasingly present reality of the COVID-19 pandemic, there is little educational value in such a film compared to official announcements and guidelines being released at the time. Morbid curiosity prompted people to gather more information on this situation, despite the potential of doing so to instil fear about the state of their own futures in a pandemic. {{Robelbox/close}} === Risk-Taking Behaviour === {{expand}} === Emotional Responses === {{expand}} === Social Interactions === Morbid curiosity has the potential to assist in social group formation. =='''How Does Morbid Curiosity Effect Mental Health?'''== From the [https://www.abs.gov.au/ Australian Bureau of Statistics] (2023), 42.9% of Australians have experienced a [[wikipedia:Mental_disorder|mental disorder]] during the course of their life. Morbid curiosity has a fascinating effect on mental health providing both positive and negative aspects. === Positive Aspects === * Cognitive and Emotional Processing: Morbid curiosity may help individuals confront and process their fears, anxiety, and discomfort related to taboo subjects. Engaging with content that evokes fear or discomfort in a controlled environment may desensitise themselves to real-world anxieties, leading to better emotional regulation. Research suggests that consuming media with morbid themes can provide a form of "exposure therapy," allowing individuals to explore their fears from a safe distance (Solomon, 1980){{expand}}. * Development of Empathy and Compassion: Morbid curiosity can stimulate empathy by encouraging the exploration of experiences of suffering and death from another perspective. True crime stories, documentaries, and horror films often provide a window into human suffering. When consumed, these narratives can foster a greater understanding of others' pain and challenges, increasing compassion and awareness of social issues (Vicary & Fraley, 2010). * Enhanced Coping Mechanisms: Morbid curiosity can help individuals grapple with the existential anxiety of death. TMT suggests that people are motivated to manage the terror associated with mortality through cultural and psychological mechanisms (Greenberg et al., 1997). Engaging with morbid topics allows individuals to develop a familiarity with death, potentially reducing fear and enhancing resilience in the face of life's inevitable end. Studies have found that confronting mortality can lead to a more meaningful and reflective life (Oosterwijk, 2017). * Personal Growth and Self-Understanding: Morbidly curious individuals may seek out uncomfortable or taboo topics to better understand themselves and the world around them. This process of self-exploration can lead to increased personal growth, particularly in facing vulnerabilities and gaining insight into complex emotions. A 2004 study found that curiosity, especially about difficult or complex emotions, can lead to personal growth and subjective well-being (Kashdan et al., 2004). * Desensitisation and Avoidance: Engaging with morbid topics can counter the tendency to want to avoid them. Individuals may build resilience and reduce avoidance behaviours by voluntarily exposing themselves to content that elicits fear, disgust, or horror. This can be especially beneficial for those with anxiety or phobias, as avoidance tends to exacerbate fear over time. Research indicates that repeated exposure to negative stimuli in controlled settings can lessen the intensity of emotional reactions over time (Apter, 1992). === Negative Aspects === {{expand}} =='''Conclusion'''== =='''See also'''== * [[w:_Morbid_Curiosity_(magazine)|''Morbid Curiosity'' (magazine)]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Curiosity|Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Curiosity]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Mass murder motivation]] (Book chapter, 2021) =='''References'''== {{Hanging indent|1= Apter, M. J. (1992). The dangerous edge: The psychology of excitement. ''Free Press''. Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2023). National study of mental health and wellbeing. ''Australian Bureau of Statistics''. https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/health/mental-health/national-study-mental-health-and-wellbeing/2020-2022 Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. ''Prentice-Hall''. https://www.asecib.ase.ro/mps/Bandura_SocialLearningTheory.pdf Becker, E. (1973). The Denial of Death. ''Souvenir Press, Cop''. https://humanposthuman.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/ernest_becker_the_denial_of_deathbookfi-org.pdf Berlyne, D. E. (1954). A theory of human curiosity. British Journal of Psychology. ''General Section, 45''(3), 180–191. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1954.tb01243.x Berns, G. (2005). Satisfaction: Sensation seeking, novelty, and the science of finding true fulfillment. ''Macmillan''. Brandes, S. (1998). Iconography in mexico’s day of the dead: Origins and meaning. ''Ethnohistory, 45''(2), 181–218. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2tt3663j Dunsmoor, J. E., Kragel, P. A., Martin, A., & LaBar, K. S. (2013). Aversive Learning Modulates Cortical Representations of Object Categories. ''Cerebral Cortex, 24''(11), 2859–2872. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bht138 Feshbach, S. (1955). The drive-reducing function of fantasy behavior. 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''Yale University Press''. Oosterwijk, S. (2017). Choosing the negative: A behavioral demonstration of morbid curiosity. ''PLOS ONE, 12''(7). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0178399 Oosterwijk, S., Snoek, L., Tekoppele, J., Engelbert, L. H., & Scholte, H. S. (2020). Choosing to view morbid information involves reward circuitry. ''Scientific Reports, 10''(1), 15291. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-71662-y Philippe Ariès. (1974). Western attitudes toward death: From the middle ages to the present. Baltimore, ''Johns Hopkins University Press''. https://monoskop.org/images/0/0e/Ari%C3%A9s_Philippe_Western_Attitudes_Toward_Death_1976.pdf Ruby, J. (1995). Secure the shadow: Death and photography in america. ''The MIT Press''. https://mitpress.mit.edu/9780262681094/secure-the-shadow/ Scheff, T. J. (2012). Catharsis Theory. In Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning (pp. 518–520). ''Springer''. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_573 Scrivner, C. (2021a). An Infectious Curiosity: Morbid Curiosity and Media Preferences during a Pandemic. ''Evolutionary Studies in Imaginative Culture, 5''(1), 1–11. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.26613/esic.5.1.206 Scrivner, C. (2021b). The psychology of morbid curiosity: Development and initial validation of the morbid curiosity scale. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 183''(111139). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.111139 Scrivner, C. (2021c). What Is Morbid Curiosity? {{!}} ''Psychology Today Australia''. Www.psychologytoday.com. https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/morbid-minds/202102/what-is-morbid-curiosity Solomon, R. L. (1980). The opponent-process theory of acquired motivation: The costs of pleasure and the benefits of pain. ''American Psychologist, 35''(8), 691–712. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.35.8.691 Stone, P., & Sharpley, R. (2008). Consuming dark tourism: A thanatological perspective. ''Annals of Tourism Research, 35''(2), 574–595. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2008.02.003 Surette, R. (2015). Media, crime, and criminal justice: Images, realities, and policies (5th ed.). ''Cengage Learning''. https://archive.org/details/mediacrimecrimin0000sure_b0b3 Vicary, A. M., & Fraley, R. C. (2010). Captured by true crime: Why are women drawn to tales of rape, murder, and serial killers? ''Social Psychological and Personality Science, 1''(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550609355486 Winter, J. (1997). Sites of memory, sites of mourning: The great war in european cultural history. ''Cambridge University Press''. Zuckerman, M. (2007). Sensation seeking and risky behavior. American ''Psychological Association''. https://doi.org/10.1037/11555-000}} ==External links== * [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-08-01/conversations-hayley-campbell-morbid-curiosity-death-industry/103141878 Journalist Hayley Campbell’s morbid curiosity saw her spend two years researching the death industry] (ABC News) * [https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Morbid_Curiosities/YtyeEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0 Morbid Curiosities] (Laurence King Publishing) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Curiosity]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Interest]] qwfzkfnpf5efsxvciln16ojsgf1c218 2840822 2840821 2026-10-17T03:54:56Z Ella Kay244 3107007 2840822 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Morbid curiosity:<br>What is it, what causes it, and how does it influence behaviour?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ == '''Overview''' == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Imagine this ... You are walking down your street, and you notice there has been a big car accident. You know you don’t need to go over to help us there are several ambulances and police cares already on the screen. Despite this, you can’t help but want to get closer for a better look. Once you do you can see just how badly damaged the cares are and this intrigues you even more you notice yourself glancing around trying to get more and more information as to what happened. Why is this? What are the forces at hand motivating you to keep looking at a horrible accident even when you know your presences isn’t offering anyone any help? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Car crash at night.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Car crash at night ]] Morbid curiosity is an interest in subjects typically associated with fear, death, violence, or anything that evokes discomfort, fear, or disgust. While it might seem unsettling, this curiosity is a natural part of human psychology, manifesting in various forms throughout history and across cultures. Exploring morbid curiosity allows for a more profound insight into why people are drawn to taboo topics, how this curiosity shapes behaviour, and its potential impacts on mental health. This chapter educates on morbid curiosity's historical, cultural, biological, psychological, and social dimensions and its effects on media consumption, emotional responses, social interactions, and risk-taking behaviours. By fostering a deeper understanding of both the positive and negative impacts of morbid curiosity on mental health {{ic|the title and sub-title does not mention mental health}}, this chapter encourages critical thinking and self-awareness in how individuals engage with dark or taboo topics. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Learning Outcomes:''' * Understand what morbid curiosity is and the historical and cultural content surrounding it. * Comprehend the biological, psychological and social factors contributing to morbid curiosity. * Recognise how morbid curiosity influences media consumption, emotional responses, social interactions, and risk-taking behaviour. * Explore the positive and negative effects of morbid curiosity on mental health. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == '''What is Morbid Curiosity?''' == Morbid curiosity is the interest in unpleasant things, especially death (Scrivner, 2021). Morbid curiosity's origins as a subject of interest began in the late 19^th and early 20^th centuries, with early psychologists like Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung examining the human fascination with death, suffering, and horror. Freud linked it to his death drive, theorising that people have an unconscious drive toward destruction, aggression, and death (Freud, 1930). Similarly, Jung explored the concept through his theories of the shadow self, suggesting that people are drawn to their darker, unconscious impulses (Jung, 1971). Social psychology studied morbid curiosity more by the mid-20th century. Ernest Becker's "The Denial of Death" (1973) explored how people cope with their awareness of mortality, noting that individuals may confront death through morbid curiosity to manage existential anxieties (Becker, 1973). In the late 20^th and early 21^st centuries, cognitive psychology began to explore morbid curiosity, framing it within the broader context of curiosity and information-seeking behaviour. Neuroscientists have used brain imaging techniques to study how morbid curiosity manifests in the brain in recent years. Research has shown that viewing disturbing content activates the reward system, particularly the ventral striatum, linked to curiosity, pleasure, and novelty-seeking (Oosterwijk et al., 2020). Other studies have found that morbid curiosity is a natural part of exploratory behaviour, driven by a desire to learn about dangerous situations as a survival mechanism (Oosterwijk, 2017). === Historical Context === * [[wikipedia:Public_execution|Public Executions]]: In many societies across the world, public executions were popular events that attracted large crowds. People were fascinated by the spectacle of violence and often treated these events as communal entertainment (Foucault, 1977). * [[wikipedia:Memento_mori|Memento Mori]]: During the European Middle Ages, the artistic tradition of ''memento mori'' (latin for: "remember you must die") reminded people of their mortality. Skulls, skeletons, and other death-related imagery were typical in paintings, reinforcing the public’s morbid curiosity about death and the afterlife (Ariès, 1974). * [[wikipedia:True_crime|True Crime]]: In contemporary culture, the popularity of true crime documentaries, podcasts, and books reflects a widespread interest in criminal acts, violent events, and psychological mysteries. Shows like ''Making a Murderer'' or podcasts like ''Serial'' demonstrate how modern media capitalises on morbid curiosity (Surette, 2015). == '''What Causes Morbid Curiosity?''' == {{expand}} === Biological Factors === * [[Evolutionary psychology|Evolutionary]] Adaptation for Survival: From an evolutionary perspective, morbid curiosity may have developed as a survival mechanism. Being drawn to dangerous situations, such as observing the aftermath of predatorial behaviour, may have helped early humans learn about potential threats and how to avoid them (Berns, 2010). * Neurobiological [[wikipedia:Reward_system|Reward Systems]]: Morbid curiosity may also be linked to the brain's reward system. The dopaminergic system plays a role in curiosity and learning. When people engage with disturbing content, their brains may experience fear and pleasure, with dopamine release reinforcing the behaviour, similar to sensation-seeking behaviour (Zald & Zatorre, 2011). * [[wikipedia:Fear_conditioning|Fear Conditioning]] and Threat Monitoring: Research suggests that individuals might be drawn to morbid content due to heightened sensitivity within the amygdala to threat-related stimuli. By focusing on violent or dangerous events, the brain’s threat-monitoring system may stay vigilant, ensuring that individuals remain prepared for future threats (Dunsmoor et al., 2015). * [[wikipedia:Opponent-process_theory|Opponent-Process Theory]] (OPT): The Opponent-process theory of emotions suggests that experiencing negative emotions, like fear or disgust, may be followed by positive emotions, like relief or excitement. This emotional cycle could drive morbid curiosity, as people may be attracted to disturbing content for the pleasurable relief or excitement that follows the initial discomfort (Solomon, 1980). * [[wikipedia:Social_learning_theory|Social Learning]] and limitation: In dangerous or death-related scenarios, morbid curiosity could be tied to social learning mechanisms, where observing the reactions of others to traumatic events teaches individuals how to cope or react in similar situations (Bandura, 1977). === Psychological Factors === * Terror Management Theory (TMT): TMT posits that people are uniquely aware of their mortality, creating existential anxiety. Individuals seek ways to manage death-related thoughts associated with fears of mortality by developing psychological defence mechanisms. Morbid curiosity may emerge to understand death in a controlled manner, allowing individuals to distance themselves from their fear (Greenberg et al., 1997). * Sensation-Seeking Behaviour: Sensation-seeking is a personality trait that drives individuals to seek unique, intense, or dangerous experiences to experience fear, excitement or disgust. Individuals scoring high on sensation-seeking scales are more likely to be attracted to morbid content as it provides intense stimulation without harm (Zuckerman, 2007). * The Need for Cognitive Closure (NCC): NCC is a psychological theory that explains why some individuals are driven to seek definitive answers to distressing topics. Morbid curiosity may stem from this need to resolve uncertainty about unsettling subjects, such as death, violence, or suffering. People with high NCC may feel compelled to investigate morbid topics to gain closure on the mysteries of mortality or tragedy (Kruglanski, 2004). * Drive theory of curiosity (DTC): Daniel Berlyne suggested that curiosity is a primary human drive stimulated by different, complex, or obscure stimuli. Morbid curiosity can be understood as a response to these stimuli, as curiosity is driven by a desire to reduce uncertainty and arousal, explaining why people are drawn to disturbing situations like death and violence (Berlyne, 1954). * Catharsis Theory: Proposed by Aristotle and later expanded by Freud, the catharsis theory suggests people have an unconscious drive to witness emotionally intense events to purge their own emotions (Scheff, 2012). Morbid curiosity functions as a form of catharsis, allowing individuals to release pent-up emotions like fear, anxiety, or anger by engaging with disturbing or violent content (Feshbach, 1955). * Fear Regulation: People need to understand and control emotions related to danger and death. Morbid curiosity may be driven by the desire to master those fears. Exposure to morbid topics helps desensitise individuals so people can gradually gain mastery over their concerns in a controlled setting (Loewenstein, 1994). === Social and Cultural Factors === * Media Normalising Morbid Content: Mass media shapes public interest in morbid topics in modern societies. The increasing prevalence of crime shows, horror films, and disaster coverage has normalised and sensationalised these dark topics of fascination. Continuous exposure to such content can desensitise individuals to violence and suffering, reinforcing a cycle of engagement with morbid material (Surette, 2015). * Cultural Attitude Towards Death: Cultural differences in death strongly influence how morbid curiosity manifests. Societies that embrace death may channel morbid curiosity into rituals, celebrations, and practices that emphasise respect and remembrance. In Mexico, Día de los Muertos, or Day of the Dead, celebrates death as a joyful process where families honour their past loved ones by creating altars, offering food, and decorating with skull imagery (Brandes, 1998). Societies that view death as a taboo subject may suppress expressions of morbid curiosity but see it emerge in more covert ways. In 19th-century England, morbid curiosity was channelled into practices that emphasised remembrance of the dead while keeping death physically present, such as post-mortem photography (Ruby, 1995). *Taboo and Forbidden Knowledge: Morbid curiosity is often heightened by taboos, especially when death, violence, and suffering are considered uncomfortable topics. When discussing morbid subjects is restricted, this can increase curiosity as people become more drawn to what is controlled or limited. Freud described this phenomenon as the "return of the repressed". Repressed desires and fears resurface in distorted forms like morbid fascination (Freud, 1919). Dark Tourism is the desire to visit places associated with death and suffering. By visiting these sites, individuals seek to understand tragedy while challenging societal exclusion by confronting death and violence (Stone & Sharpley, 2008). *Social Identity and Group Behaviour: Social identity theory suggests that individuals are influenced by the behaviours and attitudes of their groups. Morbid curiosity can be shaped by group norms, peer influence, and collective behaviours to normalise interest in death and violence. Goth and horror fan communities actively embrace morbid curiosity as a shared cultural trait, often exploring themes of death, decay, and darkness in literature, art, and fashion (Hodkinson, 2002). *Trauma and Collective Memory: Trauma and collective memory shape morbid curiosity by influencing how societies remember tragic events. Communities that have experienced significant trauma may develop a collective fascination with these events as part of their process of remembering and understanding past horrors. This is especially evident in how countries memorialise violent events, like Holocaust memorials or war museums, which serve both to commemorate the dead and to satisfy a morbid curiosity about the atrocities of the past (Winter, 1995). *In some religious contexts, morbid curiosity is tied to ideas of the afterlife, divine punishment, or moral judgment. Religious narratives that emphasise death, suffering, and damnation may heighten curiosity about these topics as individuals seek to understand mortality. In Christian traditions, stories of martyrdom, divine judgment, and the afterlife have historically fuelled morbid curiosity. Medieval Christians were often captivated by images of hell and depictions of saints, reinforcing religious principles while satisfying a fascination with death and suffering (McDannell & Lang, 2001). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} ;Quiz {{expand}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} == '''How Does Morbid Curiosity Influence Behaviour?''' == Morbid curiosity prompts behaviours that satisfy the urge to understand an psychologically salient concept. === Media Consumption === The success of the horror genre, true-crime media such as podcasts and television shows, and prioritisation of violent stories in news coverage indicates a supply/demand with morbid curiosity providing a considerable mediator to this relationship (Scrivener, 2021). {{Robelbox|theme=10|title=Case study|width=20}}[[File:Remote pointed at TV.jpg|thumb|Remote pointed at television (TV)]] In early 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the film Contagion saw a significant spike in viewership/watchers (Scrivener, 2021a). Although it could be claimed there were educational basis for this by understanding the increasingly present reality of the COVID-19 pandemic, there is little educational value in such a film compared to official announcements and guidelines being released at the time. Morbid curiosity prompted people to gather more information on this situation, despite the potential of doing so to instil fear about the state of their own futures in a pandemic. {{Robelbox/close}} === Risk-Taking Behaviour === {{expand}} === Emotional Responses === {{expand}} === Social Interactions === Morbid curiosity has the potential to assist in social group formation. =='''How Does Morbid Curiosity Effect Mental Health?'''== From the [https://www.abs.gov.au/ Australian Bureau of Statistics] (2023), 42.9% of Australians have experienced a [[wikipedia:Mental_disorder|mental disorder]] during the course of their life. Morbid curiosity has a fascinating effect on mental health providing both positive and negative aspects. === Positive Aspects === * Cognitive and Emotional Processing: Morbid curiosity may help individuals confront and process their fears, anxiety, and discomfort related to taboo subjects. Engaging with content that evokes fear or discomfort in a controlled environment may desensitise themselves to real-world anxieties, leading to better emotional regulation. Research suggests that consuming media with morbid themes can provide a form of "exposure therapy," allowing individuals to explore their fears from a safe distance (Solomon, 1980){{expand}}. * Development of Empathy and Compassion: Morbid curiosity can stimulate empathy by encouraging the exploration of experiences of suffering and death from another perspective. True crime stories, documentaries, and horror films often provide a window into human suffering. When consumed, these narratives can foster a greater understanding of others' pain and challenges, increasing compassion and awareness of social issues (Vicary & Fraley, 2010). * Enhanced Coping Mechanisms: Morbid curiosity can help individuals grapple with the existential anxiety of death. TMT suggests that people are motivated to manage the terror associated with mortality through cultural and psychological mechanisms (Greenberg et al., 1997). Engaging with morbid topics allows individuals to develop a familiarity with death, potentially reducing fear and enhancing resilience in the face of life's inevitable end. Studies have found that confronting mortality can lead to a more meaningful and reflective life (Oosterwijk, 2017). * Personal Growth and Self-Understanding: Morbidly curious individuals may seek out uncomfortable or taboo topics to better understand themselves and the world around them. This process of self-exploration can lead to increased personal growth, particularly in facing vulnerabilities and gaining insight into complex emotions. A 2004 study found that curiosity, especially about difficult or complex emotions, can lead to personal growth and subjective well-being (Kashdan et al., 2004). * Desensitisation and Avoidance: Engaging with morbid topics can counter the tendency to want to avoid them. Individuals may build resilience and reduce avoidance behaviours by voluntarily exposing themselves to content that elicits fear, disgust, or horror. This can be especially beneficial for those with anxiety or phobias, as avoidance tends to exacerbate fear over time. Research indicates that repeated exposure to negative stimuli in controlled settings can lessen the intensity of emotional reactions over time (Apter, 1992). === Negative Aspects === {{expand}} =='''Conclusion'''== =='''See also'''== * [[w:_Morbid_Curiosity_(magazine)|''Morbid Curiosity'' (magazine)]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Curiosity|Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Curiosity]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Mass murder motivation]] (Book chapter, 2021) =='''References'''== {{Hanging indent|1= Apter, M. J. (1992). The dangerous edge: The psychology of excitement. ''Free Press''. Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2023). National study of mental health and wellbeing. ''Australian Bureau of Statistics''. https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/health/mental-health/national-study-mental-health-and-wellbeing/2020-2022 Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. ''Prentice-Hall''. https://www.asecib.ase.ro/mps/Bandura_SocialLearningTheory.pdf Becker, E. (1973). The Denial of Death. ''Souvenir Press, Cop''. https://humanposthuman.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/ernest_becker_the_denial_of_deathbookfi-org.pdf Berlyne, D. E. (1954). A theory of human curiosity. British Journal of Psychology. ''General Section, 45''(3), 180–191. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1954.tb01243.x Berns, G. (2005). Satisfaction: Sensation seeking, novelty, and the science of finding true fulfillment. ''Macmillan''. Brandes, S. (1998). Iconography in mexico’s day of the dead: Origins and meaning. ''Ethnohistory, 45''(2), 181–218. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2tt3663j Dunsmoor, J. E., Kragel, P. A., Martin, A., & LaBar, K. S. (2013). Aversive Learning Modulates Cortical Representations of Object Categories. ''Cerebral Cortex, 24''(11), 2859–2872. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bht138 Feshbach, S. (1955). The drive-reducing function of fantasy behavior. ''The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 50''(1), 3–11. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0042214 Foucault, M. (1975). Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison. ''Penguin Books''. https://monoskop.org/images/4/43/Foucault_Michel_Discipline_and_Punish_The_Birth_of_the_Prison_1977_1995.pdf Freud, S. (1919). The Uncanny. ''Penguin''. Freud, S. (1930). Civilisation and its Discontents (2nd ed., pp. 57–146). ''Penguin Books''. https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/modernlanguages/applying/undergraduate/germanmodules/ge211ps/resources/leo_bersani_-_introduction_freud_civilisation.pdf Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T., & Solomon, S. (1986). The causes and consequences of a need for self-esteem: A terror management theory. In Public Self and Private Self (pp. 189–212). ''Springer''. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-9564-5_10 Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., & Pyszczynski, T. (1997). Terror management theory of self-esteem and cultural worldviews: Empirical assessments and conceptual refinements. In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 29, pp. 61–139). ''Elsevier Academic Press''. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60016-7 Hodkinson, P. (2002). Goth identity, style and subculture. ''Oxford''. https://archive.org/details/gothidentitystyl0000hodk/page/n3/mode/2up Kashdan, T. B., Rose, P., & Fincham, F. D. (2004). Curiosity and exploration: Facilitating positive subjective experiences and personal growth opportunities. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 82''(3), 291–305. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa8203_05 Kruglanski, A. W. (2004). The psychology of closed mindedness. ''Psychology Press''. https://nibmehub.com/opac-service/pdf/read/The%20Psychology%20of%20Closed%20Mindedness%20by%20Arie%20W.%20Kruglanski.pdf Loewenstein, G. (1994). The psychology of curiosity: A review and reinterpretation. ''Psychological Bulletin, 116''(1), 75–98. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.116.1.75 Mcdannell, C., & Lang, B. (2001). Heaven: A history (2nd ed.). ''Yale University Press''. Oosterwijk, S. (2017). Choosing the negative: A behavioral demonstration of morbid curiosity. ''PLOS ONE, 12''(7). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0178399 Oosterwijk, S., Snoek, L., Tekoppele, J., Engelbert, L. H., & Scholte, H. S. (2020). Choosing to view morbid information involves reward circuitry. ''Scientific Reports, 10''(1), 15291. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-71662-y Philippe Ariès. (1974). Western attitudes toward death: From the middle ages to the present. Baltimore, ''Johns Hopkins University Press''. https://monoskop.org/images/0/0e/Ari%C3%A9s_Philippe_Western_Attitudes_Toward_Death_1976.pdf Ruby, J. (1995). Secure the shadow: Death and photography in america. ''The MIT Press''. https://mitpress.mit.edu/9780262681094/secure-the-shadow/ Scheff, T. J. (2012). Catharsis Theory. In Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning (pp. 518–520). ''Springer''. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_573 Scrivner, C. (2021a). An Infectious Curiosity: Morbid Curiosity and Media Preferences during a Pandemic. ''Evolutionary Studies in Imaginative Culture, 5''(1), 1–11. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.26613/esic.5.1.206 Scrivner, C. (2021b). The psychology of morbid curiosity: Development and initial validation of the morbid curiosity scale. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 183''(111139). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.111139 Scrivner, C. (2021c). What Is Morbid Curiosity? {{!}} ''Psychology Today Australia''. Www.psychologytoday.com. https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/morbid-minds/202102/what-is-morbid-curiosity Solomon, R. L. (1980). The opponent-process theory of acquired motivation: The costs of pleasure and the benefits of pain. ''American Psychologist, 35''(8), 691–712. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.35.8.691 Stone, P., & Sharpley, R. (2008). Consuming dark tourism: A thanatological perspective. ''Annals of Tourism Research, 35''(2), 574–595. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2008.02.003 Surette, R. (2015). Media, crime, and criminal justice: Images, realities, and policies (5th ed.). ''Cengage Learning''. https://archive.org/details/mediacrimecrimin0000sure_b0b3 Vicary, A. M., & Fraley, R. C. (2010). Captured by true crime: Why are women drawn to tales of rape, murder, and serial killers? ''Social Psychological and Personality Science, 1''(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550609355486 Winter, J. (1997). Sites of memory, sites of mourning: The great war in european cultural history. ''Cambridge University Press''. Zuckerman, M. (2007). Sensation seeking and risky behavior. American ''Psychological Association''. https://doi.org/10.1037/11555-000}} ==External links== * [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-08-01/conversations-hayley-campbell-morbid-curiosity-death-industry/103141878 Journalist Hayley Campbell’s morbid curiosity saw her spend two years researching the death industry] (ABC News) * [https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Morbid_Curiosities/YtyeEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0 Morbid Curiosities] (Laurence King Publishing) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Curiosity]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Interest]] a31j1oz28t92rold6jafc6tkw1pj9m9 2840823 2840822 2026-10-17T03:55:48Z Ella Kay244 3107007 2840823 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Morbid curiosity:<br>What is it, what causes it, and how does it influence behaviour?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ == '''Overview''' == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Car crash at night.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Car crash at night ]] ;Imagine this ... You are walking down your street, and you notice there has been a big car accident. You know you don’t need to go over to help us there are several ambulances and police cares already on the screen. Despite this, you can’t help but want to get closer for a better look. Once you do you can see just how badly damaged the cares are and this intrigues you even more you notice yourself glancing around trying to get more and more information as to what happened. Why is this? What are the forces at hand motivating you to keep looking at a horrible accident even when you know your presences isn’t offering anyone any help? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Morbid curiosity is an interest in subjects typically associated with fear, death, violence, or anything that evokes discomfort, fear, or disgust. While it might seem unsettling, this curiosity is a natural part of human psychology, manifesting in various forms throughout history and across cultures. Exploring morbid curiosity allows for a more profound insight into why people are drawn to taboo topics, how this curiosity shapes behaviour, and its potential impacts on mental health. This chapter educates on morbid curiosity's historical, cultural, biological, psychological, and social dimensions and its effects on media consumption, emotional responses, social interactions, and risk-taking behaviours. By fostering a deeper understanding of both the positive and negative impacts of morbid curiosity on mental health {{ic|the title and sub-title does not mention mental health}}, this chapter encourages critical thinking and self-awareness in how individuals engage with dark or taboo topics. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Learning Outcomes:''' * Understand what morbid curiosity is and the historical and cultural content surrounding it. * Comprehend the biological, psychological and social factors contributing to morbid curiosity. * Recognise how morbid curiosity influences media consumption, emotional responses, social interactions, and risk-taking behaviour. * Explore the positive and negative effects of morbid curiosity on mental health. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == '''What is Morbid Curiosity?''' == Morbid curiosity is the interest in unpleasant things, especially death (Scrivner, 2021). Morbid curiosity's origins as a subject of interest began in the late 19^th and early 20^th centuries, with early psychologists like Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung examining the human fascination with death, suffering, and horror. Freud linked it to his death drive, theorising that people have an unconscious drive toward destruction, aggression, and death (Freud, 1930). Similarly, Jung explored the concept through his theories of the shadow self, suggesting that people are drawn to their darker, unconscious impulses (Jung, 1971). Social psychology studied morbid curiosity more by the mid-20th century. Ernest Becker's "The Denial of Death" (1973) explored how people cope with their awareness of mortality, noting that individuals may confront death through morbid curiosity to manage existential anxieties (Becker, 1973). In the late 20^th and early 21^st centuries, cognitive psychology began to explore morbid curiosity, framing it within the broader context of curiosity and information-seeking behaviour. Neuroscientists have used brain imaging techniques to study how morbid curiosity manifests in the brain in recent years. Research has shown that viewing disturbing content activates the reward system, particularly the ventral striatum, linked to curiosity, pleasure, and novelty-seeking (Oosterwijk et al., 2020). Other studies have found that morbid curiosity is a natural part of exploratory behaviour, driven by a desire to learn about dangerous situations as a survival mechanism (Oosterwijk, 2017). === Historical Context === * [[wikipedia:Public_execution|Public Executions]]: In many societies across the world, public executions were popular events that attracted large crowds. People were fascinated by the spectacle of violence and often treated these events as communal entertainment (Foucault, 1977). * [[wikipedia:Memento_mori|Memento Mori]]: During the European Middle Ages, the artistic tradition of ''memento mori'' (latin for: "remember you must die") reminded people of their mortality. Skulls, skeletons, and other death-related imagery were typical in paintings, reinforcing the public’s morbid curiosity about death and the afterlife (Ariès, 1974). * [[wikipedia:True_crime|True Crime]]: In contemporary culture, the popularity of true crime documentaries, podcasts, and books reflects a widespread interest in criminal acts, violent events, and psychological mysteries. Shows like ''Making a Murderer'' or podcasts like ''Serial'' demonstrate how modern media capitalises on morbid curiosity (Surette, 2015). == '''What Causes Morbid Curiosity?''' == {{expand}} === Biological Factors === * [[Evolutionary psychology|Evolutionary]] Adaptation for Survival: From an evolutionary perspective, morbid curiosity may have developed as a survival mechanism. Being drawn to dangerous situations, such as observing the aftermath of predatorial behaviour, may have helped early humans learn about potential threats and how to avoid them (Berns, 2010). * Neurobiological [[wikipedia:Reward_system|Reward Systems]]: Morbid curiosity may also be linked to the brain's reward system. The dopaminergic system plays a role in curiosity and learning. When people engage with disturbing content, their brains may experience fear and pleasure, with dopamine release reinforcing the behaviour, similar to sensation-seeking behaviour (Zald & Zatorre, 2011). * [[wikipedia:Fear_conditioning|Fear Conditioning]] and Threat Monitoring: Research suggests that individuals might be drawn to morbid content due to heightened sensitivity within the amygdala to threat-related stimuli. By focusing on violent or dangerous events, the brain’s threat-monitoring system may stay vigilant, ensuring that individuals remain prepared for future threats (Dunsmoor et al., 2015). * [[wikipedia:Opponent-process_theory|Opponent-Process Theory]] (OPT): The Opponent-process theory of emotions suggests that experiencing negative emotions, like fear or disgust, may be followed by positive emotions, like relief or excitement. This emotional cycle could drive morbid curiosity, as people may be attracted to disturbing content for the pleasurable relief or excitement that follows the initial discomfort (Solomon, 1980). * [[wikipedia:Social_learning_theory|Social Learning]] and limitation: In dangerous or death-related scenarios, morbid curiosity could be tied to social learning mechanisms, where observing the reactions of others to traumatic events teaches individuals how to cope or react in similar situations (Bandura, 1977). === Psychological Factors === * Terror Management Theory (TMT): TMT posits that people are uniquely aware of their mortality, creating existential anxiety. Individuals seek ways to manage death-related thoughts associated with fears of mortality by developing psychological defence mechanisms. Morbid curiosity may emerge to understand death in a controlled manner, allowing individuals to distance themselves from their fear (Greenberg et al., 1997). * Sensation-Seeking Behaviour: Sensation-seeking is a personality trait that drives individuals to seek unique, intense, or dangerous experiences to experience fear, excitement or disgust. Individuals scoring high on sensation-seeking scales are more likely to be attracted to morbid content as it provides intense stimulation without harm (Zuckerman, 2007). * The Need for Cognitive Closure (NCC): NCC is a psychological theory that explains why some individuals are driven to seek definitive answers to distressing topics. Morbid curiosity may stem from this need to resolve uncertainty about unsettling subjects, such as death, violence, or suffering. People with high NCC may feel compelled to investigate morbid topics to gain closure on the mysteries of mortality or tragedy (Kruglanski, 2004). * Drive theory of curiosity (DTC): Daniel Berlyne suggested that curiosity is a primary human drive stimulated by different, complex, or obscure stimuli. Morbid curiosity can be understood as a response to these stimuli, as curiosity is driven by a desire to reduce uncertainty and arousal, explaining why people are drawn to disturbing situations like death and violence (Berlyne, 1954). * Catharsis Theory: Proposed by Aristotle and later expanded by Freud, the catharsis theory suggests people have an unconscious drive to witness emotionally intense events to purge their own emotions (Scheff, 2012). Morbid curiosity functions as a form of catharsis, allowing individuals to release pent-up emotions like fear, anxiety, or anger by engaging with disturbing or violent content (Feshbach, 1955). * Fear Regulation: People need to understand and control emotions related to danger and death. Morbid curiosity may be driven by the desire to master those fears. Exposure to morbid topics helps desensitise individuals so people can gradually gain mastery over their concerns in a controlled setting (Loewenstein, 1994). === Social and Cultural Factors === * Media Normalising Morbid Content: Mass media shapes public interest in morbid topics in modern societies. The increasing prevalence of crime shows, horror films, and disaster coverage has normalised and sensationalised these dark topics of fascination. Continuous exposure to such content can desensitise individuals to violence and suffering, reinforcing a cycle of engagement with morbid material (Surette, 2015). * Cultural Attitude Towards Death: Cultural differences in death strongly influence how morbid curiosity manifests. Societies that embrace death may channel morbid curiosity into rituals, celebrations, and practices that emphasise respect and remembrance. In Mexico, Día de los Muertos, or Day of the Dead, celebrates death as a joyful process where families honour their past loved ones by creating altars, offering food, and decorating with skull imagery (Brandes, 1998). Societies that view death as a taboo subject may suppress expressions of morbid curiosity but see it emerge in more covert ways. In 19th-century England, morbid curiosity was channelled into practices that emphasised remembrance of the dead while keeping death physically present, such as post-mortem photography (Ruby, 1995). *Taboo and Forbidden Knowledge: Morbid curiosity is often heightened by taboos, especially when death, violence, and suffering are considered uncomfortable topics. When discussing morbid subjects is restricted, this can increase curiosity as people become more drawn to what is controlled or limited. Freud described this phenomenon as the "return of the repressed". Repressed desires and fears resurface in distorted forms like morbid fascination (Freud, 1919). Dark Tourism is the desire to visit places associated with death and suffering. By visiting these sites, individuals seek to understand tragedy while challenging societal exclusion by confronting death and violence (Stone & Sharpley, 2008). *Social Identity and Group Behaviour: Social identity theory suggests that individuals are influenced by the behaviours and attitudes of their groups. Morbid curiosity can be shaped by group norms, peer influence, and collective behaviours to normalise interest in death and violence. Goth and horror fan communities actively embrace morbid curiosity as a shared cultural trait, often exploring themes of death, decay, and darkness in literature, art, and fashion (Hodkinson, 2002). *Trauma and Collective Memory: Trauma and collective memory shape morbid curiosity by influencing how societies remember tragic events. Communities that have experienced significant trauma may develop a collective fascination with these events as part of their process of remembering and understanding past horrors. This is especially evident in how countries memorialise violent events, like Holocaust memorials or war museums, which serve both to commemorate the dead and to satisfy a morbid curiosity about the atrocities of the past (Winter, 1995). *In some religious contexts, morbid curiosity is tied to ideas of the afterlife, divine punishment, or moral judgment. Religious narratives that emphasise death, suffering, and damnation may heighten curiosity about these topics as individuals seek to understand mortality. In Christian traditions, stories of martyrdom, divine judgment, and the afterlife have historically fuelled morbid curiosity. Medieval Christians were often captivated by images of hell and depictions of saints, reinforcing religious principles while satisfying a fascination with death and suffering (McDannell & Lang, 2001). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} ;Quiz {{expand}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} == '''How Does Morbid Curiosity Influence Behaviour?''' == Morbid curiosity prompts behaviours that satisfy the urge to understand an psychologically salient concept. === Media Consumption === The success of the horror genre, true-crime media such as podcasts and television shows, and prioritisation of violent stories in news coverage indicates a supply/demand with morbid curiosity providing a considerable mediator to this relationship (Scrivener, 2021). {{Robelbox|theme=10|title=Case study|width=20}}[[File:Remote pointed at TV.jpg|thumb|Remote pointed at television (TV)]] In early 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the film Contagion saw a significant spike in viewership/watchers (Scrivener, 2021a). Although it could be claimed there were educational basis for this by understanding the increasingly present reality of the COVID-19 pandemic, there is little educational value in such a film compared to official announcements and guidelines being released at the time. Morbid curiosity prompted people to gather more information on this situation, despite the potential of doing so to instil fear about the state of their own futures in a pandemic. {{Robelbox/close}} === Risk-Taking Behaviour === {{expand}} === Emotional Responses === {{expand}} === Social Interactions === Morbid curiosity has the potential to assist in social group formation. =='''How Does Morbid Curiosity Effect Mental Health?'''== From the [https://www.abs.gov.au/ Australian Bureau of Statistics] (2023), 42.9% of Australians have experienced a [[wikipedia:Mental_disorder|mental disorder]] during the course of their life. Morbid curiosity has a fascinating effect on mental health providing both positive and negative aspects. === Positive Aspects === * Cognitive and Emotional Processing: Morbid curiosity may help individuals confront and process their fears, anxiety, and discomfort related to taboo subjects. Engaging with content that evokes fear or discomfort in a controlled environment may desensitise themselves to real-world anxieties, leading to better emotional regulation. Research suggests that consuming media with morbid themes can provide a form of "exposure therapy," allowing individuals to explore their fears from a safe distance (Solomon, 1980){{expand}}. * Development of Empathy and Compassion: Morbid curiosity can stimulate empathy by encouraging the exploration of experiences of suffering and death from another perspective. True crime stories, documentaries, and horror films often provide a window into human suffering. When consumed, these narratives can foster a greater understanding of others' pain and challenges, increasing compassion and awareness of social issues (Vicary & Fraley, 2010). * Enhanced Coping Mechanisms: Morbid curiosity can help individuals grapple with the existential anxiety of death. TMT suggests that people are motivated to manage the terror associated with mortality through cultural and psychological mechanisms (Greenberg et al., 1997). Engaging with morbid topics allows individuals to develop a familiarity with death, potentially reducing fear and enhancing resilience in the face of life's inevitable end. Studies have found that confronting mortality can lead to a more meaningful and reflective life (Oosterwijk, 2017). * Personal Growth and Self-Understanding: Morbidly curious individuals may seek out uncomfortable or taboo topics to better understand themselves and the world around them. This process of self-exploration can lead to increased personal growth, particularly in facing vulnerabilities and gaining insight into complex emotions. A 2004 study found that curiosity, especially about difficult or complex emotions, can lead to personal growth and subjective well-being (Kashdan et al., 2004). * Desensitisation and Avoidance: Engaging with morbid topics can counter the tendency to want to avoid them. Individuals may build resilience and reduce avoidance behaviours by voluntarily exposing themselves to content that elicits fear, disgust, or horror. This can be especially beneficial for those with anxiety or phobias, as avoidance tends to exacerbate fear over time. Research indicates that repeated exposure to negative stimuli in controlled settings can lessen the intensity of emotional reactions over time (Apter, 1992). === Negative Aspects === {{expand}} =='''Conclusion'''== =='''See also'''== * [[w:_Morbid_Curiosity_(magazine)|''Morbid Curiosity'' (magazine)]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Curiosity|Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Curiosity]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Mass murder motivation]] (Book chapter, 2021) =='''References'''== {{Hanging indent|1= Apter, M. J. (1992). The dangerous edge: The psychology of excitement. ''Free Press''. Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2023). National study of mental health and wellbeing. ''Australian Bureau of Statistics''. https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/health/mental-health/national-study-mental-health-and-wellbeing/2020-2022 Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. ''Prentice-Hall''. https://www.asecib.ase.ro/mps/Bandura_SocialLearningTheory.pdf Becker, E. (1973). The Denial of Death. ''Souvenir Press, Cop''. https://humanposthuman.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/ernest_becker_the_denial_of_deathbookfi-org.pdf Berlyne, D. E. (1954). A theory of human curiosity. British Journal of Psychology. ''General Section, 45''(3), 180–191. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1954.tb01243.x Berns, G. (2005). Satisfaction: Sensation seeking, novelty, and the science of finding true fulfillment. ''Macmillan''. Brandes, S. (1998). Iconography in mexico’s day of the dead: Origins and meaning. ''Ethnohistory, 45''(2), 181–218. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2tt3663j Dunsmoor, J. E., Kragel, P. A., Martin, A., & LaBar, K. S. (2013). Aversive Learning Modulates Cortical Representations of Object Categories. ''Cerebral Cortex, 24''(11), 2859–2872. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bht138 Feshbach, S. (1955). The drive-reducing function of fantasy behavior. ''The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 50''(1), 3–11. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0042214 Foucault, M. (1975). Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison. ''Penguin Books''. https://monoskop.org/images/4/43/Foucault_Michel_Discipline_and_Punish_The_Birth_of_the_Prison_1977_1995.pdf Freud, S. (1919). The Uncanny. ''Penguin''. Freud, S. (1930). Civilisation and its Discontents (2nd ed., pp. 57–146). ''Penguin Books''. https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/modernlanguages/applying/undergraduate/germanmodules/ge211ps/resources/leo_bersani_-_introduction_freud_civilisation.pdf Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T., & Solomon, S. (1986). The causes and consequences of a need for self-esteem: A terror management theory. In Public Self and Private Self (pp. 189–212). ''Springer''. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-9564-5_10 Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., & Pyszczynski, T. (1997). Terror management theory of self-esteem and cultural worldviews: Empirical assessments and conceptual refinements. In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 29, pp. 61–139). ''Elsevier Academic Press''. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60016-7 Hodkinson, P. (2002). Goth identity, style and subculture. ''Oxford''. https://archive.org/details/gothidentitystyl0000hodk/page/n3/mode/2up Kashdan, T. B., Rose, P., & Fincham, F. D. (2004). Curiosity and exploration: Facilitating positive subjective experiences and personal growth opportunities. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 82''(3), 291–305. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa8203_05 Kruglanski, A. W. (2004). The psychology of closed mindedness. ''Psychology Press''. https://nibmehub.com/opac-service/pdf/read/The%20Psychology%20of%20Closed%20Mindedness%20by%20Arie%20W.%20Kruglanski.pdf Loewenstein, G. (1994). The psychology of curiosity: A review and reinterpretation. ''Psychological Bulletin, 116''(1), 75–98. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.116.1.75 Mcdannell, C., & Lang, B. (2001). Heaven: A history (2nd ed.). ''Yale University Press''. Oosterwijk, S. (2017). Choosing the negative: A behavioral demonstration of morbid curiosity. ''PLOS ONE, 12''(7). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0178399 Oosterwijk, S., Snoek, L., Tekoppele, J., Engelbert, L. H., & Scholte, H. S. (2020). Choosing to view morbid information involves reward circuitry. ''Scientific Reports, 10''(1), 15291. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-71662-y Philippe Ariès. (1974). Western attitudes toward death: From the middle ages to the present. Baltimore, ''Johns Hopkins University Press''. https://monoskop.org/images/0/0e/Ari%C3%A9s_Philippe_Western_Attitudes_Toward_Death_1976.pdf Ruby, J. (1995). Secure the shadow: Death and photography in america. ''The MIT Press''. https://mitpress.mit.edu/9780262681094/secure-the-shadow/ Scheff, T. J. (2012). Catharsis Theory. In Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning (pp. 518–520). ''Springer''. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_573 Scrivner, C. (2021a). An Infectious Curiosity: Morbid Curiosity and Media Preferences during a Pandemic. ''Evolutionary Studies in Imaginative Culture, 5''(1), 1–11. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.26613/esic.5.1.206 Scrivner, C. (2021b). The psychology of morbid curiosity: Development and initial validation of the morbid curiosity scale. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 183''(111139). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.111139 Scrivner, C. (2021c). What Is Morbid Curiosity? {{!}} ''Psychology Today Australia''. Www.psychologytoday.com. https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/morbid-minds/202102/what-is-morbid-curiosity Solomon, R. L. (1980). The opponent-process theory of acquired motivation: The costs of pleasure and the benefits of pain. ''American Psychologist, 35''(8), 691–712. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.35.8.691 Stone, P., & Sharpley, R. (2008). Consuming dark tourism: A thanatological perspective. ''Annals of Tourism Research, 35''(2), 574–595. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2008.02.003 Surette, R. (2015). Media, crime, and criminal justice: Images, realities, and policies (5th ed.). ''Cengage Learning''. https://archive.org/details/mediacrimecrimin0000sure_b0b3 Vicary, A. M., & Fraley, R. C. (2010). Captured by true crime: Why are women drawn to tales of rape, murder, and serial killers? ''Social Psychological and Personality Science, 1''(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550609355486 Winter, J. (1997). Sites of memory, sites of mourning: The great war in european cultural history. ''Cambridge University Press''. Zuckerman, M. (2007). Sensation seeking and risky behavior. American ''Psychological Association''. https://doi.org/10.1037/11555-000}} ==External links== * [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-08-01/conversations-hayley-campbell-morbid-curiosity-death-industry/103141878 Journalist Hayley Campbell’s morbid curiosity saw her spend two years researching the death industry] (ABC News) * [https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Morbid_Curiosities/YtyeEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0 Morbid Curiosities] (Laurence King Publishing) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Curiosity]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Interest]] 5gsyd0pyxn60w36xn7y1yj3qqsjwnlw 0 322586 2840779 2835894 2026-10-17T01:12:48Z PsychstudentUniversity! 3106975 2840779 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Power motivation in leadership:<br>How does power motivation influence leadership styles and effectiveness?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Donald Trump takes the oath of office (2025).jpg|thumb|President-elect Donald Trump takes the oath of office |'''Figure 1'''. Donald Trump's 2025 Inauguration surrounded by some of the world's wealthiest and most powerful individuals]] Imagine a leader standing at their inauguration, surrounded by a concentration of wealthy and influential individuals. At first glance, this may reflect a preference for resources and influence. However, a closer look raises a psychological question: what motivates a leader to seek and exercise power, and how does this shape the way they lead? This scenario reflects the leadership of United States President Donald Trump, whose 2025 administration includes a notable concentration of wealthy and influential individuals. The individuals present at Trump's inauguration illustrate this concentration of political and economic power (see Figure 1). This provides a contemporary example for examining the relationship between power motivation and leadership.{{ic|[[w:Donald Trump|Second inauguration of Donald Trump]]}} Power is reflected not only in who a leader surrounds themselves with, but also in how they exercise their influence. For example, Trump uses social media as a political megaphone, bypassing traditional bureaucratic communication channels. His public leadership style places considerable emphasis on personal image and the exercise of power. This raises the question: does the desire for power necessarily make someone an effective leader? Individuals seek leadership for various reasons, and how they use their influence shapes their interactions with followers, decision-making, and pursuit of goals. Psychology helps explain these differences by examining power motivation and how individual motives influence leadership behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} This chapter will explore [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10355387/ power motivation] (Friederichs et al., 2023) and how it influences leadership styles, behaviour and effectiveness. Exploring the duality of its expression and how that interplays into a leader being successful (Friederichs et al., 2023). * Power motivation is the desire to influence, control, and have the ability to impact others; it is very relevant to leadership as leaders consistently have the ability to influence decisions (McClelland, 1970). * Power motivation can be expressed via socialised or personalised power. The type of expression determines the leader's behaviour and effectiveness, either producing positive outcomes for effective decision-making or negative, self-serving outcomes (Reeve, 2018; McClelland, 1970; Carvalho & Conde, 2024). * Being able to understand and tell the distinction between the type of power motivation being expressed is crucial to see how leaders exercise authority and how followers respond. Psychological science can help explain why some power-motivated leaders use influence to control, while others use it to empower (Reeve, 2018). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:P psychology.png|right]] '''Focus questions''' *What psychological theories account for power motivation in leadership style? *How does a leader's orientation towards power influence their specific leadership style? *What is implicit motivation, and how does it differ from explicit power motivation in leaders? *What is the relationship between power motivation and overall leadership effectiveness? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Understanding power motivation== * '''Focus question:''' ''What psychological theories account for power motivation in leadership style?'' * What are your thoughts when you hear motivation and power, separately and together? Motivation, a term used to describe the push to act, and power, often associated with aggression, together they hold a heavy definition. * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Introduction|Motivation]] is the driving force that guides human behaviour; it is the use of will-power and self-discipline - channelling effort to achieve a goal. Certain individuals have predominant motive of power, being motivated by the internal urge to dominate, influence, or control (Kurt, 2021). * Power motivation has three characteristics: strong action, emotional impact, and concern for status, frame, and reputation. It is influenced by cultural values and socialised experiences (McClelland,1970). * The need for power, [[wikipedia:Need_for_power|nPower]], can be expressed in two manners: dominant or prosocial. There is a contrasting nature between how power is expressed for leadership, affecting how leaders behave. Dominant power is associated with antisocial behaviour and guides individuals to achieve personal benefit and status, using aggression and assertive manners. This contrasts with prosocial power, which motivates leaders to be benevolent and supportive (Friederichs et al., 2023). * Power seekers can be effective, well-adjusted, and highly motivated. Power is a source of human control; only the mentally healthy can wield it successfully. Those with this form of nPower struggle to feel satisfied unless they are in a position that fulfils their power-hungry needs, such as making decisions, influencing an audience, or obtaining information to become influential. Such occupations are teachers, journalists, clergy, psychologists, diplomats, business executives, political leaders and advisors (Reeve, 2018). * [[wikipedia:David_McClelland|David McClelland's]] is popular within the psychology community for his thoughts on power motivation, with the most well-known theories, the Three Need Theory and the Two Faces of Power theory. In studies done by McClelland, it was discovered that those with high nPower tended to drink more heavily, making a comment that nPower can either manifest through drinking or 'hold office.' === McClelland's three need theory === [[File:DavidMcClelland.jpg|thumb|Figure 2. David McClelland]] * McClelland (seen in Figure 2.) proposed [[wikipedia:Need_theory|Three Need Theory]], describes that every individual is driven by three dominant, unconscious needs: The need for power, affiliation, or achievement (one is more dominant than the others), definition can be seen in Table 1, (Kurt, 2021). * The Three Need Theory can also be looked at along with [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Two-factor motivation theory|Herzberg's Two-Factor theory]] and [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's theory of Hierarchy of Needs]]. Looking into how motivation affects health, as success impacts stress, blood pressure, and hormone levels (McClelland,1970). * Individuals develop motivation at different degrees, influenced by personal experiences and exposure. When an experience causes a positive emotional response, the individual is more likely to seek that feeling out again through a similar experience (Reeve, 2018). * Explained through the McClelland Acquired Needs Theory, positive emotional experiences develop acquired needs through the reinforcement of the behaviour (Kurt, 2021). {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1: Three Need Theory !Need !Definition !High Behaviour !Low Behaviour |- |Need for Achievement |Situations that challenge individuals with explicit standards. |Individual exhibits a need to win and receive recognition. |Constant fear of failure, typically avoids responsibilities. |- |Need for Affiliation |Situations that afford warm relationship opportunities. |A desire within for control, typically exaggerates own position. |A heavily dependent individual, tries to minimise own position and importance. |- |Need for Power |Situations that enable others to exert influence over others. |Individual demands and expects loyalty and harmony. |Individual remains 'aloof' and keeps social distance from influence over others. |} ==== Two faces of power ==== * The [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24356663.pdf Two Faces of Power theory], is a subgroup with the three needs of power theory propised by McClelland which introdiced the two faces of power, splitting the nPower into two manner's, personalised power or socialised power, also referred to as ''p''Power, and ''s''Power (McClelland, 1970). ''p''Power is seen as socially unacceptable way of expression, is is closely linked to control, in a way it is the definition that power is sometimes thought as, aggressive, and self-desired, those with this form of power see like as a me-against-the-world. ''s''Power, is more socially acceptable form of expression, leaders are motivated through inspiring others (Bargh & Lee-Chai, 2002). * Leaders can take on both forms of power; McClelland believes that a true leader can balance both. They can exercise personal dominance and socialised leadership (Bargh & Lee-Chai, 2002). * ''p''Power can become problematic when leaders become too absorbed by the maintenance of their position and influence, the ability to dominate, manipulate, and disagree. However, the issue isn't high-power motivation; it's how it is expressed (McClelland, 1970). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} == Recap == <quiz display=simple> {&nbsp; |type="{}"} What is the driving force that guides human behaviour? { Motivation } {What is the key difference between personalised power and socialised power?} - Personalised power focuses on achievement, and socialised power focuses on affiliation + Personalised power focuses on personal dominance and control, and socialised power focuses on benefiting others - Personalised power is consistently associated with an effective leadership style, whereas socialised power is associated with an ineffective leadership style. {Which behaviour best fits an individual with a high need for power?} - Avoiding situations where they might influence others + Seek opportunities to influence, control, or have an impact on others - Avoid challenging tasks for fear of failure </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Power orientation and leadership style == * Focus question: ''How does a leader's orientation towards power influence their specific leadership style?'' * Power motivation is the drive; power orientation is the how; it is the framework of how a leader will manage to become influential. There is a negative stereotype around having a high power motivation, with theories that it automatically relates to undesired behaviour, unlike prosocial power motivation, which is regularly associated with generosity. However, those with high power motivation can have different power orientations. Ego-power orientation is associated with pursuing goals to satisfy the self and achieve a sense of self-fulfilment; this doesn't automatically mean they are using it for harm, as it depends on their position of influence and work. Social-power orientation is linked to directing power toward collective outcomes (Carvalho & Conde, 2024). ''Author note: add more information into this section - do more research/potentially move it around.'' * Effective leadership involves more than holding a position of authority; it is about how leaders behave and interact. There are five essential characteristics to leadership: self-image, socialised power, sustained dialogue, and strategic intent, providing a practical framework for a successful leader (Power, 2026). Power motivation and leadership are relevant across different contexts, from political leaders to supervisors, building a relationship with employees and an environment of trust (Power, 2026; Friederichs et al., 2023) * Leadership styles refer to the way a leader behaves when directing, influencing and interacting. Although leadership styles reflect theoretical models, they can also be shaped by individual characteristics and techniques (Khajeh et al., 2018; "What Are the Different Leadership Styles?", 2024). Different styles place varying emphasis on factors seen in Table 2 (Deakin University, 2024; Bwalya, 2023). Research suggests that [https://leadership.deakin.edu.au/blog/what-is-transformational-leadership transformational leadership] can produce positive outcomes by motivating and inspiring followers, benefiting the group rather then for personal interests, rather than focusing on personal interest, (Peyton et al., 2019) {| class="wikitable" |+Table 2. Leadership Styles ! colspan="3" |Leadership styles |- |Style |Description |Example Leaders |- |Autocratic |Leader holds complete control over decision-making with no input from followers. Consistently exercises control over the decision-making process. Expects strict compliance with policies and procedures, and does not take input from followers. They micromanage and control subordinate work. They make quick decisions because they do not have to consult. There is a lack of creative innovation (Bwalya, 2023). |Adolf Hitler and Kim Jong-un |- |Democratic |Leader is involved in team members' decision-making process, continuously encourages communication, and seeks feedback on matters, valuing input and ideas, wanting followers to participate in shaping strategies and goals (Bwalya, 2023). |Former President of South Africa, Nelson Mandela and Former Prime Minister of New Zealand Jacinda Ardern |- |Laissex-faire | The leader is distant and has minimal involvement in decisions, unlike autocratic leadership, as laissez-faire lets followers make decisions with little guidance or supervision, trusting their ability to manage responsibilities. They are comfortable with mistakes and take accountability for followers' mistakes. This empowers employees and enables faster decision-making. However, the lack of guidance can cause confusion and lack of coordination (Bwalya, 2023). |Former President Herbert Hoover and Mahatma Ghandi |- |Servant |Leader is prosocial and motivated by power, focusing on the needs and well-being of others. Aiming to support and empower followers, in hopes they reach their full potential (Bwalya, 2023). |Pope Francis |- |Transformational |Based on inspiration and motivation to achieve performance, with high expectations and focus on challenging others to exceed self-interest. Focuses on transforming followers through inspiration, motivation, and effective communication. They rely on the leader's influence; if the leader fails to provide proper guidance, it can impact followers (Bwalya, 2023). |Former President of South Africa Nelson Mandela and Former President of the United States Barack Obama |- |Transactional |Focuses on the exchange relationship between the leader and their followers. The leader maintains stability and achieves goals by providing rewards and punishments based on performance. Very goal-oriented, with clear expectations, and quick decision-making (Bwalya, 2023). |Bill Gates and Former Chancellor of Germany Angela Merkel |} == Implicit motivation == [[File:Implicit_Motives_associations.png|thumb| Figure 3. Mind map of implicit motives]]Focus question: ''What is implicit motivation, and how does it differ from explicit power motivation in leaders?'' * Implicit motives are unconscious needs that influence how people respond emotionally to particular situations. They form early on through preverbal experiences and interactions, lying dormant until potential incentives set them off. They are revealed through patterns of thought, emotion, and behaviour (Reeve, 2018) * Implicit motives differ from explicit motives, which are a conscious goal or value that people can describe and self-report (Slabbinck & Van Witteloostuijn, 2020). They can predict long-term behaviour, especially when the situation provides a way to satisfy the motive. * According to McClelland, implicit motives are unconscious and therefore can't be accurately measured through self-reporting. They are assessed via indirect methods, ie., analysing imaginative stories (Reeve, 2018). The Dual-Motive System. === Leadership motive pattern === * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Leadership motivation#Leadership Motive Pattern|Leadership Motive Pattern (LMP)]] developed from McClelland's work on motivation, describes a profile associated with effective leadership. It is consistent with three elements: high implicit power, low implicit affiliation, and high activity inhibition. Together, these elements help explain how a leader can balance self-control and a drive for nPower while also prioritising social benefits (Reeve, 2018). * Leaders who are motivated to influence are usually less dependent on being personally liked or accepted. Their high npower encourages them to seek influence, while their low need for affiliation reduces their reliance on close relationships, and their high inhibition allows them to regulate their impulses. In contrast, individuals with high need for power, low affiliation, and low inhibition are often unsuccessful and rated poorly, as they struggle to regulate their desire for influence, lack self-discipline, and can be seen as narcissistic or aggrandising (Reeve, 2018). * ''Author note: add more information into this section - a case study on a public figure...'' ==== Need for power ==== * Individuals with a high nPower, are motivated by their desire to impact, control, or influence others or their environment. They want to establish, maintain, and expand their power. High-power-striving individuals therefore seek dominance, reputation, status, or positions of authority (Reeve, 2018). * Individuals like this enjoy the ability to demonstrate influence and be able to reinforce their power. They are motivated to attain and maintain leadership positions because these roles provide opportunities to exercise authority and influence over others. Successfully obtaining power can provide a sense of satisfaction and accomplishment, reinforcing their motivation (Reeve, 2018). ''Look into the chemical reaction potentially (comment made after tutorial three).'' * These individuals tend to thrive off inspirational speeches, and they feel more energetic and their physiological arousal increases (Reeve, 2018). == Power motivation and leadership effectiveness == * Focus question: ''What is the relationship between power motivation and overall leadership effectiveness?'' * Power motivation can influence leadership effectiveness depending on how the motive is expressed and regulated. A high nPower can motivate individuals to seek leadership distinction; the shape power motivation takes will enable one to understand its effect on leadership effectiveness. * The expression of the power motivation can develop through social and environmental experiences. Individuals who develop power-strivings may have experienced childhood environments in which the parents established demanding standards, potentially contributing to a desire for recognition and admiration. nPower has been associated with aggressive tendencies, although high power motivation doesn't automatically result in overt aggression. Social norms, laws, and consequences can constrain this expression, causing that desire to control to remain internal rather than manifest as overt aggression (Reeve, 2018). * Individuals high in the need for power may be attracted to occupations that provide career-wise; individuals with high rates in need for power are drawn to professions with influential opportunities (Reeve, 2018). === Destructive power dynamics and power abuse === * A relationship between aggression and the need for power has been identified, with studies finding men being more argumentative. However, a high need for power doesn't necessarily result in aggression. Social norms, laws, and consequences can constrain this expression, causing that desire to control to remain internally rather than through overt aggression. * Tend to harbour inclinations that are both benevolent and malevolent towards others, strive to improve the world, whilst also influencing everyone. * Dark side of implicit motive is the combination of opportunity to use power for personal benefit, which is the 'abuse of power.' Additionally, there is a link to sexual misconduct and excessive drinking (Spanler et al., 2014). * Unrestrained '''affiliation''' can lead to favouritism and corruption in political and bureaucratic organisations. '''Achievement''', ignore political/interpersonal issues. High need for '''achievement''', find it difficult working in groups, making decisions, ad enforcing authority, ignoring interpersonal relationships (Spanler et al., 2014). === '''Key predictors of effective leadership''' === *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness|Effective leader,]] is a combination of power strivings which are complemented with self-discipline inhibition, ie., power under control, which gives rise to charismatic leadership, and high morale. *High affliction motivation will motivate followers by communication concern, respect, appreciation, and support, developing high-quality leader followers interactions. *Leaders with weak moral identify act in self-interest ways. *Leaders benefit from a prosocial enactment strategy, action orientation through prosocial power motivation leads to reduced power related anxiety, greater well-being. *Achievement strivings were associated with ineffective presidential, because achievement-oriented individuals were highly active but also frustrated. *Successful presidents would have effective communication and combative skills, and a sense of humour. Additionally five variables that define a presidential effectiveness are, direct presidential action, perceived greatness, performance on social and economic issue, and international relations. *Leadership motive pattern can determine when a leader will engage in war and when a leader will pursue peace. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[File:John F. Kennedy speaks at Rice University.jpg|thumb|President John F. Kennedy speaking at Rice University | Figure 4. John F. Kennedy speaking at Rice University]] == Case Study: John F. Kennedy == - Kennedy, also referred to as JFK, was commended for his optimistic and ambitious presidency; though his term was short, he achieved success across the board (Reeve, 2018; McCann & Mollan, 2023). - Created a modern framework for future presidents to follow; he blended political office with pop-culture celebrity. He was open-minded and engaged with the government and public (Reeve, 2018; McCann & Mollan, 2023). - Historians consider Kennedy a strong example of effective leadership because of his charismatic communication and calm management, seen in Figure 4. Kennedy is found to have a high need for power and low affiliation needs, fitting McClelland's framework of leadership motives (McCann & Mollan, 2023). - Leadership theorist James MacGregor Burns has written about JFK's presidency as a 'transformational leadership' style (McCann & Mollan, 2023). - McClelland's experiment on business school students, exposing them to a JFK inaugural speech, found that after the speech, the students demonstrated more strengthened and uplifted experiences. This showed that JFK, as a leader, influenced his audience through inspiration (McClelland, 1970).{{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} == Quiz Yourself == <quiz display=simple> {Which combination of implicit motives is associated with effective leadership according to McClelland's leadership motive pattern? |type="()"} - High power, high affiliation, and low inhibition + High power, low affiliation, and high inhibition - Low power, high affiliation, and high inhibition - High power, low affiliation, and low inhibition {Does a high need for power necessarily result in aggressive behaviour? |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== * Psychological theory and research consistently suggest that power motivation influences leadership through the way individuals obtain, maintain, and regulate power. A high nPower can motivate individuals to pursue positions that provide ongoing opportunities for impact, control, and influence (Reeve, 2018). There is a question around whether power motivation is positive or negative, when it is inherently neither. There is a difference between personalised power (pPower), the motivation for personal control and self-interest, and socialised power (sPower), the opportunity to influence and benefit others; this distinction helps explain why power motivation can produce drastically different leadership outcomes (McClelland, 1970; Carvalho & Conde, 2024). * The focus questions can be answered through McClelland's Three Need Theory, which explains why there are individual differences in their nPower, nAchievement, and nAffiliation, while the Two Faces of Power distinguishes between personalised and socialised expressions of power. The Leadership Motive Pattern further suggests that high power, low affiliation, and high activity inhibition can contribute to effective leadership, as the leader can balance pursuing influence with self-control (Reeve, 2018). * Effective leadership is not determined by how much power a person wants, but how they use it. Leaders who regulate their power motivation and direct their influence towards collective goals, fostering development and outcomes, are more likely to be well received by the public or their subordinates (Peyton et al., 2019; Friederichs et al., 2023). * Understanding power motivation can help identify both the strengths and risks of leadership, highlighting the importance of self-discipline and ethical use of authority. ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness|Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Leadership motivation#Leadership Motive Pattern|Leadership motivation]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Two-factor motivation theory|Two-factor motivation theory]] (Book chapter, 2019) {{ic|Integrate these links; use alphabetical order}} * [[wikipedia:Need_theory|Need theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Need_for_power|Need for power]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:David_McClelland|David Clelland]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bargh, J. A., & Lee-Chai, A. Y. (2002). The use and abuse of power : Multiple perspectives in the causes of corruption. Psychology. Bwalya, A. (2023). Leadership styles. Article in Journal of Entrepreneurship, Management and Innovation, 11(8), 181–193. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.23932113 Carvalho, J. M. S., & Conde, A. (2024). Individual power in human motivation – review and theoretical perspective. Acta Psychologica, 249, 104452–104452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104452 Deakin University. (2024, December 5). What are the different leadership styles? Deakin.Edu.Au. https://leadership.deakin.edu.au/blog/different-leadership-styles Friederichs, K. M., Waldenmeier, K., & Baumann, N. (2023). The benefits of prosocial power motivation in leadership: Action orientation fosters a win-win. Plos One, 18(7), e0287394–e0287394. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0287394 Khajeh, A., Abu, M., & Asaari, H. (2018). Impact of leadership styles on organizational performance. Journal of Human Resources Management Research, 2018(2166–0018), 2166–2184. https://ibimapublishing.com/articles/JHRMR/2018/687849/687849-1.pdf Kurt, D. S. (2021, May 23). McClelland’s Three Needs Theory: Power, Achievement, and Affiliation. Education Library. https://educationlibrary.org/mcclellands-three-needs-theory-power-achievement-and-affiliation/#1 McCann, L., & Mollan, S. (2023, November 20). JFK 60 years on: His leadership style and the reality behind the myths. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/jfk-60-years-on-his-leadership-style-and-the-reality-behind-the-myths-216477 McClelland, D. C. (1970). The two faces of power. Journal of International Affairs, 24(1), 29–47. JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24356663 Peyton, T., Zigarmi, D., & Fowler, S. N. (2019). Examining the relationship between leaders’ power use, followers’ motivational outlooks, and followers’ work intentions. Frontiers in Psychology, 9(2620). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02620 Power , D. P. G. (2026). The five essentials of leadership {{!}} APS. Psychology.Org.Au. https://psychology.org.au/inpsych/2017/august/power Reeve, J. (2018). Understanding motivation and emotion (7th edn, pp. 152–176). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Slabbinck, H., & Van Witteloostuijn, A. (2020). Explicit and implicit basic human motives, and public service motivation. Frontiers in Psychology, 11(1542). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01542 Spanler, W. D., Tikhomirov, A., Lee Sotak, K., & Palrecha, R. (2014). Leader motive profiles in eight types of organizations. ScienceDirect, 25(6). https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/science/article/pii/S1048984314001040 }} ==External links== {{ic|Move these links into References and cite; replace with links to the most relevant external non-academic resources}} * [https://leadership.deakin.edu.au/blog/what-is-transformational-leadership Article on Transformational leadership style] (Deakin University, 2024) * [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10355387/ Power motivation, the benefits of prosocial power] (Friederichs et al., 2023) * [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24356663.pdf The Two Faces of Power Journal] (McClelland, 1970) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Power motivation and leadership|Power motivation and leadership]] (Book chapter, 2024) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Leadership]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Power motivation]] 9kzxt7sullezjmhgcqzp864vtbbm4m0 2840799 2840779 2026-10-17T02:08:44Z PsychstudentUniversity! 3106975 2840799 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Power motivation in leadership:<br>How does power motivation influence leadership styles and effectiveness?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Donald Trump takes the oath of office (2025).jpg|thumb|President-elect Donald Trump takes the oath of office |'''Figure 1'''. Donald Trump's 2025 Inauguration surrounded by some of the world's wealthiest and most powerful individuals]] Imagine a leader standing at their inauguration, surrounded by a concentration of wealthy and influential individuals. At first glance, this may reflect a preference for resources and influence. However, a closer look raises a psychological question: what motivates a leader to seek and exercise power, and how does this shape the way they lead? This scenario reflects the leadership of United States President Donald Trump, whose 2025 administration includes a notable concentration of wealthy and influential individuals. The individuals present at Trump's inauguration illustrate this concentration of political and economic power (see Figure 1). This provides a contemporary example for examining the relationship between power motivation and leadership.{{ic|[[w:Donald Trump|Second inauguration of Donald Trump]]}} Power is reflected not only in who a leader surrounds themselves with, but also in how they exercise their influence. For example, Trump uses social media as a political megaphone, bypassing traditional bureaucratic communication channels. His public leadership style places considerable emphasis on personal image and the exercise of power. This raises the question: does the desire for power necessarily make someone an effective leader? Individuals seek leadership for various reasons, and how they use their influence shapes their interactions with followers, decision-making, and pursuit of goals. Psychology helps explain these differences by examining power motivation and how individual motives influence leadership behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} This chapter will explore [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10355387/ power motivation] (Friederichs et al., 2023) and how it influences leadership styles, behaviour and effectiveness. Exploring the duality of its expression and how that interplays into a leader being successful (Friederichs et al., 2023). * Power motivation is the desire to influence, control, and have the ability to impact others; it is very relevant to leadership as leaders consistently have the ability to influence decisions (McClelland, 1970). * Power motivation can be expressed via socialised or personalised power. The type of expression determines the leader's behaviour and effectiveness, either producing positive outcomes for effective decision-making or negative, self-serving outcomes (Reeve, 2018; McClelland, 1970; Carvalho & Conde, 2024). * Being able to understand and tell the distinction between the type of power motivation being expressed is crucial to see how leaders exercise authority and how followers respond. Psychological science can help explain why some power-motivated leaders use influence to control, while others use it to empower (Reeve, 2018). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:P psychology.png|right]] '''Focus questions''' *What psychological theories account for power motivation in leadership style? *How does a leader's orientation towards power influence their specific leadership style? *What is implicit motivation, and how does it differ from explicit power motivation in leaders? *What is the relationship between power motivation and overall leadership effectiveness? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Understanding power motivation== * '''Focus question:''' ''What psychological theories account for power motivation in leadership style?'' * What are your thoughts when you hear motivation and power, separately and together? Motivation, a term used to describe the push to act, and power, often associated with aggression, together they hold a heavy definition. * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Introduction|Motivation]] is the driving force that guides human behaviour; it is the use of will-power and self-discipline - channelling effort to achieve a goal. Certain individuals have predominant motive of power, being motivated by the internal urge to dominate, influence, or control (Kurt, 2021). * Power motivation has three characteristics: strong action, emotional impact, and concern for status, frame, and reputation. It is influenced by cultural values and socialised experiences (McClelland,1970). * The need for power, [[wikipedia:Need_for_power|nPower]], can be expressed in two manners: dominant or prosocial. There is a contrasting nature between how power is expressed for leadership, affecting how leaders behave. Dominant power is associated with antisocial behaviour and guides individuals to achieve personal benefit and status, using aggression and assertive manners. This contrasts with prosocial power, which motivates leaders to be benevolent and supportive (Friederichs et al., 2023). * Power seekers can be effective, well-adjusted, and highly motivated. Power is a source of human control; only the mentally healthy can wield it successfully. Those with this form of nPower struggle to feel satisfied unless they are in a position that fulfils their power-hungry needs, such as making decisions, influencing an audience, or obtaining information to become influential. Such occupations are teachers, journalists, clergy, psychologists, diplomats, business executives, political leaders and advisors (Reeve, 2018). * [[wikipedia:David_McClelland|David McClelland's]] is popular within the psychology community for his thoughts on power motivation, with the most well-known theories, the Three Need Theory and the Two Faces of Power theory. In studies done by McClelland, it was discovered that those with high nPower tended to drink more heavily, making a comment that nPower can either manifest through drinking or 'hold office.' === McClelland's three need theory === [[File:DavidMcClelland.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' David McClelland]] * McClelland (seen in Figure 2.) proposed [[wikipedia:Need_theory|Three Need Theory]], describes that every individual is driven by three dominant, unconscious needs: The need for power, affiliation, or achievement (one is more dominant than the others), definition can be seen in Table 1, (Kurt, 2021). * The Three Need Theory can also be looked at along with [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Two-factor motivation theory|Herzberg's Two-Factor theory]] and [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's theory of Hierarchy of Needs]]. Looking into how motivation affects health, as success impacts stress, blood pressure, and hormone levels (McClelland,1970). * Individuals develop motivation at different degrees, influenced by personal experiences and exposure. When an experience causes a positive emotional response, the individual is more likely to seek that feeling out again through a similar experience (Reeve, 2018). * Explained through the McClelland Acquired Needs Theory, positive emotional experiences develop acquired needs through the reinforcement of the behaviour (Kurt, 2021). {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1: Three Need Theory !Need !Definition !High Behaviour !Low Behaviour |- |Need for Achievement |Situations that challenge individuals with explicit standards. |Individual exhibits a need to win and receive recognition. |Constant fear of failure, typically avoids responsibilities. |- |Need for Affiliation |Situations that afford warm relationship opportunities. |A desire within for control, typically exaggerates own position. |A heavily dependent individual, tries to minimise own position and importance. |- |Need for Power |Situations that enable others to exert influence over others. |Individual demands and expects loyalty and harmony. |Individual remains 'aloof' and keeps social distance from influence over others. |} ==== Two faces of power ==== * The [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24356663.pdf Two Faces of Power theory], is a subgroup with the three needs of power theory propised by McClelland which introdiced the two faces of power, splitting the nPower into two manner's, personalised power or socialised power, also referred to as ''p''Power, and ''s''Power (McClelland, 1970). ''p''Power is seen as socially unacceptable way of expression, is is closely linked to control, in a way it is the definition that power is sometimes thought as, aggressive, and self-desired, those with this form of power see like as a me-against-the-world. ''s''Power, is more socially acceptable form of expression, leaders are motivated through inspiring others (Bargh & Lee-Chai, 2002). * Leaders can take on both forms of power; McClelland believes that a true leader can balance both. They can exercise personal dominance and socialised leadership (Bargh & Lee-Chai, 2002). * ''p''Power can become problematic when leaders become too absorbed by the maintenance of their position and influence, the ability to dominate, manipulate, and disagree. However, the issue isn't high-power motivation; it's how it is expressed (McClelland, 1970). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} == Recap == <quiz display=simple> {&nbsp; |type="{}"} What is the driving force that guides human behaviour? { Motivation } {What is the key difference between personalised power and socialised power?} - Personalised power focuses on achievement, and socialised power focuses on affiliation + Personalised power focuses on personal dominance and control, and socialised power focuses on benefiting others - Personalised power is consistently associated with an effective leadership style, whereas socialised power is associated with an ineffective leadership style. {Which behaviour best fits an individual with a high need for power?} - Avoiding situations where they might influence others + Seek opportunities to influence, control, or have an impact on others - Avoid challenging tasks for fear of failure </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Power orientation and leadership style == * Focus question: ''How does a leader's orientation towards power influence their specific leadership style?'' * Power motivation is the drive; power orientation is the how; it is the framework of how a leader will manage to become influential. There is a negative stereotype around having a high power motivation, with theories that it automatically relates to undesired behaviour, unlike prosocial power motivation, which is regularly associated with generosity. However, those with high power motivation can have different power orientations. Ego-power orientation is associated with pursuing goals to satisfy the self and achieve a sense of self-fulfilment; this doesn't automatically mean they are using it for harm, as it depends on their position of influence and work. Social-power orientation is linked to directing power toward collective outcomes (Carvalho & Conde, 2024). ''Author note: add more information into this section - do more research/potentially move it around.'' * Effective leadership involves more than holding a position of authority; it is about how leaders behave and interact. There are five essential characteristics to leadership: self-image, socialised power, sustained dialogue, and strategic intent, providing a practical framework for a successful leader (Power, 2026). Power motivation and leadership are relevant across different contexts, from political leaders to supervisors, building a relationship with employees and an environment of trust (Power, 2026; Friederichs et al., 2023) * Leadership styles refer to the way a leader behaves when directing, influencing and interacting. Although leadership styles reflect theoretical models, they can also be shaped by individual characteristics and techniques (Khajeh et al., 2018; "What Are the Different Leadership Styles?", 2024). Different styles place varying emphasis on factors seen in Table 2 (Deakin University, 2024; Bwalya, 2023). Research suggests that [https://leadership.deakin.edu.au/blog/what-is-transformational-leadership transformational leadership] can produce positive outcomes by motivating and inspiring followers, benefiting the group rather then for personal interests, rather than focusing on personal interest, (Peyton et al., 2019) {| class="wikitable" |+Table 2. Leadership Styles ! colspan="3" |Leadership styles |- |Style |Description |Example Leaders |- |Autocratic |Leader holds complete control over decision-making with no input from followers. Consistently exercises control over the decision-making process. Expects strict compliance with policies and procedures, and does not take input from followers. They micromanage and control subordinate work. They make quick decisions because they do not have to consult. There is a lack of creative innovation (Bwalya, 2023). |Adolf Hitler and Kim Jong-un |- |Democratic |Leader is involved in team members' decision-making process, continuously encourages communication, and seeks feedback on matters, valuing input and ideas, wanting followers to participate in shaping strategies and goals (Bwalya, 2023). |Former President of South Africa, Nelson Mandela and Former Prime Minister of New Zealand Jacinda Ardern |- |Laissex-faire | The leader is distant and has minimal involvement in decisions, unlike autocratic leadership, as laissez-faire lets followers make decisions with little guidance or supervision, trusting their ability to manage responsibilities. They are comfortable with mistakes and take accountability for followers' mistakes. This empowers employees and enables faster decision-making. However, the lack of guidance can cause confusion and lack of coordination (Bwalya, 2023). |Former President Herbert Hoover and Mahatma Ghandi |- |Servant |Leader is prosocial and motivated by power, focusing on the needs and well-being of others. Aiming to support and empower followers, in hopes they reach their full potential (Bwalya, 2023). |Pope Francis |- |Transformational |Based on inspiration and motivation to achieve performance, with high expectations and focus on challenging others to exceed self-interest. Focuses on transforming followers through inspiration, motivation, and effective communication. They rely on the leader's influence; if the leader fails to provide proper guidance, it can impact followers (Bwalya, 2023). |Former President of South Africa Nelson Mandela and Former President of the United States Barack Obama |- |Transactional |Focuses on the exchange relationship between the leader and their followers. The leader maintains stability and achieves goals by providing rewards and punishments based on performance. Very goal-oriented, with clear expectations, and quick decision-making (Bwalya, 2023). |Bill Gates and Former Chancellor of Germany Angela Merkel |} == Implicit motivation == [[File:Implicit_Motives_associations.png|thumb| '''Figure 3.''' Mind map of implicit motives]]Focus question: ''What is implicit motivation, and how does it differ from explicit power motivation in leaders?'' * Implicit motives are unconscious needs that influence how people respond emotionally to particular situations. They form early on through preverbal experiences and interactions, lying dormant until potential incentives set them off. They are revealed through patterns of thought, emotion, and behaviour (Reeve, 2018) * Implicit motives differ from explicit motives, which are a conscious goal or value that people can describe and self-report (Slabbinck & Van Witteloostuijn, 2020). They can predict long-term behaviour, especially when the situation provides a way to satisfy the motive. * According to McClelland, implicit motives are unconscious and therefore can't be accurately measured through self-reporting. They are assessed via indirect methods, ie., analysing imaginative stories (Reeve, 2018). The Dual-Motive System. === Leadership motive pattern === * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Leadership motivation#Leadership Motive Pattern|Leadership Motive Pattern (LMP)]] developed from McClelland's work on motivation, describes a profile associated with effective leadership. It is consistent with three elements: high implicit power, low implicit affiliation, and high activity inhibition. Together, these elements help explain how a leader can balance self-control and a drive for nPower while also prioritising social benefits (Reeve, 2018). * Leaders who are motivated to influence are usually less dependent on being personally liked or accepted. Their high npower encourages them to seek influence, while their low need for affiliation reduces their reliance on close relationships, and their high inhibition allows them to regulate their impulses. In contrast, individuals with high need for power, low affiliation, and low inhibition are often unsuccessful and rated poorly, as they struggle to regulate their desire for influence, lack self-discipline, and can be seen as narcissistic or aggrandising (Reeve, 2018). * ''Author note: add more information into this section - a case study on a public figure...'' ==== Need for power ==== * Individuals with a high nPower, are motivated by their desire to impact, control, or influence others or their environment. They want to establish, maintain, and expand their power. High-power-striving individuals therefore seek dominance, reputation, status, or positions of authority (Reeve, 2018). * Individuals like this enjoy the ability to demonstrate influence and be able to reinforce their power. They are motivated to attain and maintain leadership positions because these roles provide opportunities to exercise authority and influence over others. Successfully obtaining power can provide a sense of satisfaction and accomplishment, reinforcing their motivation (Reeve, 2018). ''Look into the chemical reaction potentially (comment made after tutorial three).'' * These individuals tend to thrive off inspirational speeches, and they feel more energetic and their physiological arousal increases (Reeve, 2018). == Power motivation and leadership effectiveness == * Focus question: ''What is the relationship between power motivation and overall leadership effectiveness?'' * Power motivation can influence leadership effectiveness depending on how the motive is expressed and regulated. A high nPower can motivate individuals to seek leadership distinction; the shape power motivation takes will enable one to understand its effect on leadership effectiveness. * The expression of the power motivation can develop through social and environmental experiences. Individuals who develop power-strivings may have experienced childhood environments in which the parents established demanding standards, potentially contributing to a desire for recognition and admiration. nPower has been associated with aggressive tendencies, although high power motivation doesn't automatically result in overt aggression. Social norms, laws, and consequences can constrain this expression, causing that desire to control to remain internal rather than manifest as overt aggression (Reeve, 2018). * Individuals high in the need for power may be attracted to occupations that provide career-wise; individuals with high rates in need for power are drawn to professions with influential opportunities (Reeve, 2018). === Destructive power dynamics and power abuse === * A relationship between aggression and the need for power has been identified, with studies finding men being more argumentative. However, a high need for power doesn't necessarily result in aggression. Social norms, laws, and consequences can constrain this expression, causing that desire to control to remain internally rather than through overt aggression. * Tend to harbour inclinations that are both benevolent and malevolent towards others, strive to improve the world, whilst also influencing everyone. * Dark side of implicit motive is the combination of opportunity to use power for personal benefit, which is the 'abuse of power.' Additionally, there is a link to sexual misconduct and excessive drinking (Spanler et al., 2014). * Unrestrained '''affiliation''' can lead to favouritism and corruption in political and bureaucratic organisations. '''Achievement''', ignore political/interpersonal issues. High need for '''achievement''', find it difficult working in groups, making decisions, ad enforcing authority, ignoring interpersonal relationships (Spanler et al., 2014). === '''Key predictors of effective leadership''' === *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness|Effective leader,]] is a combination of power strivings which are complemented with self-discipline inhibition, ie., power under control, which gives rise to charismatic leadership, and high morale. *High affliction motivation will motivate followers by communication concern, respect, appreciation, and support, developing high-quality leader followers interactions. *Leaders with weak moral identify act in self-interest ways. *Leaders benefit from a prosocial enactment strategy, action orientation through prosocial power motivation leads to reduced power related anxiety, greater well-being. *Achievement strivings were associated with ineffective presidential, because achievement-oriented individuals were highly active but also frustrated. *Successful presidents would have effective communication and combative skills, and a sense of humour. Additionally five variables that define a presidential effectiveness are, direct presidential action, perceived greatness, performance on social and economic issue, and international relations. *Leadership motive pattern can determine when a leader will engage in war and when a leader will pursue peace. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[File:John F. Kennedy speaks at Rice University.jpg|thumb|President John F. Kennedy speaking at Rice University |'''Figure 4.''' John F. Kennedy speaking at Rice University]] == Case Study: John F. Kennedy == - Kennedy, also referred to as JFK, was commended for his optimistic and ambitious presidency; though his term was short, he achieved success across the board (Reeve, 2018; McCann & Mollan, 2023). - Created a modern framework for future presidents to follow; he blended political office with pop-culture celebrity. He was open-minded and engaged with the government and public (Reeve, 2018; McCann & Mollan, 2023). - Historians consider Kennedy a strong example of effective leadership because of his charismatic communication and calm management, seen in Figure 4. Kennedy is found to have a high need for power and low affiliation needs, fitting McClelland's framework of leadership motives (McCann & Mollan, 2023). - Leadership theorist James MacGregor Burns has written about JFK's presidency as a 'transformational leadership' style (McCann & Mollan, 2023). - McClelland's experiment on business school students, exposing them to a JFK inaugural speech, found that after the speech, the students demonstrated more strengthened and uplifted experiences. This showed that JFK, as a leader, influenced his audience through inspiration (McClelland, 1970).{{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} == Quiz Yourself == <quiz display=simple> {Which combination of implicit motives is associated with effective leadership according to McClelland's leadership motive pattern? |type="()"} - High power, high affiliation, and low inhibition + High power, low affiliation, and high inhibition - Low power, high affiliation, and high inhibition - High power, low affiliation, and low inhibition {Does a high need for power necessarily result in aggressive behaviour? |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== * Psychological theory and research consistently suggest that power motivation influences leadership through the way individuals obtain, maintain, and regulate power. A high nPower can motivate individuals to pursue positions that provide ongoing opportunities for impact, control, and influence (Reeve, 2018). There is a question around whether power motivation is positive or negative, when it is inherently neither. There is a difference between personalised power (pPower), the motivation for personal control and self-interest, and socialised power (sPower), the opportunity to influence and benefit others; this distinction helps explain why power motivation can produce drastically different leadership outcomes (McClelland, 1970; Carvalho & Conde, 2024). * The focus questions can be answered through McClelland's Three Need Theory, which explains why there are individual differences in their nPower, nAchievement, and nAffiliation, while the Two Faces of Power distinguishes between personalised and socialised expressions of power. The Leadership Motive Pattern further suggests that high power, low affiliation, and high activity inhibition can contribute to effective leadership, as the leader can balance pursuing influence with self-control (Reeve, 2018). * Effective leadership is not determined by how much power a person wants, but how they use it. Leaders who regulate their power motivation and direct their influence towards collective goals, fostering development and outcomes, are more likely to be well received by the public or their subordinates (Peyton et al., 2019; Friederichs et al., 2023). * Understanding power motivation can help identify both the strengths and risks of leadership, highlighting the importance of self-discipline and ethical use of authority. ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness|Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Leadership motivation#Leadership Motive Pattern|Leadership motivation]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Two-factor motivation theory|Two-factor motivation theory]] (Book chapter, 2019) {{ic|Integrate these links; use alphabetical order}} * [[wikipedia:Need_theory|Need theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Need_for_power|Need for power]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:David_McClelland|David Clelland]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bargh, J. A., & Lee-Chai, A. Y. (2002). The use and abuse of power : Multiple perspectives in the causes of corruption. Psychology. Bwalya, A. (2023). Leadership styles. Article in Journal of Entrepreneurship, Management and Innovation, 11(8), 181–193. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.23932113 Carvalho, J. M. S., & Conde, A. (2024). Individual power in human motivation – review and theoretical perspective. Acta Psychologica, 249, 104452–104452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104452 Deakin University. (2024, December 5). What are the different leadership styles? Deakin.Edu.Au. https://leadership.deakin.edu.au/blog/different-leadership-styles Friederichs, K. M., Waldenmeier, K., & Baumann, N. (2023). The benefits of prosocial power motivation in leadership: Action orientation fosters a win-win. Plos One, 18(7), e0287394–e0287394. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0287394 Khajeh, A., Abu, M., & Asaari, H. (2018). Impact of leadership styles on organizational performance. Journal of Human Resources Management Research, 2018(2166–0018), 2166–2184. https://ibimapublishing.com/articles/JHRMR/2018/687849/687849-1.pdf Kurt, D. S. (2021, May 23). McClelland’s Three Needs Theory: Power, Achievement, and Affiliation. Education Library. https://educationlibrary.org/mcclellands-three-needs-theory-power-achievement-and-affiliation/#1 McCann, L., & Mollan, S. (2023, November 20). JFK 60 years on: His leadership style and the reality behind the myths. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/jfk-60-years-on-his-leadership-style-and-the-reality-behind-the-myths-216477 McClelland, D. C. (1970). The two faces of power. Journal of International Affairs, 24(1), 29–47. JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24356663 Peyton, T., Zigarmi, D., & Fowler, S. N. (2019). Examining the relationship between leaders’ power use, followers’ motivational outlooks, and followers’ work intentions. Frontiers in Psychology, 9(2620). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02620 Power , D. P. G. (2026). The five essentials of leadership {{!}} APS. Psychology.Org.Au. https://psychology.org.au/inpsych/2017/august/power Reeve, J. (2018). Understanding motivation and emotion (7th edn, pp. 152–176). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Slabbinck, H., & Van Witteloostuijn, A. (2020). Explicit and implicit basic human motives, and public service motivation. Frontiers in Psychology, 11(1542). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01542 Spanler, W. D., Tikhomirov, A., Lee Sotak, K., & Palrecha, R. (2014). Leader motive profiles in eight types of organizations. ScienceDirect, 25(6). https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/science/article/pii/S1048984314001040 }} ==External links== {{ic|Move these links into References and cite; replace with links to the most relevant external non-academic resources}} * [https://leadership.deakin.edu.au/blog/what-is-transformational-leadership Article on Transformational leadership style] (Deakin University, 2024) * [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10355387/ Power motivation, the benefits of prosocial power] (Friederichs et al., 2023) * [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24356663.pdf The Two Faces of Power Journal] (McClelland, 1970) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Power motivation and leadership|Power motivation and leadership]] (Book chapter, 2024) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Leadership]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Power motivation]] 9qzhjp35szbqh877o7faal7ebif9qks 2840819 2840799 2026-10-17T03:45:36Z PsychstudentUniversity! 3106975 2840819 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Power motivation in leadership:<br>How does power motivation influence leadership styles and effectiveness?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Donald Trump takes the oath of office (2025).jpg|thumb|President-elect Donald Trump takes the oath of office |'''Figure 1'''. Donald Trump's 2025 Inauguration surrounded by some of the world's wealthiest and most powerful individuals]] Imagine a leader standing at their inauguration, surrounded by a concentration of wealthy and influential individuals. At first glance, this may reflect a preference for resources and influence. However, a closer look raises a psychological question: what motivates a leader to seek and exercise power, and how does this shape the way they lead? This scenario reflects the leadership of United States President Donald Trump, whose 2025 administration includes a notable concentration of wealthy and influential individuals. The individuals present at Trump's inauguration illustrate this concentration of political and economic power (see Figure 1). This provides a contemporary example for examining the relationship between power motivation and leadership.{{ic|[[w:Donald Trump|Second inauguration of Donald Trump]]}} Power is reflected not only in who a leader surrounds themselves with, but also in how they exercise their influence. For example, Trump uses social media as a political megaphone, bypassing traditional bureaucratic communication channels. His public leadership style places considerable emphasis on personal image and the exercise of power. This raises the question: does the desire for power necessarily make someone an effective leader? Individuals seek leadership for various reasons, and how they use their influence shapes their interactions with followers, decision-making, and pursuit of goals. Psychology helps explain these differences by examining power motivation and how individual motives influence leadership behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} This chapter will explore [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10355387/ power motivation] (Friederichs et al., 2023) and how it influences leadership styles, behaviour and effectiveness. Exploring the duality of its expression and how that interplays into a leader being successful (Friederichs et al., 2023). * Power motivation is the desire to influence, control, and have the ability to impact others; it is very relevant to leadership as leaders consistently have the ability to influence decisions (McClelland, 1970). * Power motivation can be expressed via socialised or personalised power. The type of expression determines the leader's behaviour and effectiveness, either producing positive outcomes for effective decision-making or negative, self-serving outcomes (Reeve, 2018; McClelland, 1970; Carvalho & Conde, 2024). * Being able to understand and tell the distinction between the type of power motivation being expressed is crucial to see how leaders exercise authority and how followers respond. Psychological science can help explain why some power-motivated leaders use influence to control, while others use it to empower (Reeve, 2018). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:P psychology.png|right]] '''Focus questions:''' *What psychological theories explain power motivation in leaders? *How does a leader's orientation towards power influence their specific leadership style? *What is implicit motivation, and how does it differ from explicit power motivation in leaders? *How does power motivation influence leadership effectiveness? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Understanding power motivation== * '''Focus question:''' ''What psychological theories account for power motivation in leadership style?'' * What are your thoughts when you hear motivation and power, separately and together? Motivation, a term used to describe the push to act, and power, often associated with aggression, together they hold a heavy definition. * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Introduction|Motivation]] is the driving force that guides human behaviour; it is the use of will-power and self-discipline - channelling effort to achieve a goal. Certain individuals have predominant motive of power, being motivated by the internal urge to dominate, influence, or control (Kurt, 2021). * Power motivation has three characteristics: strong action, emotional impact, and concern for status, frame, and reputation. It is influenced by cultural values and socialised experiences (McClelland,1970). * The need for power, [[wikipedia:Need_for_power|nPower]], can be expressed in two manners: dominant or prosocial. There is a contrasting nature between how power is expressed for leadership, affecting how leaders behave. Dominant power is associated with antisocial behaviour and guides individuals to achieve personal benefit and status, using aggression and assertive manners. This contrasts with prosocial power, which motivates leaders to be benevolent and supportive (Friederichs et al., 2023). * Power seekers can be effective, well-adjusted, and highly motivated. Power is a source of human control; only the mentally healthy can wield it successfully. Those with this form of nPower struggle to feel satisfied unless they are in a position that fulfils their power-hungry needs, such as making decisions, influencing an audience, or obtaining information to become influential. Such occupations are teachers, journalists, clergy, psychologists, diplomats, business executives, political leaders and advisors (Reeve, 2018). * [[wikipedia:David_McClelland|David McClelland's]] is popular within the psychology community for his thoughts on power motivation, with the most well-known theories, the Three Need Theory and the Two Faces of Power theory. In studies done by McClelland, it was discovered that those with high nPower tended to drink more heavily, making a comment that nPower can either manifest through drinking or 'hold office.' === McClelland's three need theory === [[File:DavidMcClelland.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' David McClelland]] * McClelland (seen in Figure 2.) proposed [[wikipedia:Need_theory|Three Need Theory]], describes that every individual is driven by three dominant, unconscious needs: The need for power, affiliation, or achievement (one is more dominant than the others), definition can be seen in Table 1, (Kurt, 2021). * The Three Need Theory can also be looked at along with [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Two-factor motivation theory|Herzberg's Two-Factor theory]] and [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's theory of Hierarchy of Needs]]. Looking into how motivation affects health, as success impacts stress, blood pressure, and hormone levels (McClelland,1970). * Individuals develop motivation at different degrees, influenced by personal experiences and exposure. When an experience causes a positive emotional response, the individual is more likely to seek that feeling out again through a similar experience (Reeve, 2018). * Explained through the McClelland Acquired Needs Theory, positive emotional experiences develop acquired needs through the reinforcement of the behaviour (Kurt, 2021). {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1: Three Need Theory !Need !Definition !High Behaviour !Low Behaviour |- |Need for Achievement |Situations that challenge individuals with explicit standards. |Individual exhibits a need to win and receive recognition. |Constant fear of failure, typically avoids responsibilities. |- |Need for Affiliation |Situations that afford warm relationship opportunities. |A desire within for control, typically exaggerates own position. |A heavily dependent individual, tries to minimise own position and importance. |- |Need for Power |Situations that enable others to exert influence over others. |Individual demands and expects loyalty and harmony. |Individual remains 'aloof' and keeps social distance from influence over others. |} ==== Two faces of power ==== * The [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24356663.pdf Two Faces of Power theory], is a subgroup with the three needs of power theory propised by McClelland which introdiced the two faces of power, splitting the nPower into two manner's, personalised power or socialised power, also referred to as ''p''Power, and ''s''Power (McClelland, 1970). ''p''Power is seen as socially unacceptable way of expression, is is closely linked to control, in a way it is the definition that power is sometimes thought as, aggressive, and self-desired, those with this form of power see like as a me-against-the-world. ''s''Power, is more socially acceptable form of expression, leaders are motivated through inspiring others (Bargh & Lee-Chai, 2002). * Leaders can take on both forms of power; McClelland believes that a true leader can balance both. They can exercise personal dominance and socialised leadership (Bargh & Lee-Chai, 2002). * ''p''Power can become problematic when leaders become too absorbed by the maintenance of their position and influence, the ability to dominate, manipulate, and disagree. However, the issue isn't high-power motivation; it's how it is expressed (McClelland, 1970). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} == Recap == <quiz display=simple> {&nbsp; |type="{}"} What is the driving force that guides human behaviour? { Motivation } {What is the key difference between personalised power and socialised power?} - Personalised power focuses on achievement, and socialised power focuses on affiliation + Personalised power focuses on personal dominance and control, and socialised power focuses on benefiting others - Personalised power is consistently associated with an effective leadership style, whereas socialised power is associated with an ineffective leadership style. {Which behaviour best fits an individual with a high need for power?} - Avoiding situations where they might influence others + Seek opportunities to influence, control, or have an impact on others - Avoid challenging tasks for fear of failure </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Power orientation and leadership style == * Focus question: ''How does a leader's orientation towards power influence their specific leadership style?'' * Power motivation is the drive; power orientation is the how; it is the framework of how a leader will manage to become influential. There is a negative stereotype around having a high power motivation, with theories that it automatically relates to undesired behaviour, unlike prosocial power motivation, which is regularly associated with generosity. However, those with high power motivation can have different power orientations. Ego-power orientation is associated with pursuing goals to satisfy the self and achieve a sense of self-fulfilment; this doesn't automatically mean they are using it for harm, as it depends on their position of influence and work. Social-power orientation is linked to directing power toward collective outcomes (Carvalho & Conde, 2024). ''Author note: add more information into this section - do more research/potentially move it around.'' * Effective leadership involves more than holding a position of authority; it is about how leaders behave and interact. There are five essential characteristics to leadership: self-image, socialised power, sustained dialogue, and strategic intent, providing a practical framework for a successful leader (Power, 2026). Power motivation and leadership are relevant across different contexts, from political leaders to supervisors, building a relationship with employees and an environment of trust (Power, 2026; Friederichs et al., 2023) * Leadership styles refer to the way a leader behaves when directing, influencing and interacting. Although leadership styles reflect theoretical models, they can also be shaped by individual characteristics and techniques (Khajeh et al., 2018; "What Are the Different Leadership Styles?", 2024). Different styles place varying emphasis on factors seen in Table 2 (Deakin University, 2024; Bwalya, 2023). Research suggests that [https://leadership.deakin.edu.au/blog/what-is-transformational-leadership transformational leadership] can produce positive outcomes by motivating and inspiring followers, benefiting the group rather then for personal interests, rather than focusing on personal interest, (Peyton et al., 2019) {| class="wikitable" |+Table 2. Leadership Styles ! colspan="3" |Leadership styles |- |Style |Description |Example Leaders |- |Autocratic |Leader holds complete control over decision-making with no input from followers. Consistently exercises control over the decision-making process. Expects strict compliance with policies and procedures, and does not take input from followers. They micromanage and control subordinate work. They make quick decisions because they do not have to consult. There is a lack of creative innovation (Bwalya, 2023). |Adolf Hitler and Kim Jong-un |- |Democratic |Leader is involved in team members' decision-making process, continuously encourages communication, and seeks feedback on matters, valuing input and ideas, wanting followers to participate in shaping strategies and goals (Bwalya, 2023). |Former President of South Africa, Nelson Mandela and Former Prime Minister of New Zealand Jacinda Ardern |- |Laissex-faire | The leader is distant and has minimal involvement in decisions, unlike autocratic leadership, as laissez-faire lets followers make decisions with little guidance or supervision, trusting their ability to manage responsibilities. They are comfortable with mistakes and take accountability for followers' mistakes. This empowers employees and enables faster decision-making. However, the lack of guidance can cause confusion and lack of coordination (Bwalya, 2023). |Former President Herbert Hoover and Mahatma Ghandi |- |Servant |Leader is prosocial and motivated by power, focusing on the needs and well-being of others. Aiming to support and empower followers, in hopes they reach their full potential (Bwalya, 2023). |Pope Francis |- |Transformational |Based on inspiration and motivation to achieve performance, with high expectations and focus on challenging others to exceed self-interest. Focuses on transforming followers through inspiration, motivation, and effective communication. They rely on the leader's influence; if the leader fails to provide proper guidance, it can impact followers (Bwalya, 2023). |Former President of South Africa Nelson Mandela and Former President of the United States Barack Obama |- |Transactional |Focuses on the exchange relationship between the leader and their followers. The leader maintains stability and achieves goals by providing rewards and punishments based on performance. Very goal-oriented, with clear expectations, and quick decision-making (Bwalya, 2023). |Bill Gates and Former Chancellor of Germany Angela Merkel |} == Implicit motivation == [[File:Implicit_Motives_associations.png|thumb| '''Figure 3.''' Mind map of implicit motives]]Focus question: ''What is implicit motivation, and how does it differ from explicit power motivation in leaders?'' * Implicit motives are unconscious needs that influence how people respond emotionally to particular situations. They form early on through preverbal experiences and interactions, lying dormant until potential incentives set them off. They are revealed through patterns of thought, emotion, and behaviour (Reeve, 2018) * Implicit motives differ from explicit motives, which are a conscious goal or value that people can describe and self-report (Slabbinck & Van Witteloostuijn, 2020). They can predict long-term behaviour, especially when the situation provides a way to satisfy the motive. * According to McClelland, implicit motives are unconscious and therefore can't be accurately measured through self-reporting. They are assessed via indirect methods, ie., analysing imaginative stories (Reeve, 2018). The Dual-Motive System. === Leadership motive pattern === * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Leadership motivation#Leadership Motive Pattern|Leadership Motive Pattern (LMP)]] developed from McClelland's work on motivation, describes a profile associated with effective leadership. It is consistent with three elements: high implicit power, low implicit affiliation, and high activity inhibition. Together, these elements help explain how a leader can balance self-control and a drive for nPower while also prioritising social benefits (Reeve, 2018). * Leaders who are motivated to influence are usually less dependent on being personally liked or accepted. Their high npower encourages them to seek influence, while their low need for affiliation reduces their reliance on close relationships, and their high inhibition allows them to regulate their impulses. In contrast, individuals with high need for power, low affiliation, and low inhibition are often unsuccessful and rated poorly, as they struggle to regulate their desire for influence, lack self-discipline, and can be seen as narcissistic or aggrandising (Reeve, 2018). * ''Author note: add more information into this section - a case study on a public figure...'' ==== Need for power ==== * Individuals with a high nPower, are motivated by their desire to impact, control, or influence others or their environment. They want to establish, maintain, and expand their power. High-power-striving individuals therefore seek dominance, reputation, status, or positions of authority (Reeve, 2018). * Individuals like this enjoy the ability to demonstrate influence and be able to reinforce their power. They are motivated to attain and maintain leadership positions because these roles provide opportunities to exercise authority and influence over others. Successfully obtaining power can provide a sense of satisfaction and accomplishment, reinforcing their motivation (Reeve, 2018). ''Look into the chemical reaction potentially (comment made after tutorial three).'' * These individuals tend to thrive off inspirational speeches, and they feel more energetic and their physiological arousal increases (Reeve, 2018). == Power motivation and leadership effectiveness == * Focus question: ''What is the relationship between power motivation and overall leadership effectiveness?'' * Power motivation can influence leadership effectiveness depending on how the motive is expressed and regulated. A high nPower can motivate individuals to seek leadership distinction; the shape power motivation takes will enable one to understand its effect on leadership effectiveness. * The expression of the power motivation can develop through social and environmental experiences. Individuals who develop power-strivings may have experienced childhood environments in which the parents established demanding standards, potentially contributing to a desire for recognition and admiration. nPower has been associated with aggressive tendencies, although high power motivation doesn't automatically result in overt aggression. Social norms, laws, and consequences can constrain this expression, causing that desire to control to remain internal rather than manifest as overt aggression (Reeve, 2018). * Individuals high in the need for power may be attracted to occupations that provide career-wise; individuals with high rates in need for power are drawn to professions with influential opportunities (Reeve, 2018). === Destructive power dynamics and power abuse === * A relationship between aggression and the need for power has been identified, with studies finding men being more argumentative. However, a high need for power doesn't necessarily result in aggression. Social norms, laws, and consequences can constrain this expression, causing that desire to control to remain internally rather than through overt aggression. * Tend to harbour inclinations that are both benevolent and malevolent towards others, strive to improve the world, whilst also influencing everyone. * Dark side of implicit motive is the combination of opportunity to use power for personal benefit, which is the 'abuse of power.' Additionally, there is a link to sexual misconduct and excessive drinking (Spanler et al., 2014). * Unrestrained '''affiliation''' can lead to favouritism and corruption in political and bureaucratic organisations. '''Achievement''', ignore political/interpersonal issues. High need for '''achievement''', find it difficult working in groups, making decisions, ad enforcing authority, ignoring interpersonal relationships (Spanler et al., 2014). === '''Key predictors of effective leadership''' === *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness|Effective leader,]] is a combination of power strivings which are complemented with self-discipline inhibition, ie., power under control, which gives rise to charismatic leadership, and high morale. *High affliction motivation will motivate followers by communication concern, respect, appreciation, and support, developing high-quality leader followers interactions. *Leaders with weak moral identify act in self-interest ways. *Leaders benefit from a prosocial enactment strategy, action orientation through prosocial power motivation leads to reduced power related anxiety, greater well-being. *Achievement strivings were associated with ineffective presidential, because achievement-oriented individuals were highly active but also frustrated. *Successful presidents would have effective communication and combative skills, and a sense of humour. Additionally five variables that define a presidential effectiveness are, direct presidential action, perceived greatness, performance on social and economic issue, and international relations. *Leadership motive pattern can determine when a leader will engage in war and when a leader will pursue peace. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[File:John F. Kennedy speaks at Rice University.jpg|thumb|President John F. Kennedy speaking at Rice University |'''Figure 4.''' John F. Kennedy speaking at Rice University]] == Case Study: John F. Kennedy == - Kennedy, also referred to as JFK, was commended for his optimistic and ambitious presidency; though his term was short, he achieved success across the board (Reeve, 2018; McCann & Mollan, 2023). - Created a modern framework for future presidents to follow; he blended political office with pop-culture celebrity. He was open-minded and engaged with the government and public (Reeve, 2018; McCann & Mollan, 2023). - Historians consider Kennedy a strong example of effective leadership because of his charismatic communication and calm management, seen in Figure 4. Kennedy is found to have a high need for power and low affiliation needs, fitting McClelland's framework of leadership motives (McCann & Mollan, 2023). - Leadership theorist James MacGregor Burns has written about JFK's presidency as a 'transformational leadership' style (McCann & Mollan, 2023). - McClelland's experiment on business school students, exposing them to a JFK inaugural speech, found that after the speech, the students demonstrated more strengthened and uplifted experiences. This showed that JFK, as a leader, influenced his audience through inspiration (McClelland, 1970).{{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} == Quiz Yourself == <quiz display=simple> {Which combination of implicit motives is associated with effective leadership according to McClelland's leadership motive pattern? |type="()"} - High power, high affiliation, and low inhibition + High power, low affiliation, and high inhibition - Low power, high affiliation, and high inhibition - High power, low affiliation, and low inhibition {Does a high need for power necessarily result in aggressive behaviour? |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== * Psychological theory and research consistently suggest that power motivation influences leadership through the way individuals obtain, maintain, and regulate power. A high nPower can motivate individuals to pursue positions that provide ongoing opportunities for impact, control, and influence (Reeve, 2018). There is a question around whether power motivation is positive or negative, when it is inherently neither. There is a difference between personalised power (pPower), the motivation for personal control and self-interest, and socialised power (sPower), the opportunity to influence and benefit others; this distinction helps explain why power motivation can produce drastically different leadership outcomes (McClelland, 1970; Carvalho & Conde, 2024). * The focus questions can be answered through McClelland's Three Need Theory, which explains why there are individual differences in their nPower, nAchievement, and nAffiliation, while the Two Faces of Power distinguishes between personalised and socialised expressions of power. The Leadership Motive Pattern further suggests that high power, low affiliation, and high activity inhibition can contribute to effective leadership, as the leader can balance pursuing influence with self-control (Reeve, 2018). * Effective leadership is not determined by how much power a person wants, but how they use it. Leaders who regulate their power motivation and direct their influence towards collective goals, fostering development and outcomes, are more likely to be well received by the public or their subordinates (Peyton et al., 2019; Friederichs et al., 2023). * Understanding power motivation can help identify both the strengths and risks of leadership, highlighting the importance of self-discipline and ethical use of authority. ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness|Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Leadership motivation#Leadership Motive Pattern|Leadership motivation]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Two-factor motivation theory|Two-factor motivation theory]] (Book chapter, 2019) {{ic|Integrate these links; use alphabetical order}} * [[wikipedia:Need_theory|Need theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Need_for_power|Need for power]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:David_McClelland|David Clelland]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bargh, J. A., & Lee-Chai, A. Y. (2002). The use and abuse of power : Multiple perspectives in the causes of corruption. Psychology. Bwalya, A. (2023). Leadership styles. Article in Journal of Entrepreneurship, Management and Innovation, 11(8), 181–193. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.23932113 Carvalho, J. M. S., & Conde, A. (2024). Individual power in human motivation – review and theoretical perspective. Acta Psychologica, 249, 104452–104452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104452 Deakin University. (2024, December 5). What are the different leadership styles? Deakin.Edu.Au. https://leadership.deakin.edu.au/blog/different-leadership-styles Friederichs, K. M., Waldenmeier, K., & Baumann, N. (2023). The benefits of prosocial power motivation in leadership: Action orientation fosters a win-win. Plos One, 18(7), e0287394–e0287394. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0287394 Khajeh, A., Abu, M., & Asaari, H. (2018). Impact of leadership styles on organizational performance. Journal of Human Resources Management Research, 2018(2166–0018), 2166–2184. https://ibimapublishing.com/articles/JHRMR/2018/687849/687849-1.pdf Kurt, D. S. (2021, May 23). McClelland’s Three Needs Theory: Power, Achievement, and Affiliation. Education Library. https://educationlibrary.org/mcclellands-three-needs-theory-power-achievement-and-affiliation/#1 McCann, L., & Mollan, S. (2023, November 20). JFK 60 years on: His leadership style and the reality behind the myths. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/jfk-60-years-on-his-leadership-style-and-the-reality-behind-the-myths-216477 McClelland, D. C. (1970). The two faces of power. Journal of International Affairs, 24(1), 29–47. JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24356663 Peyton, T., Zigarmi, D., & Fowler, S. N. (2019). Examining the relationship between leaders’ power use, followers’ motivational outlooks, and followers’ work intentions. Frontiers in Psychology, 9(2620). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02620 Power , D. P. G. (2026). The five essentials of leadership {{!}} APS. Psychology.Org.Au. https://psychology.org.au/inpsych/2017/august/power Reeve, J. (2018). Understanding motivation and emotion (7th edn, pp. 152–176). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Slabbinck, H., & Van Witteloostuijn, A. (2020). Explicit and implicit basic human motives, and public service motivation. Frontiers in Psychology, 11(1542). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01542 Spanler, W. D., Tikhomirov, A., Lee Sotak, K., & Palrecha, R. (2014). Leader motive profiles in eight types of organizations. ScienceDirect, 25(6). https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/science/article/pii/S1048984314001040 }} ==External links== {{ic|Move these links into References and cite; replace with links to the most relevant external non-academic resources}} * [https://leadership.deakin.edu.au/blog/what-is-transformational-leadership Article on Transformational leadership style] (Deakin University, 2024) * [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10355387/ Power motivation, the benefits of prosocial power] (Friederichs et al., 2023) * [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24356663.pdf The Two Faces of Power Journal] (McClelland, 1970) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Power motivation and leadership|Power motivation and leadership]] (Book chapter, 2024) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Leadership]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Power motivation]] 2y5yrptr7ebiiv3jbugt9f1kt9tbya1 2840824 2840819 2026-10-17T03:56:30Z PsychstudentUniversity! 3106975 2840824 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Power motivation in leadership:<br>How does power motivation influence leadership styles and effectiveness?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Donald Trump takes the oath of office (2025).jpg|thumb|President-elect Donald Trump takes the oath of office |'''Figure 1'''. Donald Trump's 2025 Inauguration surrounded by some of the world's wealthiest and most powerful individuals]] Imagine a leader standing at their inauguration, surrounded by a concentration of wealthy and influential individuals. At first glance, this may reflect a preference for resources and influence. However, a closer look raises a psychological question: what motivates a leader to seek and exercise power, and how does this shape the way they lead? This scenario reflects the leadership of United States President Donald Trump, whose 2025 administration includes a notable concentration of wealthy and influential individuals. The individuals present at Trump's inauguration illustrate this concentration of political and economic power (see Figure 1). This provides a contemporary example for examining the relationship between power motivation and leadership.{{ic|[[w:Donald Trump|Second inauguration of Donald Trump]]}} Power is reflected not only in who a leader surrounds themselves with, but also in how they exercise their influence. For example, Trump uses social media as a political megaphone, bypassing traditional bureaucratic communication channels. His public leadership style places considerable emphasis on personal image and the exercise of power. This raises the question: does the desire for power necessarily make someone an effective leader? Individuals seek leadership for various reasons, and how they use their influence shapes their interactions with followers, decision-making, and pursuit of goals. Psychology helps explain these differences by examining power motivation and how individual motives influence leadership behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} This chapter will explore [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10355387/ power motivation] (Friederichs et al., 2023) and how it influences leadership styles, behaviour and effectiveness. Exploring the duality of its expression and how that interplays into a leader being successful (Friederichs et al., 2023). * Power motivation is the desire to influence, control, and have the ability to impact others; it is very relevant to leadership as leaders consistently have the ability to influence decisions (McClelland, 1970). * Power motivation can be expressed via socialised or personalised power. The type of expression determines the leader's behaviour and effectiveness, either producing positive outcomes for effective decision-making or negative, self-serving outcomes (Reeve, 2018; McClelland, 1970; Carvalho & Conde, 2024). * Being able to understand and tell the distinction between the type of power motivation being expressed is crucial to see how leaders exercise authority and how followers respond. Psychological science can help explain why some power-motivated leaders use influence to control, while others use it to empower (Reeve, 2018). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:P psychology.png|right]] '''Focus questions:''' *What psychological theories explain power motivation in leaders? *How does a leader's orientation towards power influence their specific leadership style? *What is implicit motivation, and how does it differ from explicit power motivation in leaders? *How does power motivation influence leadership effectiveness? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Understanding power motivation== <blockquote>'''Focus question:''' ''What psychological theories explain power motivation in leaders?''</blockquote> * What are your thoughts when you hear motivation and power, separately and together? Motivation, a term used to describe the push to act, and power, often associated with aggression, together they hold a heavy definition. * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Introduction|Motivation]] is the driving force that guides human behaviour; it is the use of will-power and self-discipline - channelling effort to achieve a goal. Certain individuals have predominant motive of power, being motivated by the internal urge to dominate, influence, or control (Kurt, 2021). * Power motivation has three characteristics: strong action, emotional impact, and concern for status, frame, and reputation. It is influenced by cultural values and socialised experiences (McClelland,1970). * The need for power, [[wikipedia:Need_for_power|nPower]], can be expressed in two manners: dominant or prosocial. There is a contrasting nature between how power is expressed for leadership, affecting how leaders behave. Dominant power is associated with antisocial behaviour and guides individuals to achieve personal benefit and status, using aggression and assertive manners. This contrasts with prosocial power, which motivates leaders to be benevolent and supportive (Friederichs et al., 2023). * Power seekers can be effective, well-adjusted, and highly motivated. Power is a source of human control; only the mentally healthy can wield it successfully. Those with this form of nPower struggle to feel satisfied unless they are in a position that fulfils their power-hungry needs, such as making decisions, influencing an audience, or obtaining information to become influential. Such occupations are teachers, journalists, clergy, psychologists, diplomats, business executives, political leaders and advisors (Reeve, 2018). * [[wikipedia:David_McClelland|David McClelland's]] is popular within the psychology community for his thoughts on power motivation, with the most well-known theories, the Three Need Theory and the Two Faces of Power theory. In studies done by McClelland, it was discovered that those with high nPower tended to drink more heavily, making a comment that nPower can either manifest through drinking or 'hold office.' === McClelland's three need theory === [[File:DavidMcClelland.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' David McClelland]] * McClelland (seen in Figure 2.) proposed [[wikipedia:Need_theory|Three Need Theory]], describes that every individual is driven by three dominant, unconscious needs: The need for power, affiliation, or achievement (one is more dominant than the others), definition can be seen in Table 1, (Kurt, 2021). * The Three Need Theory can also be looked at along with [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Two-factor motivation theory|Herzberg's Two-Factor theory]] and [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's theory of Hierarchy of Needs]]. Looking into how motivation affects health, as success impacts stress, blood pressure, and hormone levels (McClelland,1970). * Individuals develop motivation at different degrees, influenced by personal experiences and exposure. When an experience causes a positive emotional response, the individual is more likely to seek that feeling out again through a similar experience (Reeve, 2018). * Explained through the McClelland Acquired Needs Theory, positive emotional experiences develop acquired needs through the reinforcement of the behaviour (Kurt, 2021). {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1: Three Need Theory !Need !Definition !High Behaviour !Low Behaviour |- |Need for Achievement |Situations that challenge individuals with explicit standards. |Individual exhibits a need to win and receive recognition. |Constant fear of failure, typically avoids responsibilities. |- |Need for Affiliation |Situations that afford warm relationship opportunities. |A desire within for control, typically exaggerates own position. |A heavily dependent individual, tries to minimise own position and importance. |- |Need for Power |Situations that enable others to exert influence over others. |Individual demands and expects loyalty and harmony. |Individual remains 'aloof' and keeps social distance from influence over others. |} ==== Two faces of power ==== * The [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24356663.pdf Two Faces of Power theory], is a subgroup with the three needs of power theory propised by McClelland which introdiced the two faces of power, splitting the nPower into two manner's, personalised power or socialised power, also referred to as ''p''Power, and ''s''Power (McClelland, 1970). ''p''Power is seen as socially unacceptable way of expression, is is closely linked to control, in a way it is the definition that power is sometimes thought as, aggressive, and self-desired, those with this form of power see like as a me-against-the-world. ''s''Power, is more socially acceptable form of expression, leaders are motivated through inspiring others (Bargh & Lee-Chai, 2002). * Leaders can take on both forms of power; McClelland believes that a true leader can balance both. They can exercise personal dominance and socialised leadership (Bargh & Lee-Chai, 2002). * ''p''Power can become problematic when leaders become too absorbed by the maintenance of their position and influence, the ability to dominate, manipulate, and disagree. However, the issue isn't high-power motivation; it's how it is expressed (McClelland, 1970). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} == Recap == <quiz display=simple> {&nbsp; |type="{}"} What is the driving force that guides human behaviour? { Motivation } {What is the key difference between personalised power and socialised power?} - Personalised power focuses on achievement, and socialised power focuses on affiliation + Personalised power focuses on personal dominance and control, and socialised power focuses on benefiting others - Personalised power is consistently associated with an effective leadership style, whereas socialised power is associated with an ineffective leadership style. {Which behaviour best fits an individual with a high need for power?} - Avoiding situations where they might influence others + Seek opportunities to influence, control, or have an impact on others - Avoid challenging tasks for fear of failure </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Power motivation and leadership style == <blockquote>'''Focus question:''' ''How does a leader's orientation towards power influence their specific leadership style?''</blockquote> * Power motivation is the drive; power orientation is the how; it is the framework of how a leader will manage to become influential. There is a negative stereotype around having a high power motivation, with theories that it automatically relates to undesired behaviour, unlike prosocial power motivation, which is regularly associated with generosity. However, those with high power motivation can have different power orientations. Ego-power orientation is associated with pursuing goals to satisfy the self and achieve a sense of self-fulfilment; this doesn't automatically mean they are using it for harm, as it depends on their position of influence and work. Social-power orientation is linked to directing power toward collective outcomes (Carvalho & Conde, 2024). ''Author note: add more information into this section - do more research/potentially move it around.'' * Effective leadership involves more than holding a position of authority; it is about how leaders behave and interact. There are five essential characteristics to leadership: self-image, socialised power, sustained dialogue, and strategic intent, providing a practical framework for a successful leader (Power, 2026). Power motivation and leadership are relevant across different contexts, from political leaders to supervisors, building a relationship with employees and an environment of trust (Power, 2026; Friederichs et al., 2023) * Leadership styles refer to the way a leader behaves when directing, influencing and interacting. Although leadership styles reflect theoretical models, they can also be shaped by individual characteristics and techniques (Khajeh et al., 2018; "What Are the Different Leadership Styles?", 2024). Different styles place varying emphasis on factors seen in Table 2 (Deakin University, 2024; Bwalya, 2023). Research suggests that [https://leadership.deakin.edu.au/blog/what-is-transformational-leadership transformational leadership] can produce positive outcomes by motivating and inspiring followers, benefiting the group rather then for personal interests, rather than focusing on personal interest, (Peyton et al., 2019) {| class="wikitable" |+Table 2. Leadership Styles ! colspan="3" |Leadership styles |- |Style |Description |Example Leaders |- |Autocratic |Leader holds complete control over decision-making with no input from followers. Consistently exercises control over the decision-making process. Expects strict compliance with policies and procedures, and does not take input from followers. They micromanage and control subordinate work. They make quick decisions because they do not have to consult. There is a lack of creative innovation (Bwalya, 2023). |Adolf Hitler and Kim Jong-un |- |Democratic |Leader is involved in team members' decision-making process, continuously encourages communication, and seeks feedback on matters, valuing input and ideas, wanting followers to participate in shaping strategies and goals (Bwalya, 2023). |Former President of South Africa, Nelson Mandela and Former Prime Minister of New Zealand Jacinda Ardern |- |Laissex-faire | The leader is distant and has minimal involvement in decisions, unlike autocratic leadership, as laissez-faire lets followers make decisions with little guidance or supervision, trusting their ability to manage responsibilities. They are comfortable with mistakes and take accountability for followers' mistakes. This empowers employees and enables faster decision-making. However, the lack of guidance can cause confusion and lack of coordination (Bwalya, 2023). |Former President Herbert Hoover and Mahatma Ghandi |- |Servant |Leader is prosocial and motivated by power, focusing on the needs and well-being of others. Aiming to support and empower followers, in hopes they reach their full potential (Bwalya, 2023). |Pope Francis |- |Transformational |Based on inspiration and motivation to achieve performance, with high expectations and focus on challenging others to exceed self-interest. Focuses on transforming followers through inspiration, motivation, and effective communication. They rely on the leader's influence; if the leader fails to provide proper guidance, it can impact followers (Bwalya, 2023). |Former President of South Africa Nelson Mandela and Former President of the United States Barack Obama |- |Transactional |Focuses on the exchange relationship between the leader and their followers. The leader maintains stability and achieves goals by providing rewards and punishments based on performance. Very goal-oriented, with clear expectations, and quick decision-making (Bwalya, 2023). |Bill Gates and Former Chancellor of Germany Angela Merkel |} == Implicit and explicit power motivation == <blockquote>'''Focus question:''' ''What is implicit motivation, and how does it differ from explicit power motivation in leaders?''</blockquote> * Implicit motives are unconscious needs that influence how people respond emotionally to particular situations. They form early on through preverbal experiences and interactions, lying dormant until potential incentives set them off. They are revealed through patterns of thought, emotion, and behaviour (Reeve, 2018)[[File:Implicit_Motives_associations.png|thumb| '''Figure 3.''' Mind map of implicit motives]] * Implicit motives differ from explicit motives, which are a conscious goal or value that people can describe and self-report (Slabbinck & Van Witteloostuijn, 2020). They can predict long-term behaviour, especially when the situation provides a way to satisfy the motive. * According to McClelland, implicit motives are unconscious and therefore can't be accurately measured through self-reporting. They are assessed via indirect methods, ie., analysing imaginative stories (Reeve, 2018). The Dual-Motive System. === Leadership motive pattern === * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Leadership motivation#Leadership Motive Pattern|Leadership Motive Pattern (LMP)]] developed from McClelland's work on motivation, describes a profile associated with effective leadership. It is consistent with three elements: high implicit power, low implicit affiliation, and high activity inhibition. Together, these elements help explain how a leader can balance self-control and a drive for nPower while also prioritising social benefits (Reeve, 2018). * Leaders who are motivated to influence are usually less dependent on being personally liked or accepted. Their high npower encourages them to seek influence, while their low need for affiliation reduces their reliance on close relationships, and their high inhibition allows them to regulate their impulses. In contrast, individuals with high need for power, low affiliation, and low inhibition are often unsuccessful and rated poorly, as they struggle to regulate their desire for influence, lack self-discipline, and can be seen as narcissistic or aggrandising (Reeve, 2018). * ''Author note: add more information into this section - a case study on a public figure...'' ==== Need for power ==== * Individuals with a high nPower, are motivated by their desire to impact, control, or influence others or their environment. They want to establish, maintain, and expand their power. High-power-striving individuals therefore seek dominance, reputation, status, or positions of authority (Reeve, 2018). * Individuals like this enjoy the ability to demonstrate influence and be able to reinforce their power. They are motivated to attain and maintain leadership positions because these roles provide opportunities to exercise authority and influence over others. Successfully obtaining power can provide a sense of satisfaction and accomplishment, reinforcing their motivation (Reeve, 2018). ''Look into the chemical reaction potentially (comment made after tutorial three).'' * These individuals tend to thrive off inspirational speeches, and they feel more energetic and their physiological arousal increases (Reeve, 2018). == Power motivation and leadership effectiveness == <blockquote>'''Focus question:''' ''How does power motivation influence leadership effectiveness?''</blockquote> * Power motivation can influence leadership effectiveness depending on how the motive is expressed and regulated. A high nPower can motivate individuals to seek leadership distinction; the shape power motivation takes will enable one to understand its effect on leadership effectiveness. * The expression of the power motivation can develop through social and environmental experiences. Individuals who develop power-strivings may have experienced childhood environments in which the parents established demanding standards, potentially contributing to a desire for recognition and admiration. nPower has been associated with aggressive tendencies, although high power motivation doesn't automatically result in overt aggression. Social norms, laws, and consequences can constrain this expression, causing that desire to control to remain internal rather than manifest as overt aggression (Reeve, 2018). * Individuals high in the need for power may be attracted to occupations that provide career-wise; individuals with high rates in need for power are drawn to professions with influential opportunities (Reeve, 2018). === Destructive power dynamics and power abuse === * A relationship between aggression and the need for power has been identified, with studies finding men being more argumentative. However, a high need for power doesn't necessarily result in aggression. Social norms, laws, and consequences can constrain this expression, causing that desire to control to remain internally rather than through overt aggression. * Tend to harbour inclinations that are both benevolent and malevolent towards others, strive to improve the world, whilst also influencing everyone. * Dark side of implicit motive is the combination of opportunity to use power for personal benefit, which is the 'abuse of power.' Additionally, there is a link to sexual misconduct and excessive drinking (Spanler et al., 2014). * Unrestrained '''affiliation''' can lead to favouritism and corruption in political and bureaucratic organisations. '''Achievement''', ignore political/interpersonal issues. High need for '''achievement''', find it difficult working in groups, making decisions, ad enforcing authority, ignoring interpersonal relationships (Spanler et al., 2014). === '''Key predictors of effective leadership''' === *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness|Effective leader,]] is a combination of power strivings which are complemented with self-discipline inhibition, ie., power under control, which gives rise to charismatic leadership, and high morale. *High affliction motivation will motivate followers by communication concern, respect, appreciation, and support, developing high-quality leader followers interactions. *Leaders with weak moral identify act in self-interest ways. *Leaders benefit from a prosocial enactment strategy, action orientation through prosocial power motivation leads to reduced power related anxiety, greater well-being. *Achievement strivings were associated with ineffective presidential, because achievement-oriented individuals were highly active but also frustrated. *Successful presidents would have effective communication and combative skills, and a sense of humour. Additionally five variables that define a presidential effectiveness are, direct presidential action, perceived greatness, performance on social and economic issue, and international relations. *Leadership motive pattern can determine when a leader will engage in war and when a leader will pursue peace. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[File:John F. Kennedy speaks at Rice University.jpg|thumb|President John F. Kennedy speaking at Rice University |'''Figure 4.''' John F. Kennedy speaking at Rice University]] == Case Study: John F. Kennedy == - Kennedy, also referred to as JFK, was commended for his optimistic and ambitious presidency; though his term was short, he achieved success across the board (Reeve, 2018; McCann & Mollan, 2023). - Created a modern framework for future presidents to follow; he blended political office with pop-culture celebrity. He was open-minded and engaged with the government and public (Reeve, 2018; McCann & Mollan, 2023). - Historians consider Kennedy a strong example of effective leadership because of his charismatic communication and calm management, seen in Figure 4. Kennedy is found to have a high need for power and low affiliation needs, fitting McClelland's framework of leadership motives (McCann & Mollan, 2023). - Leadership theorist James MacGregor Burns has written about JFK's presidency as a 'transformational leadership' style (McCann & Mollan, 2023). - McClelland's experiment on business school students, exposing them to a JFK inaugural speech, found that after the speech, the students demonstrated more strengthened and uplifted experiences. This showed that JFK, as a leader, influenced his audience through inspiration (McClelland, 1970).{{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} == Quiz Yourself == <quiz display=simple> {Which combination of implicit motives is associated with effective leadership according to McClelland's leadership motive pattern? |type="()"} - High power, high affiliation, and low inhibition + High power, low affiliation, and high inhibition - Low power, high affiliation, and high inhibition - High power, low affiliation, and low inhibition {Does a high need for power necessarily result in aggressive behaviour? |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== * Psychological theory and research consistently suggest that power motivation influences leadership through the way individuals obtain, maintain, and regulate power. A high nPower can motivate individuals to pursue positions that provide ongoing opportunities for impact, control, and influence (Reeve, 2018). There is a question around whether power motivation is positive or negative, when it is inherently neither. There is a difference between personalised power (pPower), the motivation for personal control and self-interest, and socialised power (sPower), the opportunity to influence and benefit others; this distinction helps explain why power motivation can produce drastically different leadership outcomes (McClelland, 1970; Carvalho & Conde, 2024). * The focus questions can be answered through McClelland's Three Need Theory, which explains why there are individual differences in their nPower, nAchievement, and nAffiliation, while the Two Faces of Power distinguishes between personalised and socialised expressions of power. The Leadership Motive Pattern further suggests that high power, low affiliation, and high activity inhibition can contribute to effective leadership, as the leader can balance pursuing influence with self-control (Reeve, 2018). * Effective leadership is not determined by how much power a person wants, but how they use it. Leaders who regulate their power motivation and direct their influence towards collective goals, fostering development and outcomes, are more likely to be well received by the public or their subordinates (Peyton et al., 2019; Friederichs et al., 2023). * Understanding power motivation can help identify both the strengths and risks of leadership, highlighting the importance of self-discipline and ethical use of authority. ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness|Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Leadership motivation#Leadership Motive Pattern|Leadership motivation]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Two-factor motivation theory|Two-factor motivation theory]] (Book chapter, 2019) {{ic|Integrate these links; use alphabetical order}} * [[wikipedia:Need_theory|Need theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Need_for_power|Need for power]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:David_McClelland|David Clelland]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bargh, J. A., & Lee-Chai, A. Y. (2002). The use and abuse of power : Multiple perspectives in the causes of corruption. Psychology. Bwalya, A. (2023). Leadership styles. Article in Journal of Entrepreneurship, Management and Innovation, 11(8), 181–193. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.23932113 Carvalho, J. M. S., & Conde, A. (2024). Individual power in human motivation – review and theoretical perspective. Acta Psychologica, 249, 104452–104452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104452 Deakin University. (2024, December 5). What are the different leadership styles? Deakin.Edu.Au. https://leadership.deakin.edu.au/blog/different-leadership-styles Friederichs, K. M., Waldenmeier, K., & Baumann, N. (2023). The benefits of prosocial power motivation in leadership: Action orientation fosters a win-win. Plos One, 18(7), e0287394–e0287394. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0287394 Khajeh, A., Abu, M., & Asaari, H. (2018). Impact of leadership styles on organizational performance. Journal of Human Resources Management Research, 2018(2166–0018), 2166–2184. https://ibimapublishing.com/articles/JHRMR/2018/687849/687849-1.pdf Kurt, D. S. (2021, May 23). McClelland’s Three Needs Theory: Power, Achievement, and Affiliation. Education Library. https://educationlibrary.org/mcclellands-three-needs-theory-power-achievement-and-affiliation/#1 McCann, L., & Mollan, S. (2023, November 20). JFK 60 years on: His leadership style and the reality behind the myths. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/jfk-60-years-on-his-leadership-style-and-the-reality-behind-the-myths-216477 McClelland, D. C. (1970). The two faces of power. Journal of International Affairs, 24(1), 29–47. JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24356663 Peyton, T., Zigarmi, D., & Fowler, S. N. (2019). Examining the relationship between leaders’ power use, followers’ motivational outlooks, and followers’ work intentions. Frontiers in Psychology, 9(2620). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02620 Power , D. P. G. (2026). The five essentials of leadership {{!}} APS. Psychology.Org.Au. https://psychology.org.au/inpsych/2017/august/power Reeve, J. (2018). Understanding motivation and emotion (7th edn, pp. 152–176). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Slabbinck, H., & Van Witteloostuijn, A. (2020). Explicit and implicit basic human motives, and public service motivation. Frontiers in Psychology, 11(1542). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01542 Spanler, W. D., Tikhomirov, A., Lee Sotak, K., & Palrecha, R. (2014). Leader motive profiles in eight types of organizations. ScienceDirect, 25(6). https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/science/article/pii/S1048984314001040 }} ==External links== {{ic|Move these links into References and cite; replace with links to the most relevant external non-academic resources}} * [https://leadership.deakin.edu.au/blog/what-is-transformational-leadership Article on Transformational leadership style] (Deakin University, 2024) * [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10355387/ Power motivation, the benefits of prosocial power] (Friederichs et al., 2023) * [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24356663.pdf The Two Faces of Power Journal] (McClelland, 1970) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Power motivation and leadership|Power motivation and leadership]] (Book chapter, 2024) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Leadership]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Power motivation]] brbe7qdpxeajq5swbl2t76gvs224dt2 2840891 2840824 2026-10-17T07:42:24Z PsychstudentUniversity! 3106975 2840891 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Power motivation in leadership:<br>How does power motivation influence leadership styles and effectiveness?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Donald Trump takes the oath of office (2025).jpg|thumb|President-elect Donald Trump takes the oath of office |'''Figure 1'''. Donald Trump's 2025 Inauguration surrounded by some of the world's wealthiest and most powerful individuals]] Imagine a leader standing at their inauguration, surrounded by a concentration of wealthy and influential individuals. At first glance, this may reflect a preference for resources and influence. However, a closer look raises a psychological question: what motivates a leader to seek and exercise power, and how does this shape the way they lead? This scenario reflects the leadership of United States President Donald Trump, whose 2025 administration includes a notable concentration of wealthy and influential individuals (Roeloffs, 2025). The individuals present at Trump's inauguration illustrate this concentration of political and economic power (see Figure 1). This provides a contemporary example for examining the relationship between power motivation and leadership.{{ic|[[w:Donald Trump|Second inauguration of Donald Trump]]}} Power is reflected not only in who a leader surrounds themselves with, but also in how they exercise their influence. For example, Trump uses social media as a political megaphone, bypassing traditional bureaucratic communication channels (Gambino, 2021). His public leadership style places considerable emphasis on personal image and the need of personal control with the disregard of external influences of power (Mobaseri & Nosrat Kharazmi, Zohreh, 2025). This raises the question: does the desire for power necessarily make someone an effective leader? Individuals seek leadership for various reasons, and how they use their influence shapes their interactions with followers, decision-making, and pursuit of goals. Psychology helps explain these differences by examining power motivation and how individual motives influence leadership behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} This chapter will explore [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10355387/ power motivation] (Friederichs et al., 2023), the desire to influence, control, and have the ability to impact others, influencing leadership styles, behaviour and effectiveness (McClelland, 1970). Being expressed via socialised or personalised power, determining the leader's behaviour and effectiveness, (Reeve, 2018; McClelland, 1970; Carvalho & Conde, 2024). Understanding power motivation provides a psychological framework for examining how leaders exercise authority and how followers respond. Psychological science can help explain why some power-motivated leaders use influence to control, while others use it to empower (Reeve, 2018). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:P psychology.png|right]] '''Focus questions:''' *What psychological theories explain power motivation in leaders? *How does a leader's orientation towards power influence their specific leadership style? *What is implicit motivation, and how does it differ from explicit power motivation in leaders? *How does power motivation influence leadership effectiveness? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Understanding power motivation== '''Focus question:''' ''What psychological theories explain power motivation in leaders?'' * What are your thoughts when you hear motivation and power, separately and together? Motivation, a term used to describe the push to act, and power, often associated with aggression, together they hold a heavy definition. * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Introduction|Motivation]] is the driving force that guides human behaviour; it is the use of will-power and self-discipline - channelling effort to achieve a goal. Certain individuals have predominant motive of power, being motivated by the internal urge to dominate, influence, or control (Kurt, 2021). * Power motivation has three characteristics: strong action, emotional impact, and concern for status, frame, and reputation. It is influenced by cultural values and socialised experiences (McClelland,1970). * The need for power, [[wikipedia:Need_for_power|nPower]], can be expressed in two manners: dominant or prosocial. There is a contrasting nature between how power is expressed for leadership, affecting how leaders behave. Dominant power is associated with antisocial behaviour and guides individuals to achieve personal benefit and status, using aggression and assertive manners. This contrasts with prosocial power, which motivates leaders to be benevolent and supportive (Friederichs et al., 2023). * Power seekers can be effective, well-adjusted, and highly motivated. Power is a source of human control; only the mentally healthy can wield it successfully. Those with this form of nPower struggle to feel satisfied unless they are in a position that fulfils their power-hungry needs, such as making decisions, influencing an audience, or obtaining information to become influential. Such occupations are teachers, journalists, clergy, psychologists, diplomats, business executives, political leaders and advisors (Reeve, 2018). * [[wikipedia:David_McClelland|David McClelland's]] is popular within the psychology community for his thoughts on power motivation, with the most well-known theories, the Three Need Theory and the Two Faces of Power theory. In studies done by McClelland, it was discovered that those with high nPower tended to drink more heavily, making a comment that nPower can either manifest through drinking or 'hold office.' === McClelland's three need theory === [[File:DavidMcClelland.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' David McClelland]] * McClelland (seen in Figure 2.) proposed [[wikipedia:Need_theory|Three Need Theory]], describes that every individual is driven by three dominant, unconscious needs: The need for power, affiliation, or achievement (one is more dominant than the others), definition can be seen in Table 1, (Kurt, 2021). * The Three Need Theory can also be looked at along with [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Two-factor motivation theory|Herzberg's Two-Factor theory]] and [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's theory of Hierarchy of Needs]]. Looking into how motivation affects health, as success impacts stress, blood pressure, and hormone levels (McClelland,1970). * Individuals develop motivation at different degrees, influenced by personal experiences and exposure. When an experience causes a positive emotional response, the individual is more likely to seek that feeling out again through a similar experience (Reeve, 2018). * Explained through the McClelland Acquired Needs Theory, positive emotional experiences develop acquired needs through the reinforcement of the behaviour (Kurt, 2021). {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1: Three Need Theory !Need !Definition !High Behaviour !Low Behaviour |- |Need for Achievement |Situations that challenge individuals with explicit standards. |Individual exhibits a need to win and receive recognition. |Constant fear of failure, typically avoids responsibilities. |- |Need for Affiliation |Situations that afford warm relationship opportunities. |A desire within for control, typically exaggerates own position. |A heavily dependent individual, tries to minimise own position and importance. |- |Need for Power |Situations that enable others to exert influence over others. |Individual demands and expects loyalty and harmony. |Individual remains 'aloof' and keeps social distance from influence over others. |} ==== Two faces of power ==== * The [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24356663.pdf Two Faces of Power theory], is a subgroup with the three needs of power theory propised by McClelland which introdiced the two faces of power, splitting the nPower into two manner's, personalised power or socialised power, also referred to as ''p''Power, and ''s''Power (McClelland, 1970). ''p''Power is seen as socially unacceptable way of expression, is is closely linked to control, in a way it is the definition that power is sometimes thought as, aggressive, and self-desired, those with this form of power see like as a me-against-the-world. ''s''Power, is more socially acceptable form of expression, leaders are motivated through inspiring others (Bargh & Lee-Chai, 2002). * Leaders can take on both forms of power; McClelland believes that a true leader can balance both. They can exercise personal dominance and socialised leadership (Bargh & Lee-Chai, 2002). * ''p''Power can become problematic when leaders become too absorbed by the maintenance of their position and influence, the ability to dominate, manipulate, and disagree. However, the issue isn't high-power motivation; it's how it is expressed (McClelland, 1970). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} == Recap == <quiz display=simple> {&nbsp; |type="{}"} What is the driving force that guides human behaviour? { Motivation } {What is the key difference between personalised power and socialised power?} - Personalised power focuses on achievement, and socialised power focuses on affiliation + Personalised power focuses on personal dominance and control, and socialised power focuses on benefiting others - Personalised power is consistently associated with an effective leadership style, whereas socialised power is associated with an ineffective leadership style. {Which behaviour best fits an individual with a high need for power?} - Avoiding situations where they might influence others + Seek opportunities to influence, control, or have an impact on others - Avoid challenging tasks for fear of failure </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Power motivation and leadership style == '''Focus question:''' ''How does a leader's orientation towards power influence their specific leadership style?'' * Power motivation is the drive; power orientation is the how; it is the framework of how a leader will manage to become influential. There is a negative stereotype around having a high power motivation, with theories that it automatically relates to undesired behaviour, unlike prosocial power motivation, which is regularly associated with generosity. However, those with high power motivation can have different power orientations. Ego-power orientation is associated with pursuing goals to satisfy the self and achieve a sense of self-fulfilment; this doesn't automatically mean they are using it for harm, as it depends on their position of influence and work. Social-power orientation is linked to directing power toward collective outcomes (Carvalho & Conde, 2024). ''Author note: add more information into this section - do more research/potentially move it around.'' * Effective leadership involves more than holding a position of authority; it is about how leaders behave and interact. There are five essential characteristics to leadership: self-image, socialised power, sustained dialogue, and strategic intent, providing a practical framework for a successful leader (Power, 2026). Power motivation and leadership are relevant across different contexts, from political leaders to supervisors, building a relationship with employees and an environment of trust (Power, 2026; Friederichs et al., 2023) * Leadership styles refer to the way a leader behaves when directing, influencing and interacting. Although leadership styles reflect theoretical models, they can also be shaped by individual characteristics and techniques (Khajeh et al., 2018; "What Are the Different Leadership Styles?", 2024). Different styles place varying emphasis on factors seen in Table 2 (Deakin University, 2024; Bwalya, 2023). Research suggests that [https://leadership.deakin.edu.au/blog/what-is-transformational-leadership transformational leadership] can produce positive outcomes by motivating and inspiring followers, benefiting the group rather then for personal interests, rather than focusing on personal interest, (Peyton et al., 2019) {| class="wikitable" |+Table 2. Leadership Styles ! colspan="3" |Leadership styles |- |Style |Description |Example Leaders |- |Autocratic |Leader holds complete control over decision-making with no input from followers. Consistently exercises control over the decision-making process. Expects strict compliance with policies and procedures, and does not take input from followers. They micromanage and control subordinate work. They make quick decisions because they do not have to consult. There is a lack of creative innovation (Bwalya, 2023). |Adolf Hitler and Kim Jong-un |- |Democratic |Leader is involved in team members' decision-making process, continuously encourages communication, and seeks feedback on matters, valuing input and ideas, wanting followers to participate in shaping strategies and goals (Bwalya, 2023). |Former President of South Africa, Nelson Mandela and Former Prime Minister of New Zealand Jacinda Ardern |- |Laissex-faire | The leader is distant and has minimal involvement in decisions, unlike autocratic leadership, as laissez-faire lets followers make decisions with little guidance or supervision, trusting their ability to manage responsibilities. They are comfortable with mistakes and take accountability for followers' mistakes. This empowers employees and enables faster decision-making. However, the lack of guidance can cause confusion and lack of coordination (Bwalya, 2023). |Former President Herbert Hoover and Mahatma Ghandi |- |Servant |Leader is prosocial and motivated by power, focusing on the needs and well-being of others. Aiming to support and empower followers, in hopes they reach their full potential (Bwalya, 2023). |Pope Francis |- |Transformational |Based on inspiration and motivation to achieve performance, with high expectations and focus on challenging others to exceed self-interest. Focuses on transforming followers through inspiration, motivation, and effective communication. They rely on the leader's influence; if the leader fails to provide proper guidance, it can impact followers (Bwalya, 2023). |Former President of South Africa Nelson Mandela and Former President of the United States Barack Obama |- |Transactional |Focuses on the exchange relationship between the leader and their followers. The leader maintains stability and achieves goals by providing rewards and punishments based on performance. Very goal-oriented, with clear expectations, and quick decision-making (Bwalya, 2023). |Bill Gates and Former Chancellor of Germany Angela Merkel |} == Implicit and explicit power motivation == '''Focus question:''' ''What is implicit motivation, and how does it differ from explicit power motivation in leaders?'' * Implicit motives are unconscious needs that influence how people respond emotionally to particular situations. They form early on through preverbal experiences and interactions, lying dormant until potential incentives set them off. They are revealed through patterns of thought, emotion, and behaviour (Reeve, 2018)[[File:Implicit_Motives_associations.png|thumb| '''Figure 3.''' Mind map of implicit motives]] * Implicit motives differ from explicit motives, which are a conscious goal or value that people can describe and self-report (Slabbinck & Van Witteloostuijn, 2020). They can predict long-term behaviour, especially when the situation provides a way to satisfy the motive. * According to McClelland, implicit motives are unconscious and therefore can't be accurately measured through self-reporting. They are assessed via indirect methods, ie., analysing imaginative stories (Reeve, 2018). The Dual-Motive System. === Leadership motive pattern === * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Leadership motivation#Leadership Motive Pattern|Leadership Motive Pattern (LMP)]] developed from McClelland's work on motivation, describes a profile associated with effective leadership. It is consistent with three elements: high implicit power, low implicit affiliation, and high activity inhibition. Together, these elements help explain how a leader can balance self-control and a drive for nPower while also prioritising social benefits (Reeve, 2018). * Leaders who are motivated to influence are usually less dependent on being personally liked or accepted. Their high npower encourages them to seek influence, while their low need for affiliation reduces their reliance on close relationships, and their high inhibition allows them to regulate their impulses. In contrast, individuals with high need for power, low affiliation, and low inhibition are often unsuccessful and rated poorly, as they struggle to regulate their desire for influence, lack self-discipline, and can be seen as narcissistic or aggrandising (Reeve, 2018). * ''Author note: add more information into this section - a case study on a public figure...'' ==== Need for power ==== * Individuals with a high nPower, are motivated by their desire to impact, control, or influence others or their environment. They want to establish, maintain, and expand their power. High-power-striving individuals therefore seek dominance, reputation, status, or positions of authority (Reeve, 2018). * Individuals like this enjoy the ability to demonstrate influence and be able to reinforce their power. They are motivated to attain and maintain leadership positions because these roles provide opportunities to exercise authority and influence over others. Successfully obtaining power can provide a sense of satisfaction and accomplishment, reinforcing their motivation (Reeve, 2018). ''Look into the chemical reaction potentially (comment made after tutorial three).'' * These individuals tend to thrive off inspirational speeches, and they feel more energetic and their physiological arousal increases (Reeve, 2018). == Power motivation and leadership effectiveness == '''Focus question:''' ''How does power motivation influence leadership effectiveness?'' * Power motivation can influence leadership effectiveness depending on how the motive is expressed and regulated. A high nPower can motivate individuals to seek leadership distinction; the shape power motivation takes will enable one to understand its effect on leadership effectiveness. * The expression of the power motivation can develop through social and environmental experiences. Individuals who develop power-strivings may have experienced childhood environments in which the parents established demanding standards, potentially contributing to a desire for recognition and admiration. nPower has been associated with aggressive tendencies, although high power motivation doesn't automatically result in overt aggression. Social norms, laws, and consequences can constrain this expression, causing that desire to control to remain internal rather than manifest as overt aggression (Reeve, 2018). * Individuals high in the need for power may be attracted to occupations that provide career-wise; individuals with high rates in need for power are drawn to professions with influential opportunities (Reeve, 2018). === Destructive power dynamics and power abuse === * A relationship between aggression and the need for power has been identified, with studies finding men being more argumentative. However, a high need for power doesn't necessarily result in aggression. Social norms, laws, and consequences can constrain this expression, causing that desire to control to remain internally rather than through overt aggression. * Tend to harbour inclinations that are both benevolent and malevolent towards others, strive to improve the world, whilst also influencing everyone. * Dark side of implicit motive is the combination of opportunity to use power for personal benefit, which is the 'abuse of power.' Additionally, there is a link to sexual misconduct and excessive drinking (Spanler et al., 2014). * Unrestrained '''affiliation''' can lead to favouritism and corruption in political and bureaucratic organisations. '''Achievement''', ignore political/interpersonal issues. High need for '''achievement''', find it difficult working in groups, making decisions, ad enforcing authority, ignoring interpersonal relationships (Spanler et al., 2014). === '''Key predictors of effective leadership''' === *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness|Effective leader,]] is a combination of power strivings which are complemented with self-discipline inhibition, ie., power under control, which gives rise to charismatic leadership, and high morale. *High affliction motivation will motivate followers by communication concern, respect, appreciation, and support, developing high-quality leader followers interactions. *Leaders with weak moral identify act in self-interest ways. *Leaders benefit from a prosocial enactment strategy, action orientation through prosocial power motivation leads to reduced power related anxiety, greater well-being. *Achievement strivings were associated with ineffective presidential, because achievement-oriented individuals were highly active but also frustrated. *Successful presidents would have effective communication and combative skills, and a sense of humour. Additionally five variables that define a presidential effectiveness are, direct presidential action, perceived greatness, performance on social and economic issue, and international relations. *Leadership motive pattern can determine when a leader will engage in war and when a leader will pursue peace. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[File:John F. Kennedy speaks at Rice University.jpg|thumb|President John F. Kennedy speaking at Rice University |'''Figure 4.''' John F. Kennedy speaking at Rice University]] == Case Study: John F. Kennedy == - Kennedy, also referred to as JFK, was commended for his optimistic and ambitious presidency; though his term was short, he achieved success across the board (Reeve, 2018; McCann & Mollan, 2023). - Created a modern framework for future presidents to follow; he blended political office with pop-culture celebrity. He was open-minded and engaged with the government and public (Reeve, 2018; McCann & Mollan, 2023). - Historians consider Kennedy a strong example of effective leadership because of his charismatic communication and calm management, seen in Figure 4. Kennedy is found to have a high need for power and low affiliation needs, fitting McClelland's framework of leadership motives (McCann & Mollan, 2023). - Leadership theorist James MacGregor Burns has written about JFK's presidency as a 'transformational leadership' style (McCann & Mollan, 2023). - McClelland's experiment on business school students, exposing them to a JFK inaugural speech, found that after the speech, the students demonstrated more strengthened and uplifted experiences. This showed that JFK, as a leader, influenced his audience through inspiration (McClelland, 1970).{{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} == Quiz Yourself == <quiz display=simple> {Which combination of implicit motives is associated with effective leadership according to McClelland's leadership motive pattern? |type="()"} - High power, high affiliation, and low inhibition + High power, low affiliation, and high inhibition - Low power, high affiliation, and high inhibition - High power, low affiliation, and low inhibition {Does a high need for power necessarily result in aggressive behaviour? |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== * Psychological theory and research consistently suggest that power motivation influences leadership through the way individuals obtain, maintain, and regulate power. A high nPower can motivate individuals to pursue positions that provide ongoing opportunities for impact, control, and influence (Reeve, 2018). There is a question around whether power motivation is positive or negative, when it is inherently neither. There is a difference between personalised power (pPower), the motivation for personal control and self-interest, and socialised power (sPower), the opportunity to influence and benefit others; this distinction helps explain why power motivation can produce drastically different leadership outcomes (McClelland, 1970; Carvalho & Conde, 2024). * The focus questions can be answered through McClelland's Three Need Theory, which explains why there are individual differences in their nPower, nAchievement, and nAffiliation, while the Two Faces of Power distinguishes between personalised and socialised expressions of power. The Leadership Motive Pattern further suggests that high power, low affiliation, and high activity inhibition can contribute to effective leadership, as the leader can balance pursuing influence with self-control (Reeve, 2018). * Effective leadership is not determined by how much power a person wants, but how they use it. Leaders who regulate their power motivation and direct their influence towards collective goals, fostering development and outcomes, are more likely to be well received by the public or their subordinates (Peyton et al., 2019; Friederichs et al., 2023). * Understanding power motivation can help identify both the strengths and risks of leadership, highlighting the importance of self-discipline and ethical use of authority. ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness|Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Leadership motivation#Leadership Motive Pattern|Leadership motivation]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Two-factor motivation theory|Two-factor motivation theory]] (Book chapter, 2019) {{ic|Integrate these links; use alphabetical order}} * [[wikipedia:Need_theory|Need theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Need_for_power|Need for power]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:David_McClelland|David Clelland]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bargh, J. A., & Lee-Chai, A. Y. (2002). The use and abuse of power : Multiple perspectives in the causes of corruption. Psychology. Bwalya, A. (2023). Leadership styles. Article in Journal of Entrepreneurship, Management and Innovation, 11(8), 181–193. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.23932113 Carvalho, J. M. S., & Conde, A. (2024). Individual power in human motivation – review and theoretical perspective. Acta Psychologica, 249, 104452–104452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104452 Deakin University. (2024, December 5). What are the different leadership styles? Deakin.Edu.Au. https://leadership.deakin.edu.au/blog/different-leadership-styles Friederichs, K. M., Waldenmeier, K., & Baumann, N. (2023). The benefits of prosocial power motivation in leadership: Action orientation fosters a win-win. Plos One, 18(7), e0287394–e0287394. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0287394 Khajeh, A., Abu, M., & Asaari, H. (2018). Impact of leadership styles on organizational performance. Journal of Human Resources Management Research, 2018(2166–0018), 2166–2184. https://ibimapublishing.com/articles/JHRMR/2018/687849/687849-1.pdf Kurt, D. S. (2021, May 23). McClelland’s Three Needs Theory: Power, Achievement, and Affiliation. Education Library. https://educationlibrary.org/mcclellands-three-needs-theory-power-achievement-and-affiliation/#1 McCann, L., & Mollan, S. (2023, November 20). JFK 60 years on: His leadership style and the reality behind the myths. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/jfk-60-years-on-his-leadership-style-and-the-reality-behind-the-myths-216477 McClelland, D. C. (1970). The two faces of power. Journal of International Affairs, 24(1), 29–47. JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24356663 Peyton, T., Zigarmi, D., & Fowler, S. N. (2019). Examining the relationship between leaders’ power use, followers’ motivational outlooks, and followers’ work intentions. Frontiers in Psychology, 9(2620). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02620 Power , D. P. G. (2026). The five essentials of leadership {{!}} APS. Psychology.Org.Au. https://psychology.org.au/inpsych/2017/august/power Reeve, J. (2018). Understanding motivation and emotion (7th edn, pp. 152–176). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Slabbinck, H., & Van Witteloostuijn, A. (2020). Explicit and implicit basic human motives, and public service motivation. Frontiers in Psychology, 11(1542). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01542 Spanler, W. D., Tikhomirov, A., Lee Sotak, K., & Palrecha, R. (2014). Leader motive profiles in eight types of organizations. ScienceDirect, 25(6). https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/science/article/pii/S1048984314001040 }} ==External links== {{ic|Move these links into References and cite; replace with links to the most relevant external non-academic resources}} * [https://leadership.deakin.edu.au/blog/what-is-transformational-leadership Article on Transformational leadership style] (Deakin University, 2024) * [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10355387/ Power motivation, the benefits of prosocial power] (Friederichs et al., 2023) * [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24356663.pdf The Two Faces of Power Journal] (McClelland, 1970) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Power motivation and leadership|Power motivation and leadership]] (Book chapter, 2024) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Leadership]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Power motivation]] mnwolw5pxqedaa7x8wuazi3lsc63you 2840897 2840891 2026-10-17T10:34:01Z PsychstudentUniversity! 3106975 2840897 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Power motivation in leadership:<br>How does power motivation influence leadership styles and effectiveness?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Donald Trump takes the oath of office (2025).jpg|thumb|President-elect Donald Trump takes the oath of office |'''Figure 1'''. Donald Trump's 2025 Inauguration surrounded by some of the world's wealthiest and most powerful individuals]] Imagine a leader standing at their inauguration, surrounded by a concentration of wealthy and influential individuals. At first glance, this may reflect a preference for resources and influence. However, a closer look raises a psychological question: what motivates a leader to seek and exercise power, and how does this shape the way they lead? This scenario reflects the leadership of United States President Donald Trump, whose 2025 administration includes a notable concentration of wealthy and influential individuals (Roeloffs, 2025). The individuals present at Trump's inauguration illustrate this concentration of political and economic power (see Figure 1). This provides a contemporary example for examining the relationship between power motivation and leadership.{{ic|[[w:Donald Trump|Second inauguration of Donald Trump]]}} Power is reflected not only in who a leader surrounds themselves with, but also in how they exercise their influence. For example, Trump uses social media as a political megaphone, bypassing traditional bureaucratic communication channels (Gambino, 2021). His public leadership style places considerable emphasis on personal image and the need of personal control with the disregard of external influences of power (Mobaseri & Nosrat Kharazmi, Zohreh, 2025). This raises the question: does the desire for power necessarily make someone an effective leader? Individuals seek leadership for various reasons, and how they use their influence shapes their interactions with followers, decision-making, and pursuit of goals. Psychology helps explain these differences by examining power motivation and how individual motives influence leadership behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} This chapter will explore [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10355387/ power motivation] (Friederichs et al., 2023), the desire to influence, control, and have the ability to impact others, influencing leadership styles, behaviour and effectiveness (McClelland, 1970). Being expressed via socialised or personalised power, determining the leader's behaviour and effectiveness, (Reeve, 2018; McClelland, 1970; Carvalho & Conde, 2024). Understanding power motivation provides a psychological framework for examining how leaders exercise authority and how followers respond. Psychological science can help explain why some power-motivated leaders use influence to control, while others use it to empower (Reeve, 2018). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:P psychology.png|right]] '''Focus questions:''' *What psychological theories explain power motivation in leaders? *How does a leader's orientation towards power influence their specific leadership style? *What is implicit motivation, and how does it differ from explicit power motivation in leaders? *How does power motivation influence leadership effectiveness? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Understanding power motivation through psychological theories== '''Focus question:''' ''What psychological theories explain power motivation in leaders?'' The definition of motivation and power, one describes the push to act the other often associated with aggression, influence, authority and control, together they hold a heavy definition. In psychology, [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Introduction|motivation]] is the driving force that guides human behaviour; it is the use of will-power and self-discipline - channelling effort to achieve a goal. Certain individuals have predominant motive of power, being motivated by the internal urge to dominate, influence, or control (Kurt, 2021). Power motivation is the broad construct that refers to the desire for leadership, authority or status, it is built up of three characteristics: strong action, emotional impact, and concern for status, frame, and reputation, heavily influenced by cultural values and socialised experiences (McClelland,1970). Within this broader construct, the ''need'' for power ([[wikipedia:Need_for_power|nPower)]] refers to an individual's motivation to have an impact on others and influence their behaviour. Within this framework their a two types of nPower, personalised power and socialised power, which demonstrates a contrasting nature between how power can be expressed. Personalised power. centres on personal control, status, and socialised power, directly affecting collective goals (McClelland, 1970). Contrasting with socialised power, a more other-serving power motivation, which is primarly associaed with benevolent and supportive (Friederichs et al., 2023; Magee & Langner, 2008). Power seekers can be effective, well-adjusted, and highly motivated. Power is a source of human control; only the mentally healthy can wield it successfully. Those with this form of nPower struggle to feel satisfied unless they are in a position that fulfils their power-hungry needs, such as making decisions, influencing an audience, or obtaining information to become influential. Such occupations are teachers, journalists, clergy, psychologists, diplomats, business executives, political leaders and advisors (Reeve, 2018). [[wikipedia:David_McClelland|David McClelland's]] is popular within the psychology community for his thoughts on power motivation, with the most well-known theories, the Three Need Theory and the Two Faces of Power theory. In studies done by McClelland, it was discovered that those with high nPower tended to drink more heavily, making a comment that nPower can either manifest through drinking or 'hold office.' === Three need theory === [[File:DavidMcClelland.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' David McClelland]]David McClelland, a Harvard psychologist who conducted extensive research into human motivation (seen in Figure 2.), proposed the [[wikipedia:Need_theory|Three Need Theory]]. The theory identifies three acquired motivational needs: the need for achievement, the need for affiliation, and the need for power (McClelland, 1970). Although individuals can experiences all three needs, the strength of each varies between individuals and can influence their behaviour. Table 1 summarises these needs and their defining characteristics (Kurt, 2021). Of special interest to leadership is the nPower, which involved the desire to influnence others and have an impact on thier behaviour. While a strong need for achievement may motivate individuals to pursue challenging goals, and a strong need for affilication may encrourage them to maintain psoitive interpersonal relatinoships, a strong need for power can motivate individuals to seek influence and positions of authoirty. However the need for power alone does not determine whether someone will be an effective leader; its expression and the way an individual exercises their influence matter. On an additional note, [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Two-factor motivation theory|Herzberg's Two-Factor theory]] and [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's theory of Hierarchy of Needs]] can be evaluated along with the Three Need Theory. Looking into how motivation affects health, as success impacts stress, blood pressure, and hormone levels (McClelland,1970). Individuals develop motivation at different degrees, influenced by personal experiences and exposure. When an experience causes a positive emotional response, the individual is more likely to seek that feeling out again through a similar experience (Reeve, 2018). Explained through the McClelland Acquired Needs Theory, positive emotional experiences develop acquired needs through the reinforcement of the behaviour (Kurt, 2021). {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1: Three Need Theory !Need !Definition !High Behaviour !Low Behaviour |- |Need for Achievement |Situations that challenge individuals with explicit standards. |Individual exhibits a need to win and receive recognition. |Constant fear of failure, typically avoids responsibilities. |- |Need for Affiliation |Situations that afford warm relationship opportunities. |A desire within for control, typically exaggerates own position. |A heavily dependent individual, tries to minimise own position and importance. |- |Need for Power |Situations that enable others to exert influence over others. |Individual demands and expects loyalty and harmony. |Individual remains 'aloof' and keeps social distance from influence over others. |} ==== Two faces of power ==== * The [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24356663.pdf Two Faces of Power theory], is a subgroup with the three needs of power theory propised by McClelland which introdiced the two faces of power, splitting the nPower into two manner's, personalised power or socialised power, also referred to as ''p''Power, and ''s''Power (McClelland, 1970). ''p''Power is seen as socially unacceptable way of expression, is is closely linked to control, in a way it is the definition that power is sometimes thought as, aggressive, and self-desired, those with this form of power see like as a me-against-the-world. ''s''Power, is more socially acceptable form of expression, leaders are motivated through inspiring others (Bargh & Lee-Chai, 2002). * Leaders can take on both forms of power; McClelland believes that a true leader can balance both. They can exercise personal dominance and socialised leadership (Bargh & Lee-Chai, 2002). * ''p''Power can become problematic when leaders become too absorbed by the maintenance of their position and influence, the ability to dominate, manipulate, and disagree. However, the issue isn't high-power motivation; it's how it is expressed (McClelland, 1970). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} == Recap == <quiz display=simple> {&nbsp; |type="{}"} What is the driving force that guides human behaviour? { Motivation } {What is the key difference between personalised power and socialised power?} - Personalised power focuses on achievement, and socialised power focuses on affiliation + Personalised power focuses on personal dominance and control, and socialised power focuses on benefiting others - Personalised power is consistently associated with an effective leadership style, whereas socialised power is associated with an ineffective leadership style. {Which behaviour best fits an individual with a high need for power?} - Avoiding situations where they might influence others + Seek opportunities to influence, control, or have an impact on others - Avoid challenging tasks for fear of failure </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Power motivation and leadership style == '''Focus question:''' ''How does a leader's orientation towards power influence their specific leadership style?'' * Power motivation is the drive; power orientation is the how; it is the framework of how a leader will manage to become influential. There is a negative stereotype around having a high power motivation, with theories that it automatically relates to undesired behaviour, unlike prosocial power motivation, which is regularly associated with generosity. However, those with high power motivation can have different power orientations. Ego-power orientation is associated with pursuing goals to satisfy the self and achieve a sense of self-fulfilment; this doesn't automatically mean they are using it for harm, as it depends on their position of influence and work. Social-power orientation is linked to directing power toward collective outcomes (Carvalho & Conde, 2024). ''Author note: add more information into this section - do more research/potentially move it around.'' * Effective leadership involves more than holding a position of authority; it is about how leaders behave and interact. There are five essential characteristics to leadership: self-image, socialised power, sustained dialogue, and strategic intent, providing a practical framework for a successful leader (Power, 2026). Power motivation and leadership are relevant across different contexts, from political leaders to supervisors, building a relationship with employees and an environment of trust (Power, 2026; Friederichs et al., 2023) * Leadership styles refer to the way a leader behaves when directing, influencing and interacting. Although leadership styles reflect theoretical models, they can also be shaped by individual characteristics and techniques (Khajeh et al., 2018; "What Are the Different Leadership Styles?", 2024). Different styles place varying emphasis on factors seen in Table 2 (Deakin University, 2024; Bwalya, 2023). Research suggests that [https://leadership.deakin.edu.au/blog/what-is-transformational-leadership transformational leadership] can produce positive outcomes by motivating and inspiring followers, benefiting the group rather then for personal interests, rather than focusing on personal interest, (Peyton et al., 2019) {| class="wikitable" |+Table 2. Leadership Styles ! colspan="3" |Leadership styles |- |Style |Description |Example Leaders |- |Autocratic |Leader holds complete control over decision-making with no input from followers. Consistently exercises control over the decision-making process. Expects strict compliance with policies and procedures, and does not take input from followers. They micromanage and control subordinate work. They make quick decisions because they do not have to consult. There is a lack of creative innovation (Bwalya, 2023). |Adolf Hitler and Kim Jong-un |- |Democratic |Leader is involved in team members' decision-making process, continuously encourages communication, and seeks feedback on matters, valuing input and ideas, wanting followers to participate in shaping strategies and goals (Bwalya, 2023). |Former President of South Africa, Nelson Mandela and Former Prime Minister of New Zealand Jacinda Ardern |- |Laissex-faire | The leader is distant and has minimal involvement in decisions, unlike autocratic leadership, as laissez-faire lets followers make decisions with little guidance or supervision, trusting their ability to manage responsibilities. They are comfortable with mistakes and take accountability for followers' mistakes. This empowers employees and enables faster decision-making. However, the lack of guidance can cause confusion and lack of coordination (Bwalya, 2023). |Former President Herbert Hoover and Mahatma Ghandi |- |Servant |Leader is prosocial and motivated by power, focusing on the needs and well-being of others. Aiming to support and empower followers, in hopes they reach their full potential (Bwalya, 2023). |Pope Francis |- |Transformational |Based on inspiration and motivation to achieve performance, with high expectations and focus on challenging others to exceed self-interest. Focuses on transforming followers through inspiration, motivation, and effective communication. They rely on the leader's influence; if the leader fails to provide proper guidance, it can impact followers (Bwalya, 2023). |Former President of South Africa Nelson Mandela and Former President of the United States Barack Obama |- |Transactional |Focuses on the exchange relationship between the leader and their followers. The leader maintains stability and achieves goals by providing rewards and punishments based on performance. Very goal-oriented, with clear expectations, and quick decision-making (Bwalya, 2023). |Bill Gates and Former Chancellor of Germany Angela Merkel |} == Implicit and explicit power motivation == '''Focus question:''' ''What is implicit motivation, and how does it differ from explicit power motivation in leaders?'' * Implicit motives are unconscious needs that influence how people respond emotionally to particular situations. They form early on through preverbal experiences and interactions, lying dormant until potential incentives set them off. They are revealed through patterns of thought, emotion, and behaviour (Reeve, 2018)[[File:Implicit_Motives_associations.png|thumb| '''Figure 3.''' Mind map of implicit motives]] * Implicit motives differ from explicit motives, which are a conscious goal or value that people can describe and self-report (Slabbinck & Van Witteloostuijn, 2020). They can predict long-term behaviour, especially when the situation provides a way to satisfy the motive. * According to McClelland, implicit motives are unconscious and therefore can't be accurately measured through self-reporting. They are assessed via indirect methods, ie., analysing imaginative stories (Reeve, 2018). The Dual-Motive System. === Leadership motive pattern === * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Leadership motivation#Leadership Motive Pattern|Leadership Motive Pattern (LMP)]] developed from McClelland's work on motivation, describes a profile associated with effective leadership. It is consistent with three elements: high implicit power, low implicit affiliation, and high activity inhibition. Together, these elements help explain how a leader can balance self-control and a drive for nPower while also prioritising social benefits (Reeve, 2018). * Leaders who are motivated to influence are usually less dependent on being personally liked or accepted. Their high npower encourages them to seek influence, while their low need for affiliation reduces their reliance on close relationships, and their high inhibition allows them to regulate their impulses. In contrast, individuals with high need for power, low affiliation, and low inhibition are often unsuccessful and rated poorly, as they struggle to regulate their desire for influence, lack self-discipline, and can be seen as narcissistic or aggrandising (Reeve, 2018). * ''Author note: add more information into this section - a case study on a public figure...'' ==== Need for power ==== * Individuals with a high nPower, are motivated by their desire to impact, control, or influence others or their environment. They want to establish, maintain, and expand their power. High-power-striving individuals therefore seek dominance, reputation, status, or positions of authority (Reeve, 2018). * Individuals like this enjoy the ability to demonstrate influence and be able to reinforce their power. They are motivated to attain and maintain leadership positions because these roles provide opportunities to exercise authority and influence over others. Successfully obtaining power can provide a sense of satisfaction and accomplishment, reinforcing their motivation (Reeve, 2018). ''Look into the chemical reaction potentially (comment made after tutorial three).'' * These individuals tend to thrive off inspirational speeches, and they feel more energetic and their physiological arousal increases (Reeve, 2018). == Power motivation and leadership effectiveness == '''Focus question:''' ''How does power motivation influence leadership effectiveness?'' * Power motivation can influence leadership effectiveness depending on how the motive is expressed and regulated. A high nPower can motivate individuals to seek leadership distinction; the shape power motivation takes will enable one to understand its effect on leadership effectiveness. * The expression of the power motivation can develop through social and environmental experiences. Individuals who develop power-strivings may have experienced childhood environments in which the parents established demanding standards, potentially contributing to a desire for recognition and admiration. nPower has been associated with aggressive tendencies, although high power motivation doesn't automatically result in overt aggression. Social norms, laws, and consequences can constrain this expression, causing that desire to control to remain internal rather than manifest as overt aggression (Reeve, 2018). * Individuals high in the need for power may be attracted to occupations that provide career-wise; individuals with high rates in need for power are drawn to professions with influential opportunities (Reeve, 2018). === Destructive power dynamics and power abuse === * A relationship between aggression and the need for power has been identified, with studies finding men being more argumentative. However, a high need for power doesn't necessarily result in aggression. Social norms, laws, and consequences can constrain this expression, causing that desire to control to remain internally rather than through overt aggression. * Tend to harbour inclinations that are both benevolent and malevolent towards others, strive to improve the world, whilst also influencing everyone. * Dark side of implicit motive is the combination of opportunity to use power for personal benefit, which is the 'abuse of power.' Additionally, there is a link to sexual misconduct and excessive drinking (Spanler et al., 2014). * Unrestrained '''affiliation''' can lead to favouritism and corruption in political and bureaucratic organisations. '''Achievement''', ignore political/interpersonal issues. High need for '''achievement''', find it difficult working in groups, making decisions, ad enforcing authority, ignoring interpersonal relationships (Spanler et al., 2014). === '''Key predictors of effective leadership''' === *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness|Effective leader,]] is a combination of power strivings which are complemented with self-discipline inhibition, ie., power under control, which gives rise to charismatic leadership, and high morale. *High affliction motivation will motivate followers by communication concern, respect, appreciation, and support, developing high-quality leader followers interactions. *Leaders with weak moral identify act in self-interest ways. *Leaders benefit from a prosocial enactment strategy, action orientation through prosocial power motivation leads to reduced power related anxiety, greater well-being. *Achievement strivings were associated with ineffective presidential, because achievement-oriented individuals were highly active but also frustrated. *Successful presidents would have effective communication and combative skills, and a sense of humour. Additionally five variables that define a presidential effectiveness are, direct presidential action, perceived greatness, performance on social and economic issue, and international relations. *Leadership motive pattern can determine when a leader will engage in war and when a leader will pursue peace. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[File:John F. Kennedy speaks at Rice University.jpg|thumb|President John F. Kennedy speaking at Rice University |'''Figure 4.''' John F. Kennedy speaking at Rice University]] == Case Study: John F. Kennedy == - Kennedy, also referred to as JFK, was commended for his optimistic and ambitious presidency; though his term was short, he achieved success across the board (Reeve, 2018; McCann & Mollan, 2023). - Created a modern framework for future presidents to follow; he blended political office with pop-culture celebrity. He was open-minded and engaged with the government and public (Reeve, 2018; McCann & Mollan, 2023). - Historians consider Kennedy a strong example of effective leadership because of his charismatic communication and calm management, seen in Figure 4. Kennedy is found to have a high need for power and low affiliation needs, fitting McClelland's framework of leadership motives (McCann & Mollan, 2023). - Leadership theorist James MacGregor Burns has written about JFK's presidency as a 'transformational leadership' style (McCann & Mollan, 2023). - McClelland's experiment on business school students, exposing them to a JFK inaugural speech, found that after the speech, the students demonstrated more strengthened and uplifted experiences. This showed that JFK, as a leader, influenced his audience through inspiration (McClelland, 1970).{{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} == Quiz Yourself == <quiz display=simple> {Which combination of implicit motives is associated with effective leadership according to McClelland's leadership motive pattern? |type="()"} - High power, high affiliation, and low inhibition + High power, low affiliation, and high inhibition - Low power, high affiliation, and high inhibition - High power, low affiliation, and low inhibition {Does a high need for power necessarily result in aggressive behaviour? |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== * Psychological theory and research consistently suggest that power motivation influences leadership through the way individuals obtain, maintain, and regulate power. A high nPower can motivate individuals to pursue positions that provide ongoing opportunities for impact, control, and influence (Reeve, 2018). There is a question around whether power motivation is positive or negative, when it is inherently neither. There is a difference between personalised power (pPower), the motivation for personal control and self-interest, and socialised power (sPower), the opportunity to influence and benefit others; this distinction helps explain why power motivation can produce drastically different leadership outcomes (McClelland, 1970; Carvalho & Conde, 2024). * The focus questions can be answered through McClelland's Three Need Theory, which explains why there are individual differences in their nPower, nAchievement, and nAffiliation, while the Two Faces of Power distinguishes between personalised and socialised expressions of power. The Leadership Motive Pattern further suggests that high power, low affiliation, and high activity inhibition can contribute to effective leadership, as the leader can balance pursuing influence with self-control (Reeve, 2018). * Effective leadership is not determined by how much power a person wants, but how they use it. Leaders who regulate their power motivation and direct their influence towards collective goals, fostering development and outcomes, are more likely to be well received by the public or their subordinates (Peyton et al., 2019; Friederichs et al., 2023). * Understanding power motivation can help identify both the strengths and risks of leadership, highlighting the importance of self-discipline and ethical use of authority. ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness|Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Leadership motivation#Leadership Motive Pattern|Leadership motivation]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Two-factor motivation theory|Two-factor motivation theory]] (Book chapter, 2019) {{ic|Integrate these links; use alphabetical order}} * [[wikipedia:Need_theory|Need theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Need_for_power|Need for power]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:David_McClelland|David Clelland]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bargh, J. A., & Lee-Chai, A. Y. (2002). The use and abuse of power : Multiple perspectives in the causes of corruption. Psychology. Bwalya, A. (2023). Leadership styles. Article in Journal of Entrepreneurship, Management and Innovation, 11(8), 181–193. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.23932113 Carvalho, J. M. S., & Conde, A. (2024). Individual power in human motivation – review and theoretical perspective. Acta Psychologica, 249, 104452–104452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104452 Deakin University. (2024, December 5). What are the different leadership styles? Deakin.Edu.Au. https://leadership.deakin.edu.au/blog/different-leadership-styles Friederichs, K. M., Waldenmeier, K., & Baumann, N. (2023). The benefits of prosocial power motivation in leadership: Action orientation fosters a win-win. Plos One, 18(7), e0287394–e0287394. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0287394 Khajeh, A., Abu, M., & Asaari, H. (2018). Impact of leadership styles on organizational performance. Journal of Human Resources Management Research, 2018(2166–0018), 2166–2184. https://ibimapublishing.com/articles/JHRMR/2018/687849/687849-1.pdf Kurt, D. S. (2021, May 23). McClelland’s Three Needs Theory: Power, Achievement, and Affiliation. Education Library. https://educationlibrary.org/mcclellands-three-needs-theory-power-achievement-and-affiliation/#1 McCann, L., & Mollan, S. (2023, November 20). JFK 60 years on: His leadership style and the reality behind the myths. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/jfk-60-years-on-his-leadership-style-and-the-reality-behind-the-myths-216477 McClelland, D. C. (1970). The two faces of power. Journal of International Affairs, 24(1), 29–47. JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24356663 Peyton, T., Zigarmi, D., & Fowler, S. N. (2019). Examining the relationship between leaders’ power use, followers’ motivational outlooks, and followers’ work intentions. Frontiers in Psychology, 9(2620). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02620 Power , D. P. G. (2026). The five essentials of leadership {{!}} APS. Psychology.Org.Au. https://psychology.org.au/inpsych/2017/august/power Reeve, J. (2018). Understanding motivation and emotion (7th edn, pp. 152–176). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Slabbinck, H., & Van Witteloostuijn, A. (2020). Explicit and implicit basic human motives, and public service motivation. Frontiers in Psychology, 11(1542). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01542 Spanler, W. D., Tikhomirov, A., Lee Sotak, K., & Palrecha, R. (2014). Leader motive profiles in eight types of organizations. ScienceDirect, 25(6). https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/science/article/pii/S1048984314001040 }} ==External links== {{ic|Move these links into References and cite; replace with links to the most relevant external non-academic resources}} * [https://leadership.deakin.edu.au/blog/what-is-transformational-leadership Article on Transformational leadership style] (Deakin University, 2024) * [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10355387/ Power motivation, the benefits of prosocial power] (Friederichs et al., 2023) * [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24356663.pdf The Two Faces of Power Journal] (McClelland, 1970) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Power motivation and leadership|Power motivation and leadership]] (Book chapter, 2024) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Leadership]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Power motivation]] qg3icwrjeemeaqv9gqz29sn4sgely21 2840898 2840897 2026-10-17T11:16:48Z PsychstudentUniversity! 3106975 2840898 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Power motivation in leadership:<br>How does power motivation influence leadership styles and effectiveness?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Donald Trump takes the oath of office (2025).jpg|thumb|President-elect Donald Trump takes the oath of office |'''Figure 1'''. Donald Trump's 2025 Inauguration surrounded by some of the world's wealthiest and most powerful individuals]] Imagine a leader standing at their inauguration, surrounded by a concentration of wealthy and influential individuals. At first glance, this may reflect a preference for resources and influence. However, a closer look raises a psychological question: what motivates a leader to seek and exercise power, and how does this shape the way they lead? This scenario reflects the leadership of United States President Donald Trump, whose 2025 administration includes a notable concentration of wealthy and influential individuals (Roeloffs, 2025). The individuals present at Trump's inauguration illustrate this concentration of political and economic power (see Figure 1). This provides a contemporary example for examining the relationship between power motivation and leadership.{{ic|[[w:Donald Trump|Second inauguration of Donald Trump]]}} Power is reflected not only in who a leader surrounds themselves with, but also in how they exercise their influence. For example, Trump uses social media as a political megaphone, bypassing traditional bureaucratic communication channels (Gambino, 2021). His public leadership style places considerable emphasis on personal image and the need of personal control with the disregard of external influences of power (Mobaseri & Nosrat Kharazmi, Zohreh, 2025). This raises the question: does the desire for power necessarily make someone an effective leader? Individuals seek leadership for various reasons, and how they use their influence shapes their interactions with followers, decision-making, and pursuit of goals. Psychology helps explain these differences by examining power motivation and how individual motives influence leadership behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} This chapter will explore [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10355387/ power motivation] (Friederichs et al., 2023), the desire to influence, control, and have the ability to impact others, influencing leadership styles, behaviour and effectiveness (McClelland, 1970). Being expressed via socialised or personalised power, determining the leader's behaviour and effectiveness, (Reeve, 2018; McClelland, 1970; Carvalho & Conde, 2024). Understanding power motivation provides a psychological framework for examining how leaders exercise authority and how followers respond. Psychological science can help explain why some power-motivated leaders use influence to control, while others use it to empower (Reeve, 2018). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:P psychology.png|right]] '''Focus questions:''' *What psychological theories explain power motivation in leaders? *How does a leader's orientation towards power influence their specific leadership style? *What is implicit motivation, and how does it differ from explicit power motivation in leaders? *How does power motivation influence leadership effectiveness? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Understanding power motivation through psychological theories== '''Focus question:''' ''What psychological theories explain power motivation in leaders?'' The definition of motivation and power, one describes the push to act the other often associated with aggression, influence, authority and control, together they hold a heavy definition. In psychology, [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Introduction|motivation]] is the driving force that guides human behaviour; it is the use of will-power and self-discipline - channelling effort to achieve a goal. Certain individuals have predominant motive of power, being motivated by the internal urge to dominate, influence, or control (Kurt, 2021). Power motivation is the broad construct that refers to the desire for leadership, authority or status, it is built up of three characteristics: strong action, emotional impact, and concern for status, frame, and reputation, heavily influenced by cultural values and socialised experiences (McClelland,1970). Power seekers can be effective, well-adjusted, and highly motivated. Power is a source of human control; only the mentally healthy can wield it successfully. Those with this form of nPower struggle to feel satisfied unless they are in a position that fulfils their power-hungry needs, such as making decisions, influencing an audience, or obtaining information to become influential. Such occupations are teachers, journalists, clergy, psychologists, diplomats, business executives, political leaders and advisors (Reeve, 2018). [[wikipedia:David_McClelland|David McClelland's]] is popular within the psychology community for his thoughts on power motivation, with the most well-known theories, the Three Need Theory and the Two Faces of Power theory. In studies done by McClelland, it was discovered that those with high nPower tended to drink more heavily, making a comment that nPower can either manifest through drinking or 'hold office.' === Three need theory === [[File:DavidMcClelland.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' David McClelland]]David McClelland, a Harvard psychologist who conducted extensive research into human motivation (seen in Figure 2.), proposed the [[wikipedia:Need_theory|Three Need Theory]]. The theory identifies three acquired motivational needs: the need for achievement, the need for affiliation, and the need for power (McClelland, 1970). Although individuals can experiences all three needs, the strength of each varies between individuals and can influence their behaviour. Table 1 summarises these needs and their defining characteristics being examined from high to low behaviour (Kurt, 2021). Of special interest to leadership is the nPower, which involved the desire to influnence others and have an impact on thier behaviour. While a strong need for achievement may motivate individuals to pursue challenging goals, and a strong need for affilication may encrourage them to maintain psoitive interpersonal relatinoships, a strong need for power can motivate individuals to seek influence and positions of authoirty. However the need for power alone does not determine whether someone will be an effective leader; its expression and the way an individual exercises their influence matter. On an additional note, [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Two-factor motivation theory|Herzberg's Two-Factor theory]] and [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's theory of Hierarchy of Needs]] can be evaluated along with the Three Need Theory. Looking into how motivation affects health, as success impacts stress, blood pressure, and hormone levels (McClelland,1970). Individuals develop motivation at different degrees, influenced by personal experiences and exposure. When an experience causes a positive emotional response, the individual is more likely to seek that feeling out again through a similar experience (Reeve, 2018). Explained through the McClelland Acquired Needs Theory, positive emotional experiences develop acquired needs through the reinforcement of the behaviour (Kurt, 2021). {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1: Three Need Theory !Need !Definition !High Behaviour !Low Behaviour |- |Need for Achievement |Situations that challenge individuals with explicit standards. |Individual exhibits a need to win and receive recognition. |Constant fear of failure, typically avoids responsibilities. |- |Need for Affiliation |Situations that afford warm relationship opportunities. |A desire within for control, typically exaggerates own position. |A heavily dependent individual, tries to minimise own position and importance. |- |Need for Power |Situations that enable others to exert influence over others. |Individual demands and expects loyalty and harmony. |Individual remains 'aloof' and keeps social distance from influence over others. |} ==== Two faces of power ==== * The [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24356663.pdf Two Faces of Power theory], is a subgroup with the three needs of power theory propised by McClelland which introdiced the two faces of power, splitting the nPower into two manner's, personalised power or socialised power, also referred to as ''p''Power, and ''s''Power (McClelland, 1970). ''p''Power is seen as socially unacceptable way of expression, is is closely linked to control, in a way it is the definition that power is sometimes thought as, aggressive, and self-desired, those with this form of power see like as a me-against-the-world. ''s''Power, is more socially acceptable form of expression, leaders are motivated through inspiring others (Bargh & Lee-Chai, 2002). * Leaders can take on both forms of power; McClelland believes that a true leader can balance both. They can exercise personal dominance and socialised leadership (Bargh & Lee-Chai, 2002). * ''p''Power can become problematic when leaders become too absorbed by the maintenance of their position and influence, the ability to dominate, manipulate, and disagree. However, the issue isn't high-power motivation; it's how it is expressed (McClelland, 1970). === Personalised versus socialised power === Within this broader construct, the ''need'' for power ([[wikipedia:Need_for_power|nPower)]] refers to an individual's motivation to have an impact on others and influence their behaviour. Within this framework their a two types of nPower, personalised power and socialised power, which demonstrates a contrasting nature between how power can be expressed. Personalised power. centres on personal control, status, and socialised power, directly affecting collective goals (McClelland, 1970). Contrasting with socialised power, a more other-serving power motivation, which is primarly associaed with benevolent and supportive (Friederichs et al., 2023; Magee & Langner, 2008). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} == Recap == <quiz display=simple> {&nbsp; |type="{}"} What is the driving force that guides human behaviour? { Motivation } {What is the key difference between personalised power and socialised power?} - Personalised power focuses on achievement, and socialised power focuses on affiliation + Personalised power focuses on personal dominance and control, and socialised power focuses on benefiting others - Personalised power is consistently associated with an effective leadership style, whereas socialised power is associated with an ineffective leadership style. {Which behaviour best fits an individual with a high need for power?} - Avoiding situations where they might influence others + Seek opportunities to influence, control, or have an impact on others - Avoid challenging tasks for fear of failure </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Power motivation and leadership style == '''Focus question:''' ''How does a leader's orientation towards power influence their specific leadership style?'' * Power motivation is the drive; power orientation is the how; it is the framework of how a leader will manage to become influential. There is a negative stereotype around having a high power motivation, with theories that it automatically relates to undesired behaviour, unlike prosocial power motivation, which is regularly associated with generosity. However, those with high power motivation can have different power orientations. Ego-power orientation is associated with pursuing goals to satisfy the self and achieve a sense of self-fulfilment; this doesn't automatically mean they are using it for harm, as it depends on their position of influence and work. Social-power orientation is linked to directing power toward collective outcomes (Carvalho & Conde, 2024). ''Author note: add more information into this section - do more research/potentially move it around.'' * Effective leadership involves more than holding a position of authority; it is about how leaders behave and interact. There are five essential characteristics to leadership: self-image, socialised power, sustained dialogue, and strategic intent, providing a practical framework for a successful leader (Power, 2026). Power motivation and leadership are relevant across different contexts, from political leaders to supervisors, building a relationship with employees and an environment of trust (Power, 2026; Friederichs et al., 2023) * Leadership styles refer to the way a leader behaves when directing, influencing and interacting. Although leadership styles reflect theoretical models, they can also be shaped by individual characteristics and techniques (Khajeh et al., 2018; "What Are the Different Leadership Styles?", 2024). Different styles place varying emphasis on factors seen in Table 2 (Deakin University, 2024; Bwalya, 2023). Research suggests that [https://leadership.deakin.edu.au/blog/what-is-transformational-leadership transformational leadership] can produce positive outcomes by motivating and inspiring followers, benefiting the group rather then for personal interests, rather than focusing on personal interest, (Peyton et al., 2019) {| class="wikitable" |+Table 2. Leadership Styles ! colspan="3" |Leadership styles |- |Style |Description |Example Leaders |- |Autocratic |Leader holds complete control over decision-making with no input from followers. Consistently exercises control over the decision-making process. Expects strict compliance with policies and procedures, and does not take input from followers. They micromanage and control subordinate work. They make quick decisions because they do not have to consult. There is a lack of creative innovation (Bwalya, 2023). |Adolf Hitler and Kim Jong-un |- |Democratic |Leader is involved in team members' decision-making process, continuously encourages communication, and seeks feedback on matters, valuing input and ideas, wanting followers to participate in shaping strategies and goals (Bwalya, 2023). |Former President of South Africa, Nelson Mandela and Former Prime Minister of New Zealand Jacinda Ardern |- |Laissex-faire | The leader is distant and has minimal involvement in decisions, unlike autocratic leadership, as laissez-faire lets followers make decisions with little guidance or supervision, trusting their ability to manage responsibilities. They are comfortable with mistakes and take accountability for followers' mistakes. This empowers employees and enables faster decision-making. However, the lack of guidance can cause confusion and lack of coordination (Bwalya, 2023). |Former President Herbert Hoover and Mahatma Ghandi |- |Servant |Leader is prosocial and motivated by power, focusing on the needs and well-being of others. Aiming to support and empower followers, in hopes they reach their full potential (Bwalya, 2023). |Pope Francis |- |Transformational |Based on inspiration and motivation to achieve performance, with high expectations and focus on challenging others to exceed self-interest. Focuses on transforming followers through inspiration, motivation, and effective communication. They rely on the leader's influence; if the leader fails to provide proper guidance, it can impact followers (Bwalya, 2023). |Former President of South Africa Nelson Mandela and Former President of the United States Barack Obama |- |Transactional |Focuses on the exchange relationship between the leader and their followers. The leader maintains stability and achieves goals by providing rewards and punishments based on performance. Very goal-oriented, with clear expectations, and quick decision-making (Bwalya, 2023). |Bill Gates and Former Chancellor of Germany Angela Merkel |} == Implicit and explicit power motivation == '''Focus question:''' ''What is implicit motivation, and how does it differ from explicit power motivation in leaders?'' * Implicit motives are unconscious needs that influence how people respond emotionally to particular situations. They form early on through preverbal experiences and interactions, lying dormant until potential incentives set them off. They are revealed through patterns of thought, emotion, and behaviour (Reeve, 2018)[[File:Implicit_Motives_associations.png|thumb| '''Figure 3.''' Mind map of implicit motives]] * Implicit motives differ from explicit motives, which are a conscious goal or value that people can describe and self-report (Slabbinck & Van Witteloostuijn, 2020). They can predict long-term behaviour, especially when the situation provides a way to satisfy the motive. * According to McClelland, implicit motives are unconscious and therefore can't be accurately measured through self-reporting. They are assessed via indirect methods, ie., analysing imaginative stories (Reeve, 2018). The Dual-Motive System. === Leadership motive pattern === * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Leadership motivation#Leadership Motive Pattern|Leadership Motive Pattern (LMP)]] developed from McClelland's work on motivation, describes a profile associated with effective leadership. It is consistent with three elements: high implicit power, low implicit affiliation, and high activity inhibition. Together, these elements help explain how a leader can balance self-control and a drive for nPower while also prioritising social benefits (Reeve, 2018). * Leaders who are motivated to influence are usually less dependent on being personally liked or accepted. Their high npower encourages them to seek influence, while their low need for affiliation reduces their reliance on close relationships, and their high inhibition allows them to regulate their impulses. In contrast, individuals with high need for power, low affiliation, and low inhibition are often unsuccessful and rated poorly, as they struggle to regulate their desire for influence, lack self-discipline, and can be seen as narcissistic or aggrandising (Reeve, 2018). * ''Author note: add more information into this section - a case study on a public figure...'' ==== Need for power ==== * Individuals with a high nPower, are motivated by their desire to impact, control, or influence others or their environment. They want to establish, maintain, and expand their power. High-power-striving individuals therefore seek dominance, reputation, status, or positions of authority (Reeve, 2018). * Individuals like this enjoy the ability to demonstrate influence and be able to reinforce their power. They are motivated to attain and maintain leadership positions because these roles provide opportunities to exercise authority and influence over others. Successfully obtaining power can provide a sense of satisfaction and accomplishment, reinforcing their motivation (Reeve, 2018). ''Look into the chemical reaction potentially (comment made after tutorial three).'' * These individuals tend to thrive off inspirational speeches, and they feel more energetic and their physiological arousal increases (Reeve, 2018). == Power motivation and leadership effectiveness == '''Focus question:''' ''How does power motivation influence leadership effectiveness?'' * Power motivation can influence leadership effectiveness depending on how the motive is expressed and regulated. A high nPower can motivate individuals to seek leadership distinction; the shape power motivation takes will enable one to understand its effect on leadership effectiveness. * The expression of the power motivation can develop through social and environmental experiences. Individuals who develop power-strivings may have experienced childhood environments in which the parents established demanding standards, potentially contributing to a desire for recognition and admiration. nPower has been associated with aggressive tendencies, although high power motivation doesn't automatically result in overt aggression. Social norms, laws, and consequences can constrain this expression, causing that desire to control to remain internal rather than manifest as overt aggression (Reeve, 2018). * Individuals high in the need for power may be attracted to occupations that provide career-wise; individuals with high rates in need for power are drawn to professions with influential opportunities (Reeve, 2018). === Destructive power dynamics and power abuse === * A relationship between aggression and the need for power has been identified, with studies finding men being more argumentative. However, a high need for power doesn't necessarily result in aggression. Social norms, laws, and consequences can constrain this expression, causing that desire to control to remain internally rather than through overt aggression. * Tend to harbour inclinations that are both benevolent and malevolent towards others, strive to improve the world, whilst also influencing everyone. * Dark side of implicit motive is the combination of opportunity to use power for personal benefit, which is the 'abuse of power.' Additionally, there is a link to sexual misconduct and excessive drinking (Spanler et al., 2014). * Unrestrained '''affiliation''' can lead to favouritism and corruption in political and bureaucratic organisations. '''Achievement''', ignore political/interpersonal issues. High need for '''achievement''', find it difficult working in groups, making decisions, ad enforcing authority, ignoring interpersonal relationships (Spanler et al., 2014). === '''Key predictors of effective leadership''' === *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness|Effective leader,]] is a combination of power strivings which are complemented with self-discipline inhibition, ie., power under control, which gives rise to charismatic leadership, and high morale. *High affliction motivation will motivate followers by communication concern, respect, appreciation, and support, developing high-quality leader followers interactions. *Leaders with weak moral identify act in self-interest ways. *Leaders benefit from a prosocial enactment strategy, action orientation through prosocial power motivation leads to reduced power related anxiety, greater well-being. *Achievement strivings were associated with ineffective presidential, because achievement-oriented individuals were highly active but also frustrated. *Successful presidents would have effective communication and combative skills, and a sense of humour. Additionally five variables that define a presidential effectiveness are, direct presidential action, perceived greatness, performance on social and economic issue, and international relations. *Leadership motive pattern can determine when a leader will engage in war and when a leader will pursue peace. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[File:John F. Kennedy speaks at Rice University.jpg|thumb|President John F. Kennedy speaking at Rice University |'''Figure 4.''' John F. Kennedy speaking at Rice University]] == Case Study: John F. Kennedy == - Kennedy, also referred to as JFK, was commended for his optimistic and ambitious presidency; though his term was short, he achieved success across the board (Reeve, 2018; McCann & Mollan, 2023). - Created a modern framework for future presidents to follow; he blended political office with pop-culture celebrity. He was open-minded and engaged with the government and public (Reeve, 2018; McCann & Mollan, 2023). - Historians consider Kennedy a strong example of effective leadership because of his charismatic communication and calm management, seen in Figure 4. Kennedy is found to have a high need for power and low affiliation needs, fitting McClelland's framework of leadership motives (McCann & Mollan, 2023). - Leadership theorist James MacGregor Burns has written about JFK's presidency as a 'transformational leadership' style (McCann & Mollan, 2023). - McClelland's experiment on business school students, exposing them to a JFK inaugural speech, found that after the speech, the students demonstrated more strengthened and uplifted experiences. This showed that JFK, as a leader, influenced his audience through inspiration (McClelland, 1970).{{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} == Quiz Yourself == <quiz display=simple> {Which combination of implicit motives is associated with effective leadership according to McClelland's leadership motive pattern? |type="()"} - High power, high affiliation, and low inhibition + High power, low affiliation, and high inhibition - Low power, high affiliation, and high inhibition - High power, low affiliation, and low inhibition {Does a high need for power necessarily result in aggressive behaviour? |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== * Psychological theory and research consistently suggest that power motivation influences leadership through the way individuals obtain, maintain, and regulate power. A high nPower can motivate individuals to pursue positions that provide ongoing opportunities for impact, control, and influence (Reeve, 2018). There is a question around whether power motivation is positive or negative, when it is inherently neither. There is a difference between personalised power (pPower), the motivation for personal control and self-interest, and socialised power (sPower), the opportunity to influence and benefit others; this distinction helps explain why power motivation can produce drastically different leadership outcomes (McClelland, 1970; Carvalho & Conde, 2024). * The focus questions can be answered through McClelland's Three Need Theory, which explains why there are individual differences in their nPower, nAchievement, and nAffiliation, while the Two Faces of Power distinguishes between personalised and socialised expressions of power. The Leadership Motive Pattern further suggests that high power, low affiliation, and high activity inhibition can contribute to effective leadership, as the leader can balance pursuing influence with self-control (Reeve, 2018). * Effective leadership is not determined by how much power a person wants, but how they use it. Leaders who regulate their power motivation and direct their influence towards collective goals, fostering development and outcomes, are more likely to be well received by the public or their subordinates (Peyton et al., 2019; Friederichs et al., 2023). * Understanding power motivation can help identify both the strengths and risks of leadership, highlighting the importance of self-discipline and ethical use of authority. ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness|Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Leadership motivation#Leadership Motive Pattern|Leadership motivation]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Two-factor motivation theory|Two-factor motivation theory]] (Book chapter, 2019) {{ic|Integrate these links; use alphabetical order}} * [[wikipedia:Need_theory|Need theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Need_for_power|Need for power]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:David_McClelland|David Clelland]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bargh, J. A., & Lee-Chai, A. Y. (2002). The use and abuse of power : Multiple perspectives in the causes of corruption. Psychology. Bwalya, A. (2023). Leadership styles. Article in Journal of Entrepreneurship, Management and Innovation, 11(8), 181–193. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.23932113 Carvalho, J. M. S., & Conde, A. (2024). Individual power in human motivation – review and theoretical perspective. Acta Psychologica, 249, 104452–104452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104452 Deakin University. (2024, December 5). What are the different leadership styles? Deakin.Edu.Au. https://leadership.deakin.edu.au/blog/different-leadership-styles Friederichs, K. M., Waldenmeier, K., & Baumann, N. (2023). The benefits of prosocial power motivation in leadership: Action orientation fosters a win-win. Plos One, 18(7), e0287394–e0287394. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0287394 Khajeh, A., Abu, M., & Asaari, H. (2018). Impact of leadership styles on organizational performance. Journal of Human Resources Management Research, 2018(2166–0018), 2166–2184. https://ibimapublishing.com/articles/JHRMR/2018/687849/687849-1.pdf Kurt, D. S. (2021, May 23). McClelland’s Three Needs Theory: Power, Achievement, and Affiliation. Education Library. https://educationlibrary.org/mcclellands-three-needs-theory-power-achievement-and-affiliation/#1 McCann, L., & Mollan, S. (2023, November 20). JFK 60 years on: His leadership style and the reality behind the myths. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/jfk-60-years-on-his-leadership-style-and-the-reality-behind-the-myths-216477 McClelland, D. C. (1970). The two faces of power. Journal of International Affairs, 24(1), 29–47. JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24356663 Peyton, T., Zigarmi, D., & Fowler, S. N. (2019). Examining the relationship between leaders’ power use, followers’ motivational outlooks, and followers’ work intentions. Frontiers in Psychology, 9(2620). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02620 Power , D. P. G. (2026). The five essentials of leadership {{!}} APS. Psychology.Org.Au. https://psychology.org.au/inpsych/2017/august/power Reeve, J. (2018). Understanding motivation and emotion (7th edn, pp. 152–176). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Slabbinck, H., & Van Witteloostuijn, A. (2020). Explicit and implicit basic human motives, and public service motivation. Frontiers in Psychology, 11(1542). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01542 Spanler, W. D., Tikhomirov, A., Lee Sotak, K., & Palrecha, R. (2014). Leader motive profiles in eight types of organizations. ScienceDirect, 25(6). https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/science/article/pii/S1048984314001040 }} ==External links== {{ic|Move these links into References and cite; replace with links to the most relevant external non-academic resources}} * [https://leadership.deakin.edu.au/blog/what-is-transformational-leadership Article on Transformational leadership style] (Deakin University, 2024) * [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10355387/ Power motivation, the benefits of prosocial power] (Friederichs et al., 2023) * [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24356663.pdf The Two Faces of Power Journal] (McClelland, 1970) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Power motivation and leadership|Power motivation and leadership]] (Book chapter, 2024) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Leadership]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Power motivation]] 0vvabq1k3f3btn08mrbfds0wk55b8wg 2840900 2840898 2026-10-17T11:55:53Z PsychstudentUniversity! 3106975 2840900 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Power motivation in leadership:<br>How does power motivation influence leadership styles and effectiveness?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Donald Trump takes the oath of office (2025).jpg|thumb|President-elect Donald Trump takes the oath of office |'''Figure 1'''. Donald Trump's 2025 Inauguration surrounded by some of the world's wealthiest and most powerful individuals]] Imagine a leader standing at their inauguration, surrounded by a concentration of wealthy and influential individuals. At first glance, this may reflect a preference for resources and influence. However, a closer look raises a psychological question: what motivates a leader to seek and exercise power, and how does this shape the way they lead? This scenario reflects the leadership of United States President Donald Trump, whose 2025 administration includes a notable concentration of wealthy and influential individuals (Roeloffs, 2025). The individuals present at Trump's inauguration illustrate this concentration of political and economic power (see Figure 1). This provides a contemporary example for examining the relationship between power motivation and leadership.{{ic|[[w:Donald Trump|Second inauguration of Donald Trump]]}} Power is reflected not only in who a leader surrounds themselves with, but also in how they exercise their influence. For example, Trump uses social media as a political megaphone, bypassing traditional bureaucratic communication channels (Gambino, 2021). His public leadership style places considerable emphasis on personal image and the need of personal control with the disregard of external influences of power (Mobaseri & Nosrat Kharazmi, Zohreh, 2025). This raises the question: does the desire for power necessarily make someone an effective leader? Individuals seek leadership for various reasons, and how they use their influence shapes their interactions with followers, decision-making, and pursuit of goals. Psychology helps explain these differences by examining power motivation and how individual motives influence leadership behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} This chapter will explore [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10355387/ power motivation] (Friederichs et al., 2023), the desire to influence, control, and have the ability to impact others, influencing leadership styles, behaviour and effectiveness (McClelland, 1970). Being expressed via socialised or personalised power, determining the leader's behaviour and effectiveness, (Reeve, 2018; McClelland, 1970; Carvalho & Conde, 2024). Understanding power motivation provides a psychological framework for examining how leaders exercise authority and how followers respond. Psychological science can help explain why some power-motivated leaders use influence to control, while others use it to empower (Reeve, 2018). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:P psychology.png|right]] '''Focus questions:''' *What psychological theories explain power motivation in leaders? *How does a leader's orientation towards power influence their specific leadership style? *What is implicit motivation, and how does it differ from explicit power motivation in leaders? *How does power motivation influence leadership effectiveness? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Understanding power motivation through psychological theories== '''Focus question:''' ''What psychological theories explain power motivation in leaders?'' The definition of motivation and power, one describes the push to act the other often associated with aggression, influence, authority and control, together they hold a heavy definition. In psychology, [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Introduction|motivation]] is the driving force that guides human behaviour; it is the use of will-power and self-discipline - channelling effort to achieve a goal. Certain individuals have predominant motive of power, being motivated by the internal urge to dominate, influence, or control (Kurt, 2021). Power motivation is the broad construct that refers to the desire for leadership, authority or status, it is built up of three characteristics: strong action, emotional impact, and concern for status, frame, and reputation, heavily influenced by cultural values and socialised experiences (McClelland,1970). Power seekers can be effective, well-adjusted, and highly motivated. Power is a source of human control; only the mentally healthy can wield it successfully. Those with this form of nPower struggle to feel satisfied unless they are in a position that fulfils their power-hungry needs, such as making decisions, influencing an audience, or obtaining information to become influential. Such occupations are teachers, journalists, clergy, psychologists, diplomats, business executives, political leaders and advisors (Reeve, 2018). [[wikipedia:David_McClelland|David McClelland's]] is popular within the psychology community for his thoughts on power motivation, with the most well-known theories, the Three Need Theory and the Two Faces of Power theory. In studies done by McClelland, it was discovered that those with high nPower tended to drink more heavily, making a comment that nPower can either manifest through drinking or 'hold office.' === Three need theory === [[File:DavidMcClelland.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' David McClelland]]David McClelland, a Harvard psychologist who conducted extensive research into human motivation (seen in Figure 2.), proposed the [[wikipedia:Need_theory|Three Need Theory]]. The theory identifies three acquired motivational needs: the need for achievement, the need for affiliation, and the need for power (McClelland, 1970). Although individuals can experiences all three needs, the strength of each varies between individuals and can influence their behaviour. Table 1 summarises these needs and their defining characteristics being examined from high to low behaviour (Kurt, 2021). Of special interest to leadership is the nPower, which involved the desire to influnence others and have an impact on thier behaviour. While a strong need for achievement may motivate individuals to pursue challenging goals, and a strong need for affilication may encrourage them to maintain psoitive interpersonal relatinoships, a strong need for power can motivate individuals to seek influence and positions of authoirty. However the need for power alone does not determine whether someone will be an effective leader; its expression and the way an individual exercises their influence matter. On an additional note, [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Two-factor motivation theory|Herzberg's Two-Factor theory]] and [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's theory of Hierarchy of Needs]] can be evaluated along with the Three Need Theory. Looking into how motivation affects health, as success impacts stress, blood pressure, and hormone levels (McClelland,1970). Individuals develop motivation at different degrees, influenced by personal experiences and exposure. When an experience causes a positive emotional response, the individual is more likely to seek that feeling out again through a similar experience (Reeve, 2018). Explained through the McClelland Acquired Needs Theory, positive emotional experiences develop acquired needs through the reinforcement of the behaviour (Kurt, 2021). {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1: Three Need Theory !Need !Definition !High Behaviour !Low Behaviour |- |Need for Achievement |Situations that challenge individuals with explicit standards. |Individual exhibits a need to win and receive recognition. |Constant fear of failure, typically avoids responsibilities. |- |Need for Affiliation |Situations that afford warm relationship opportunities. |A desire within for control, typically exaggerates own position. |A heavily dependent individual, tries to minimise own position and importance. |- |Need for Power |Situations that enable others to exert influence over others. |Individual demands and expects loyalty and harmony. |Individual remains 'aloof' and keeps social distance from influence over others. |} ==== Two faces of power ==== * The [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24356663.pdf Two Faces of Power theory], is a subgroup with the three needs of power theory propised by McClelland which introdiced the two faces of power, splitting the nPower into two manner's, personalised power or socialised power, also referred to as ''p''Power, and ''s''Power (McClelland, 1970). ''p''Power is seen as socially unacceptable way of expression, is is closely linked to control, in a way it is the definition that power is sometimes thought as, aggressive, and self-desired, those with this form of power see like as a me-against-the-world. ''s''Power, is more socially acceptable form of expression, leaders are motivated through inspiring others (Bargh & Lee-Chai, 2002). * Leaders can take on both forms of power; McClelland believes that a true leader can balance both. They can exercise personal dominance and socialised leadership (Bargh & Lee-Chai, 2002). * ''p''Power can become problematic when leaders become too absorbed by the maintenance of their position and influence, the ability to dominate, manipulate, and disagree. However, the issue isn't high-power motivation; it's how it is expressed (McClelland, 1970). === Personalised versus socialised power === Within this broader construct, the ''need'' for power ([[wikipedia:Need_for_power|nPower)]] refers to an individual's motivation to have an impact on others and influence their behaviour. Within this framework their a two types of nPower, personalised power and socialised power, which demonstrates a contrasting nature between how power can be expressed. Personalised power. centres on personal control, status, and socialised power, directly affecting collective goals (McClelland, 1970). Contrasting with socialised power, a more other-serving power motivation, which is primarly associaed with benevolent and supportive (Friederichs et al., 2023; Magee & Langner, 2008). === The leadership motive pattern === McClelland and David Burnham (1975) proposed the idea that effective leadership is associated with a certain specific combination of motives known as the leadership motive pattern (LMP) (Spangler et al., 2014). This consists of three primary elements, high need for power (nPow), a low need for affiliation (nAff) and a high activity inhibition AI). This model demonstrated how motivation can work together to shape leadership behaviour. Each component serves a different purpose, building characterises which McClelland agrued described the most effective leaders within beucratic organisation (Spangler et al., 2014). High nPower, is the force to influence, direct and impact others, this has been well-established by now. Low nAff, is a reduced desire for friendly, close interpersonal relationships, which prevent the leaders from producing biased decision-making or being overly lenient out of the desire to be liked. High AI is based on self-control, maturity, and the ability to channel power socially rather an impulsively (McClelland & Boyatzis, 1982). Research by McClelland and Burnhamd (1982) found that the LMP was associated with greater career advancement over eight-and sixteen-year periods among non-technical managers, however the same relationship was not found for technical managers. Suggesting that the pattern may only hold value for specific roles to demonstrate leadership effectiveness. When relevant it demonstrated hat managers of this pattern typically generate higher morale in their subordinates, leadership styles such as those of nations spend relatively more on military forces than private consumption, which McClelland despaired as a system capacity to mobilise resources in interest of the nation (McClelland & Boyatzis, 1982; Spangler et al., 2014). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} == Recap == <quiz display=simple> {&nbsp; |type="{}"} What is the driving force that guides human behaviour? { Motivation } {What is the key difference between personalised power and socialised power?} - Personalised power focuses on achievement, and socialised power focuses on affiliation + Personalised power focuses on personal dominance and control, and socialised power focuses on benefiting others - Personalised power is consistently associated with an effective leadership style, whereas socialised power is associated with an ineffective leadership style. {Which behaviour best fits an individual with a high need for power?} - Avoiding situations where they might influence others + Seek opportunities to influence, control, or have an impact on others - Avoid challenging tasks for fear of failure </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Power motivation and leadership style == '''Focus question:''' ''How does a leader's orientation towards power influence their specific leadership style?'' * Power motivation is the drive; power orientation is the how; it is the framework of how a leader will manage to become influential. There is a negative stereotype around having a high power motivation, with theories that it automatically relates to undesired behaviour, unlike prosocial power motivation, which is regularly associated with generosity. However, those with high power motivation can have different power orientations. Ego-power orientation is associated with pursuing goals to satisfy the self and achieve a sense of self-fulfilment; this doesn't automatically mean they are using it for harm, as it depends on their position of influence and work. Social-power orientation is linked to directing power toward collective outcomes (Carvalho & Conde, 2024). ''Author note: add more information into this section - do more research/potentially move it around.'' * Effective leadership involves more than holding a position of authority; it is about how leaders behave and interact. There are five essential characteristics to leadership: self-image, socialised power, sustained dialogue, and strategic intent, providing a practical framework for a successful leader (Power, 2026). Power motivation and leadership are relevant across different contexts, from political leaders to supervisors, building a relationship with employees and an environment of trust (Power, 2026; Friederichs et al., 2023) * Leadership styles refer to the way a leader behaves when directing, influencing and interacting. Although leadership styles reflect theoretical models, they can also be shaped by individual characteristics and techniques (Khajeh et al., 2018; "What Are the Different Leadership Styles?", 2024). Different styles place varying emphasis on factors seen in Table 2 (Deakin University, 2024; Bwalya, 2023). Research suggests that [https://leadership.deakin.edu.au/blog/what-is-transformational-leadership transformational leadership] can produce positive outcomes by motivating and inspiring followers, benefiting the group rather then for personal interests, rather than focusing on personal interest, (Peyton et al., 2019) {| class="wikitable" |+Table 2. Leadership Styles ! colspan="3" |Leadership styles |- |Style |Description |Example Leaders |- |Autocratic |Leader holds complete control over decision-making with no input from followers. Consistently exercises control over the decision-making process. Expects strict compliance with policies and procedures, and does not take input from followers. They micromanage and control subordinate work. They make quick decisions because they do not have to consult. There is a lack of creative innovation (Bwalya, 2023). |Adolf Hitler and Kim Jong-un |- |Democratic |Leader is involved in team members' decision-making process, continuously encourages communication, and seeks feedback on matters, valuing input and ideas, wanting followers to participate in shaping strategies and goals (Bwalya, 2023). |Former President of South Africa, Nelson Mandela and Former Prime Minister of New Zealand Jacinda Ardern |- |Laissex-faire | The leader is distant and has minimal involvement in decisions, unlike autocratic leadership, as laissez-faire lets followers make decisions with little guidance or supervision, trusting their ability to manage responsibilities. They are comfortable with mistakes and take accountability for followers' mistakes. This empowers employees and enables faster decision-making. However, the lack of guidance can cause confusion and lack of coordination (Bwalya, 2023). |Former President Herbert Hoover and Mahatma Ghandi |- |Servant |Leader is prosocial and motivated by power, focusing on the needs and well-being of others. Aiming to support and empower followers, in hopes they reach their full potential (Bwalya, 2023). |Pope Francis |- |Transformational |Based on inspiration and motivation to achieve performance, with high expectations and focus on challenging others to exceed self-interest. Focuses on transforming followers through inspiration, motivation, and effective communication. They rely on the leader's influence; if the leader fails to provide proper guidance, it can impact followers (Bwalya, 2023). |Former President of South Africa Nelson Mandela and Former President of the United States Barack Obama |- |Transactional |Focuses on the exchange relationship between the leader and their followers. The leader maintains stability and achieves goals by providing rewards and punishments based on performance. Very goal-oriented, with clear expectations, and quick decision-making (Bwalya, 2023). |Bill Gates and Former Chancellor of Germany Angela Merkel |} == Implicit and explicit power motivation == '''Focus question:''' ''What is implicit motivation, and how does it differ from explicit power motivation in leaders?'' * Implicit motives are unconscious needs that influence how people respond emotionally to particular situations. They form early on through preverbal experiences and interactions, lying dormant until potential incentives set them off. They are revealed through patterns of thought, emotion, and behaviour (Reeve, 2018)[[File:Implicit_Motives_associations.png|thumb| '''Figure 3.''' Mind map of implicit motives]] * Implicit motives differ from explicit motives, which are a conscious goal or value that people can describe and self-report (Slabbinck & Van Witteloostuijn, 2020). They can predict long-term behaviour, especially when the situation provides a way to satisfy the motive. * According to McClelland, implicit motives are unconscious and therefore can't be accurately measured through self-reporting. They are assessed via indirect methods, ie., analysing imaginative stories (Reeve, 2018). The Dual-Motive System. === Leadership motive pattern === * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Leadership motivation#Leadership Motive Pattern|Leadership Motive Pattern (LMP)]] developed from McClelland's work on motivation, describes a profile associated with effective leadership. It is consistent with three elements: high implicit power, low implicit affiliation, and high activity inhibition. Together, these elements help explain how a leader can balance self-control and a drive for nPower while also prioritising social benefits (Reeve, 2018). * Leaders who are motivated to influence are usually less dependent on being personally liked or accepted. Their high npower encourages them to seek influence, while their low need for affiliation reduces their reliance on close relationships, and their high inhibition allows them to regulate their impulses. In contrast, individuals with high need for power, low affiliation, and low inhibition are often unsuccessful and rated poorly, as they struggle to regulate their desire for influence, lack self-discipline, and can be seen as narcissistic or aggrandising (Reeve, 2018). * ''Author note: add more information into this section - a case study on a public figure...'' ==== Need for power ==== * Individuals with a high nPower, are motivated by their desire to impact, control, or influence others or their environment. They want to establish, maintain, and expand their power. High-power-striving individuals therefore seek dominance, reputation, status, or positions of authority (Reeve, 2018). * Individuals like this enjoy the ability to demonstrate influence and be able to reinforce their power. They are motivated to attain and maintain leadership positions because these roles provide opportunities to exercise authority and influence over others. Successfully obtaining power can provide a sense of satisfaction and accomplishment, reinforcing their motivation (Reeve, 2018). ''Look into the chemical reaction potentially (comment made after tutorial three).'' * These individuals tend to thrive off inspirational speeches, and they feel more energetic and their physiological arousal increases (Reeve, 2018). == Power motivation and leadership effectiveness == '''Focus question:''' ''How does power motivation influence leadership effectiveness?'' * Power motivation can influence leadership effectiveness depending on how the motive is expressed and regulated. A high nPower can motivate individuals to seek leadership distinction; the shape power motivation takes will enable one to understand its effect on leadership effectiveness. * The expression of the power motivation can develop through social and environmental experiences. Individuals who develop power-strivings may have experienced childhood environments in which the parents established demanding standards, potentially contributing to a desire for recognition and admiration. nPower has been associated with aggressive tendencies, although high power motivation doesn't automatically result in overt aggression. Social norms, laws, and consequences can constrain this expression, causing that desire to control to remain internal rather than manifest as overt aggression (Reeve, 2018). * Individuals high in the need for power may be attracted to occupations that provide career-wise; individuals with high rates in need for power are drawn to professions with influential opportunities (Reeve, 2018). === Destructive power dynamics and power abuse === * A relationship between aggression and the need for power has been identified, with studies finding men being more argumentative. However, a high need for power doesn't necessarily result in aggression. Social norms, laws, and consequences can constrain this expression, causing that desire to control to remain internally rather than through overt aggression. * Tend to harbour inclinations that are both benevolent and malevolent towards others, strive to improve the world, whilst also influencing everyone. * Dark side of implicit motive is the combination of opportunity to use power for personal benefit, which is the 'abuse of power.' Additionally, there is a link to sexual misconduct and excessive drinking (Spanler et al., 2014). * Unrestrained '''affiliation''' can lead to favouritism and corruption in political and bureaucratic organisations. '''Achievement''', ignore political/interpersonal issues. High need for '''achievement''', find it difficult working in groups, making decisions, ad enforcing authority, ignoring interpersonal relationships (Spanler et al., 2014). === '''Key predictors of effective leadership''' === *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness|Effective leader,]] is a combination of power strivings which are complemented with self-discipline inhibition, ie., power under control, which gives rise to charismatic leadership, and high morale. *High affliction motivation will motivate followers by communication concern, respect, appreciation, and support, developing high-quality leader followers interactions. *Leaders with weak moral identify act in self-interest ways. *Leaders benefit from a prosocial enactment strategy, action orientation through prosocial power motivation leads to reduced power related anxiety, greater well-being. *Achievement strivings were associated with ineffective presidential, because achievement-oriented individuals were highly active but also frustrated. *Successful presidents would have effective communication and combative skills, and a sense of humour. Additionally five variables that define a presidential effectiveness are, direct presidential action, perceived greatness, performance on social and economic issue, and international relations. *Leadership motive pattern can determine when a leader will engage in war and when a leader will pursue peace. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[File:John F. Kennedy speaks at Rice University.jpg|thumb|President John F. Kennedy speaking at Rice University |'''Figure 4.''' John F. Kennedy speaking at Rice University]] == Case Study: John F. Kennedy == - Kennedy, also referred to as JFK, was commended for his optimistic and ambitious presidency; though his term was short, he achieved success across the board (Reeve, 2018; McCann & Mollan, 2023). - Created a modern framework for future presidents to follow; he blended political office with pop-culture celebrity. He was open-minded and engaged with the government and public (Reeve, 2018; McCann & Mollan, 2023). - Historians consider Kennedy a strong example of effective leadership because of his charismatic communication and calm management, seen in Figure 4. Kennedy is found to have a high need for power and low affiliation needs, fitting McClelland's framework of leadership motives (McCann & Mollan, 2023). - Leadership theorist James MacGregor Burns has written about JFK's presidency as a 'transformational leadership' style (McCann & Mollan, 2023). - McClelland's experiment on business school students, exposing them to a JFK inaugural speech, found that after the speech, the students demonstrated more strengthened and uplifted experiences. This showed that JFK, as a leader, influenced his audience through inspiration (McClelland, 1970).{{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} == Quiz Yourself == <quiz display=simple> {Which combination of implicit motives is associated with effective leadership according to McClelland's leadership motive pattern? |type="()"} - High power, high affiliation, and low inhibition + High power, low affiliation, and high inhibition - Low power, high affiliation, and high inhibition - High power, low affiliation, and low inhibition {Does a high need for power necessarily result in aggressive behaviour? |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== * Psychological theory and research consistently suggest that power motivation influences leadership through the way individuals obtain, maintain, and regulate power. A high nPower can motivate individuals to pursue positions that provide ongoing opportunities for impact, control, and influence (Reeve, 2018). There is a question around whether power motivation is positive or negative, when it is inherently neither. There is a difference between personalised power (pPower), the motivation for personal control and self-interest, and socialised power (sPower), the opportunity to influence and benefit others; this distinction helps explain why power motivation can produce drastically different leadership outcomes (McClelland, 1970; Carvalho & Conde, 2024). * The focus questions can be answered through McClelland's Three Need Theory, which explains why there are individual differences in their nPower, nAchievement, and nAffiliation, while the Two Faces of Power distinguishes between personalised and socialised expressions of power. The Leadership Motive Pattern further suggests that high power, low affiliation, and high activity inhibition can contribute to effective leadership, as the leader can balance pursuing influence with self-control (Reeve, 2018). * Effective leadership is not determined by how much power a person wants, but how they use it. Leaders who regulate their power motivation and direct their influence towards collective goals, fostering development and outcomes, are more likely to be well received by the public or their subordinates (Peyton et al., 2019; Friederichs et al., 2023). * Understanding power motivation can help identify both the strengths and risks of leadership, highlighting the importance of self-discipline and ethical use of authority. ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness|Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Leadership motivation#Leadership Motive Pattern|Leadership motivation]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Two-factor motivation theory|Two-factor motivation theory]] (Book chapter, 2019) {{ic|Integrate these links; use alphabetical order}} * [[wikipedia:Need_theory|Need theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Need_for_power|Need for power]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:David_McClelland|David Clelland]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bargh, J. A., & Lee-Chai, A. Y. (2002). The use and abuse of power : Multiple perspectives in the causes of corruption. Psychology. Bwalya, A. (2023). Leadership styles. Article in Journal of Entrepreneurship, Management and Innovation, 11(8), 181–193. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.23932113 Carvalho, J. M. S., & Conde, A. (2024). Individual power in human motivation – review and theoretical perspective. Acta Psychologica, 249, 104452–104452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104452 Deakin University. (2024, December 5). What are the different leadership styles? Deakin.Edu.Au. https://leadership.deakin.edu.au/blog/different-leadership-styles Friederichs, K. M., Waldenmeier, K., & Baumann, N. (2023). The benefits of prosocial power motivation in leadership: Action orientation fosters a win-win. Plos One, 18(7), e0287394–e0287394. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0287394 Khajeh, A., Abu, M., & Asaari, H. (2018). Impact of leadership styles on organizational performance. Journal of Human Resources Management Research, 2018(2166–0018), 2166–2184. https://ibimapublishing.com/articles/JHRMR/2018/687849/687849-1.pdf Kurt, D. S. (2021, May 23). McClelland’s Three Needs Theory: Power, Achievement, and Affiliation. Education Library. https://educationlibrary.org/mcclellands-three-needs-theory-power-achievement-and-affiliation/#1 McCann, L., & Mollan, S. (2023, November 20). JFK 60 years on: His leadership style and the reality behind the myths. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/jfk-60-years-on-his-leadership-style-and-the-reality-behind-the-myths-216477 McClelland, D. C. (1970). The two faces of power. Journal of International Affairs, 24(1), 29–47. JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24356663 Peyton, T., Zigarmi, D., & Fowler, S. N. (2019). Examining the relationship between leaders’ power use, followers’ motivational outlooks, and followers’ work intentions. Frontiers in Psychology, 9(2620). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02620 Power , D. P. G. (2026). The five essentials of leadership {{!}} APS. Psychology.Org.Au. https://psychology.org.au/inpsych/2017/august/power Reeve, J. (2018). Understanding motivation and emotion (7th edn, pp. 152–176). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Slabbinck, H., & Van Witteloostuijn, A. (2020). Explicit and implicit basic human motives, and public service motivation. Frontiers in Psychology, 11(1542). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01542 Spanler, W. D., Tikhomirov, A., Lee Sotak, K., & Palrecha, R. (2014). Leader motive profiles in eight types of organizations. ScienceDirect, 25(6). https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/science/article/pii/S1048984314001040 }} ==External links== {{ic|Move these links into References and cite; replace with links to the most relevant external non-academic resources}} * [https://leadership.deakin.edu.au/blog/what-is-transformational-leadership Article on Transformational leadership style] (Deakin University, 2024) * [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10355387/ Power motivation, the benefits of prosocial power] (Friederichs et al., 2023) * [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24356663.pdf The Two Faces of Power Journal] (McClelland, 1970) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Power motivation and leadership|Power motivation and leadership]] (Book chapter, 2024) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Leadership]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Power motivation]] gimrq6rnlulgz20xzkyhh58elaf2nso 2 327236 2840743 2835278 2026-10-16T21:36:48Z Dick Bos 24466 Original research 2840743 wikitext text/x-wiki &nbsp; [[File:On_Expedition_2015_MARBLE_Maastricht_University_2.JPG|thumb|Maastricht University, 2015-05-06. Explaining the principles of Wikipedia for students with [[User:Taketa]] (left) and [[User:Romaine]] (right)]] {{#babel:nl-N|en-3|de-2|fr-1}} &nbsp; My name is Dick Bos. I'm from the Netherlands. I work on the [[:w:nl:Gebruiker:Dick Bos|Dutch]] and [[en:User:Dick Bos|English]] wikipedia, on the English wikisource, on Wikimedia Commons etc. See my userpages there, please. * [[File:Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg|16px|alt=16 px Wikipedia logo]] Wikipedia: ** Dutch: [[w:nl:Gebruiker:Dick_Bos]] ** English: [[w:en:User:Dick Bos]] * [[Image:wikisource-logo.svg|16x16px]] WikiSource: ** [[s:en:User:Dick Bos|User:Dick Bos]] on en-ws [[m:User:Dick Bos/where|Click here]] for the most complete and up to date list of my userpages on Wikimedia-projects. &nbsp; My projects: * [[User:Dick Bos/Marx|Karl Marx]] (and Friedrich Engels) * [[User:Dick Bos/Ricardo|David Ricardo]] == Handy == * [[Help:Contents]] ([[WV:HELP]]) * [[Help:CSS at Wikiversity]] * [[Wikiversity:Original research]] == Interesting == * [[WikiJournal of Humanities|WikiJournal (of Humanities)]] is hosted here on Wikiversity 8xmvxy7cfjog8vag3h09hpfbsychtv8 0 330073 2840884 2838583 2026-10-17T06:55:03Z U3228742 3005570 /* Overview */ update to make it Australian English spelling 2840884 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotion regulation through exercise:<br>How do people use exercise to regulate their emotional states?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study''' [[File:Laptop and girl biting pencil-pixabay.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Sarah feeling very unregulated with too much going on in her life.]] Sarah stayed up late last night studying as she has three assignments due in the same week. When her alarm goes off at 6am for work she feels exhausted so she crawls to the shower to wake herself up. Sarah's housemate bangs on the door yelling for her to hurry up as they need to use the bathroom. Sarah is already sick of this day but gets dressed and rushes off to her part-time work at a before school care center. Her boss grumbles at her for being 10 minutes late and the children are complaining and fighting about the breakfast they served today. Sarah pushes though her shift, and when it's over, she gets back to her car and sits in it for a moment, She feels tired, grumpy and so frustrated with so many people right now she feels like she might explode. Sarah knows she should go for a run because she hasn't exercised all week, but she is just too tired. Maybe she will get Macca's on the way home and go to her couch to scroll on her phone while she is peacefully at home by herself. What should Sarah do to help regulate her rising emotions: Go for a run or home to scroll? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Plutchik's wheel of emotions demonstrates the range of emotions individuals can feel and can assist individuals in recognising and labeling emotions.]] [[Emotion|Emotions]] are a part of what makes us human and affect us all differently (Izard, 2013). Emotions affect the entirety of a person including their body, perception, cognition, their actions, personality and even their relationships (Izard, 2013). Emotions alert us to sensory information that needs our attention to keep us safe and healthy mentally and physically and steers our actions in these times. Although emotions are very helpful and necessary, they can also have a negative impact when they become maladaptive or last too long. This is when we need to regulate our emotions. Figure 2 shows Plutchik's wheel of emotions which is a very useful tool to help recognise and label emotions. Emotion regulation is a helpful and important process for humans to function effectively day to day (''Emotion regulation: Conceptual foundations'', 2007). Emotions can be negative or positive to a person and can be triggered by a range of situations in our lives, some we can't control, but some we can. Let's look at regulating emotions before seeing what we can do to manage them before they feel overwhelming. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions''' * What is emotion regulation? * How can exercise help regulate emotions? * What psychological theories support emotion regulation? * What exercise is best to help regulate emotions? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is emotion regulation? == [https://www.paulekman.com/universal-emotions/ Universal emotions] were identified by Paul Ekman as emotions that we ''all'' feel, despite speaking different languages, living in different regional places, having different cultures, and ethnic differences (Ekman et al., 1999). He included happiness/enjoyment, anger, fear, disgust, sadness, surprise, and then later added contempt. Plutchik went on to create a wheel of emotions to help visually explain these different emotions and show further breakdown ("The emotions," 1991). Emotions can also become dysregulated. [https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/25065-emotional-dysregulation Emotional dysregulation (ED)] is when your emotions feel too big and too strong and a person loses the ability to control their behaviour. ED is the inability to be aware of, accept, regulate, and modify emotional reactions and subsequent behaviours (Gratz & Roemer, 2004). It can look and feel like irritability, anger, mood swings, outbursts, feeling numb or detached, or shutting down. In more extreme cases aggressive behaviors, stained relationships and connections and verbals shouting and crying<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/25065-emotional-dysregulation|title=Cleveland Clinic: Emotional-dysregulation}}</ref>. The goal of emotion regulation is often explained as down-regulating (reducing) the sensation and/or duration of negative emotions such as feeling sad, angry or anxious (Gross et al., 2006). People can also try to up-regulate and increase the intensity or duration of positive emotions (Quoidbach et al., 2010). Emotion regulation is a very important skill of which children typically struggle with and this can follow into adolescents and adulthood for some. Strategies that can help regulate emotions include: * Breathing exercises * Meditation/ mindfulness/ grounding * Ensuring good sleep, diet and lifestyle choices * Exercise!!! This is what we will explore here. {{Robelbox|theme=13|title=Review time!|iconwidth=48px|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg}}<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {What is emotion regulation?} - Getting out your rage by yelling and hitting - Ignoring the feelings and keeping yourself busy + Recognizing how your feeling, when you're experiencing them and deciding how to respond </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox-close}} == How can exercise help to regulate emotions? == Exercise is an essential part of humans' everyday lives. It's recommended by [https://www.health.gov.au/topics/physical-activity/24-hour-movement-guidelines-for-all-australians The Australian Government to move most days].  {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Department of Health, Disability and Aging recommended physical activity for adults''' -Moderate to vigorous physical activities for at least 30 minutes on most days. -Muscle-strengthening activities at least twice per week. -Functional activities targeting mobility, balance, and coordination on 3 or more days per week. -Several hours of light-intensity physical activity daily. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Physiological effects === Exercise positively attributes to emotional regulation by changing brain chemistry, strengthening brain networks, and reducing stress [[Hormone|hormones]]. Exercise has consistently proven to reduce cortisol levels and increase dopamine and other endorphins. These hormones are responsible for the feelings of calm and contentment. Simply said, exercise helps the brain to better regulate emotions (Song et al., 2025). * '''Reduces stress hormones:''' Exercise lowers levels of cortisol and increases dopamine. This means emotional regulation is much easier. * '''Neurotransmitter''' '''regulation:''' Exercise triggers immediate release of endorphins, serotonin, and dopamine, which naturally improve mood, reduce feelings of anxiety, and help stabilize emotional turbulence. * '''Improve sleep:''' Exercise promotes better sleep as physical exertion regulates stress, lowers stress hormones and reduces muscle tension. * '''Enhances prefrontal cortex function:''' Exercise stimulates executive functions in the prefrontal cortex which is the area of the brain responsible for impulse control, decision-making, and the cognitive appraisal of emotional situations. * '''Hippocampal Neurogenesis:''' Long-term exercise promotes the growth of new neurons in the hippocampus. The hippocampus is critical for memory, learning, and the contextual processing of emotional responses. === Psychological effects === Psychological benefits of exercise have continued to support emotional regulation in many ways such as: * '''Mindfulness:''' Exercise can give people opportunities to be present in their movements and have a healthy break from negative or challenging mental strains. Exercise can be enough to break rumination or negative or repetitive cycles. * '''Connection:''' Exercise can be a fantastic way to connect with others and create social support networks. Walking with friends or family is a perfect way to end a tough day. * '''Building self-efficacy and self-belief:''' Setting and reaching fitness goals can build personal confidence, build resilience and give you a sense of control over your daily structure. Building self-efficacy and self-esteem through exercise is an important and healthy way to cope with daily challenges. * '''Improved mental health:''' Exercise has been proven to improve mental health for all of these reasons above. These positive physiological and psychological effects of exercise are critical to our wellbeing. Now let's look at the psychological theories that relate to exercise and emotional regulation. == Psychological theories == Many psychological theories can be applied to exercise and emotional regulation. However, here we will cover the process model of emotion regulation, [[w:Self determination theory|self-determination theory]] (SDT), [[cognitive evaluation theory]] (CET), and [[drive theory|drive theory/conservation of resources (COR) theory]]. === Process model of emotion regulation (Gross, 1998, 2002) === Gross's process model of emotion regulation in one of the most influential frameworks for understanding how emotions arise and how we can regulate them. This model identifies five emotion regulation strategies that can occur during different time points in the emotional experience. # Situation selection # Situation modification # Attentional deployment # Cognitive change # Response modulation This is displayed simply in figure 3. '''Figure 3:''' Gross's process model of emotion regulation diagram [[File:Gross (2007) Process Model of Emotion Regulation.png|alt="Figure 3:" Gross's process model of emotion regulation]] Gross further divides these strategies into antecedent-focused and response-focused.  Antecedent-focused regulation occurs before or during the emotional response. Response-focused regulation occurs after the emotion has completely developed.  In the response-focused point, a person has already “responded or reacted” to the triggering event and then have experienced all the emotion component changes.  In the response-focused section, people can regulate their emotions by trying to change any of the emotion components. This might include changing their facial expressions, tone of voice, suppress their thoughts, increase or decrease their physiological arousal, and even change their subjective feelings. === Self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) === The [[self-determination theory]] focuses on fulfilling three core psychological needs: autonomy, competency and relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 1985). The SDT can be applied to exercise as seen in the metadata review by Teixeira et al., 2012. # <u>Autonomy:</u> Studies have consistently supported SDT aspects showing a positive relationship between more autonomous types of motivation and exercise. Autonomous motivation in terms of exercise means exercising because you ''want'' to, not because you have to. Autonomous motivation towards exercise is a key mindset for consistency to develop. Individuals need to feel in control of their own actions, choices and so should choose their own exercise that suits them personally. The individual should be in charge of implementing structures and routines that work for them. # <u>Competence:</u> Competence satisfaction predicts better exercise participation (Teixeira et al., 2012). People are more likely to exercise if they experience competence satisfaction and feel like they are good at what they are doing. Individuals need to feel competent, feel as if they can master challenging situations, feel as though they are improving, and feel able to reach their own goals. This can be applied to fitness goals. # <u>Relatedness:</u> Relatedness is the need to experience a sense of belonging, connection, and care for others. People want to feel accepted, included and a part of a group. Relatedness is the desire to feel connected and interpersonally involved in warm, caring, and reciprocal relationships. Exercise is a fantastic way to not just get the physical benefit of moving your body, but also the social connection benefits of doing so, alongside others with a common health goal. Joining a run club, aqua aerobics or tai chi class for example can help make social connections whilst moving your body. ==== Cognitive evaluation theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) ==== Cognitive evaluation theory is a sub-theory of self-determination theory that explains how external events influence intrinsic motivation by affecting individual <u>perceived</u> competence and autonomy. Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan developed CET in 1985, with the focus on the interplay between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. In short, what drives human motivation. CET examines how external factors—such as rewards, feedback, deadlines, or social pressures—can either enhance or undermine a person’s natural drive to engage in an activity for its own sake. The theory emphasizes that intrinsic motivation is not fixed but highly sensitive to environmental cues. In a sports or exercise context, individuals or coaches can use CET principles to encourage skill development and enjoyment rather than relying solely on external rewards such as first place trophies. Types of motivation from cognitive evaluation theory: * '''Intrinsic motivation:''' Doing an activity purely for its satisfaction, enjoyment, or interest predicts better exercise participation of long-term exercise adherence. A trend towards identified regulation (exercising because you see value in doing so) was found to predict participation more strongly than intrinsic motivation in the short term. * '''Extrinsic motivation:''' Doing an activity for external rewards, pressures, or avoidance of consequences, which can range from controlled (forced) to autonomous (internalised values). This is a good way to start exercising. However, intrinsic motives are better for long-term exercise habits. Extrinsic motives include winning a medal, gaining respect and praise or losing weight. * '''Amotivation:''' Amotivation is complete lack of intent or drive to take action. Three aspects attribute to feeling amotivative: Low competence, low autonomy, and low relatedness. The amotivated state is a predictor of poor performance and poor functioning. === Drive theory (Hull, 1943) === The [[drive theory]] proposes that humans are motivated to reduces pressures, stress, and discomfort (Hull,1943). Hull suggests that as an individual's arousal level increases, performance will also increase. Alternatively, if an individual's arousal levels decrease, then the performance would also decrease. Although this is not a primary motivational theory in the modern time, it still gives a good overview on why modern individuals often do not choose to exercise in time of emotional dysregulation. People are unconsciously looking to preserve energy and reduce stresses in the short term. What makes drive theory a learning theory, not only a motivation theory, is the feedback loop. When a particular behavior successfully reduces a drive, the connection between the situation and that behavior gets stronger. Hull called this “habit strength.” This is another point that is related for modern day people, we need to consciously turn to strengthen healthy habits and weaken maladaptive automatic responses. {{tip|Emotion regulation is a process that is very much learnable. These theories support the idea that we can learn to monitor and modify responses to situations.}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''How can psychological theories be applied to Sarah?''' Autonomy: Sarah hates running, but she loves dancing. Zumba classes at 7:30pm twice a week might suit Sarah better after she has a quick tea and a rest straight after work. Competency: Sarah hasn't even done dance classes before, but she does feel confident in showing off her moves. Zumba classes could motivate her to move her body while building more range in her dance move repertoire. Relatedness: Sarah is a very social person, and some of her friends might even like to join the Zumba classes too. Intrinsic motivators: Sarah should focus on aerobic exercises that are enjoyable to her. Looking for external motivators like weight loss or looking a sort of way, will not help Sarah stick to her movement long-term.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == What exercise is best to help regulate emotions? == Australian adults should be active daily, undertaking a variety of physical activities at different intensities, which can include<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.health.gov.au/topics/physical-activity/24-hour-movement-guidelines-for-all-australians/recommendations-for-adults-18-to-64-years?language=en|title=Physical Activity Recommendations for Australian adults|date=|last=Australian Government}}</ref>: * moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activities for 30 minutes or more on most days * muscle-strengthening activities on 2 or more days per week * functional activities targeting mobility, balance, and coordination on 3 or more days per week * several hours of light-intensity physical activity daily. '''Anaerobic exercise''' is often short bursts of movement using glycogen or glucose as fuel instead of oxygen. Anaerobic activities may include lifting heavy weights, short, high intensity sprints, HIIT, or plyometrics. Although there is conflicting evidence and support around anaerobic exercise (also known as resistance training) as an effective emotion regulation tool, there are still some studies that support the usefulness of it. One study found that resistance training did not have a significant effect on emotional regulation (Sterner & Sterner, 2022). However, studies have found positive outcomes of anaerobic exercise on mental health (Marakushyn et al., 2024). Marakushyn et al. found that there is a positive effect of anaerobic physical activity on individuals' emotional state. The study notes that a proper warm-up and cool-down before and after anaerobic activities is required in order to prevent the negative effects of anaerobic physical activity on the emotional state. The proper warm-up and cool-down help regulate the body's response to physical stress and minimize the impact on the emotional state. Anaerobic exercise activates sympathomedullary and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) systems as well as testosterone production resulting in positive physiological adaptation. Anaerobic exercise improves mood during and after exercise due to increased synaptic transmission of monoamines, which act similarly to antidepressant drugs. Physical activity stimulates the release of endorphins which leave individuals feeling calm and with an improved mood after exercise. '''Aerobic exercise'''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/7050-aerobic-exercise|title=Aerobic Exercise|last=Cleveland Clinic}}</ref> is when you continuously use oxygen as your fuel. Aerobic exercise has consistently proven to promote emotion regulation (Wang et al., 2024). What is more important to note is that there are <u>immediate</u> results on mood. Any movement is beneficial to individuals, but to regulate emotions a meta-analysis found exercise programs featuring mixed modalities, longer duration, moderate to high frequencies, shorter duration, and low intensity yielded the most significant improvements in emotional regulation (Song et al., 2025). As seen in table 1, many studies have researched different age groups and exercise types in relation to emotion regulation. Some ideas for exercises are below. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1:''' Exercise for each age category, with supporting studies. !Age !Exercise !Intensity/ Frequency !Study |- |Children |A variety of exercise such as running, soccer, dancing, tips, games and anything else that sustains interest and fun of the child. |60 minutes daily minimum Moderate–vigorous |Chaput et al., 2020 |- |Adolesence |A range of aerobic and strength exercise which can include sports, gym, HIT sessions, weights or running. |60 minutes daily Moderate–vigorous |Salvan et al., 2021 Parrish et al., 2020 |- |Adults |Walking, riding, swimming, running, zumba or sports. Begin with short, low-intensity walking and gradually increase duration and intensity |30 minutes or more, most days Moderate–vigorous strength twice a week |Ligeza et al., 2023, Mizzi et al., 2022 |- |Older Adults |Walking, exercise bike or water aerobics |Set depending on exercise ability and history |Erickson et al., 2011 |} The key message of this section is that aerobic exercise is a quick and easy go-to in assisting a person who needs emotion regulation. It is very important to remember that over training, lack of sleep and unbalanced diets are also important to avoid when aiming to balance emotion regulation (Marakushyn et al, 2024). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''So what should Sarah do after her challenging day?''' Sarah should go for a walk and call a friend to decompress. A 30-minute brisk walk will assist her regulate her emotions immediately. As for her ongoing tools, she should plan regular and if possible enjoyable aerobic activities, such as zumba, with friends to incorporate several layers of the psychological theories.{{RoundBoxBottom}} ;{{Robelbox|theme=13|title=Review time!|iconwidth=48px|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg}}<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {What is are some good ways to regulate your emotions?} - Scroll on your phone - Send an aggressive text to your boss. You'll feel better after + Go for a 30-minute brisk walk - Go past MacDonalds and get an ice-cream and hamburger + Go to the gym for a workout + Meet a friend for some squash </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox-close}} ==Conclusion== In conclusion, physical activity offers both physiological and psychological benefits, making it highly valuable during times of emotional dysregulation. Additionally, using exercise as a preventative mechanism is equally important. If you need an effective tool for regulating your mood, your best bet is to move your body for 30 minutes with a brisk walk or a similar activity. Aerobic exercise has shown more consistency and strength in proving its usefulness for emotion regulation than anaerobic exercise. '''Figure 4:''' An afternoon walk can do wonders for emotion regulation![[File:Sunset Walk.JPG|thumb|'''Figure 4:''' An afternoon walk can do wonders for emotion regulation! ]] '''Useful takeaways:''' * '''Immediate impact:''' A single session of aerobic exercise can significantly boost positive mood and alleviate stress responses, making it an excellent immediate mood regulation strategy. * '''Flexible options:''' Any movement can be beneficial, including walking, dancing, or participating in sports. * '''Definition:''' Emotion regulation is the process of recognizing and influencing your emotions to manage their intensity and duration within a healthy, functional range. * '''Theoretical support:''' Key psychological frameworks supporting this include the process model of emotion regulation, self-determination theory (SDT), cognitive evaluation theory (CET), and drive theory/conservation of resources (COR) theory. * '''Holistic benefits:''' Exercise helps regulate emotions through both physical and psychological pathways, many of which provide instant relief. {{tip|Start by moving your body for 30 minutes in any way you enjoy. Positive effects on mood start immediately. }} ==See also== '''Wikipedia''' [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Exercise]] * [[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] - Wikipedia * [[wikipedia:Drive_theory|Drive theory - Wikipedia]] '''Wikiversity''' *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Emotion regulation through exercise|Emotion regulation through exercise]] -Book chapter, 2025 ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Chaput, J. P., Willumsen, J., Bull, F., Chou, R., Ekelund, U., Firth, J., Jago, R., Ortega, F. B., & Katzmarzyk, P. T. (2020). 2020 WHO guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour for children and adolescents aged 5-17 years: summary of the evidence. ''Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act,'' 17(1), 141. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-020-01037-z Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York, NY: Plenum. Erickson, K. I., Voss, M. W., Prakash, R. S., Basak, C., Szabo, A., Chaddock, L., Kim, J. S., Heo, S., Alves, H., White, S. M., Wojcicki, T. R., Mailey, E., Vieira, V. J., Martin, S. A., Pence, B. D., Woods, J. A., McAuley, E., & Kramer, A. F. (2011). Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves memory. ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,'' 108(7), 3017-3022. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1015950108 Gratz, K. L., & Roemer, L. (2004). Multidimensional Assessment of Emotion Regulation and Dysregulation: Development, Factor Structure, and Initial Validation of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale. ''Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment,'' 26(1), 41-54. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOBA.0000007455.08539.94 Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2(3), 271–299. doi.org Hull, C. L. (1943). Principles of behavior: An introduction to behavior theory. Appleton-Century. Izard, C. E. (2013). ''Human emotions.'' Springer Science & Business Media. Ligeza, T. S., Maciejczyk, M., Wyczesany, M., & Junghofer, M. (2023). The effects of a single aerobic exercise session on mood and neural emotional reactivity in depressed and healthy young adults: A late positive potential study. ''Psychophysiology,'' 60(1), e14137. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.14137 Marakushyn, D., Maslova, N. M., Isaieva, I. M., Karmazina, I. S., & Bulynina, O. (2024). Impact of anaerobic exercises on emotional status. ''Medical Science of Ukraine,'' 20(1). doi.org (Note: Replace with standard URL if DOI isn't explicitly required). Mizzi, A. L., McKinnon, M. C., & Becker, S. (2022). The Impact of Aerobic Exercise on Mood Symptoms in Trauma-Exposed Young Adults: A Pilot Study [Original Research]. ''Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, Volume 16 - 2022.'' https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2022.829571 Parrish, A.-M., Tremblay, M. S., Carson, S., Veldman, S. L., Cliff, D., Vella, S., Chong, K. H., Nacher, M., del Pozo Cruz, B., & Ellis, Y. (2020). Comparing and assessing physical activity guidelines for children and adolescents: a systematic literature review and analysis. ''International journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity,'' 17(1), 16. Salvan, P., Wassenaar, T., Wheatley, C., Beale, N., Cottaar, M., Papp, D., Bastiani, M., Fitzgibbon, S., Duff, E., Andersson, J., Winkler, A. M., Douaud, G., Nichols, T. E., Smith, S., Dawes, H., & Johansen-Berg, H. (2021). Multimodal Imaging Brain Markers in Early Adolescence Are Linked with a Physically Active Lifestyle. ''The Journal of Neuroscience,'' 41(5), 1092. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1260-20.2020 Song Y, Jia S, Wang X, Wang A, Ma T, Li S, Chen J, Guo Z, Ding F, Ren Y and Qin M (2025) Effects of physical exercise on anxiety depression and emotion regulation in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Front. Pediatr. 12:1479615.'' doi: 10.3389/fped.2024.1479615 Sterner, D. A., & Sterner, D. A. (2022). ''The Effects of Resistance Training on Emotion Regulation and Hemodynamic Parameters in Response to a Stressful Task ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]''. Ann Arbor. Teixeira, P. J., Carraça, E. V., Markland, D., Silva, M. N., & Ryan, R. M. (2012). Exercise, physical activity, and self-determination theory: a systematic review. ''International journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity,'' 9(1), 78. Wang, X., Liu, T., Jin, X., & Zhou, C. (2024). Aerobic exercise promotes emotion regulation: a narrative review. ''Experimental Brain Research'', 242(4), 783-796. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-024-06791-1 }} == External links == * '''Web.''' [https://www.paulekman.com/universal-emotions/ Universal Emotions | What are Emotions?] (Paul Ekman Group) * '''Web.''' [https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/25065-emotional-dysregulation Emotional Dysregulation: What It Is, Causes & Treatment] (Cleveland Clinic) * '''Web.''' [https://www.health.gov.au/topics/physical-activity/24-hour-movement-guidelines-for-all-australians 24-hour movement guidelines for all Australians |] (Australian Government) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Exercise]] <hr> __TOC__ [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book]] p4ibqq4kg4vk6cj211u51ert8oo8p0l 0 330074 2840761 2840346 2026-10-17T00:00:53Z ~2026-55607-17 3112804 /* References */ 2840761 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Dreams and emotional problem-solving:<br>How do REM dreams contribute to emotional processing and adaptive coping?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Case study: Natalie part 1 ''' [[File:Dreaming.jpg|Dreaming|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1'''. Natalie's recurring dream after her breakup leaves her feeling sad when she wakes]] Since her breakup, Natalie keeps having the same dream. She's been left behind somewhere, calling out to someone who never turns around (See Figure 1). When she wakes the details are gone, but the feeling stays. Then one night, after her first good day in weeks, the dream changes: she stops calling out, notices a lit doorway, and walks through it. She wakes feeling better, and that afternoon she finally packs away his things. Did the dream help her move on, show that she was already moving on, or give her something to work with once awake? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Dream|Dreams]] are reported after most awakenings from [[w:Rapid eye movement sleep|rapid eye movement (REM) sleep]] (Solms, 2000), and REM sleep has been proposed to act as a form of "overnight therapy" (Walker & van der Helm, 2009, p. 731). Whether dreams do that work or merely reflect it is still debated. ''Emotional processing'' is the overnight change in how well an emotional memory is kept or how strongly it is felt. [[w:Emotional self-regulation|''Emotion regulation'']] is any process, deliberate or automatic, that changes the course of an emotion (Gross, 2015). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|''Coping'']] is what people think and do to manage stressful situations, which is adaptive only when it fits the situation and improves outcomes (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). A dream could reflect processing without regulating anything, and could regulate a feeling without improving coping. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} '''Focus questions''' * How do REM sleep and dreaming each contribute to overnight emotional processing? * What do competing theories propose dreams do with emotion? * How is dream emotion related to the way people cope while awake? * What does deliberately changing dreams reveal about their role in adaptive coping? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == How do REM sleep and dreaming each contribute to overnight emotional processing? == REM sleep is a brain state, marked by rapid eye movements, an active brain, and a paralysed body. Dreaming is a conscious experience. Because the two usually coincide, findings about one are easily attributed to the other. ===REM sleep and emotional memories === The ''sleep to forget, sleep to remember'' model proposes that the brain replays recent emotional memories during REM sleep while [[wikipedia:Norepinephrine|noradrenaline]], a chemical messenger that drives arousal, is low (Walker & van der Helm, 2009). Replay in this calm state should keep a memory's content while weakening its emotional charge, so that last month's argument is remembered clearly but no longer makes the heart race. The model makes two predictions: emotional memories should be retained better after sleep, and ''emotional reactivity'', the strength of the response when the memory returns, should fall. If the charge persists, the process repeats on later nights, which may explain recurring dreams like Natalie's. Early brain imaging seemed to confirm the second prediction. When 34 participants viewed emotional pictures twice, 12 hours apart, responses in the [[w:Amygdala|amygdala]], a threat-detecting region, fell in those who slept between viewings and rose in those who stayed awake (van der Helm et al, 2011). However, low noradrenaline was inferred from brain waves, not measured directly. Broader evidence has been less supportive. A [[w:Meta-analysis|meta-analysis]] found no reliable change in bodlily reactions to negative pictures after sleep, although its five studies were too few to rule an effect in or out. People also rated negative pictures as more arousing after sleep, the opposite of "sleep to forget" (Lipinska et al., 2022). Removing REM sleep would be a better test, but it requires repeatdetly waking people, which stresses them, disrupts other sleep stages, and can itself cause low mood. Research therefore supports the "remember" half of the model better than the "forget" half (Pesonen et al., 2024), leaving the emotion role of REM sleep unconfirmed rather than disproven. ===What dreaming adds === Dreaming is more than REM sleep in disguise: it can stop after brain damage while REM sleep continues, and some dreams occur outside REM sleep (Solms, 2000). Only one study measured both. Lara-Carrasco et al. (2009) partly deprived some participants of REM sleep, collected their dreams, and had them rate negative pictures in the evening and next morning. Contrary to the model, less REM sleep went with a larger drop in arousal, whereas a less negative final dream went with finding the pictures less unpleasant by morning. REM sleep and emotion thus tracked different parts of the response, suggesting that dreaming contributes something of its own. A lingering negative dream could have influenced the morning ratings, although the hour that has passed made this less likely. Even so, the design cannot show whether the dream produced the overnight change or reflected it, which is exactly where the [[#What do competing theories propose dreams do with emotion?|theories]] disagree. {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|11}}}|title=Quiz}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best summarises the evidence on REM sleep? |type="()"} - REM sleep reliably reduces the emotional intensity of upsetting memories + REM sleep may help keep emotional memories, but evidence that it reduces their intensity is inconclusive </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == What do competing theories propose dreams do with emotion? == All three leading theories accept that waking emotion shapes dream emotion, but they disagree about what dream emotion does next and, crucially, over what timescale (Sikka et al., 2022; see Table 1). {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;" |+ style="text-align:left;" | '''Table 1'''<br />''Three theories of what dreams do with emotion'' |- ! scope="col" | ! scope="col" |Continuity hypothesis (Domhoff, 2019) ! scope="col" |Fear extinction theory (Nielson & Levin, 2007) ! scope="col" |Mood regulation theory (Cartwright et al., 1998) |- ! scope="row" |Core claim |Dreams simulate current concerns |Dreams place fear memories in safe new contexts |Dreams work through low mood over the full night |- ! scope="row" |Natalie's recurring dream means |She is still preoccupied with the loss |Extinction under heavy emotional load |Regulation not yet complete |- ! scope="row" |Main prediction |Dream emotion carries into the next morning |Fear gradually decreases |Mood is better by morning, if it was low |- ! scope="row" |Timescale |Immediate |Weeks, between people |One night |} === Continuity hypothesis === The continuity hypothesis holds that dreams dramatise whatever currently concerns the dreamer. In Domhoff's (2019) neurocognitive version, dreaming is an "embodied simulation" (p. 265) produced by the [[w:Default mode network|default mode network]], the brain network that also supports daydreaming. According to this view, Natalie's dream portrays her loss without repairing it, much as daydreaming about an ex-partner would. Domhoff concludes that an emotion-regulating function "remains highly unliklely, and at best inconclusive, after decades of research studies' (p.287), noting that a quarter or more of REM dream reports contain no emotion. The theory is parsimonious, but "mirroring" fits almost any link between dreams and waking life, so it can only be told apart from a functional theory when dream emotion predicts something that a waking mood alone does not. ===Fear extinction theory === [[w:Extinction (psychology)|Extinction]] occurs when a feared cue is met repeatedly without harm, so that a new safety memory forms and competes with the fear memory rather than erasing it. Nielson and Levin (2007) propose that dreams do this offline by recombining fragments of fear memories with safe, unrelated material. In their example, a dream of a dark alley shifts when "suddenly i found myself in a brightly lit street" (p.302), erasing the growing fear, much like Natalie's lit doorway. Two factors shape the outcome. ''Affect load'' is a state: the combined weight of recent stress on a person's capacity to regulate emotion. ''Affect distress'' is a trait: a long-standing tendency to react to emotional material with heightened distress (Nielson & Levin, 2007, p. 303). Bad dreams and nightmares lie on a continuum, and nightmares signal that extinction is struggling under heavy load, especially when affect distress is high. Natalie's recurring dream therefore reflects heavy load after the breakup, not a broken process. Because extinction is gradual, a frightening dream need not bring relief the next day, yet people whose dreams regularly engage fear should regulate better over weeks. The authors call the model "highly testable" (p. 304). In practice, though, recovery after a frightening dream can be read as extinction working and distress as extinction overloaded. Unless a successful dream is defined before results are known, almost any outcome can be accommodated. ===Mood regulation theory === Mood regulation theory proposes that successive REM dreams across one night work through low mood, shifting from negative towards positive emotion. Cartwright et al. (1998) tested this in 60 students without depression. Depressed mood fell overnight, and lower mood before sleep predicted a more negative first dream. Only the 10 students with the lowest pre-sleep mood showed the predicted sequence, with negative dreams early and more positive dreams later. The authors therefore proposed a threshold: dreams moderate mood only when unhappiness is "at lest modest" (p. 7). The threshold both protects and limits the theory. It explains why studies of contented people find little, but the core pattern rested on 10 people and was not formally tested, and Kramer's group, who first proposed the theory, once failed to replicate their own effect (Nielson & Levin, 2007). Mood also improved when REM periods were interrupted, so overnight relief did not depend on undisturbed dreaming. In short, mood regulation predicts relief by morning, continuity immediate carry-over, and fear extinction that builds over weeks. Waking mood and coping provide the tests. == How is dream emotion related to the way people cope while awake? == For Gross (2015), the defining feature of emotion regulation is "the activation of a goal to influence the emotion trajectory" (p. 5), a goal that can operate implicitly. A dream has no obvious goal, so any regulation it achieves must be implicit, and the coping question is whether its effects reach waking life. ''Within-person'' comparisons ask whether a persons worse negative dreams after followed by worse days, and ''between-person'' comparisons whether people who generally dream one way also cope differently. ===Next-morning mood === For five days, 40 adults rated their dream emotion and morning mood, then viewed negative pictures, sometimes while trying to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Cognitive strategies and emotion regulation|reappraise]] them (Sikka et al., 2022). After more negative dreams, mornings felt worse. Yet dream emotion predicted neither how strongly people reacted to the pictures nor how well they regulated, and [[w:Bayes factor|Bayesian analyses]] strongly favoured no relationship. Across 4,715 days from 536 adults, frightening dreams were likewise followed by about 7% more negative morning mood (Barber et al., 2026). Dreams that mixed fear with joy, however, were followed by mornings more often free of negative mood. ===Comparing people === Between people, the pattern reverses. People with more fearful dreams on average reported more adaptive regulation strategies, such as reappraisal and acceptance, even after accounting for [[w:Neuroticism|neuroticism]], which was also linked to fearful dreaming (Barber et al., 2026). In 89 adults who kept a week-long dream diary, more dream fear went with calmer brain responses to frightening pictures: weaker amygdala activity and stronger activity in a regulating prefrontal region (Sterpenich et al., 2020). Agreement across self-rport and brain measures makes the credible, and it fits fear extinctions slow, trait-level prediction. However, the direction of influence is unclear, since good regulators may simply tolerate negative material better. Morning carry-over after frightening dreams was also stronger in good regulators (Barber et al., 2026). The authors suggest that these people may be more aware of their feelings, may reappraise the dream after waking (recognising it was only a dream), or may need a brief rise in negative feeling to desensitise, as in exposure therapy. The last two, they note, place regulation after waking, with the dream supplying material and the awake person doing the work. ===Dreaming through a real loss === Real loss offers the most demanding test. Cartwright et al. (2006) followed 30 adults going through a divorce, 20 of them depressed, collecting dreams from every REM period on three nights over 5 months. In those who later recovered from depression, dreams of the former spouse carried emotion, mostly negative, and were linked to other memories. Those who stayed depressed still dreamed of the spouse, but these dreams were largely flat and disconnected from other memories. recovery therefore accompanied dreams that engaged painfully with the loss rather than dreams that turned about positive, which fits fear extinction better than mood regulation. However, this comparison rested on six versus four people and was descriptive, and recovery from depression is an outcome, not a coping strategy. Coping itself has rarely been measured. Among 35 female undergraduates facing exams, those who dreamed about the exam reported less active problem-solving white awake, and waking reappraisal went with more problem-solving inside dreams (Delorne et al., 2002), suggesting that coping style influences dreams as much as the reverse. At every levell, dream emotion moves with feeling and adjustment, but because nobody was assigned a particular dream, none of these studies shows that dreams cause change. That requires [[#What does deliberately changing dreams dreams reveal about their role in adaptive coping?|changing dreams]] on purpose. {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|11}}}|title=Quiz}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {In the same person, what usually follows a night with a frightening dream? |type="()"} - Better emotion regulation the next day. + A somewhat worse morning mood. </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == What does deliberately changing dreams reveal about their role in adaptive coping? == The previous section showed that dream emotion moves with waking mood and coping, but not which drives which. Experiments can test this. If dreams do emotional work, changing a dream should change how someone feels, and the benefit should depend on the new dream actually occurring. ===Does changing a dream change how people feel?=== Dreams can be changed during sleep using sounds, smells, and touch, although reported success varies from 0% to about 80% (Salvesen et al, 2024). In one study, a sound paired with one of two evening tasks was replayed during REM sleep, and people dreamed more about the cued task. In an exploratory analysis, the more directly a task appeard in their dreams, the less negative they felt about it the next morning. This fits fear extinction theory, but the sound itself did not change their feelings, so a third factor (such as motivation) could explain both (Konkoly et al., 2025). In a clinical version, people with frequent [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nightmares and emotion|nightmares]] rehearsed a rewritten nightmare, and half heard a sound paired with the new ending during REM sleep. They had fewer nightmares and more joyful dreams than patients who heard an unpaired sound. Yet their dreams almost never contained the rehearsed ending, and their nightmare distress, sleep quality, and mood improved no more than the comparison group (Schwartz et al., 2022). sleep may strengthen what was practised while awake, but with only 36 patients, small differences could be missed. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Woman writing on a notebook with a pen.jpg|Woman writing on a notebook with a pen|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 2'''. Rewriting a recurring dreams ending is the core of image rehearsal therapy]] '''Case study: Natalie part 2''' During a stressful fortnight, the old dream returns and Natalie starts staying up late to avoid it. A psychologist suggests writing the dream down and giving it a new ending in which so she stops calling out and walks the other way, and rehearsing it every evening (see Figure 2). Within weeks the dream comes less often and bothers her less. Oddly, she cannot recall ever dreaming the new ending. So what helped? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Does the new ending need to be dreamed?=== Imagery rehearsal therapy, which rewrites and rehearses a nightmare, is recommended for [[w:Nightmare disorder|nightmare disorder]] (Morgenthaler et al., 2018), yet patients often improve without dreaming the new ending (Rousseau & Belleville, 2018). In fact re-imagining a nightmare exactly as it was reduced nightmares and distress about as much as rewriting it, compared with a waiting list (Kunze et al., 2017). This fits fear extinction, but with the safe re-exposure happening while awake. That trial could not show the two are equal, but in veterans with severe [[w:Post-traumatic stress disoder|PTSD]], therapy including imagery rehearsal also did no better than sleep-focused therapy without it (Cook et al., 2010; Harb et al., 2019). proposed reasons include a growing sense of control, changed beliefs about nightmares, and less avoidance, but few have been tested directly (Rousseau & Belleville, 2018). ===Is less distress the same as better coping?=== Natalie's late nights are an example of [[w:Avoidance coping|avoidance coping]], which is common with bad dreams and nightmares and may keep them going (Rousseau & Belleville, 2018). Writing down and rehearing the dream is closer to emotional approach coping: actively processing a feeling rather than escaping it (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). both are deliberate regulation while awake, not automatic processing during sleep (Gross, 2015). Less dream distress is not the same as adaptive coping, which requires better outcomes in the situation causing the stress (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). These trials measured nightmares, sleep, and symptom, not how people handled the problems behind their dreams, and involved frequent nightmares rather than sad dreams like Natalie's. Deliberately changing dreams therefore reveals more about waking coping than about dreaming. Dreams can be changed, but emotional benefits have not been shown to depend on the changed dream. The research cannot say what helped Natalie, but it points away from the new ending and towards what she did while awake:: facing the dream instead of staying up to avoid it. ==Conclusion== Natalie wondered whether the dream helped her move on, showed that she was moving on, or gave her something to work with. the evidence favours the last two. REM sleep may help keep emotional memories, but whether it softens them is unconfirmed. Dream emotion carries into the next morning, as continuity predicts, rather than changing it overnight, as mood regulation predicts. Fear extinction fits the slower patterns but has not passed its most direct tests, and experiments can change dreams, yet improvement has not been shown to depend on the changed dream. The most defensible conclusion is that dreams reflect emotional processing and supply material that people regulate and reappraise while awake. Natalie's lit doorway is most likely a sign of change already under way, and what helped was what she did with it after waking. Whether dreaming itself causes adaptive coping remains an open, testable question. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Take-home messages''' * A nights sleep does not reliably take the sting out of an upsetting memory. * A distressing dream shows what someone is carrying, not whether healing is happening. * Dreams about a loss that carry real feeling tend to accompany recovery, even when the feelings are painful. * For a recurring distressing dream, working with it while awake, by facing or rewriting it, is the best supported step. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Dreams and emotional problem-solving|Dreams and emotional problem-solving]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Nightmare disorder|Nightmare disorder]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nightmares and emotion|Nightmares and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= ==External links== * [https://www.sleepfoundation.org/nightmares/how-to-stop-having-nightmares How to prevent nightmares] (Sleep Foundation) * [https://shows.acast.com/sleep-science-pod/episodes/ep12-sleep-dreams-and-mental-health Sleep, dreams and mental health] (The Sleep Science Pod) * [https://www.media.mit.edu/projects/targeted-dream-incubation/overview/ Targeted dream incubation] (MIT Media Lab) * [https://theconversation.com/the-science-of-dreams-and-nightmares-what-is-going-on-in-our-brains-while-were-sleeping-210901 The science of dreams and nightmares – what is going on in our brains while we're sleeping?] (The Conversation) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Dreams]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] 47rhv224bi90dv9i62si3ve6m04rpv8 2840762 2840761 2026-10-17T00:01:12Z ~2026-55607-17 3112804 /* References */ 2840762 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Dreams and emotional problem-solving:<br>How do REM dreams contribute to emotional processing and adaptive coping?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Case study: Natalie part 1 ''' [[File:Dreaming.jpg|Dreaming|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1'''. Natalie's recurring dream after her breakup leaves her feeling sad when she wakes]] Since her breakup, Natalie keeps having the same dream. She's been left behind somewhere, calling out to someone who never turns around (See Figure 1). When she wakes the details are gone, but the feeling stays. Then one night, after her first good day in weeks, the dream changes: she stops calling out, notices a lit doorway, and walks through it. She wakes feeling better, and that afternoon she finally packs away his things. Did the dream help her move on, show that she was already moving on, or give her something to work with once awake? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Dream|Dreams]] are reported after most awakenings from [[w:Rapid eye movement sleep|rapid eye movement (REM) sleep]] (Solms, 2000), and REM sleep has been proposed to act as a form of "overnight therapy" (Walker & van der Helm, 2009, p. 731). Whether dreams do that work or merely reflect it is still debated. ''Emotional processing'' is the overnight change in how well an emotional memory is kept or how strongly it is felt. [[w:Emotional self-regulation|''Emotion regulation'']] is any process, deliberate or automatic, that changes the course of an emotion (Gross, 2015). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|''Coping'']] is what people think and do to manage stressful situations, which is adaptive only when it fits the situation and improves outcomes (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). A dream could reflect processing without regulating anything, and could regulate a feeling without improving coping. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} '''Focus questions''' * How do REM sleep and dreaming each contribute to overnight emotional processing? * What do competing theories propose dreams do with emotion? * How is dream emotion related to the way people cope while awake? * What does deliberately changing dreams reveal about their role in adaptive coping? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == How do REM sleep and dreaming each contribute to overnight emotional processing? == REM sleep is a brain state, marked by rapid eye movements, an active brain, and a paralysed body. Dreaming is a conscious experience. Because the two usually coincide, findings about one are easily attributed to the other. ===REM sleep and emotional memories === The ''sleep to forget, sleep to remember'' model proposes that the brain replays recent emotional memories during REM sleep while [[wikipedia:Norepinephrine|noradrenaline]], a chemical messenger that drives arousal, is low (Walker & van der Helm, 2009). Replay in this calm state should keep a memory's content while weakening its emotional charge, so that last month's argument is remembered clearly but no longer makes the heart race. The model makes two predictions: emotional memories should be retained better after sleep, and ''emotional reactivity'', the strength of the response when the memory returns, should fall. If the charge persists, the process repeats on later nights, which may explain recurring dreams like Natalie's. Early brain imaging seemed to confirm the second prediction. When 34 participants viewed emotional pictures twice, 12 hours apart, responses in the [[w:Amygdala|amygdala]], a threat-detecting region, fell in those who slept between viewings and rose in those who stayed awake (van der Helm et al, 2011). However, low noradrenaline was inferred from brain waves, not measured directly. Broader evidence has been less supportive. A [[w:Meta-analysis|meta-analysis]] found no reliable change in bodlily reactions to negative pictures after sleep, although its five studies were too few to rule an effect in or out. People also rated negative pictures as more arousing after sleep, the opposite of "sleep to forget" (Lipinska et al., 2022). Removing REM sleep would be a better test, but it requires repeatdetly waking people, which stresses them, disrupts other sleep stages, and can itself cause low mood. Research therefore supports the "remember" half of the model better than the "forget" half (Pesonen et al., 2024), leaving the emotion role of REM sleep unconfirmed rather than disproven. ===What dreaming adds === Dreaming is more than REM sleep in disguise: it can stop after brain damage while REM sleep continues, and some dreams occur outside REM sleep (Solms, 2000). Only one study measured both. Lara-Carrasco et al. (2009) partly deprived some participants of REM sleep, collected their dreams, and had them rate negative pictures in the evening and next morning. Contrary to the model, less REM sleep went with a larger drop in arousal, whereas a less negative final dream went with finding the pictures less unpleasant by morning. REM sleep and emotion thus tracked different parts of the response, suggesting that dreaming contributes something of its own. A lingering negative dream could have influenced the morning ratings, although the hour that has passed made this less likely. Even so, the design cannot show whether the dream produced the overnight change or reflected it, which is exactly where the [[#What do competing theories propose dreams do with emotion?|theories]] disagree. {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|11}}}|title=Quiz}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best summarises the evidence on REM sleep? |type="()"} - REM sleep reliably reduces the emotional intensity of upsetting memories + REM sleep may help keep emotional memories, but evidence that it reduces their intensity is inconclusive </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == What do competing theories propose dreams do with emotion? == All three leading theories accept that waking emotion shapes dream emotion, but they disagree about what dream emotion does next and, crucially, over what timescale (Sikka et al., 2022; see Table 1). {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;" |+ style="text-align:left;" | '''Table 1'''<br />''Three theories of what dreams do with emotion'' |- ! scope="col" | ! scope="col" |Continuity hypothesis (Domhoff, 2019) ! scope="col" |Fear extinction theory (Nielson & Levin, 2007) ! scope="col" |Mood regulation theory (Cartwright et al., 1998) |- ! scope="row" |Core claim |Dreams simulate current concerns |Dreams place fear memories in safe new contexts |Dreams work through low mood over the full night |- ! scope="row" |Natalie's recurring dream means |She is still preoccupied with the loss |Extinction under heavy emotional load |Regulation not yet complete |- ! scope="row" |Main prediction |Dream emotion carries into the next morning |Fear gradually decreases |Mood is better by morning, if it was low |- ! scope="row" |Timescale |Immediate |Weeks, between people |One night |} === Continuity hypothesis === The continuity hypothesis holds that dreams dramatise whatever currently concerns the dreamer. In Domhoff's (2019) neurocognitive version, dreaming is an "embodied simulation" (p. 265) produced by the [[w:Default mode network|default mode network]], the brain network that also supports daydreaming. According to this view, Natalie's dream portrays her loss without repairing it, much as daydreaming about an ex-partner would. Domhoff concludes that an emotion-regulating function "remains highly unliklely, and at best inconclusive, after decades of research studies' (p.287), noting that a quarter or more of REM dream reports contain no emotion. The theory is parsimonious, but "mirroring" fits almost any link between dreams and waking life, so it can only be told apart from a functional theory when dream emotion predicts something that a waking mood alone does not. ===Fear extinction theory === [[w:Extinction (psychology)|Extinction]] occurs when a feared cue is met repeatedly without harm, so that a new safety memory forms and competes with the fear memory rather than erasing it. Nielson and Levin (2007) propose that dreams do this offline by recombining fragments of fear memories with safe, unrelated material. In their example, a dream of a dark alley shifts when "suddenly i found myself in a brightly lit street" (p.302), erasing the growing fear, much like Natalie's lit doorway. Two factors shape the outcome. ''Affect load'' is a state: the combined weight of recent stress on a person's capacity to regulate emotion. ''Affect distress'' is a trait: a long-standing tendency to react to emotional material with heightened distress (Nielson & Levin, 2007, p. 303). Bad dreams and nightmares lie on a continuum, and nightmares signal that extinction is struggling under heavy load, especially when affect distress is high. Natalie's recurring dream therefore reflects heavy load after the breakup, not a broken process. Because extinction is gradual, a frightening dream need not bring relief the next day, yet people whose dreams regularly engage fear should regulate better over weeks. The authors call the model "highly testable" (p. 304). In practice, though, recovery after a frightening dream can be read as extinction working and distress as extinction overloaded. Unless a successful dream is defined before results are known, almost any outcome can be accommodated. ===Mood regulation theory === Mood regulation theory proposes that successive REM dreams across one night work through low mood, shifting from negative towards positive emotion. Cartwright et al. (1998) tested this in 60 students without depression. Depressed mood fell overnight, and lower mood before sleep predicted a more negative first dream. Only the 10 students with the lowest pre-sleep mood showed the predicted sequence, with negative dreams early and more positive dreams later. The authors therefore proposed a threshold: dreams moderate mood only when unhappiness is "at lest modest" (p. 7). The threshold both protects and limits the theory. It explains why studies of contented people find little, but the core pattern rested on 10 people and was not formally tested, and Kramer's group, who first proposed the theory, once failed to replicate their own effect (Nielson & Levin, 2007). Mood also improved when REM periods were interrupted, so overnight relief did not depend on undisturbed dreaming. In short, mood regulation predicts relief by morning, continuity immediate carry-over, and fear extinction that builds over weeks. Waking mood and coping provide the tests. == How is dream emotion related to the way people cope while awake? == For Gross (2015), the defining feature of emotion regulation is "the activation of a goal to influence the emotion trajectory" (p. 5), a goal that can operate implicitly. A dream has no obvious goal, so any regulation it achieves must be implicit, and the coping question is whether its effects reach waking life. ''Within-person'' comparisons ask whether a persons worse negative dreams after followed by worse days, and ''between-person'' comparisons whether people who generally dream one way also cope differently. ===Next-morning mood === For five days, 40 adults rated their dream emotion and morning mood, then viewed negative pictures, sometimes while trying to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Cognitive strategies and emotion regulation|reappraise]] them (Sikka et al., 2022). After more negative dreams, mornings felt worse. Yet dream emotion predicted neither how strongly people reacted to the pictures nor how well they regulated, and [[w:Bayes factor|Bayesian analyses]] strongly favoured no relationship. Across 4,715 days from 536 adults, frightening dreams were likewise followed by about 7% more negative morning mood (Barber et al., 2026). Dreams that mixed fear with joy, however, were followed by mornings more often free of negative mood. ===Comparing people === Between people, the pattern reverses. People with more fearful dreams on average reported more adaptive regulation strategies, such as reappraisal and acceptance, even after accounting for [[w:Neuroticism|neuroticism]], which was also linked to fearful dreaming (Barber et al., 2026). In 89 adults who kept a week-long dream diary, more dream fear went with calmer brain responses to frightening pictures: weaker amygdala activity and stronger activity in a regulating prefrontal region (Sterpenich et al., 2020). Agreement across self-rport and brain measures makes the credible, and it fits fear extinctions slow, trait-level prediction. However, the direction of influence is unclear, since good regulators may simply tolerate negative material better. Morning carry-over after frightening dreams was also stronger in good regulators (Barber et al., 2026). The authors suggest that these people may be more aware of their feelings, may reappraise the dream after waking (recognising it was only a dream), or may need a brief rise in negative feeling to desensitise, as in exposure therapy. The last two, they note, place regulation after waking, with the dream supplying material and the awake person doing the work. ===Dreaming through a real loss === Real loss offers the most demanding test. Cartwright et al. (2006) followed 30 adults going through a divorce, 20 of them depressed, collecting dreams from every REM period on three nights over 5 months. In those who later recovered from depression, dreams of the former spouse carried emotion, mostly negative, and were linked to other memories. Those who stayed depressed still dreamed of the spouse, but these dreams were largely flat and disconnected from other memories. recovery therefore accompanied dreams that engaged painfully with the loss rather than dreams that turned about positive, which fits fear extinction better than mood regulation. However, this comparison rested on six versus four people and was descriptive, and recovery from depression is an outcome, not a coping strategy. Coping itself has rarely been measured. Among 35 female undergraduates facing exams, those who dreamed about the exam reported less active problem-solving white awake, and waking reappraisal went with more problem-solving inside dreams (Delorne et al., 2002), suggesting that coping style influences dreams as much as the reverse. At every levell, dream emotion moves with feeling and adjustment, but because nobody was assigned a particular dream, none of these studies shows that dreams cause change. That requires [[#What does deliberately changing dreams dreams reveal about their role in adaptive coping?|changing dreams]] on purpose. {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|11}}}|title=Quiz}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {In the same person, what usually follows a night with a frightening dream? |type="()"} - Better emotion regulation the next day. + A somewhat worse morning mood. </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == What does deliberately changing dreams reveal about their role in adaptive coping? == The previous section showed that dream emotion moves with waking mood and coping, but not which drives which. Experiments can test this. If dreams do emotional work, changing a dream should change how someone feels, and the benefit should depend on the new dream actually occurring. ===Does changing a dream change how people feel?=== Dreams can be changed during sleep using sounds, smells, and touch, although reported success varies from 0% to about 80% (Salvesen et al, 2024). In one study, a sound paired with one of two evening tasks was replayed during REM sleep, and people dreamed more about the cued task. In an exploratory analysis, the more directly a task appeard in their dreams, the less negative they felt about it the next morning. This fits fear extinction theory, but the sound itself did not change their feelings, so a third factor (such as motivation) could explain both (Konkoly et al., 2025). In a clinical version, people with frequent [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nightmares and emotion|nightmares]] rehearsed a rewritten nightmare, and half heard a sound paired with the new ending during REM sleep. They had fewer nightmares and more joyful dreams than patients who heard an unpaired sound. Yet their dreams almost never contained the rehearsed ending, and their nightmare distress, sleep quality, and mood improved no more than the comparison group (Schwartz et al., 2022). sleep may strengthen what was practised while awake, but with only 36 patients, small differences could be missed. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Woman writing on a notebook with a pen.jpg|Woman writing on a notebook with a pen|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 2'''. Rewriting a recurring dreams ending is the core of image rehearsal therapy]] '''Case study: Natalie part 2''' During a stressful fortnight, the old dream returns and Natalie starts staying up late to avoid it. A psychologist suggests writing the dream down and giving it a new ending in which so she stops calling out and walks the other way, and rehearsing it every evening (see Figure 2). Within weeks the dream comes less often and bothers her less. Oddly, she cannot recall ever dreaming the new ending. So what helped? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Does the new ending need to be dreamed?=== Imagery rehearsal therapy, which rewrites and rehearses a nightmare, is recommended for [[w:Nightmare disorder|nightmare disorder]] (Morgenthaler et al., 2018), yet patients often improve without dreaming the new ending (Rousseau & Belleville, 2018). In fact re-imagining a nightmare exactly as it was reduced nightmares and distress about as much as rewriting it, compared with a waiting list (Kunze et al., 2017). This fits fear extinction, but with the safe re-exposure happening while awake. That trial could not show the two are equal, but in veterans with severe [[w:Post-traumatic stress disoder|PTSD]], therapy including imagery rehearsal also did no better than sleep-focused therapy without it (Cook et al., 2010; Harb et al., 2019). proposed reasons include a growing sense of control, changed beliefs about nightmares, and less avoidance, but few have been tested directly (Rousseau & Belleville, 2018). ===Is less distress the same as better coping?=== Natalie's late nights are an example of [[w:Avoidance coping|avoidance coping]], which is common with bad dreams and nightmares and may keep them going (Rousseau & Belleville, 2018). Writing down and rehearing the dream is closer to emotional approach coping: actively processing a feeling rather than escaping it (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). both are deliberate regulation while awake, not automatic processing during sleep (Gross, 2015). Less dream distress is not the same as adaptive coping, which requires better outcomes in the situation causing the stress (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). These trials measured nightmares, sleep, and symptom, not how people handled the problems behind their dreams, and involved frequent nightmares rather than sad dreams like Natalie's. Deliberately changing dreams therefore reveals more about waking coping than about dreaming. Dreams can be changed, but emotional benefits have not been shown to depend on the changed dream. The research cannot say what helped Natalie, but it points away from the new ending and towards what she did while awake:: facing the dream instead of staying up to avoid it. ==Conclusion== Natalie wondered whether the dream helped her move on, showed that she was moving on, or gave her something to work with. the evidence favours the last two. REM sleep may help keep emotional memories, but whether it softens them is unconfirmed. Dream emotion carries into the next morning, as continuity predicts, rather than changing it overnight, as mood regulation predicts. Fear extinction fits the slower patterns but has not passed its most direct tests, and experiments can change dreams, yet improvement has not been shown to depend on the changed dream. The most defensible conclusion is that dreams reflect emotional processing and supply material that people regulate and reappraise while awake. Natalie's lit doorway is most likely a sign of change already under way, and what helped was what she did with it after waking. Whether dreaming itself causes adaptive coping remains an open, testable question. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Take-home messages''' * A nights sleep does not reliably take the sting out of an upsetting memory. * A distressing dream shows what someone is carrying, not whether healing is happening. * Dreams about a loss that carry real feeling tend to accompany recovery, even when the feelings are painful. * For a recurring distressing dream, working with it while awake, by facing or rewriting it, is the best supported step. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Dreams and emotional problem-solving|Dreams and emotional problem-solving]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Nightmare disorder|Nightmare disorder]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nightmares and emotion|Nightmares and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==References== ==External links== * [https://www.sleepfoundation.org/nightmares/how-to-stop-having-nightmares How to prevent nightmares] (Sleep Foundation) * [https://shows.acast.com/sleep-science-pod/episodes/ep12-sleep-dreams-and-mental-health Sleep, dreams and mental health] (The Sleep Science Pod) * [https://www.media.mit.edu/projects/targeted-dream-incubation/overview/ Targeted dream incubation] (MIT Media Lab) * [https://theconversation.com/the-science-of-dreams-and-nightmares-what-is-going-on-in-our-brains-while-were-sleeping-210901 The science of dreams and nightmares – what is going on in our brains while we're sleeping?] (The Conversation) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Dreams]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] o7zs0bmex8ffokm5g5m1ifqlto155oa 2840765 2840762 2026-10-17T00:24:32Z ~2026-55607-17 3112804 /* Overview */ Changed wording abit 2840765 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Dreams and emotional problem-solving:<br>How do REM dreams contribute to emotional processing and adaptive coping?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Case study: Natalie part 1 ''' [[File:Dreaming.jpg|Dreaming|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1'''. Natalie's recurring dream after her breakup leaves her feeling sad when she wakes]] Since her breakup, Natalie keeps having the same dream. She's been left behind somewhere, calling out to someone who never turns around (See Figure 1). When she wakes the details fade, but the feeling stays. Then one night, after her first good day in weeks, the dream changes: she stops calling out, notices a lit doorway, and walks through it. She wakes feeling better, and that afternoon she finally packs away his things. Did the dream help her move on, show that she was already moving on, or give her something to work with once awake? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Dream|Dreams]] are commonly reported following awakenings from [[w:Rapid eye movement sleep|rapid eye movement (REM) sleep]] (Solms, 2000), and REM sleep has been characterised as "overnight therapy" (Walker & van der Helm, 2009, p. 731). However, whether dreams actively contribute to emotional processing or simply reflect processes occurring elsewhere remains a subject of debate. The answer has practical implications: if dreams facilitate healing, distressing dreams may be part of recovery; if dreams only mirror emotional states, they may indicate when interventions are needed while awake. Three key terms keep these possibilities apart. ''Emotional processing'' refers to overnight changes in the retention or intensity if emotional memories. [[w:Emotional self-regulation|''Emotion regulation'']] is any process, deliberate or automatic, that alters the trajectory of an emotional response (Gross, 2015). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|''Coping'']] involves the cognitive and behavourial strategies individuals use to manage stressful situations, and is considered adaptive only when it is contextually appropriate and leads to improved outcomes (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). Notably, a dream may reflect emotional processing without regulating emotions, and may alleviate feelings without necessarily improving coping strategies. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} '''Focus questions''' * How do REM sleep and dreaming each contribute to overnight emotional processing? * What do competing theories propose dreams do with emotion? * How is dream emotion related to the way people cope while awake? * How can people work with emotional dreams to support coping? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == How do REM sleep and dreaming each contribute to overnight emotional processing? == REM sleep is a brain state, marked by rapid eye movements, an active brain, and a paralysed body. Dreaming is a conscious experience. Because the two usually coincide, findings about one are easily attributed to the other. ===REM sleep and emotional memories === The ''sleep to forget, sleep to remember'' model proposes that the brain replays recent emotional memories during REM sleep while [[wikipedia:Norepinephrine|noradrenaline]], a chemical messenger that drives arousal, is low (Walker & van der Helm, 2009). Replay in this calm state should keep a memory's content while weakening its emotional charge, so that last month's argument is remembered clearly but no longer makes the heart race. The model makes two predictions: emotional memories should be retained better after sleep, and ''emotional reactivity'', the strength of the response when the memory returns, should fall. If the charge persists, the process repeats on later nights, which may explain recurring dreams like Natalie's. Early brain imaging seemed to confirm the second prediction. When 34 participants viewed emotional pictures twice, 12 hours apart, responses in the [[w:Amygdala|amygdala]], a threat-detecting region, fell in those who slept between viewings and rose in those who stayed awake (van der Helm et al, 2011). However, low noradrenaline was inferred from brain waves, not measured directly. Broader evidence has been less supportive. A [[w:Meta-analysis|meta-analysis]] found no reliable change in bodlily reactions to negative pictures after sleep, although its five studies were too few to rule an effect in or out. People also rated negative pictures as more arousing after sleep, the opposite of "sleep to forget" (Lipinska et al., 2022). Removing REM sleep would be a better test, but it requires repeatdetly waking people, which stresses them, disrupts other sleep stages, and can itself cause low mood. Research therefore supports the "remember" half of the model better than the "forget" half (Pesonen et al., 2024), leaving the emotion role of REM sleep unconfirmed rather than disproven. ===What dreaming adds === Dreaming is more than REM sleep in disguise: it can stop after brain damage while REM sleep continues, and some dreams occur outside REM sleep (Solms, 2000). Only one study measured both. Lara-Carrasco et al. (2009) partly deprived some participants of REM sleep, collected their dreams, and had them rate negative pictures in the evening and next morning. Contrary to the model, less REM sleep went with a larger drop in arousal, whereas a less negative final dream went with finding the pictures less unpleasant by morning. REM sleep and emotion thus tracked different parts of the response, suggesting that dreaming contributes something of its own. A lingering negative dream could have influenced the morning ratings, although the hour that has passed made this less likely. Even so, the design cannot show whether the dream produced the overnight change or reflected it, which is exactly where the [[#What do competing theories propose dreams do with emotion?|theories]] disagree. {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|11}}}|title=Quiz}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best summarises the evidence on REM sleep? |type="()"} - REM sleep reliably reduces the emotional intensity of upsetting memories + REM sleep may help keep emotional memories, but evidence that it reduces their intensity is inconclusive </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == What do competing theories propose dreams do with emotion? == All three leading theories accept that waking emotion shapes dream emotion, but they disagree about what dream emotion does next and, crucially, over what timescale (Sikka et al., 2022; see Table 1). {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;" |+ style="text-align:left;" | '''Table 1'''<br />''Three theories of what dreams do with emotion'' |- ! scope="col" | ! scope="col" |Continuity hypothesis (Domhoff, 2019) ! scope="col" |Fear extinction theory (Nielson & Levin, 2007) ! scope="col" |Mood regulation theory (Cartwright et al., 1998) |- ! scope="row" |Core claim |Dreams simulate current concerns |Dreams place fear memories in safe new contexts |Dreams work through low mood over the full night |- ! scope="row" |Natalie's recurring dream means |She is still preoccupied with the loss |Extinction under heavy emotional load |Regulation not yet complete |- ! scope="row" |Main prediction |Dream emotion carries into the next morning |Fear gradually decreases |Mood is better by morning, if it was low |- ! scope="row" |Timescale |Immediate |Weeks, between people |One night |} === Continuity hypothesis === The continuity hypothesis holds that dreams dramatise whatever currently concerns the dreamer. In Domhoff's (2019) neurocognitive version, dreaming is an "embodied simulation" (p. 265) produced by the [[w:Default mode network|default mode network]], the brain network that also supports daydreaming. According to this view, Natalie's dream portrays her loss without repairing it, much as daydreaming about an ex-partner would. Domhoff concludes that an emotion-regulating function "remains highly unliklely, and at best inconclusive, after decades of research studies' (p.287), noting that a quarter or more of REM dream reports contain no emotion. The theory is parsimonious, but "mirroring" fits almost any link between dreams and waking life, so it can only be told apart from a functional theory when dream emotion predicts something that a waking mood alone does not. ===Fear extinction theory === [[w:Extinction (psychology)|Extinction]] occurs when a feared cue is met repeatedly without harm, so that a new safety memory forms and competes with the fear memory rather than erasing it. Nielson and Levin (2007) propose that dreams do this offline by recombining fragments of fear memories with safe, unrelated material. In their example, a dream of a dark alley shifts when "suddenly i found myself in a brightly lit street" (p.302), erasing the growing fear, much like Natalie's lit doorway. Two factors shape the outcome. ''Affect load'' is a state: the combined weight of recent stress on a person's capacity to regulate emotion. ''Affect distress'' is a trait: a long-standing tendency to react to emotional material with heightened distress (Nielson & Levin, 2007, p. 303). Bad dreams and nightmares lie on a continuum, and nightmares signal that extinction is struggling under heavy load, especially when affect distress is high. Natalie's recurring dream therefore reflects heavy load after the breakup, not a broken process. Because extinction is gradual, a frightening dream need not bring relief the next day, yet people whose dreams regularly engage fear should regulate better over weeks. The authors call the model "highly testable" (p. 304). In practice, though, recovery after a frightening dream can be read as extinction working and distress as extinction overloaded. Unless a successful dream is defined before results are known, almost any outcome can be accommodated. ===Mood regulation theory === Mood regulation theory proposes that successive REM dreams across one night work through low mood, shifting from negative towards positive emotion. Cartwright et al. (1998) tested this in 60 students without depression. Depressed mood fell overnight, and lower mood before sleep predicted a more negative first dream. Only the 10 students with the lowest pre-sleep mood showed the predicted sequence, with negative dreams early and more positive dreams later. The authors therefore proposed a threshold: dreams moderate mood only when unhappiness is "at lest modest" (p. 7). The threshold both protects and limits the theory. It explains why studies of contented people find little, but the core pattern rested on 10 people and was not formally tested, and Kramer's group, who first proposed the theory, once failed to replicate their own effect (Nielson & Levin, 2007). Mood also improved when REM periods were interrupted, so overnight relief did not depend on undisturbed dreaming. In short, mood regulation predicts relief by morning, continuity immediate carry-over, and fear extinction that builds over weeks. Waking mood and coping provide the tests. == How is dream emotion related to the way people cope while awake? == For Gross (2015), the defining feature of emotion regulation is "the activation of a goal to influence the emotion trajectory" (p. 5), a goal that can operate implicitly. A dream has no obvious goal, so any regulation it achieves must be implicit, and the coping question is whether its effects reach waking life. ''Within-person'' comparisons ask whether a persons worse negative dreams after followed by worse days, and ''between-person'' comparisons whether people who generally dream one way also cope differently. ===Next-morning mood === For five days, 40 adults rated their dream emotion and morning mood, then viewed negative pictures, sometimes while trying to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Cognitive strategies and emotion regulation|reappraise]] them (Sikka et al., 2022). After more negative dreams, mornings felt worse. Yet dream emotion predicted neither how strongly people reacted to the pictures nor how well they regulated, and [[w:Bayes factor|Bayesian analyses]] strongly favoured no relationship. Across 4,715 days from 536 adults, frightening dreams were likewise followed by about 7% more negative morning mood (Barber et al., 2026). Dreams that mixed fear with joy, however, were followed by mornings more often free of negative mood. ===Comparing people === Between people, the pattern reverses. People with more fearful dreams on average reported more adaptive regulation strategies, such as reappraisal and acceptance, even after accounting for [[w:Neuroticism|neuroticism]], which was also linked to fearful dreaming (Barber et al., 2026). In 89 adults who kept a week-long dream diary, more dream fear went with calmer brain responses to frightening pictures: weaker amygdala activity and stronger activity in a regulating prefrontal region (Sterpenich et al., 2020). Agreement across self-rport and brain measures makes the credible, and it fits fear extinctions slow, trait-level prediction. However, the direction of influence is unclear, since good regulators may simply tolerate negative material better. Morning carry-over after frightening dreams was also stronger in good regulators (Barber et al., 2026). The authors suggest that these people may be more aware of their feelings, may reappraise the dream after waking (recognising it was only a dream), or may need a brief rise in negative feeling to desensitise, as in exposure therapy. The last two, they note, place regulation after waking, with the dream supplying material and the awake person doing the work. ===Dreaming through a real loss === Real loss offers the most demanding test. Cartwright et al. (2006) followed 30 adults going through a divorce, 20 of them depressed, collecting dreams from every REM period on three nights over 5 months. In those who later recovered from depression, dreams of the former spouse carried emotion, mostly negative, and were linked to other memories. Those who stayed depressed still dreamed of the spouse, but these dreams were largely flat and disconnected from other memories. recovery therefore accompanied dreams that engaged painfully with the loss rather than dreams that turned about positive, which fits fear extinction better than mood regulation. However, this comparison rested on six versus four people and was descriptive, and recovery from depression is an outcome, not a coping strategy. Coping itself has rarely been measured. Among 35 female undergraduates facing exams, those who dreamed about the exam reported less active problem-solving white awake, and waking reappraisal went with more problem-solving inside dreams (Delorne et al., 2002), suggesting that coping style influences dreams as much as the reverse. At every levell, dream emotion moves with feeling and adjustment, but because nobody was assigned a particular dream, none of these studies shows that dreams cause change. That requires [[#What does deliberately changing dreams dreams reveal about their role in adaptive coping?|changing dreams]] on purpose. {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|11}}}|title=Quiz}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {In the same person, what usually follows a night with a frightening dream? |type="()"} - Better emotion regulation the next day. + A somewhat worse morning mood. </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == What does deliberately changing dreams reveal about their role in adaptive coping? == The previous section showed that dream emotion moves with waking mood and coping, but not which drives which. Experiments can test this. If dreams do emotional work, changing a dream should change how someone feels, and the benefit should depend on the new dream actually occurring. ===Does changing a dream change how people feel?=== Dreams can be changed during sleep using sounds, smells, and touch, although reported success varies from 0% to about 80% (Salvesen et al, 2024). In one study, a sound paired with one of two evening tasks was replayed during REM sleep, and people dreamed more about the cued task. In an exploratory analysis, the more directly a task appeard in their dreams, the less negative they felt about it the next morning. This fits fear extinction theory, but the sound itself did not change their feelings, so a third factor (such as motivation) could explain both (Konkoly et al., 2025). In a clinical version, people with frequent [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nightmares and emotion|nightmares]] rehearsed a rewritten nightmare, and half heard a sound paired with the new ending during REM sleep. They had fewer nightmares and more joyful dreams than patients who heard an unpaired sound. Yet their dreams almost never contained the rehearsed ending, and their nightmare distress, sleep quality, and mood improved no more than the comparison group (Schwartz et al., 2022). sleep may strengthen what was practised while awake, but with only 36 patients, small differences could be missed. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Woman writing on a notebook with a pen.jpg|Woman writing on a notebook with a pen|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 2'''. Rewriting a recurring dreams ending is the core of image rehearsal therapy]] '''Case study: Natalie part 2''' During a stressful fortnight, the old dream returns and Natalie starts staying up late to avoid it. A psychologist suggests writing the dream down and giving it a new ending in which so she stops calling out and walks the other way, and rehearsing it every evening (see Figure 2). Within weeks the dream comes less often and bothers her less. Oddly, she cannot recall ever dreaming the new ending. So what helped? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Does the new ending need to be dreamed?=== Imagery rehearsal therapy, which rewrites and rehearses a nightmare, is recommended for [[w:Nightmare disorder|nightmare disorder]] (Morgenthaler et al., 2018), yet patients often improve without dreaming the new ending (Rousseau & Belleville, 2018). In fact re-imagining a nightmare exactly as it was reduced nightmares and distress about as much as rewriting it, compared with a waiting list (Kunze et al., 2017). This fits fear extinction, but with the safe re-exposure happening while awake. That trial could not show the two are equal, but in veterans with severe [[w:Post-traumatic stress disoder|PTSD]], therapy including imagery rehearsal also did no better than sleep-focused therapy without it (Cook et al., 2010; Harb et al., 2019). proposed reasons include a growing sense of control, changed beliefs about nightmares, and less avoidance, but few have been tested directly (Rousseau & Belleville, 2018). ===Is less distress the same as better coping?=== Natalie's late nights are an example of [[w:Avoidance coping|avoidance coping]], which is common with bad dreams and nightmares and may keep them going (Rousseau & Belleville, 2018). Writing down and rehearing the dream is closer to emotional approach coping: actively processing a feeling rather than escaping it (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). both are deliberate regulation while awake, not automatic processing during sleep (Gross, 2015). Less dream distress is not the same as adaptive coping, which requires better outcomes in the situation causing the stress (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). These trials measured nightmares, sleep, and symptom, not how people handled the problems behind their dreams, and involved frequent nightmares rather than sad dreams like Natalie's. Deliberately changing dreams therefore reveals more about waking coping than about dreaming. Dreams can be changed, but emotional benefits have not been shown to depend on the changed dream. The research cannot say what helped Natalie, but it points away from the new ending and towards what she did while awake:: facing the dream instead of staying up to avoid it. ==Conclusion== Natalie wondered whether the dream helped her move on, showed that she was moving on, or gave her something to work with. the evidence favours the last two. REM sleep may help keep emotional memories, but whether it softens them is unconfirmed. Dream emotion carries into the next morning, as continuity predicts, rather than changing it overnight, as mood regulation predicts. Fear extinction fits the slower patterns but has not passed its most direct tests, and experiments can change dreams, yet improvement has not been shown to depend on the changed dream. The most defensible conclusion is that dreams reflect emotional processing and supply material that people regulate and reappraise while awake. Natalie's lit doorway is most likely a sign of change already under way, and what helped was what she did with it after waking. Whether dreaming itself causes adaptive coping remains an open, testable question. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Take-home messages''' * A nights sleep does not reliably take the sting out of an upsetting memory. * A distressing dream shows what someone is carrying, not whether healing is happening. * Dreams about a loss that carry real feeling tend to accompany recovery, even when the feelings are painful. * For a recurring distressing dream, working with it while awake, by facing or rewriting it, is the best supported step. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Dreams and emotional problem-solving|Dreams and emotional problem-solving]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Nightmare disorder|Nightmare disorder]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nightmares and emotion|Nightmares and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==References== ==External links== * [https://www.sleepfoundation.org/nightmares/how-to-stop-having-nightmares How to prevent nightmares] (Sleep Foundation) * [https://shows.acast.com/sleep-science-pod/episodes/ep12-sleep-dreams-and-mental-health Sleep, dreams and mental health] (The Sleep Science Pod) * [https://www.media.mit.edu/projects/targeted-dream-incubation/overview/ Targeted dream incubation] (MIT Media Lab) * [https://theconversation.com/the-science-of-dreams-and-nightmares-what-is-going-on-in-our-brains-while-were-sleeping-210901 The science of dreams and nightmares – what is going on in our brains while we're sleeping?] (The Conversation) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Dreams]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] nk9hrhiqqm01x45nv7mbzuroxtabnec 2840774 2840765 2026-10-17T01:05:00Z ~2026-55607-17 3112804 /* How do REM sleep and dreaming each contribute to overnight emotional processing? */ Changed wording 2840774 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Dreams and emotional problem-solving:<br>How do REM dreams contribute to emotional processing and adaptive coping?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Case study: Natalie part 1 ''' [[File:Dreaming.jpg|Dreaming|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1'''. Natalie's recurring dream after her breakup leaves her feeling sad when she wakes]] Since her breakup, Natalie keeps having the same dream. She's been left behind somewhere, calling out to someone who never turns around (See Figure 1). When she wakes the details fade, but the feeling stays. Then one night, after her first good day in weeks, the dream changes: she stops calling out, notices a lit doorway, and walks through it. She wakes feeling better, and that afternoon she finally packs away his things. Did the dream help her move on, show that she was already moving on, or give her something to work with once awake? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Dream|Dreams]] are commonly reported following awakenings from [[w:Rapid eye movement sleep|rapid eye movement (REM) sleep]] (Solms, 2000), and REM sleep has been characterised as "overnight therapy" (Walker & van der Helm, 2009, p. 731). However, whether dreams actively contribute to emotional processing or simply reflect processes occurring elsewhere remains a subject of debate. The answer has practical implications: if dreams facilitate healing, distressing dreams may be part of recovery; if dreams only mirror emotional states, they may indicate when interventions are needed while awake. Three key terms keep these possibilities apart. ''Emotional processing'' refers to overnight changes in the retention or intensity if emotional memories. [[w:Emotional self-regulation|''Emotion regulation'']] is any process, deliberate or automatic, that alters the trajectory of an emotional response (Gross, 2015). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|''Coping'']] involves the cognitive and behavourial strategies individuals use to manage stressful situations, and is considered adaptive only when it is contextually appropriate and leads to improved outcomes (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). Notably, a dream may reflect emotional processing without regulating emotions, and may alleviate feelings without necessarily improving coping strategies. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} '''Focus questions''' * How do REM sleep and dreaming each contribute to overnight emotional processing? * What do competing theories propose dreams do with emotion? * How is dream emotion related to the way people cope while awake? * How can people work with emotional dreams to support coping? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == How do REM sleep and dreaming each contribute to overnight emotional processing? == REM sleep is a brain state characterised by rapid eye movements, heightened brain activity, and muscle paralysis. Dreaming is a conscious experience. Because the two typically coincide, research findings concerning one are often attributed to the other. ===REM sleep and emotional memories === The ''sleep to forget, sleep to remember'' model posits that the brain replays recent emotional memories during REM sleep when [[wikipedia:Norepinephrine|noradrenaline]], a neurotransmitter associated with arousal, is low (Walker & van der Helm, 2009). This replay in a physiologically calm state is hypothesized to preserve the content of a memory while diminishing its emotional intensity, allowing, for example, a past argument to be remembered clearly without making the heart race. The model predicts that emotional memories should be retained better following sleep, and that emotional reactivity upon recall should decrease. If the emotional charge persists after sleep, repeated replay across subsequent nights may occur, potentially explaining recurring dreams like Natalie's. Initial neuroimaging studies appeared to support the second prediction. In one study, 34 adults viewed emotional images twice, separated by a 12-hour interval. [[w:Amygdala|amygdala]] responses, which are associated with threat detection, decreased in participants who slept during the interval and increased in those who did not (van der Helm et al, 2011). However, low noradrenaline levels were inferred from brain wave patterns rather than measured directly. However, larger [[w:Meta-analysis|meta-analyses]] support neither prediction. Lipinska et al. (2019) examined 31 studies and found that sleep did not improve the retention of emotional memories more than neutral ones. Another synthesis of 24 studies reported no consistent effect of sleep on physiological responses to negative images, although only five studies assessed these measures. Additionally, participates rated negative images as ''more'' arousing after sleep (Lipinska et al., 2022). While selectively removing REM sleep would provide the most direct test, this approach is challenging because repeated awakenings cause stress and disrupt other sleep stages. The few human studies, if anything, suggest that emotional memories are retained more strongly with less REM sleep (Pesonen et al., 2024). The overnight-therapy function of REM sleep is therefore unconfirmed rather than disproven. ===What dreaming adds === Dreaming is more than REM sleep in disguise: it can stop after brain damage while REM sleep continues, and some dreams occur outside REM sleep (Solms, 2000). Only one study measured both. Lara-Carrasco et al. (2009) partly deprived some participants of REM sleep, collected their dreams, and had them rate negative pictures in the evening and next morning. Contrary to the model, less REM sleep went with a larger drop in arousal, whereas a less negative final dream went with finding the pictures less unpleasant by morning. REM sleep and emotion thus tracked different parts of the response, suggesting that dreaming contributes something of its own. A lingering negative dream could have influenced the morning ratings, although the hour that has passed made this less likely. Even so, the design cannot show whether the dream produced the overnight change or reflected it, which is exactly where the [[#What do competing theories propose dreams do with emotion?|theories]] disagree. {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|11}}}|title=Quiz}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best summarises the evidence on REM sleep? |type="()"} - REM sleep reliably reduces the emotional intensity of upsetting memories + REM sleep may help keep emotional memories, but evidence that it reduces their intensity is inconclusive </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == What do competing theories propose dreams do with emotion? == All three leading theories accept that waking emotion shapes dream emotion, but they disagree about what dream emotion does next and, crucially, over what timescale (Sikka et al., 2022; see Table 1). {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;" |+ style="text-align:left;" | '''Table 1'''<br />''Three theories of what dreams do with emotion'' |- ! scope="col" | ! scope="col" |Continuity hypothesis (Domhoff, 2019) ! scope="col" |Fear extinction theory (Nielson & Levin, 2007) ! scope="col" |Mood regulation theory (Cartwright et al., 1998) |- ! scope="row" |Core claim |Dreams simulate current concerns |Dreams place fear memories in safe new contexts |Dreams work through low mood over the full night |- ! scope="row" |Natalie's recurring dream means |She is still preoccupied with the loss |Extinction under heavy emotional load |Regulation not yet complete |- ! scope="row" |Main prediction |Dream emotion carries into the next morning |Fear gradually decreases |Mood is better by morning, if it was low |- ! scope="row" |Timescale |Immediate |Weeks, between people |One night |} === Continuity hypothesis === The continuity hypothesis holds that dreams dramatise whatever currently concerns the dreamer. In Domhoff's (2019) neurocognitive version, dreaming is an "embodied simulation" (p. 265) produced by the [[w:Default mode network|default mode network]], the brain network that also supports daydreaming. According to this view, Natalie's dream portrays her loss without repairing it, much as daydreaming about an ex-partner would. Domhoff concludes that an emotion-regulating function "remains highly unliklely, and at best inconclusive, after decades of research studies' (p.287), noting that a quarter or more of REM dream reports contain no emotion. The theory is parsimonious, but "mirroring" fits almost any link between dreams and waking life, so it can only be told apart from a functional theory when dream emotion predicts something that a waking mood alone does not. ===Fear extinction theory === [[w:Extinction (psychology)|Extinction]] occurs when a feared cue is met repeatedly without harm, so that a new safety memory forms and competes with the fear memory rather than erasing it. Nielson and Levin (2007) propose that dreams do this offline by recombining fragments of fear memories with safe, unrelated material. In their example, a dream of a dark alley shifts when "suddenly i found myself in a brightly lit street" (p.302), erasing the growing fear, much like Natalie's lit doorway. Two factors shape the outcome. ''Affect load'' is a state: the combined weight of recent stress on a person's capacity to regulate emotion. ''Affect distress'' is a trait: a long-standing tendency to react to emotional material with heightened distress (Nielson & Levin, 2007, p. 303). Bad dreams and nightmares lie on a continuum, and nightmares signal that extinction is struggling under heavy load, especially when affect distress is high. Natalie's recurring dream therefore reflects heavy load after the breakup, not a broken process. Because extinction is gradual, a frightening dream need not bring relief the next day, yet people whose dreams regularly engage fear should regulate better over weeks. The authors call the model "highly testable" (p. 304). In practice, though, recovery after a frightening dream can be read as extinction working and distress as extinction overloaded. Unless a successful dream is defined before results are known, almost any outcome can be accommodated. ===Mood regulation theory === Mood regulation theory proposes that successive REM dreams across one night work through low mood, shifting from negative towards positive emotion. Cartwright et al. (1998) tested this in 60 students without depression. Depressed mood fell overnight, and lower mood before sleep predicted a more negative first dream. Only the 10 students with the lowest pre-sleep mood showed the predicted sequence, with negative dreams early and more positive dreams later. The authors therefore proposed a threshold: dreams moderate mood only when unhappiness is "at lest modest" (p. 7). The threshold both protects and limits the theory. It explains why studies of contented people find little, but the core pattern rested on 10 people and was not formally tested, and Kramer's group, who first proposed the theory, once failed to replicate their own effect (Nielson & Levin, 2007). Mood also improved when REM periods were interrupted, so overnight relief did not depend on undisturbed dreaming. In short, mood regulation predicts relief by morning, continuity immediate carry-over, and fear extinction that builds over weeks. Waking mood and coping provide the tests. == How is dream emotion related to the way people cope while awake? == For Gross (2015), the defining feature of emotion regulation is "the activation of a goal to influence the emotion trajectory" (p. 5), a goal that can operate implicitly. A dream has no obvious goal, so any regulation it achieves must be implicit, and the coping question is whether its effects reach waking life. ''Within-person'' comparisons ask whether a persons worse negative dreams after followed by worse days, and ''between-person'' comparisons whether people who generally dream one way also cope differently. ===Next-morning mood === For five days, 40 adults rated their dream emotion and morning mood, then viewed negative pictures, sometimes while trying to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Cognitive strategies and emotion regulation|reappraise]] them (Sikka et al., 2022). After more negative dreams, mornings felt worse. Yet dream emotion predicted neither how strongly people reacted to the pictures nor how well they regulated, and [[w:Bayes factor|Bayesian analyses]] strongly favoured no relationship. Across 4,715 days from 536 adults, frightening dreams were likewise followed by about 7% more negative morning mood (Barber et al., 2026). Dreams that mixed fear with joy, however, were followed by mornings more often free of negative mood. ===Comparing people === Between people, the pattern reverses. People with more fearful dreams on average reported more adaptive regulation strategies, such as reappraisal and acceptance, even after accounting for [[w:Neuroticism|neuroticism]], which was also linked to fearful dreaming (Barber et al., 2026). In 89 adults who kept a week-long dream diary, more dream fear went with calmer brain responses to frightening pictures: weaker amygdala activity and stronger activity in a regulating prefrontal region (Sterpenich et al., 2020). Agreement across self-rport and brain measures makes the credible, and it fits fear extinctions slow, trait-level prediction. However, the direction of influence is unclear, since good regulators may simply tolerate negative material better. Morning carry-over after frightening dreams was also stronger in good regulators (Barber et al., 2026). The authors suggest that these people may be more aware of their feelings, may reappraise the dream after waking (recognising it was only a dream), or may need a brief rise in negative feeling to desensitise, as in exposure therapy. The last two, they note, place regulation after waking, with the dream supplying material and the awake person doing the work. ===Dreaming through a real loss === Real loss offers the most demanding test. Cartwright et al. (2006) followed 30 adults going through a divorce, 20 of them depressed, collecting dreams from every REM period on three nights over 5 months. In those who later recovered from depression, dreams of the former spouse carried emotion, mostly negative, and were linked to other memories. Those who stayed depressed still dreamed of the spouse, but these dreams were largely flat and disconnected from other memories. recovery therefore accompanied dreams that engaged painfully with the loss rather than dreams that turned about positive, which fits fear extinction better than mood regulation. However, this comparison rested on six versus four people and was descriptive, and recovery from depression is an outcome, not a coping strategy. Coping itself has rarely been measured. Among 35 female undergraduates facing exams, those who dreamed about the exam reported less active problem-solving white awake, and waking reappraisal went with more problem-solving inside dreams (Delorne et al., 2002), suggesting that coping style influences dreams as much as the reverse. At every levell, dream emotion moves with feeling and adjustment, but because nobody was assigned a particular dream, none of these studies shows that dreams cause change. That requires [[#What does deliberately changing dreams dreams reveal about their role in adaptive coping?|changing dreams]] on purpose. {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|11}}}|title=Quiz}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {In the same person, what usually follows a night with a frightening dream? |type="()"} - Better emotion regulation the next day. + A somewhat worse morning mood. </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == What does deliberately changing dreams reveal about their role in adaptive coping? == The previous section showed that dream emotion moves with waking mood and coping, but not which drives which. Experiments can test this. If dreams do emotional work, changing a dream should change how someone feels, and the benefit should depend on the new dream actually occurring. ===Does changing a dream change how people feel?=== Dreams can be changed during sleep using sounds, smells, and touch, although reported success varies from 0% to about 80% (Salvesen et al, 2024). In one study, a sound paired with one of two evening tasks was replayed during REM sleep, and people dreamed more about the cued task. In an exploratory analysis, the more directly a task appeard in their dreams, the less negative they felt about it the next morning. This fits fear extinction theory, but the sound itself did not change their feelings, so a third factor (such as motivation) could explain both (Konkoly et al., 2025). In a clinical version, people with frequent [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nightmares and emotion|nightmares]] rehearsed a rewritten nightmare, and half heard a sound paired with the new ending during REM sleep. They had fewer nightmares and more joyful dreams than patients who heard an unpaired sound. Yet their dreams almost never contained the rehearsed ending, and their nightmare distress, sleep quality, and mood improved no more than the comparison group (Schwartz et al., 2022). sleep may strengthen what was practised while awake, but with only 36 patients, small differences could be missed. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Woman writing on a notebook with a pen.jpg|Woman writing on a notebook with a pen|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 2'''. Rewriting a recurring dreams ending is the core of image rehearsal therapy]] '''Case study: Natalie part 2''' During a stressful fortnight, the old dream returns and Natalie starts staying up late to avoid it. A psychologist suggests writing the dream down and giving it a new ending in which so she stops calling out and walks the other way, and rehearsing it every evening (see Figure 2). Within weeks the dream comes less often and bothers her less. Oddly, she cannot recall ever dreaming the new ending. So what helped? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Does the new ending need to be dreamed?=== Imagery rehearsal therapy, which rewrites and rehearses a nightmare, is recommended for [[w:Nightmare disorder|nightmare disorder]] (Morgenthaler et al., 2018), yet patients often improve without dreaming the new ending (Rousseau & Belleville, 2018). In fact re-imagining a nightmare exactly as it was reduced nightmares and distress about as much as rewriting it, compared with a waiting list (Kunze et al., 2017). This fits fear extinction, but with the safe re-exposure happening while awake. That trial could not show the two are equal, but in veterans with severe [[w:Post-traumatic stress disoder|PTSD]], therapy including imagery rehearsal also did no better than sleep-focused therapy without it (Cook et al., 2010; Harb et al., 2019). proposed reasons include a growing sense of control, changed beliefs about nightmares, and less avoidance, but few have been tested directly (Rousseau & Belleville, 2018). ===Is less distress the same as better coping?=== Natalie's late nights are an example of [[w:Avoidance coping|avoidance coping]], which is common with bad dreams and nightmares and may keep them going (Rousseau & Belleville, 2018). Writing down and rehearing the dream is closer to emotional approach coping: actively processing a feeling rather than escaping it (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). both are deliberate regulation while awake, not automatic processing during sleep (Gross, 2015). Less dream distress is not the same as adaptive coping, which requires better outcomes in the situation causing the stress (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). These trials measured nightmares, sleep, and symptom, not how people handled the problems behind their dreams, and involved frequent nightmares rather than sad dreams like Natalie's. Deliberately changing dreams therefore reveals more about waking coping than about dreaming. Dreams can be changed, but emotional benefits have not been shown to depend on the changed dream. The research cannot say what helped Natalie, but it points away from the new ending and towards what she did while awake:: facing the dream instead of staying up to avoid it. ==Conclusion== Natalie wondered whether the dream helped her move on, showed that she was moving on, or gave her something to work with. the evidence favours the last two. REM sleep may help keep emotional memories, but whether it softens them is unconfirmed. Dream emotion carries into the next morning, as continuity predicts, rather than changing it overnight, as mood regulation predicts. Fear extinction fits the slower patterns but has not passed its most direct tests, and experiments can change dreams, yet improvement has not been shown to depend on the changed dream. The most defensible conclusion is that dreams reflect emotional processing and supply material that people regulate and reappraise while awake. Natalie's lit doorway is most likely a sign of change already under way, and what helped was what she did with it after waking. Whether dreaming itself causes adaptive coping remains an open, testable question. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Take-home messages''' * A nights sleep does not reliably take the sting out of an upsetting memory. * A distressing dream shows what someone is carrying, not whether healing is happening. * Dreams about a loss that carry real feeling tend to accompany recovery, even when the feelings are painful. * For a recurring distressing dream, working with it while awake, by facing or rewriting it, is the best supported step. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Dreams and emotional problem-solving|Dreams and emotional problem-solving]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Nightmare disorder|Nightmare disorder]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nightmares and emotion|Nightmares and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==References== ==External links== * [https://www.sleepfoundation.org/nightmares/how-to-stop-having-nightmares How to prevent nightmares] (Sleep Foundation) * [https://shows.acast.com/sleep-science-pod/episodes/ep12-sleep-dreams-and-mental-health Sleep, dreams and mental health] (The Sleep Science Pod) * [https://www.media.mit.edu/projects/targeted-dream-incubation/overview/ Targeted dream incubation] (MIT Media Lab) * [https://theconversation.com/the-science-of-dreams-and-nightmares-what-is-going-on-in-our-brains-while-were-sleeping-210901 The science of dreams and nightmares – what is going on in our brains while we're sleeping?] (The Conversation) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Dreams]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] hdgwzokttoess5xqpeu2smuvafgvr0x 2840775 2840774 2026-10-17T01:05:56Z ~2026-55607-17 3112804 /* REM sleep and emotional memories */ 2840775 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Dreams and emotional problem-solving:<br>How do REM dreams contribute to emotional processing and adaptive coping?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Case study: Natalie part 1 ''' [[File:Dreaming.jpg|Dreaming|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1'''. Natalie's recurring dream after her breakup leaves her feeling sad when she wakes]] Since her breakup, Natalie keeps having the same dream. She's been left behind somewhere, calling out to someone who never turns around (See Figure 1). When she wakes the details fade, but the feeling stays. Then one night, after her first good day in weeks, the dream changes: she stops calling out, notices a lit doorway, and walks through it. She wakes feeling better, and that afternoon she finally packs away his things. Did the dream help her move on, show that she was already moving on, or give her something to work with once awake? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Dream|Dreams]] are commonly reported following awakenings from [[w:Rapid eye movement sleep|rapid eye movement (REM) sleep]] (Solms, 2000), and REM sleep has been characterised as "overnight therapy" (Walker & van der Helm, 2009, p. 731). However, whether dreams actively contribute to emotional processing or simply reflect processes occurring elsewhere remains a subject of debate. The answer has practical implications: if dreams facilitate healing, distressing dreams may be part of recovery; if dreams only mirror emotional states, they may indicate when interventions are needed while awake. Three key terms keep these possibilities apart. ''Emotional processing'' refers to overnight changes in the retention or intensity if emotional memories. [[w:Emotional self-regulation|''Emotion regulation'']] is any process, deliberate or automatic, that alters the trajectory of an emotional response (Gross, 2015). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|''Coping'']] involves the cognitive and behavourial strategies individuals use to manage stressful situations, and is considered adaptive only when it is contextually appropriate and leads to improved outcomes (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). Notably, a dream may reflect emotional processing without regulating emotions, and may alleviate feelings without necessarily improving coping strategies. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} '''Focus questions''' * How do REM sleep and dreaming each contribute to overnight emotional processing? * What do competing theories propose dreams do with emotion? * How is dream emotion related to the way people cope while awake? * How can people work with emotional dreams to support coping? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == How do REM sleep and dreaming each contribute to overnight emotional processing? == REM sleep is a brain state characterised by rapid eye movements, heightened brain activity, and muscle paralysis. Dreaming is a conscious experience. Because the two typically coincide, research findings concerning one are often attributed to the other. ===REM sleep and emotional memories === The ''sleep to forget, sleep to remember'' model posits that the brain replays recent emotional memories during REM sleep when [[wikipedia:Norepinephrine|noradrenaline]], a neurotransmitter associated with arousal, is low (Walker & van der Helm, 2009). This replay in a physiologically calm state is hypothesized to preserve the content of a memory while diminishing its emotional intensity, allowing, for example, a past argument to be remembered clearly without making the heart race. The model predicts that emotional memories should be retained better following sleep, and that emotional reactivity upon recall should decrease. If the emotional charge persists after sleep, repeated replay across subsequent nights may occur, potentially explaining recurring dreams like Natalie's. Initial neuroimaging studies appeared to support the second prediction. In one study, 34 adults viewed emotional images twice, separated by a 12-hour interval. [[w:Amygdala|amygdala]] responses, which are associated with threat detection, decreased in participants who slept during the interval and increased in those who did not (van der Helm et al, 2011). Although low noradrenaline levels were inferred from brain wave patterns rather than measured directly. However, larger [[w:Meta-analysis|meta-analyses]] support neither prediction. Lipinska et al. (2019) examined 31 studies and found that sleep did not improve the retention of emotional memories more than neutral ones. Another synthesis of 24 studies reported no consistent effect of sleep on physiological responses to negative images, although only five studies assessed these measures. Additionally, participates rated negative images as ''more'' arousing after sleep (Lipinska et al., 2022). While selectively removing REM sleep would provide the most direct test, this approach is challenging because repeated awakenings cause stress and disrupt other sleep stages. The few human studies, if anything, suggest that emotional memories are retained more strongly with less REM sleep (Pesonen et al., 2024). The overnight-therapy function of REM sleep is therefore unconfirmed rather than disproven. ===What dreaming adds === Dreaming is more than REM sleep in disguise: it can stop after brain damage while REM sleep continues, and some dreams occur outside REM sleep (Solms, 2000). Only one study measured both. Lara-Carrasco et al. (2009) partly deprived some participants of REM sleep, collected their dreams, and had them rate negative pictures in the evening and next morning. Contrary to the model, less REM sleep went with a larger drop in arousal, whereas a less negative final dream went with finding the pictures less unpleasant by morning. REM sleep and emotion thus tracked different parts of the response, suggesting that dreaming contributes something of its own. A lingering negative dream could have influenced the morning ratings, although the hour that has passed made this less likely. Even so, the design cannot show whether the dream produced the overnight change or reflected it, which is exactly where the [[#What do competing theories propose dreams do with emotion?|theories]] disagree. {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|11}}}|title=Quiz}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best summarises the evidence on REM sleep? |type="()"} - REM sleep reliably reduces the emotional intensity of upsetting memories + REM sleep may help keep emotional memories, but evidence that it reduces their intensity is inconclusive </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == What do competing theories propose dreams do with emotion? == All three leading theories accept that waking emotion shapes dream emotion, but they disagree about what dream emotion does next and, crucially, over what timescale (Sikka et al., 2022; see Table 1). {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;" |+ style="text-align:left;" | '''Table 1'''<br />''Three theories of what dreams do with emotion'' |- ! scope="col" | ! scope="col" |Continuity hypothesis (Domhoff, 2019) ! scope="col" |Fear extinction theory (Nielson & Levin, 2007) ! scope="col" |Mood regulation theory (Cartwright et al., 1998) |- ! scope="row" |Core claim |Dreams simulate current concerns |Dreams place fear memories in safe new contexts |Dreams work through low mood over the full night |- ! scope="row" |Natalie's recurring dream means |She is still preoccupied with the loss |Extinction under heavy emotional load |Regulation not yet complete |- ! scope="row" |Main prediction |Dream emotion carries into the next morning |Fear gradually decreases |Mood is better by morning, if it was low |- ! scope="row" |Timescale |Immediate |Weeks, between people |One night |} === Continuity hypothesis === The continuity hypothesis holds that dreams dramatise whatever currently concerns the dreamer. In Domhoff's (2019) neurocognitive version, dreaming is an "embodied simulation" (p. 265) produced by the [[w:Default mode network|default mode network]], the brain network that also supports daydreaming. According to this view, Natalie's dream portrays her loss without repairing it, much as daydreaming about an ex-partner would. Domhoff concludes that an emotion-regulating function "remains highly unliklely, and at best inconclusive, after decades of research studies' (p.287), noting that a quarter or more of REM dream reports contain no emotion. The theory is parsimonious, but "mirroring" fits almost any link between dreams and waking life, so it can only be told apart from a functional theory when dream emotion predicts something that a waking mood alone does not. ===Fear extinction theory === [[w:Extinction (psychology)|Extinction]] occurs when a feared cue is met repeatedly without harm, so that a new safety memory forms and competes with the fear memory rather than erasing it. Nielson and Levin (2007) propose that dreams do this offline by recombining fragments of fear memories with safe, unrelated material. In their example, a dream of a dark alley shifts when "suddenly i found myself in a brightly lit street" (p.302), erasing the growing fear, much like Natalie's lit doorway. Two factors shape the outcome. ''Affect load'' is a state: the combined weight of recent stress on a person's capacity to regulate emotion. ''Affect distress'' is a trait: a long-standing tendency to react to emotional material with heightened distress (Nielson & Levin, 2007, p. 303). Bad dreams and nightmares lie on a continuum, and nightmares signal that extinction is struggling under heavy load, especially when affect distress is high. Natalie's recurring dream therefore reflects heavy load after the breakup, not a broken process. Because extinction is gradual, a frightening dream need not bring relief the next day, yet people whose dreams regularly engage fear should regulate better over weeks. The authors call the model "highly testable" (p. 304). In practice, though, recovery after a frightening dream can be read as extinction working and distress as extinction overloaded. Unless a successful dream is defined before results are known, almost any outcome can be accommodated. ===Mood regulation theory === Mood regulation theory proposes that successive REM dreams across one night work through low mood, shifting from negative towards positive emotion. Cartwright et al. (1998) tested this in 60 students without depression. Depressed mood fell overnight, and lower mood before sleep predicted a more negative first dream. Only the 10 students with the lowest pre-sleep mood showed the predicted sequence, with negative dreams early and more positive dreams later. The authors therefore proposed a threshold: dreams moderate mood only when unhappiness is "at lest modest" (p. 7). The threshold both protects and limits the theory. It explains why studies of contented people find little, but the core pattern rested on 10 people and was not formally tested, and Kramer's group, who first proposed the theory, once failed to replicate their own effect (Nielson & Levin, 2007). Mood also improved when REM periods were interrupted, so overnight relief did not depend on undisturbed dreaming. In short, mood regulation predicts relief by morning, continuity immediate carry-over, and fear extinction that builds over weeks. Waking mood and coping provide the tests. == How is dream emotion related to the way people cope while awake? == For Gross (2015), the defining feature of emotion regulation is "the activation of a goal to influence the emotion trajectory" (p. 5), a goal that can operate implicitly. A dream has no obvious goal, so any regulation it achieves must be implicit, and the coping question is whether its effects reach waking life. ''Within-person'' comparisons ask whether a persons worse negative dreams after followed by worse days, and ''between-person'' comparisons whether people who generally dream one way also cope differently. ===Next-morning mood === For five days, 40 adults rated their dream emotion and morning mood, then viewed negative pictures, sometimes while trying to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Cognitive strategies and emotion regulation|reappraise]] them (Sikka et al., 2022). After more negative dreams, mornings felt worse. Yet dream emotion predicted neither how strongly people reacted to the pictures nor how well they regulated, and [[w:Bayes factor|Bayesian analyses]] strongly favoured no relationship. Across 4,715 days from 536 adults, frightening dreams were likewise followed by about 7% more negative morning mood (Barber et al., 2026). Dreams that mixed fear with joy, however, were followed by mornings more often free of negative mood. ===Comparing people === Between people, the pattern reverses. People with more fearful dreams on average reported more adaptive regulation strategies, such as reappraisal and acceptance, even after accounting for [[w:Neuroticism|neuroticism]], which was also linked to fearful dreaming (Barber et al., 2026). In 89 adults who kept a week-long dream diary, more dream fear went with calmer brain responses to frightening pictures: weaker amygdala activity and stronger activity in a regulating prefrontal region (Sterpenich et al., 2020). Agreement across self-rport and brain measures makes the credible, and it fits fear extinctions slow, trait-level prediction. However, the direction of influence is unclear, since good regulators may simply tolerate negative material better. Morning carry-over after frightening dreams was also stronger in good regulators (Barber et al., 2026). The authors suggest that these people may be more aware of their feelings, may reappraise the dream after waking (recognising it was only a dream), or may need a brief rise in negative feeling to desensitise, as in exposure therapy. The last two, they note, place regulation after waking, with the dream supplying material and the awake person doing the work. ===Dreaming through a real loss === Real loss offers the most demanding test. Cartwright et al. (2006) followed 30 adults going through a divorce, 20 of them depressed, collecting dreams from every REM period on three nights over 5 months. In those who later recovered from depression, dreams of the former spouse carried emotion, mostly negative, and were linked to other memories. Those who stayed depressed still dreamed of the spouse, but these dreams were largely flat and disconnected from other memories. recovery therefore accompanied dreams that engaged painfully with the loss rather than dreams that turned about positive, which fits fear extinction better than mood regulation. However, this comparison rested on six versus four people and was descriptive, and recovery from depression is an outcome, not a coping strategy. Coping itself has rarely been measured. Among 35 female undergraduates facing exams, those who dreamed about the exam reported less active problem-solving white awake, and waking reappraisal went with more problem-solving inside dreams (Delorne et al., 2002), suggesting that coping style influences dreams as much as the reverse. At every levell, dream emotion moves with feeling and adjustment, but because nobody was assigned a particular dream, none of these studies shows that dreams cause change. That requires [[#What does deliberately changing dreams dreams reveal about their role in adaptive coping?|changing dreams]] on purpose. {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|11}}}|title=Quiz}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {In the same person, what usually follows a night with a frightening dream? |type="()"} - Better emotion regulation the next day. + A somewhat worse morning mood. </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == What does deliberately changing dreams reveal about their role in adaptive coping? == The previous section showed that dream emotion moves with waking mood and coping, but not which drives which. Experiments can test this. If dreams do emotional work, changing a dream should change how someone feels, and the benefit should depend on the new dream actually occurring. ===Does changing a dream change how people feel?=== Dreams can be changed during sleep using sounds, smells, and touch, although reported success varies from 0% to about 80% (Salvesen et al, 2024). In one study, a sound paired with one of two evening tasks was replayed during REM sleep, and people dreamed more about the cued task. In an exploratory analysis, the more directly a task appeard in their dreams, the less negative they felt about it the next morning. This fits fear extinction theory, but the sound itself did not change their feelings, so a third factor (such as motivation) could explain both (Konkoly et al., 2025). In a clinical version, people with frequent [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nightmares and emotion|nightmares]] rehearsed a rewritten nightmare, and half heard a sound paired with the new ending during REM sleep. They had fewer nightmares and more joyful dreams than patients who heard an unpaired sound. Yet their dreams almost never contained the rehearsed ending, and their nightmare distress, sleep quality, and mood improved no more than the comparison group (Schwartz et al., 2022). sleep may strengthen what was practised while awake, but with only 36 patients, small differences could be missed. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Woman writing on a notebook with a pen.jpg|Woman writing on a notebook with a pen|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 2'''. Rewriting a recurring dreams ending is the core of image rehearsal therapy]] '''Case study: Natalie part 2''' During a stressful fortnight, the old dream returns and Natalie starts staying up late to avoid it. A psychologist suggests writing the dream down and giving it a new ending in which so she stops calling out and walks the other way, and rehearsing it every evening (see Figure 2). Within weeks the dream comes less often and bothers her less. Oddly, she cannot recall ever dreaming the new ending. So what helped? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Does the new ending need to be dreamed?=== Imagery rehearsal therapy, which rewrites and rehearses a nightmare, is recommended for [[w:Nightmare disorder|nightmare disorder]] (Morgenthaler et al., 2018), yet patients often improve without dreaming the new ending (Rousseau & Belleville, 2018). In fact re-imagining a nightmare exactly as it was reduced nightmares and distress about as much as rewriting it, compared with a waiting list (Kunze et al., 2017). This fits fear extinction, but with the safe re-exposure happening while awake. That trial could not show the two are equal, but in veterans with severe [[w:Post-traumatic stress disoder|PTSD]], therapy including imagery rehearsal also did no better than sleep-focused therapy without it (Cook et al., 2010; Harb et al., 2019). proposed reasons include a growing sense of control, changed beliefs about nightmares, and less avoidance, but few have been tested directly (Rousseau & Belleville, 2018). ===Is less distress the same as better coping?=== Natalie's late nights are an example of [[w:Avoidance coping|avoidance coping]], which is common with bad dreams and nightmares and may keep them going (Rousseau & Belleville, 2018). Writing down and rehearing the dream is closer to emotional approach coping: actively processing a feeling rather than escaping it (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). both are deliberate regulation while awake, not automatic processing during sleep (Gross, 2015). Less dream distress is not the same as adaptive coping, which requires better outcomes in the situation causing the stress (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). These trials measured nightmares, sleep, and symptom, not how people handled the problems behind their dreams, and involved frequent nightmares rather than sad dreams like Natalie's. Deliberately changing dreams therefore reveals more about waking coping than about dreaming. Dreams can be changed, but emotional benefits have not been shown to depend on the changed dream. The research cannot say what helped Natalie, but it points away from the new ending and towards what she did while awake:: facing the dream instead of staying up to avoid it. ==Conclusion== Natalie wondered whether the dream helped her move on, showed that she was moving on, or gave her something to work with. the evidence favours the last two. REM sleep may help keep emotional memories, but whether it softens them is unconfirmed. Dream emotion carries into the next morning, as continuity predicts, rather than changing it overnight, as mood regulation predicts. Fear extinction fits the slower patterns but has not passed its most direct tests, and experiments can change dreams, yet improvement has not been shown to depend on the changed dream. The most defensible conclusion is that dreams reflect emotional processing and supply material that people regulate and reappraise while awake. Natalie's lit doorway is most likely a sign of change already under way, and what helped was what she did with it after waking. Whether dreaming itself causes adaptive coping remains an open, testable question. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Take-home messages''' * A nights sleep does not reliably take the sting out of an upsetting memory. * A distressing dream shows what someone is carrying, not whether healing is happening. * Dreams about a loss that carry real feeling tend to accompany recovery, even when the feelings are painful. * For a recurring distressing dream, working with it while awake, by facing or rewriting it, is the best supported step. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Dreams and emotional problem-solving|Dreams and emotional problem-solving]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Nightmare disorder|Nightmare disorder]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nightmares and emotion|Nightmares and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==References== ==External links== * [https://www.sleepfoundation.org/nightmares/how-to-stop-having-nightmares How to prevent nightmares] (Sleep Foundation) * [https://shows.acast.com/sleep-science-pod/episodes/ep12-sleep-dreams-and-mental-health Sleep, dreams and mental health] (The Sleep Science Pod) * [https://www.media.mit.edu/projects/targeted-dream-incubation/overview/ Targeted dream incubation] (MIT Media Lab) * [https://theconversation.com/the-science-of-dreams-and-nightmares-what-is-going-on-in-our-brains-while-were-sleeping-210901 The science of dreams and nightmares – what is going on in our brains while we're sleeping?] (The Conversation) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Dreams]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] q8ge6zpgw53z4blt85fi9nwzbxdcxgu 2840781 2840775 2026-10-17T01:28:05Z ~2026-55607-17 3112804 /* What dreaming adds */ changed wording 2840781 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Dreams and emotional problem-solving:<br>How do REM dreams contribute to emotional processing and adaptive coping?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Case study: Natalie part 1 ''' [[File:Dreaming.jpg|Dreaming|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1'''. Natalie's recurring dream after her breakup leaves her feeling sad when she wakes]] Since her breakup, Natalie keeps having the same dream. She's been left behind somewhere, calling out to someone who never turns around (See Figure 1). When she wakes the details fade, but the feeling stays. Then one night, after her first good day in weeks, the dream changes: she stops calling out, notices a lit doorway, and walks through it. She wakes feeling better, and that afternoon she finally packs away his things. Did the dream help her move on, show that she was already moving on, or give her something to work with once awake? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Dream|Dreams]] are commonly reported following awakenings from [[w:Rapid eye movement sleep|rapid eye movement (REM) sleep]] (Solms, 2000), and REM sleep has been characterised as "overnight therapy" (Walker & van der Helm, 2009, p. 731). However, whether dreams actively contribute to emotional processing or simply reflect processes occurring elsewhere remains a subject of debate. The answer has practical implications: if dreams facilitate healing, distressing dreams may be part of recovery; if dreams only mirror emotional states, they may indicate when interventions are needed while awake. Three key terms keep these possibilities apart. ''Emotional processing'' refers to overnight changes in the retention or intensity if emotional memories. [[w:Emotional self-regulation|''Emotion regulation'']] is any process, deliberate or automatic, that alters the trajectory of an emotional response (Gross, 2015). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|''Coping'']] involves the cognitive and behavourial strategies individuals use to manage stressful situations, and is considered adaptive only when it is contextually appropriate and leads to improved outcomes (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). Notably, a dream may reflect emotional processing without regulating emotions, and may alleviate feelings without necessarily improving coping strategies. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} '''Focus questions''' * How do REM sleep and dreaming each contribute to overnight emotional processing? * What do competing theories propose dreams do with emotion? * How is dream emotion related to the way people cope while awake? * How can people work with emotional dreams to support coping? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == How do REM sleep and dreaming each contribute to overnight emotional processing? == REM sleep is a brain state characterised by rapid eye movements, heightened brain activity, and muscle paralysis. Dreaming is a conscious experience. Because the two typically coincide, research findings concerning one are often attributed to the other. ===REM sleep and emotional memories === The ''sleep to forget, sleep to remember'' model posits that the brain replays recent emotional memories during REM sleep when [[wikipedia:Norepinephrine|noradrenaline]], a neurotransmitter associated with arousal, is low (Walker & van der Helm, 2009). This replay in a physiologically calm state is hypothesized to preserve the content of a memory while diminishing its emotional intensity, allowing, for example, a past argument to be remembered clearly without making the heart race. The model predicts that emotional memories should be retained better following sleep, and that emotional reactivity upon recall should decrease. If the emotional charge persists after sleep, repeated replay across subsequent nights may occur, potentially explaining recurring dreams like Natalie's. Initial neuroimaging studies appeared to support the second prediction. In one study, 34 adults viewed emotional images twice, separated by a 12-hour interval. [[w:Amygdala|amygdala]] responses, which are associated with threat detection, decreased in participants who slept during the interval and increased in those who did not (van der Helm et al, 2011). Although low noradrenaline levels were inferred from brain wave patterns rather than measured directly. However, larger [[w:Meta-analysis|meta-analyses]] support neither prediction. Lipinska et al. (2019) examined 31 studies and found that sleep did not improve the retention of emotional memories more than neutral ones. Another synthesis of 24 studies reported no consistent effect of sleep on physiological responses to negative images, although only five studies assessed these measures. Additionally, participates rated negative images as ''more'' arousing after sleep (Lipinska et al., 2022). While selectively removing REM sleep would provide the most direct test, this approach is challenging because repeated awakenings cause stress and disrupt other sleep stages. The few human studies, if anything, suggest that emotional memories are retained more strongly with less REM sleep (Pesonen et al., 2024). The overnight-therapy function of REM sleep is therefore unconfirmed rather than disproven. ===What does dreaming add? === Dreaming is not with REM sleep: it can cease following brain damage even when REM sleep continues, and some dreams occur outside of REM sleep (Solms, 2000). Only one study has systematically measured both phenomena. Lara-Carrasco et al. (2009) partly deprived about half of of their sample of 35 adults of REM sleep, collected dream reports, and had participants rate negative images in the evening and the following morning. reduced REM sleep was associated with a greater overnight decrease in arousal, contrary to the REM model. Meanwhile, participants whose final dream was less negative rated the images as less unpleasant the next morning. The authors had predicted the opposite outcome, that better-adjusted individuals would experience more negative dreams. Instead, the results align with the idea that emotion simply continuing from dream to morning, although the one-hour interval between awakening and rating may have shaped this relationship. REM sleep and dreaming appeared to correspond to different aspects of the emotional response. However, correlational findings cannot show whether dreams actively induce overnight changes or reflect them, which is exactly where the [[#What do competing theories propose dreams do with emotion?|theories]] disagree. {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|11}}}|title=Quiz}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best summarises the evidence on REM sleep? |type="()"} - REM sleep reliably reduces the emotional intensity of upsetting memories + REM sleep may help keep emotional memories, but evidence that it reduces their intensity is inconclusive </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == What do competing theories propose dreams do with emotion? == All three leading theories accept that waking emotion shapes dream emotion, but they disagree about what dream emotion does next and, crucially, over what timescale (Sikka et al., 2022; see Table 1). {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;" |+ style="text-align:left;" | '''Table 1'''<br />''Three theories of what dreams do with emotion'' |- ! scope="col" | ! scope="col" |Continuity hypothesis (Domhoff, 2019) ! scope="col" |Fear extinction theory (Nielson & Levin, 2007) ! scope="col" |Mood regulation theory (Cartwright et al., 1998) |- ! scope="row" |Core claim |Dreams simulate current concerns |Dreams place fear memories in safe new contexts |Dreams work through low mood over the full night |- ! scope="row" |Natalie's recurring dream means |She is still preoccupied with the loss |Extinction under heavy emotional load |Regulation not yet complete |- ! scope="row" |Main prediction |Dream emotion carries into the next morning |Fear gradually decreases |Mood is better by morning, if it was low |- ! scope="row" |Timescale |Immediate |Weeks, between people |One night |} === Continuity hypothesis === The continuity hypothesis holds that dreams dramatise whatever currently concerns the dreamer. In Domhoff's (2019) neurocognitive version, dreaming is an "embodied simulation" (p. 265) produced by the [[w:Default mode network|default mode network]], the brain network that also supports daydreaming. According to this view, Natalie's dream portrays her loss without repairing it, much as daydreaming about an ex-partner would. Domhoff concludes that an emotion-regulating function "remains highly unliklely, and at best inconclusive, after decades of research studies' (p.287), noting that a quarter or more of REM dream reports contain no emotion. The theory is parsimonious, but "mirroring" fits almost any link between dreams and waking life, so it can only be told apart from a functional theory when dream emotion predicts something that a waking mood alone does not. ===Fear extinction theory === [[w:Extinction (psychology)|Extinction]] occurs when a feared cue is met repeatedly without harm, so that a new safety memory forms and competes with the fear memory rather than erasing it. Nielson and Levin (2007) propose that dreams do this offline by recombining fragments of fear memories with safe, unrelated material. In their example, a dream of a dark alley shifts when "suddenly i found myself in a brightly lit street" (p.302), erasing the growing fear, much like Natalie's lit doorway. Two factors shape the outcome. ''Affect load'' is a state: the combined weight of recent stress on a person's capacity to regulate emotion. ''Affect distress'' is a trait: a long-standing tendency to react to emotional material with heightened distress (Nielson & Levin, 2007, p. 303). Bad dreams and nightmares lie on a continuum, and nightmares signal that extinction is struggling under heavy load, especially when affect distress is high. Natalie's recurring dream therefore reflects heavy load after the breakup, not a broken process. Because extinction is gradual, a frightening dream need not bring relief the next day, yet people whose dreams regularly engage fear should regulate better over weeks. The authors call the model "highly testable" (p. 304). In practice, though, recovery after a frightening dream can be read as extinction working and distress as extinction overloaded. Unless a successful dream is defined before results are known, almost any outcome can be accommodated. ===Mood regulation theory === Mood regulation theory proposes that successive REM dreams across one night work through low mood, shifting from negative towards positive emotion. Cartwright et al. (1998) tested this in 60 students without depression. Depressed mood fell overnight, and lower mood before sleep predicted a more negative first dream. Only the 10 students with the lowest pre-sleep mood showed the predicted sequence, with negative dreams early and more positive dreams later. The authors therefore proposed a threshold: dreams moderate mood only when unhappiness is "at lest modest" (p. 7). The threshold both protects and limits the theory. It explains why studies of contented people find little, but the core pattern rested on 10 people and was not formally tested, and Kramer's group, who first proposed the theory, once failed to replicate their own effect (Nielson & Levin, 2007). Mood also improved when REM periods were interrupted, so overnight relief did not depend on undisturbed dreaming. In short, mood regulation predicts relief by morning, continuity immediate carry-over, and fear extinction that builds over weeks. Waking mood and coping provide the tests. == How is dream emotion related to the way people cope while awake? == For Gross (2015), the defining feature of emotion regulation is "the activation of a goal to influence the emotion trajectory" (p. 5), a goal that can operate implicitly. A dream has no obvious goal, so any regulation it achieves must be implicit, and the coping question is whether its effects reach waking life. ''Within-person'' comparisons ask whether a persons worse negative dreams after followed by worse days, and ''between-person'' comparisons whether people who generally dream one way also cope differently. ===Next-morning mood === For five days, 40 adults rated their dream emotion and morning mood, then viewed negative pictures, sometimes while trying to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Cognitive strategies and emotion regulation|reappraise]] them (Sikka et al., 2022). After more negative dreams, mornings felt worse. Yet dream emotion predicted neither how strongly people reacted to the pictures nor how well they regulated, and [[w:Bayes factor|Bayesian analyses]] strongly favoured no relationship. Across 4,715 days from 536 adults, frightening dreams were likewise followed by about 7% more negative morning mood (Barber et al., 2026). Dreams that mixed fear with joy, however, were followed by mornings more often free of negative mood. ===Comparing people === Between people, the pattern reverses. People with more fearful dreams on average reported more adaptive regulation strategies, such as reappraisal and acceptance, even after accounting for [[w:Neuroticism|neuroticism]], which was also linked to fearful dreaming (Barber et al., 2026). In 89 adults who kept a week-long dream diary, more dream fear went with calmer brain responses to frightening pictures: weaker amygdala activity and stronger activity in a regulating prefrontal region (Sterpenich et al., 2020). Agreement across self-rport and brain measures makes the credible, and it fits fear extinctions slow, trait-level prediction. However, the direction of influence is unclear, since good regulators may simply tolerate negative material better. Morning carry-over after frightening dreams was also stronger in good regulators (Barber et al., 2026). The authors suggest that these people may be more aware of their feelings, may reappraise the dream after waking (recognising it was only a dream), or may need a brief rise in negative feeling to desensitise, as in exposure therapy. The last two, they note, place regulation after waking, with the dream supplying material and the awake person doing the work. ===Dreaming through a real loss === Real loss offers the most demanding test. Cartwright et al. (2006) followed 30 adults going through a divorce, 20 of them depressed, collecting dreams from every REM period on three nights over 5 months. In those who later recovered from depression, dreams of the former spouse carried emotion, mostly negative, and were linked to other memories. Those who stayed depressed still dreamed of the spouse, but these dreams were largely flat and disconnected from other memories. recovery therefore accompanied dreams that engaged painfully with the loss rather than dreams that turned about positive, which fits fear extinction better than mood regulation. However, this comparison rested on six versus four people and was descriptive, and recovery from depression is an outcome, not a coping strategy. Coping itself has rarely been measured. Among 35 female undergraduates facing exams, those who dreamed about the exam reported less active problem-solving white awake, and waking reappraisal went with more problem-solving inside dreams (Delorne et al., 2002), suggesting that coping style influences dreams as much as the reverse. At every levell, dream emotion moves with feeling and adjustment, but because nobody was assigned a particular dream, none of these studies shows that dreams cause change. That requires [[#What does deliberately changing dreams dreams reveal about their role in adaptive coping?|changing dreams]] on purpose. {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|11}}}|title=Quiz}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {In the same person, what usually follows a night with a frightening dream? |type="()"} - Better emotion regulation the next day. + A somewhat worse morning mood. </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == What does deliberately changing dreams reveal about their role in adaptive coping? == The previous section showed that dream emotion moves with waking mood and coping, but not which drives which. Experiments can test this. If dreams do emotional work, changing a dream should change how someone feels, and the benefit should depend on the new dream actually occurring. ===Does changing a dream change how people feel?=== Dreams can be changed during sleep using sounds, smells, and touch, although reported success varies from 0% to about 80% (Salvesen et al, 2024). In one study, a sound paired with one of two evening tasks was replayed during REM sleep, and people dreamed more about the cued task. In an exploratory analysis, the more directly a task appeard in their dreams, the less negative they felt about it the next morning. This fits fear extinction theory, but the sound itself did not change their feelings, so a third factor (such as motivation) could explain both (Konkoly et al., 2025). In a clinical version, people with frequent [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nightmares and emotion|nightmares]] rehearsed a rewritten nightmare, and half heard a sound paired with the new ending during REM sleep. They had fewer nightmares and more joyful dreams than patients who heard an unpaired sound. Yet their dreams almost never contained the rehearsed ending, and their nightmare distress, sleep quality, and mood improved no more than the comparison group (Schwartz et al., 2022). sleep may strengthen what was practised while awake, but with only 36 patients, small differences could be missed. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Woman writing on a notebook with a pen.jpg|Woman writing on a notebook with a pen|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 2'''. Rewriting a recurring dreams ending is the core of image rehearsal therapy]] '''Case study: Natalie part 2''' During a stressful fortnight, the old dream returns and Natalie starts staying up late to avoid it. A psychologist suggests writing the dream down and giving it a new ending in which so she stops calling out and walks the other way, and rehearsing it every evening (see Figure 2). Within weeks the dream comes less often and bothers her less. Oddly, she cannot recall ever dreaming the new ending. So what helped? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Does the new ending need to be dreamed?=== Imagery rehearsal therapy, which rewrites and rehearses a nightmare, is recommended for [[w:Nightmare disorder|nightmare disorder]] (Morgenthaler et al., 2018), yet patients often improve without dreaming the new ending (Rousseau & Belleville, 2018). In fact re-imagining a nightmare exactly as it was reduced nightmares and distress about as much as rewriting it, compared with a waiting list (Kunze et al., 2017). This fits fear extinction, but with the safe re-exposure happening while awake. That trial could not show the two are equal, but in veterans with severe [[w:Post-traumatic stress disoder|PTSD]], therapy including imagery rehearsal also did no better than sleep-focused therapy without it (Cook et al., 2010; Harb et al., 2019). proposed reasons include a growing sense of control, changed beliefs about nightmares, and less avoidance, but few have been tested directly (Rousseau & Belleville, 2018). ===Is less distress the same as better coping?=== Natalie's late nights are an example of [[w:Avoidance coping|avoidance coping]], which is common with bad dreams and nightmares and may keep them going (Rousseau & Belleville, 2018). Writing down and rehearing the dream is closer to emotional approach coping: actively processing a feeling rather than escaping it (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). both are deliberate regulation while awake, not automatic processing during sleep (Gross, 2015). Less dream distress is not the same as adaptive coping, which requires better outcomes in the situation causing the stress (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). These trials measured nightmares, sleep, and symptom, not how people handled the problems behind their dreams, and involved frequent nightmares rather than sad dreams like Natalie's. Deliberately changing dreams therefore reveals more about waking coping than about dreaming. Dreams can be changed, but emotional benefits have not been shown to depend on the changed dream. The research cannot say what helped Natalie, but it points away from the new ending and towards what she did while awake:: facing the dream instead of staying up to avoid it. ==Conclusion== Natalie wondered whether the dream helped her move on, showed that she was moving on, or gave her something to work with. the evidence favours the last two. REM sleep may help keep emotional memories, but whether it softens them is unconfirmed. Dream emotion carries into the next morning, as continuity predicts, rather than changing it overnight, as mood regulation predicts. Fear extinction fits the slower patterns but has not passed its most direct tests, and experiments can change dreams, yet improvement has not been shown to depend on the changed dream. The most defensible conclusion is that dreams reflect emotional processing and supply material that people regulate and reappraise while awake. Natalie's lit doorway is most likely a sign of change already under way, and what helped was what she did with it after waking. Whether dreaming itself causes adaptive coping remains an open, testable question. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Take-home messages''' * A nights sleep does not reliably take the sting out of an upsetting memory. * A distressing dream shows what someone is carrying, not whether healing is happening. * Dreams about a loss that carry real feeling tend to accompany recovery, even when the feelings are painful. * For a recurring distressing dream, working with it while awake, by facing or rewriting it, is the best supported step. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Dreams and emotional problem-solving|Dreams and emotional problem-solving]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Nightmare disorder|Nightmare disorder]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nightmares and emotion|Nightmares and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==References== ==External links== * [https://www.sleepfoundation.org/nightmares/how-to-stop-having-nightmares How to prevent nightmares] (Sleep Foundation) * [https://shows.acast.com/sleep-science-pod/episodes/ep12-sleep-dreams-and-mental-health Sleep, dreams and mental health] (The Sleep Science Pod) * [https://www.media.mit.edu/projects/targeted-dream-incubation/overview/ Targeted dream incubation] (MIT Media Lab) * [https://theconversation.com/the-science-of-dreams-and-nightmares-what-is-going-on-in-our-brains-while-were-sleeping-210901 The science of dreams and nightmares – what is going on in our brains while we're sleeping?] (The Conversation) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Dreams]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] n9ea8qexdk0ggy72997t3wuw9lvmukt 2840783 2840781 2026-10-17T01:30:32Z ~2026-55607-17 3112804 /* What does dreaming add? */ 2840783 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Dreams and emotional problem-solving:<br>How do REM dreams contribute to emotional processing and adaptive coping?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Case study: Natalie part 1 ''' [[File:Dreaming.jpg|Dreaming|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1'''. Natalie's recurring dream after her breakup leaves her feeling sad when she wakes]] Since her breakup, Natalie keeps having the same dream. She's been left behind somewhere, calling out to someone who never turns around (See Figure 1). When she wakes the details fade, but the feeling stays. Then one night, after her first good day in weeks, the dream changes: she stops calling out, notices a lit doorway, and walks through it. She wakes feeling better, and that afternoon she finally packs away his things. Did the dream help her move on, show that she was already moving on, or give her something to work with once awake? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Dream|Dreams]] are commonly reported following awakenings from [[w:Rapid eye movement sleep|rapid eye movement (REM) sleep]] (Solms, 2000), and REM sleep has been characterised as "overnight therapy" (Walker & van der Helm, 2009, p. 731). However, whether dreams actively contribute to emotional processing or simply reflect processes occurring elsewhere remains a subject of debate. The answer has practical implications: if dreams facilitate healing, distressing dreams may be part of recovery; if dreams only mirror emotional states, they may indicate when interventions are needed while awake. Three key terms keep these possibilities apart. ''Emotional processing'' refers to overnight changes in the retention or intensity if emotional memories. [[w:Emotional self-regulation|''Emotion regulation'']] is any process, deliberate or automatic, that alters the trajectory of an emotional response (Gross, 2015). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|''Coping'']] involves the cognitive and behavourial strategies individuals use to manage stressful situations, and is considered adaptive only when it is contextually appropriate and leads to improved outcomes (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). Notably, a dream may reflect emotional processing without regulating emotions, and may alleviate feelings without necessarily improving coping strategies. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} '''Focus questions''' * How do REM sleep and dreaming each contribute to overnight emotional processing? * What do competing theories propose dreams do with emotion? * How is dream emotion related to the way people cope while awake? * How can people work with emotional dreams to support coping? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == How do REM sleep and dreaming each contribute to overnight emotional processing? == REM sleep is a brain state characterised by rapid eye movements, heightened brain activity, and muscle paralysis. Dreaming is a conscious experience. Because the two typically coincide, research findings concerning one are often attributed to the other. ===REM sleep and emotional memories === The ''sleep to forget, sleep to remember'' model posits that the brain replays recent emotional memories during REM sleep when [[wikipedia:Norepinephrine|noradrenaline]], a neurotransmitter associated with arousal, is low (Walker & van der Helm, 2009). This replay in a physiologically calm state is hypothesized to preserve the content of a memory while diminishing its emotional intensity, allowing, for example, a past argument to be remembered clearly without making the heart race. The model predicts that emotional memories should be retained better following sleep, and that emotional reactivity upon recall should decrease. If the emotional charge persists after sleep, repeated replay across subsequent nights may occur, potentially explaining recurring dreams like Natalie's. Initial neuroimaging studies appeared to support the second prediction. In one study, 34 adults viewed emotional images twice, separated by a 12-hour interval. [[w:Amygdala|amygdala]] responses, which are associated with threat detection, decreased in participants who slept during the interval and increased in those who did not (van der Helm et al, 2011). Although low noradrenaline levels were inferred from brain wave patterns rather than measured directly. However, larger [[w:Meta-analysis|meta-analyses]] support neither prediction. Lipinska et al. (2019) examined 31 studies and found that sleep did not improve the retention of emotional memories more than neutral ones. Another synthesis of 24 studies reported no consistent effect of sleep on physiological responses to negative images, although only five studies assessed these measures. Additionally, participates rated negative images as ''more'' arousing after sleep (Lipinska et al., 2022). While selectively removing REM sleep would provide the most direct test, this approach is challenging because repeated awakenings cause stress and disrupt other sleep stages. The few human studies, if anything, suggest that emotional memories are retained more strongly with less REM sleep (Pesonen et al., 2024). The overnight-therapy function of REM sleep is therefore unconfirmed rather than disproven. ===What does dreaming add? === Dreaming is not with REM sleep: it can cease following brain damage even when REM sleep continues, and some dreams occur outside of REM sleep (Solms, 2000). Only one study has systematically measured both phenomena. Lara-Carrasco et al. (2009) partly deprived about half of of their sample of 35 adults of REM sleep, collected dream reports, and had participants rate negative images in the evening and the following morning. reduced REM sleep was associated with a greater overnight decrease in arousal, contrary to the REM model. Meanwhile, participants whose final dream was less negative rated the images as less unpleasant the next morning. The authors had predicted the opposite outcome, that better-adjusted individuals would experience more negative dreams. Instead, the results align with the idea that emotion simply continuing from dream to morning, although the one-hour interval between awakening and rating may have shaped this relationship. REM sleep and dreaming appeared to correspond to different aspects of the emotional response. However, correlational findings cannot show whether dreams actively induce overnight changes or reflect them, which is exactly where the [[#What do competing theories propose dreams do with emotion?|theories]] disagree. {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|11}}}|title=Quiz}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best summarises the evidence on REM sleep and upsetting memories? |type="()"} - REM sleep reliably reduces the emotional intensity of upsetting memories + The idea that REM sleep reduces the intensity of upsetting memories is plausible but unconfirmed </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == What do competing theories propose dreams do with emotion? == All three leading theories accept that waking emotion shapes dream emotion, but they disagree about what dream emotion does next and, crucially, over what timescale (Sikka et al., 2022; see Table 1). {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;" |+ style="text-align:left;" | '''Table 1'''<br />''Three theories of what dreams do with emotion'' |- ! scope="col" | ! scope="col" |Continuity hypothesis (Domhoff, 2019) ! scope="col" |Fear extinction theory (Nielson & Levin, 2007) ! scope="col" |Mood regulation theory (Cartwright et al., 1998) |- ! scope="row" |Core claim |Dreams simulate current concerns |Dreams place fear memories in safe new contexts |Dreams work through low mood over the full night |- ! scope="row" |Natalie's recurring dream means |She is still preoccupied with the loss |Extinction under heavy emotional load |Regulation not yet complete |- ! scope="row" |Main prediction |Dream emotion carries into the next morning |Fear gradually decreases |Mood is better by morning, if it was low |- ! scope="row" |Timescale |Immediate |Weeks, between people |One night |} === Continuity hypothesis === The continuity hypothesis holds that dreams dramatise whatever currently concerns the dreamer. In Domhoff's (2019) neurocognitive version, dreaming is an "embodied simulation" (p. 265) produced by the [[w:Default mode network|default mode network]], the brain network that also supports daydreaming. According to this view, Natalie's dream portrays her loss without repairing it, much as daydreaming about an ex-partner would. Domhoff concludes that an emotion-regulating function "remains highly unliklely, and at best inconclusive, after decades of research studies' (p.287), noting that a quarter or more of REM dream reports contain no emotion. The theory is parsimonious, but "mirroring" fits almost any link between dreams and waking life, so it can only be told apart from a functional theory when dream emotion predicts something that a waking mood alone does not. ===Fear extinction theory === [[w:Extinction (psychology)|Extinction]] occurs when a feared cue is met repeatedly without harm, so that a new safety memory forms and competes with the fear memory rather than erasing it. Nielson and Levin (2007) propose that dreams do this offline by recombining fragments of fear memories with safe, unrelated material. In their example, a dream of a dark alley shifts when "suddenly i found myself in a brightly lit street" (p.302), erasing the growing fear, much like Natalie's lit doorway. Two factors shape the outcome. ''Affect load'' is a state: the combined weight of recent stress on a person's capacity to regulate emotion. ''Affect distress'' is a trait: a long-standing tendency to react to emotional material with heightened distress (Nielson & Levin, 2007, p. 303). Bad dreams and nightmares lie on a continuum, and nightmares signal that extinction is struggling under heavy load, especially when affect distress is high. Natalie's recurring dream therefore reflects heavy load after the breakup, not a broken process. Because extinction is gradual, a frightening dream need not bring relief the next day, yet people whose dreams regularly engage fear should regulate better over weeks. The authors call the model "highly testable" (p. 304). In practice, though, recovery after a frightening dream can be read as extinction working and distress as extinction overloaded. Unless a successful dream is defined before results are known, almost any outcome can be accommodated. ===Mood regulation theory === Mood regulation theory proposes that successive REM dreams across one night work through low mood, shifting from negative towards positive emotion. Cartwright et al. (1998) tested this in 60 students without depression. Depressed mood fell overnight, and lower mood before sleep predicted a more negative first dream. Only the 10 students with the lowest pre-sleep mood showed the predicted sequence, with negative dreams early and more positive dreams later. The authors therefore proposed a threshold: dreams moderate mood only when unhappiness is "at lest modest" (p. 7). The threshold both protects and limits the theory. It explains why studies of contented people find little, but the core pattern rested on 10 people and was not formally tested, and Kramer's group, who first proposed the theory, once failed to replicate their own effect (Nielson & Levin, 2007). Mood also improved when REM periods were interrupted, so overnight relief did not depend on undisturbed dreaming. In short, mood regulation predicts relief by morning, continuity immediate carry-over, and fear extinction that builds over weeks. Waking mood and coping provide the tests. == How is dream emotion related to the way people cope while awake? == For Gross (2015), the defining feature of emotion regulation is "the activation of a goal to influence the emotion trajectory" (p. 5), a goal that can operate implicitly. A dream has no obvious goal, so any regulation it achieves must be implicit, and the coping question is whether its effects reach waking life. ''Within-person'' comparisons ask whether a persons worse negative dreams after followed by worse days, and ''between-person'' comparisons whether people who generally dream one way also cope differently. ===Next-morning mood === For five days, 40 adults rated their dream emotion and morning mood, then viewed negative pictures, sometimes while trying to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Cognitive strategies and emotion regulation|reappraise]] them (Sikka et al., 2022). After more negative dreams, mornings felt worse. Yet dream emotion predicted neither how strongly people reacted to the pictures nor how well they regulated, and [[w:Bayes factor|Bayesian analyses]] strongly favoured no relationship. Across 4,715 days from 536 adults, frightening dreams were likewise followed by about 7% more negative morning mood (Barber et al., 2026). Dreams that mixed fear with joy, however, were followed by mornings more often free of negative mood. ===Comparing people === Between people, the pattern reverses. People with more fearful dreams on average reported more adaptive regulation strategies, such as reappraisal and acceptance, even after accounting for [[w:Neuroticism|neuroticism]], which was also linked to fearful dreaming (Barber et al., 2026). In 89 adults who kept a week-long dream diary, more dream fear went with calmer brain responses to frightening pictures: weaker amygdala activity and stronger activity in a regulating prefrontal region (Sterpenich et al., 2020). Agreement across self-rport and brain measures makes the credible, and it fits fear extinctions slow, trait-level prediction. However, the direction of influence is unclear, since good regulators may simply tolerate negative material better. Morning carry-over after frightening dreams was also stronger in good regulators (Barber et al., 2026). The authors suggest that these people may be more aware of their feelings, may reappraise the dream after waking (recognising it was only a dream), or may need a brief rise in negative feeling to desensitise, as in exposure therapy. The last two, they note, place regulation after waking, with the dream supplying material and the awake person doing the work. ===Dreaming through a real loss === Real loss offers the most demanding test. Cartwright et al. (2006) followed 30 adults going through a divorce, 20 of them depressed, collecting dreams from every REM period on three nights over 5 months. In those who later recovered from depression, dreams of the former spouse carried emotion, mostly negative, and were linked to other memories. Those who stayed depressed still dreamed of the spouse, but these dreams were largely flat and disconnected from other memories. recovery therefore accompanied dreams that engaged painfully with the loss rather than dreams that turned about positive, which fits fear extinction better than mood regulation. However, this comparison rested on six versus four people and was descriptive, and recovery from depression is an outcome, not a coping strategy. Coping itself has rarely been measured. Among 35 female undergraduates facing exams, those who dreamed about the exam reported less active problem-solving white awake, and waking reappraisal went with more problem-solving inside dreams (Delorne et al., 2002), suggesting that coping style influences dreams as much as the reverse. At every levell, dream emotion moves with feeling and adjustment, but because nobody was assigned a particular dream, none of these studies shows that dreams cause change. That requires [[#What does deliberately changing dreams dreams reveal about their role in adaptive coping?|changing dreams]] on purpose. {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|11}}}|title=Quiz}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {In the same person, what usually follows a night with a frightening dream? |type="()"} - Better emotion regulation the next day. + A somewhat worse morning mood. </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == What does deliberately changing dreams reveal about their role in adaptive coping? == The previous section showed that dream emotion moves with waking mood and coping, but not which drives which. Experiments can test this. If dreams do emotional work, changing a dream should change how someone feels, and the benefit should depend on the new dream actually occurring. ===Does changing a dream change how people feel?=== Dreams can be changed during sleep using sounds, smells, and touch, although reported success varies from 0% to about 80% (Salvesen et al, 2024). In one study, a sound paired with one of two evening tasks was replayed during REM sleep, and people dreamed more about the cued task. In an exploratory analysis, the more directly a task appeard in their dreams, the less negative they felt about it the next morning. This fits fear extinction theory, but the sound itself did not change their feelings, so a third factor (such as motivation) could explain both (Konkoly et al., 2025). In a clinical version, people with frequent [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nightmares and emotion|nightmares]] rehearsed a rewritten nightmare, and half heard a sound paired with the new ending during REM sleep. They had fewer nightmares and more joyful dreams than patients who heard an unpaired sound. Yet their dreams almost never contained the rehearsed ending, and their nightmare distress, sleep quality, and mood improved no more than the comparison group (Schwartz et al., 2022). sleep may strengthen what was practised while awake, but with only 36 patients, small differences could be missed. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Woman writing on a notebook with a pen.jpg|Woman writing on a notebook with a pen|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 2'''. Rewriting a recurring dreams ending is the core of image rehearsal therapy]] '''Case study: Natalie part 2''' During a stressful fortnight, the old dream returns and Natalie starts staying up late to avoid it. A psychologist suggests writing the dream down and giving it a new ending in which so she stops calling out and walks the other way, and rehearsing it every evening (see Figure 2). Within weeks the dream comes less often and bothers her less. Oddly, she cannot recall ever dreaming the new ending. So what helped? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Does the new ending need to be dreamed?=== Imagery rehearsal therapy, which rewrites and rehearses a nightmare, is recommended for [[w:Nightmare disorder|nightmare disorder]] (Morgenthaler et al., 2018), yet patients often improve without dreaming the new ending (Rousseau & Belleville, 2018). In fact re-imagining a nightmare exactly as it was reduced nightmares and distress about as much as rewriting it, compared with a waiting list (Kunze et al., 2017). This fits fear extinction, but with the safe re-exposure happening while awake. That trial could not show the two are equal, but in veterans with severe [[w:Post-traumatic stress disoder|PTSD]], therapy including imagery rehearsal also did no better than sleep-focused therapy without it (Cook et al., 2010; Harb et al., 2019). proposed reasons include a growing sense of control, changed beliefs about nightmares, and less avoidance, but few have been tested directly (Rousseau & Belleville, 2018). ===Is less distress the same as better coping?=== Natalie's late nights are an example of [[w:Avoidance coping|avoidance coping]], which is common with bad dreams and nightmares and may keep them going (Rousseau & Belleville, 2018). Writing down and rehearing the dream is closer to emotional approach coping: actively processing a feeling rather than escaping it (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). both are deliberate regulation while awake, not automatic processing during sleep (Gross, 2015). Less dream distress is not the same as adaptive coping, which requires better outcomes in the situation causing the stress (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). These trials measured nightmares, sleep, and symptom, not how people handled the problems behind their dreams, and involved frequent nightmares rather than sad dreams like Natalie's. Deliberately changing dreams therefore reveals more about waking coping than about dreaming. Dreams can be changed, but emotional benefits have not been shown to depend on the changed dream. The research cannot say what helped Natalie, but it points away from the new ending and towards what she did while awake:: facing the dream instead of staying up to avoid it. ==Conclusion== Natalie wondered whether the dream helped her move on, showed that she was moving on, or gave her something to work with. the evidence favours the last two. REM sleep may help keep emotional memories, but whether it softens them is unconfirmed. Dream emotion carries into the next morning, as continuity predicts, rather than changing it overnight, as mood regulation predicts. Fear extinction fits the slower patterns but has not passed its most direct tests, and experiments can change dreams, yet improvement has not been shown to depend on the changed dream. The most defensible conclusion is that dreams reflect emotional processing and supply material that people regulate and reappraise while awake. Natalie's lit doorway is most likely a sign of change already under way, and what helped was what she did with it after waking. Whether dreaming itself causes adaptive coping remains an open, testable question. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Take-home messages''' * A nights sleep does not reliably take the sting out of an upsetting memory. * A distressing dream shows what someone is carrying, not whether healing is happening. * Dreams about a loss that carry real feeling tend to accompany recovery, even when the feelings are painful. * For a recurring distressing dream, working with it while awake, by facing or rewriting it, is the best supported step. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Dreams and emotional problem-solving|Dreams and emotional problem-solving]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Nightmare disorder|Nightmare disorder]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nightmares and emotion|Nightmares and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==References== ==External links== * [https://www.sleepfoundation.org/nightmares/how-to-stop-having-nightmares How to prevent nightmares] (Sleep Foundation) * [https://shows.acast.com/sleep-science-pod/episodes/ep12-sleep-dreams-and-mental-health Sleep, dreams and mental health] (The Sleep Science Pod) * [https://www.media.mit.edu/projects/targeted-dream-incubation/overview/ Targeted dream incubation] (MIT Media Lab) * [https://theconversation.com/the-science-of-dreams-and-nightmares-what-is-going-on-in-our-brains-while-were-sleeping-210901 The science of dreams and nightmares – what is going on in our brains while we're sleeping?] (The Conversation) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Dreams]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] po0au3a6x51d0rnpd2pv1nopcmjhdpg 2840792 2840783 2026-10-17T01:44:07Z ~2026-55607-17 3112804 /* What do competing theories propose dreams do with emotion? */ changed table abit 2840792 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Dreams and emotional problem-solving:<br>How do REM dreams contribute to emotional processing and adaptive coping?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Case study: Natalie part 1 ''' [[File:Dreaming.jpg|Dreaming|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1'''. Natalie's recurring dream after her breakup leaves her feeling sad when she wakes]] Since her breakup, Natalie keeps having the same dream. She's been left behind somewhere, calling out to someone who never turns around (See Figure 1). When she wakes the details fade, but the feeling stays. Then one night, after her first good day in weeks, the dream changes: she stops calling out, notices a lit doorway, and walks through it. She wakes feeling better, and that afternoon she finally packs away his things. Did the dream help her move on, show that she was already moving on, or give her something to work with once awake? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Dream|Dreams]] are commonly reported following awakenings from [[w:Rapid eye movement sleep|rapid eye movement (REM) sleep]] (Solms, 2000), and REM sleep has been characterised as "overnight therapy" (Walker & van der Helm, 2009, p. 731). However, whether dreams actively contribute to emotional processing or simply reflect processes occurring elsewhere remains a subject of debate. The answer has practical implications: if dreams facilitate healing, distressing dreams may be part of recovery; if dreams only mirror emotional states, they may indicate when interventions are needed while awake. Three key terms keep these possibilities apart. ''Emotional processing'' refers to overnight changes in the retention or intensity if emotional memories. [[w:Emotional self-regulation|''Emotion regulation'']] is any process, deliberate or automatic, that alters the trajectory of an emotional response (Gross, 2015). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|''Coping'']] involves the cognitive and behavourial strategies individuals use to manage stressful situations, and is considered adaptive only when it is contextually appropriate and leads to improved outcomes (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). Notably, a dream may reflect emotional processing without regulating emotions, and may alleviate feelings without necessarily improving coping strategies. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} '''Focus questions''' * How do REM sleep and dreaming each contribute to overnight emotional processing? * What do competing theories propose dreams do with emotion? * How is dream emotion related to the way people cope while awake? * How can people work with emotional dreams to support coping? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == How do REM sleep and dreaming each contribute to overnight emotional processing? == REM sleep is a brain state characterised by rapid eye movements, heightened brain activity, and muscle paralysis. Dreaming is a conscious experience. Because the two typically coincide, research findings concerning one are often attributed to the other. ===REM sleep and emotional memories === The ''sleep to forget, sleep to remember'' model posits that the brain replays recent emotional memories during REM sleep when [[wikipedia:Norepinephrine|noradrenaline]], a neurotransmitter associated with arousal, is low (Walker & van der Helm, 2009). This replay in a physiologically calm state is hypothesized to preserve the content of a memory while diminishing its emotional intensity, allowing, for example, a past argument to be remembered clearly without making the heart race. The model predicts that emotional memories should be retained better following sleep, and that emotional reactivity upon recall should decrease. If the emotional charge persists after sleep, repeated replay across subsequent nights may occur, potentially explaining recurring dreams like Natalie's. Initial neuroimaging studies appeared to support the second prediction. In one study, 34 adults viewed emotional images twice, separated by a 12-hour interval. [[w:Amygdala|amygdala]] responses, which are associated with threat detection, decreased in participants who slept during the interval and increased in those who did not (van der Helm et al, 2011). Although low noradrenaline levels were inferred from brain wave patterns rather than measured directly. However, larger [[w:Meta-analysis|meta-analyses]] support neither prediction. Lipinska et al. (2019) examined 31 studies and found that sleep did not improve the retention of emotional memories more than neutral ones. Another synthesis of 24 studies reported no consistent effect of sleep on physiological responses to negative images, although only five studies assessed these measures. Additionally, participates rated negative images as ''more'' arousing after sleep (Lipinska et al., 2022). While selectively removing REM sleep would provide the most direct test, this approach is challenging because repeated awakenings cause stress and disrupt other sleep stages. The few human studies, if anything, suggest that emotional memories are retained more strongly with less REM sleep (Pesonen et al., 2024). The overnight-therapy function of REM sleep is therefore unconfirmed rather than disproven. ===What does dreaming add? === Dreaming is not with REM sleep: it can cease following brain damage even when REM sleep continues, and some dreams occur outside of REM sleep (Solms, 2000). Only one study has systematically measured both phenomena. Lara-Carrasco et al. (2009) partly deprived about half of of their sample of 35 adults of REM sleep, collected dream reports, and had participants rate negative images in the evening and the following morning. reduced REM sleep was associated with a greater overnight decrease in arousal, contrary to the REM model. Meanwhile, participants whose final dream was less negative rated the images as less unpleasant the next morning. The authors had predicted the opposite outcome, that better-adjusted individuals would experience more negative dreams. Instead, the results align with the idea that emotion simply continuing from dream to morning, although the one-hour interval between awakening and rating may have shaped this relationship. REM sleep and dreaming appeared to correspond to different aspects of the emotional response. However, correlational findings cannot show whether dreams actively induce overnight changes or reflect them, which is exactly where the [[#What do competing theories propose dreams do with emotion?|theories]] disagree. {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|11}}}|title=Quiz}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best summarises the evidence on REM sleep and upsetting memories? |type="()"} - REM sleep reliably reduces the emotional intensity of upsetting memories + The idea that REM sleep reduces the intensity of upsetting memories is plausible but unconfirmed </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == What do competing theories propose dreams do with emotion? == All three leading theories accept that waking emotion influences dream emotion, but they differ regarding the subsequent effects of dream emotion and the relevant timescale (see Table 1). The timescale is a critical factor for empirical testing: morning relief can be checked against tomorrow's mood, whereas changes over weeks are less readily assessed. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;" |+ style="text-align:left;" | '''Table 1'''<br />''Three Theories of What Dreams Do With Emotion'' |- ! scope="col" | ! scope="col" |Continuity hypothesis ! scope="col" |Fear extinction theory ! scope="col" |Mood regulation theory |- ! scope="row" |Core claim |Dreams simulate current concerns |Dreams place fear memories in safe new contexts |Dreams work through low mood across the night |- ! scope="row" |Natalie's recurring dream means |She is still preoccupied with the loss |Extinction under heavy emotional load |Regulation not yet complete |- ! scope="row" |Main prediction |Dream emotion carries into the next morning |Fear gradually decreases |Mood is better by morning, if it was low |- ! scope="row" |Timescale |Immediate |Weeks or longer |One night |} ''Note'' Based on Cartwright et al. (1998), Domhoff (2019), and Nielsen and Levin (2007). === Continuity hypothesis === The continuity hypothesis holds that dreams dramatise whatever currently concerns the dreamer. In Domhoff's (2019) neurocognitive version, dreaming is an "embodied simulation" (p. 265) produced by the [[w:Default mode network|default mode network]], the brain network that also supports daydreaming. According to this view, Natalie's dream portrays her loss without repairing it, much as daydreaming about an ex-partner would. Domhoff concludes that an emotion-regulating function "remains highly unliklely, and at best inconclusive, after decades of research studies' (p.287), noting that a quarter or more of REM dream reports contain no emotion. The theory is parsimonious, but "mirroring" fits almost any link between dreams and waking life, so it can only be told apart from a functional theory when dream emotion predicts something that a waking mood alone does not. ===Fear extinction theory === [[w:Extinction (psychology)|Extinction]] occurs when a feared cue is met repeatedly without harm, so that a new safety memory forms and competes with the fear memory rather than erasing it. Nielson and Levin (2007) propose that dreams do this offline by recombining fragments of fear memories with safe, unrelated material. In their example, a dream of a dark alley shifts when "suddenly i found myself in a brightly lit street" (p.302), erasing the growing fear, much like Natalie's lit doorway. Two factors shape the outcome. ''Affect load'' is a state: the combined weight of recent stress on a person's capacity to regulate emotion. ''Affect distress'' is a trait: a long-standing tendency to react to emotional material with heightened distress (Nielson & Levin, 2007, p. 303). Bad dreams and nightmares lie on a continuum, and nightmares signal that extinction is struggling under heavy load, especially when affect distress is high. Natalie's recurring dream therefore reflects heavy load after the breakup, not a broken process. Because extinction is gradual, a frightening dream need not bring relief the next day, yet people whose dreams regularly engage fear should regulate better over weeks. The authors call the model "highly testable" (p. 304). In practice, though, recovery after a frightening dream can be read as extinction working and distress as extinction overloaded. Unless a successful dream is defined before results are known, almost any outcome can be accommodated. ===Mood regulation theory === Mood regulation theory proposes that successive REM dreams across one night work through low mood, shifting from negative towards positive emotion. Cartwright et al. (1998) tested this in 60 students without depression. Depressed mood fell overnight, and lower mood before sleep predicted a more negative first dream. Only the 10 students with the lowest pre-sleep mood showed the predicted sequence, with negative dreams early and more positive dreams later. The authors therefore proposed a threshold: dreams moderate mood only when unhappiness is "at lest modest" (p. 7). The threshold both protects and limits the theory. It explains why studies of contented people find little, but the core pattern rested on 10 people and was not formally tested, and Kramer's group, who first proposed the theory, once failed to replicate their own effect (Nielson & Levin, 2007). Mood also improved when REM periods were interrupted, so overnight relief did not depend on undisturbed dreaming. In short, mood regulation predicts relief by morning, continuity immediate carry-over, and fear extinction that builds over weeks. Waking mood and coping provide the tests. == How is dream emotion related to the way people cope while awake? == For Gross (2015), the defining feature of emotion regulation is "the activation of a goal to influence the emotion trajectory" (p. 5), a goal that can operate implicitly. A dream has no obvious goal, so any regulation it achieves must be implicit, and the coping question is whether its effects reach waking life. ''Within-person'' comparisons ask whether a persons worse negative dreams after followed by worse days, and ''between-person'' comparisons whether people who generally dream one way also cope differently. ===Next-morning mood === For five days, 40 adults rated their dream emotion and morning mood, then viewed negative pictures, sometimes while trying to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Cognitive strategies and emotion regulation|reappraise]] them (Sikka et al., 2022). After more negative dreams, mornings felt worse. Yet dream emotion predicted neither how strongly people reacted to the pictures nor how well they regulated, and [[w:Bayes factor|Bayesian analyses]] strongly favoured no relationship. Across 4,715 days from 536 adults, frightening dreams were likewise followed by about 7% more negative morning mood (Barber et al., 2026). Dreams that mixed fear with joy, however, were followed by mornings more often free of negative mood. ===Comparing people === Between people, the pattern reverses. People with more fearful dreams on average reported more adaptive regulation strategies, such as reappraisal and acceptance, even after accounting for [[w:Neuroticism|neuroticism]], which was also linked to fearful dreaming (Barber et al., 2026). In 89 adults who kept a week-long dream diary, more dream fear went with calmer brain responses to frightening pictures: weaker amygdala activity and stronger activity in a regulating prefrontal region (Sterpenich et al., 2020). Agreement across self-rport and brain measures makes the credible, and it fits fear extinctions slow, trait-level prediction. However, the direction of influence is unclear, since good regulators may simply tolerate negative material better. Morning carry-over after frightening dreams was also stronger in good regulators (Barber et al., 2026). The authors suggest that these people may be more aware of their feelings, may reappraise the dream after waking (recognising it was only a dream), or may need a brief rise in negative feeling to desensitise, as in exposure therapy. The last two, they note, place regulation after waking, with the dream supplying material and the awake person doing the work. ===Dreaming through a real loss === Real loss offers the most demanding test. Cartwright et al. (2006) followed 30 adults going through a divorce, 20 of them depressed, collecting dreams from every REM period on three nights over 5 months. In those who later recovered from depression, dreams of the former spouse carried emotion, mostly negative, and were linked to other memories. Those who stayed depressed still dreamed of the spouse, but these dreams were largely flat and disconnected from other memories. recovery therefore accompanied dreams that engaged painfully with the loss rather than dreams that turned about positive, which fits fear extinction better than mood regulation. However, this comparison rested on six versus four people and was descriptive, and recovery from depression is an outcome, not a coping strategy. Coping itself has rarely been measured. Among 35 female undergraduates facing exams, those who dreamed about the exam reported less active problem-solving white awake, and waking reappraisal went with more problem-solving inside dreams (Delorne et al., 2002), suggesting that coping style influences dreams as much as the reverse. At every levell, dream emotion moves with feeling and adjustment, but because nobody was assigned a particular dream, none of these studies shows that dreams cause change. That requires [[#What does deliberately changing dreams dreams reveal about their role in adaptive coping?|changing dreams]] on purpose. {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|11}}}|title=Quiz}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {In the same person, what usually follows a night with a frightening dream? |type="()"} - Better emotion regulation the next day. + A somewhat worse morning mood. </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == What does deliberately changing dreams reveal about their role in adaptive coping? == The previous section showed that dream emotion moves with waking mood and coping, but not which drives which. Experiments can test this. If dreams do emotional work, changing a dream should change how someone feels, and the benefit should depend on the new dream actually occurring. ===Does changing a dream change how people feel?=== Dreams can be changed during sleep using sounds, smells, and touch, although reported success varies from 0% to about 80% (Salvesen et al, 2024). In one study, a sound paired with one of two evening tasks was replayed during REM sleep, and people dreamed more about the cued task. In an exploratory analysis, the more directly a task appeard in their dreams, the less negative they felt about it the next morning. This fits fear extinction theory, but the sound itself did not change their feelings, so a third factor (such as motivation) could explain both (Konkoly et al., 2025). In a clinical version, people with frequent [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nightmares and emotion|nightmares]] rehearsed a rewritten nightmare, and half heard a sound paired with the new ending during REM sleep. They had fewer nightmares and more joyful dreams than patients who heard an unpaired sound. Yet their dreams almost never contained the rehearsed ending, and their nightmare distress, sleep quality, and mood improved no more than the comparison group (Schwartz et al., 2022). sleep may strengthen what was practised while awake, but with only 36 patients, small differences could be missed. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Woman writing on a notebook with a pen.jpg|Woman writing on a notebook with a pen|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 2'''. Rewriting a recurring dreams ending is the core of image rehearsal therapy]] '''Case study: Natalie part 2''' During a stressful fortnight, the old dream returns and Natalie starts staying up late to avoid it. A psychologist suggests writing the dream down and giving it a new ending in which so she stops calling out and walks the other way, and rehearsing it every evening (see Figure 2). Within weeks the dream comes less often and bothers her less. Oddly, she cannot recall ever dreaming the new ending. So what helped? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Does the new ending need to be dreamed?=== Imagery rehearsal therapy, which rewrites and rehearses a nightmare, is recommended for [[w:Nightmare disorder|nightmare disorder]] (Morgenthaler et al., 2018), yet patients often improve without dreaming the new ending (Rousseau & Belleville, 2018). In fact re-imagining a nightmare exactly as it was reduced nightmares and distress about as much as rewriting it, compared with a waiting list (Kunze et al., 2017). This fits fear extinction, but with the safe re-exposure happening while awake. That trial could not show the two are equal, but in veterans with severe [[w:Post-traumatic stress disoder|PTSD]], therapy including imagery rehearsal also did no better than sleep-focused therapy without it (Cook et al., 2010; Harb et al., 2019). proposed reasons include a growing sense of control, changed beliefs about nightmares, and less avoidance, but few have been tested directly (Rousseau & Belleville, 2018). ===Is less distress the same as better coping?=== Natalie's late nights are an example of [[w:Avoidance coping|avoidance coping]], which is common with bad dreams and nightmares and may keep them going (Rousseau & Belleville, 2018). Writing down and rehearing the dream is closer to emotional approach coping: actively processing a feeling rather than escaping it (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). both are deliberate regulation while awake, not automatic processing during sleep (Gross, 2015). Less dream distress is not the same as adaptive coping, which requires better outcomes in the situation causing the stress (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). These trials measured nightmares, sleep, and symptom, not how people handled the problems behind their dreams, and involved frequent nightmares rather than sad dreams like Natalie's. Deliberately changing dreams therefore reveals more about waking coping than about dreaming. Dreams can be changed, but emotional benefits have not been shown to depend on the changed dream. The research cannot say what helped Natalie, but it points away from the new ending and towards what she did while awake:: facing the dream instead of staying up to avoid it. ==Conclusion== Natalie wondered whether the dream helped her move on, showed that she was moving on, or gave her something to work with. the evidence favours the last two. REM sleep may help keep emotional memories, but whether it softens them is unconfirmed. Dream emotion carries into the next morning, as continuity predicts, rather than changing it overnight, as mood regulation predicts. Fear extinction fits the slower patterns but has not passed its most direct tests, and experiments can change dreams, yet improvement has not been shown to depend on the changed dream. The most defensible conclusion is that dreams reflect emotional processing and supply material that people regulate and reappraise while awake. Natalie's lit doorway is most likely a sign of change already under way, and what helped was what she did with it after waking. Whether dreaming itself causes adaptive coping remains an open, testable question. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Take-home messages''' * A nights sleep does not reliably take the sting out of an upsetting memory. * A distressing dream shows what someone is carrying, not whether healing is happening. * Dreams about a loss that carry real feeling tend to accompany recovery, even when the feelings are painful. * For a recurring distressing dream, working with it while awake, by facing or rewriting it, is the best supported step. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Dreams and emotional problem-solving|Dreams and emotional problem-solving]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Nightmare disorder|Nightmare disorder]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nightmares and emotion|Nightmares and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==References== ==External links== * [https://www.sleepfoundation.org/nightmares/how-to-stop-having-nightmares How to prevent nightmares] (Sleep Foundation) * [https://shows.acast.com/sleep-science-pod/episodes/ep12-sleep-dreams-and-mental-health Sleep, dreams and mental health] (The Sleep Science Pod) * [https://www.media.mit.edu/projects/targeted-dream-incubation/overview/ Targeted dream incubation] (MIT Media Lab) * [https://theconversation.com/the-science-of-dreams-and-nightmares-what-is-going-on-in-our-brains-while-were-sleeping-210901 The science of dreams and nightmares – what is going on in our brains while we're sleeping?] (The Conversation) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Dreams]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] lfu7iaf4obfhedjcb1f0n0752q8z9ha 2840795 2840792 2026-10-17T01:54:15Z ~2026-55607-17 3112804 /* Continuity hypothesis */ Changed wording 2840795 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Dreams and emotional problem-solving:<br>How do REM dreams contribute to emotional processing and adaptive coping?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Case study: Natalie part 1 ''' [[File:Dreaming.jpg|Dreaming|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1'''. Natalie's recurring dream after her breakup leaves her feeling sad when she wakes]] Since her breakup, Natalie keeps having the same dream. She's been left behind somewhere, calling out to someone who never turns around (See Figure 1). When she wakes the details fade, but the feeling stays. Then one night, after her first good day in weeks, the dream changes: she stops calling out, notices a lit doorway, and walks through it. She wakes feeling better, and that afternoon she finally packs away his things. Did the dream help her move on, show that she was already moving on, or give her something to work with once awake? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Dream|Dreams]] are commonly reported following awakenings from [[w:Rapid eye movement sleep|rapid eye movement (REM) sleep]] (Solms, 2000), and REM sleep has been characterised as "overnight therapy" (Walker & van der Helm, 2009, p. 731). However, whether dreams actively contribute to emotional processing or simply reflect processes occurring elsewhere remains a subject of debate. The answer has practical implications: if dreams facilitate healing, distressing dreams may be part of recovery; if dreams only mirror emotional states, they may indicate when interventions are needed while awake. Three key terms keep these possibilities apart. ''Emotional processing'' refers to overnight changes in the retention or intensity if emotional memories. [[w:Emotional self-regulation|''Emotion regulation'']] is any process, deliberate or automatic, that alters the trajectory of an emotional response (Gross, 2015). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|''Coping'']] involves the cognitive and behavourial strategies individuals use to manage stressful situations, and is considered adaptive only when it is contextually appropriate and leads to improved outcomes (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). Notably, a dream may reflect emotional processing without regulating emotions, and may alleviate feelings without necessarily improving coping strategies. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} '''Focus questions''' * How do REM sleep and dreaming each contribute to overnight emotional processing? * What do competing theories propose dreams do with emotion? * How is dream emotion related to the way people cope while awake? * How can people work with emotional dreams to support coping? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == How do REM sleep and dreaming each contribute to overnight emotional processing? == REM sleep is a brain state characterised by rapid eye movements, heightened brain activity, and muscle paralysis. Dreaming is a conscious experience. Because the two typically coincide, research findings concerning one are often attributed to the other. ===REM sleep and emotional memories === The ''sleep to forget, sleep to remember'' model posits that the brain replays recent emotional memories during REM sleep when [[wikipedia:Norepinephrine|noradrenaline]], a neurotransmitter associated with arousal, is low (Walker & van der Helm, 2009). This replay in a physiologically calm state is hypothesized to preserve the content of a memory while diminishing its emotional intensity, allowing, for example, a past argument to be remembered clearly without making the heart race. The model predicts that emotional memories should be retained better following sleep, and that emotional reactivity upon recall should decrease. If the emotional charge persists after sleep, repeated replay across subsequent nights may occur, potentially explaining recurring dreams like Natalie's. Initial neuroimaging studies appeared to support the second prediction. In one study, 34 adults viewed emotional images twice, separated by a 12-hour interval. [[w:Amygdala|amygdala]] responses, which are associated with threat detection, decreased in participants who slept during the interval and increased in those who did not (van der Helm et al, 2011). Although low noradrenaline levels were inferred from brain wave patterns rather than measured directly. However, larger [[w:Meta-analysis|meta-analyses]] support neither prediction. Lipinska et al. (2019) examined 31 studies and found that sleep did not improve the retention of emotional memories more than neutral ones. Another synthesis of 24 studies reported no consistent effect of sleep on physiological responses to negative images, although only five studies assessed these measures. Additionally, participates rated negative images as ''more'' arousing after sleep (Lipinska et al., 2022). While selectively removing REM sleep would provide the most direct test, this approach is challenging because repeated awakenings cause stress and disrupt other sleep stages. The few human studies, if anything, suggest that emotional memories are retained more strongly with less REM sleep (Pesonen et al., 2024). The overnight-therapy function of REM sleep is therefore unconfirmed rather than disproven. ===What does dreaming add? === Dreaming is not with REM sleep: it can cease following brain damage even when REM sleep continues, and some dreams occur outside of REM sleep (Solms, 2000). Only one study has systematically measured both phenomena. Lara-Carrasco et al. (2009) partly deprived about half of of their sample of 35 adults of REM sleep, collected dream reports, and had participants rate negative images in the evening and the following morning. reduced REM sleep was associated with a greater overnight decrease in arousal, contrary to the REM model. Meanwhile, participants whose final dream was less negative rated the images as less unpleasant the next morning. The authors had predicted the opposite outcome, that better-adjusted individuals would experience more negative dreams. Instead, the results align with the idea that emotion simply continuing from dream to morning, although the one-hour interval between awakening and rating may have shaped this relationship. REM sleep and dreaming appeared to correspond to different aspects of the emotional response. However, correlational findings cannot show whether dreams actively induce overnight changes or reflect them, which is exactly where the [[#What do competing theories propose dreams do with emotion?|theories]] disagree. {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|11}}}|title=Quiz}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best summarises the evidence on REM sleep and upsetting memories? |type="()"} - REM sleep reliably reduces the emotional intensity of upsetting memories + The idea that REM sleep reduces the intensity of upsetting memories is plausible but unconfirmed </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == What do competing theories propose dreams do with emotion? == All three leading theories accept that waking emotion influences dream emotion, but they differ regarding the subsequent effects of dream emotion and the relevant timescale (see Table 1). The timescale is a critical factor for empirical testing: morning relief can be checked against tomorrow's mood, whereas changes over weeks are less readily assessed. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;" |+ style="text-align:left;" | '''Table 1'''<br />''Three Theories of What Dreams Do With Emotion'' |- ! scope="col" | ! scope="col" |Continuity hypothesis ! scope="col" |Fear extinction theory ! scope="col" |Mood regulation theory |- ! scope="row" |Core claim |Dreams simulate current concerns |Dreams place fear memories in safe new contexts |Dreams work through low mood across the night |- ! scope="row" |Natalie's recurring dream means |She is still preoccupied with the loss |Extinction under heavy emotional load |Regulation not yet complete |- ! scope="row" |Main prediction |Dream emotion carries into the next morning |Fear gradually decreases |Mood is better by morning, if it was low |- ! scope="row" |Timescale |Immediate |Weeks or longer |One night |} ''Note'' Based on Cartwright et al. (1998), Domhoff (2019), and Nielsen and Levin (2007). === Continuity hypothesis === The continuity hypothesis posits that dreams dramatise the dreamer's current concerns. In Domhoff's (2019) neurocognitive version, dreaming is described as an "embodied simulation" (p. 265) generated by the [[w:Default mode network|default mode network]], which also supports daydreaming. According to this perspective, Natalie's dream portrays her loss without resolving it, similar to daydreaming about an ex-partner. Domhoff argues that an emotion-regulating function "remains highly unliklely, and at best inconclusive, after decades of research studies' (p.287), noting that at least a quarter of REM dream reports contain no emotion. While the theory is parsimonious, the concept of mirroring can accommodate nearly any association between dreams and waking life. fits almost any link between dreams and waking life. The hypothesis can only be differentiated from functional theories if dream emotion predicts outcomes beyond those explained by waking mood alone. ===Fear extinction theory === [[w:Extinction (psychology)|Extinction]] occurs when a feared cue is met repeatedly without harm, so that a new safety memory forms and competes with the fear memory rather than erasing it. Nielson and Levin (2007) propose that dreams do this offline by recombining fragments of fear memories with safe, unrelated material. In their example, a dream of a dark alley shifts when "suddenly i found myself in a brightly lit street" (p.302), erasing the growing fear, much like Natalie's lit doorway. Two factors shape the outcome. ''Affect load'' is a state: the combined weight of recent stress on a person's capacity to regulate emotion. ''Affect distress'' is a trait: a long-standing tendency to react to emotional material with heightened distress (Nielson & Levin, 2007, p. 303). Bad dreams and nightmares lie on a continuum, and nightmares signal that extinction is struggling under heavy load, especially when affect distress is high. Natalie's recurring dream therefore reflects heavy load after the breakup, not a broken process. Because extinction is gradual, a frightening dream need not bring relief the next day, yet people whose dreams regularly engage fear should regulate better over weeks. The authors call the model "highly testable" (p. 304). In practice, though, recovery after a frightening dream can be read as extinction working and distress as extinction overloaded. Unless a successful dream is defined before results are known, almost any outcome can be accommodated. ===Mood regulation theory === Mood regulation theory proposes that successive REM dreams across one night work through low mood, shifting from negative towards positive emotion. Cartwright et al. (1998) tested this in 60 students without depression. Depressed mood fell overnight, and lower mood before sleep predicted a more negative first dream. Only the 10 students with the lowest pre-sleep mood showed the predicted sequence, with negative dreams early and more positive dreams later. The authors therefore proposed a threshold: dreams moderate mood only when unhappiness is "at lest modest" (p. 7). The threshold both protects and limits the theory. It explains why studies of contented people find little, but the core pattern rested on 10 people and was not formally tested, and Kramer's group, who first proposed the theory, once failed to replicate their own effect (Nielson & Levin, 2007). Mood also improved when REM periods were interrupted, so overnight relief did not depend on undisturbed dreaming. In short, mood regulation predicts relief by morning, continuity immediate carry-over, and fear extinction that builds over weeks. Waking mood and coping provide the tests. == How is dream emotion related to the way people cope while awake? == For Gross (2015), the defining feature of emotion regulation is "the activation of a goal to influence the emotion trajectory" (p. 5), a goal that can operate implicitly. A dream has no obvious goal, so any regulation it achieves must be implicit, and the coping question is whether its effects reach waking life. ''Within-person'' comparisons ask whether a persons worse negative dreams after followed by worse days, and ''between-person'' comparisons whether people who generally dream one way also cope differently. ===Next-morning mood === For five days, 40 adults rated their dream emotion and morning mood, then viewed negative pictures, sometimes while trying to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Cognitive strategies and emotion regulation|reappraise]] them (Sikka et al., 2022). After more negative dreams, mornings felt worse. Yet dream emotion predicted neither how strongly people reacted to the pictures nor how well they regulated, and [[w:Bayes factor|Bayesian analyses]] strongly favoured no relationship. Across 4,715 days from 536 adults, frightening dreams were likewise followed by about 7% more negative morning mood (Barber et al., 2026). Dreams that mixed fear with joy, however, were followed by mornings more often free of negative mood. ===Comparing people === Between people, the pattern reverses. People with more fearful dreams on average reported more adaptive regulation strategies, such as reappraisal and acceptance, even after accounting for [[w:Neuroticism|neuroticism]], which was also linked to fearful dreaming (Barber et al., 2026). In 89 adults who kept a week-long dream diary, more dream fear went with calmer brain responses to frightening pictures: weaker amygdala activity and stronger activity in a regulating prefrontal region (Sterpenich et al., 2020). Agreement across self-rport and brain measures makes the credible, and it fits fear extinctions slow, trait-level prediction. However, the direction of influence is unclear, since good regulators may simply tolerate negative material better. Morning carry-over after frightening dreams was also stronger in good regulators (Barber et al., 2026). The authors suggest that these people may be more aware of their feelings, may reappraise the dream after waking (recognising it was only a dream), or may need a brief rise in negative feeling to desensitise, as in exposure therapy. The last two, they note, place regulation after waking, with the dream supplying material and the awake person doing the work. ===Dreaming through a real loss === Real loss offers the most demanding test. Cartwright et al. (2006) followed 30 adults going through a divorce, 20 of them depressed, collecting dreams from every REM period on three nights over 5 months. In those who later recovered from depression, dreams of the former spouse carried emotion, mostly negative, and were linked to other memories. Those who stayed depressed still dreamed of the spouse, but these dreams were largely flat and disconnected from other memories. recovery therefore accompanied dreams that engaged painfully with the loss rather than dreams that turned about positive, which fits fear extinction better than mood regulation. However, this comparison rested on six versus four people and was descriptive, and recovery from depression is an outcome, not a coping strategy. Coping itself has rarely been measured. Among 35 female undergraduates facing exams, those who dreamed about the exam reported less active problem-solving white awake, and waking reappraisal went with more problem-solving inside dreams (Delorne et al., 2002), suggesting that coping style influences dreams as much as the reverse. At every levell, dream emotion moves with feeling and adjustment, but because nobody was assigned a particular dream, none of these studies shows that dreams cause change. That requires [[#What does deliberately changing dreams dreams reveal about their role in adaptive coping?|changing dreams]] on purpose. {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|11}}}|title=Quiz}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {In the same person, what usually follows a night with a frightening dream? |type="()"} - Better emotion regulation the next day. + A somewhat worse morning mood. </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == What does deliberately changing dreams reveal about their role in adaptive coping? == The previous section showed that dream emotion moves with waking mood and coping, but not which drives which. Experiments can test this. If dreams do emotional work, changing a dream should change how someone feels, and the benefit should depend on the new dream actually occurring. ===Does changing a dream change how people feel?=== Dreams can be changed during sleep using sounds, smells, and touch, although reported success varies from 0% to about 80% (Salvesen et al, 2024). In one study, a sound paired with one of two evening tasks was replayed during REM sleep, and people dreamed more about the cued task. In an exploratory analysis, the more directly a task appeard in their dreams, the less negative they felt about it the next morning. This fits fear extinction theory, but the sound itself did not change their feelings, so a third factor (such as motivation) could explain both (Konkoly et al., 2025). In a clinical version, people with frequent [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nightmares and emotion|nightmares]] rehearsed a rewritten nightmare, and half heard a sound paired with the new ending during REM sleep. They had fewer nightmares and more joyful dreams than patients who heard an unpaired sound. Yet their dreams almost never contained the rehearsed ending, and their nightmare distress, sleep quality, and mood improved no more than the comparison group (Schwartz et al., 2022). sleep may strengthen what was practised while awake, but with only 36 patients, small differences could be missed. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Woman writing on a notebook with a pen.jpg|Woman writing on a notebook with a pen|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 2'''. Rewriting a recurring dreams ending is the core of image rehearsal therapy]] '''Case study: Natalie part 2''' During a stressful fortnight, the old dream returns and Natalie starts staying up late to avoid it. A psychologist suggests writing the dream down and giving it a new ending in which so she stops calling out and walks the other way, and rehearsing it every evening (see Figure 2). Within weeks the dream comes less often and bothers her less. Oddly, she cannot recall ever dreaming the new ending. So what helped? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Does the new ending need to be dreamed?=== Imagery rehearsal therapy, which rewrites and rehearses a nightmare, is recommended for [[w:Nightmare disorder|nightmare disorder]] (Morgenthaler et al., 2018), yet patients often improve without dreaming the new ending (Rousseau & Belleville, 2018). In fact re-imagining a nightmare exactly as it was reduced nightmares and distress about as much as rewriting it, compared with a waiting list (Kunze et al., 2017). This fits fear extinction, but with the safe re-exposure happening while awake. That trial could not show the two are equal, but in veterans with severe [[w:Post-traumatic stress disoder|PTSD]], therapy including imagery rehearsal also did no better than sleep-focused therapy without it (Cook et al., 2010; Harb et al., 2019). proposed reasons include a growing sense of control, changed beliefs about nightmares, and less avoidance, but few have been tested directly (Rousseau & Belleville, 2018). ===Is less distress the same as better coping?=== Natalie's late nights are an example of [[w:Avoidance coping|avoidance coping]], which is common with bad dreams and nightmares and may keep them going (Rousseau & Belleville, 2018). Writing down and rehearing the dream is closer to emotional approach coping: actively processing a feeling rather than escaping it (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). both are deliberate regulation while awake, not automatic processing during sleep (Gross, 2015). Less dream distress is not the same as adaptive coping, which requires better outcomes in the situation causing the stress (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). These trials measured nightmares, sleep, and symptom, not how people handled the problems behind their dreams, and involved frequent nightmares rather than sad dreams like Natalie's. Deliberately changing dreams therefore reveals more about waking coping than about dreaming. Dreams can be changed, but emotional benefits have not been shown to depend on the changed dream. The research cannot say what helped Natalie, but it points away from the new ending and towards what she did while awake:: facing the dream instead of staying up to avoid it. ==Conclusion== Natalie wondered whether the dream helped her move on, showed that she was moving on, or gave her something to work with. the evidence favours the last two. REM sleep may help keep emotional memories, but whether it softens them is unconfirmed. Dream emotion carries into the next morning, as continuity predicts, rather than changing it overnight, as mood regulation predicts. Fear extinction fits the slower patterns but has not passed its most direct tests, and experiments can change dreams, yet improvement has not been shown to depend on the changed dream. The most defensible conclusion is that dreams reflect emotional processing and supply material that people regulate and reappraise while awake. Natalie's lit doorway is most likely a sign of change already under way, and what helped was what she did with it after waking. Whether dreaming itself causes adaptive coping remains an open, testable question. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Take-home messages''' * A nights sleep does not reliably take the sting out of an upsetting memory. * A distressing dream shows what someone is carrying, not whether healing is happening. * Dreams about a loss that carry real feeling tend to accompany recovery, even when the feelings are painful. * For a recurring distressing dream, working with it while awake, by facing or rewriting it, is the best supported step. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Dreams and emotional problem-solving|Dreams and emotional problem-solving]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Nightmare disorder|Nightmare disorder]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nightmares and emotion|Nightmares and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==References== ==External links== * [https://www.sleepfoundation.org/nightmares/how-to-stop-having-nightmares How to prevent nightmares] (Sleep Foundation) * [https://shows.acast.com/sleep-science-pod/episodes/ep12-sleep-dreams-and-mental-health Sleep, dreams and mental health] (The Sleep Science Pod) * [https://www.media.mit.edu/projects/targeted-dream-incubation/overview/ Targeted dream incubation] (MIT Media Lab) * [https://theconversation.com/the-science-of-dreams-and-nightmares-what-is-going-on-in-our-brains-while-were-sleeping-210901 The science of dreams and nightmares – what is going on in our brains while we're sleeping?] (The Conversation) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Dreams]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] dd6ctmeozw7djmp6gqo9fykpojkzx02 2840810 2840795 2026-10-17T02:17:25Z ~2026-55607-17 3112804 /* Fear extinction theory */ changed wording 2840810 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Dreams and emotional problem-solving:<br>How do REM dreams contribute to emotional processing and adaptive coping?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Case study: Natalie part 1 ''' [[File:Dreaming.jpg|Dreaming|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1'''. Natalie's recurring dream after her breakup leaves her feeling sad when she wakes]] Since her breakup, Natalie keeps having the same dream. She's been left behind somewhere, calling out to someone who never turns around (See Figure 1). When she wakes the details fade, but the feeling stays. Then one night, after her first good day in weeks, the dream changes: she stops calling out, notices a lit doorway, and walks through it. She wakes feeling better, and that afternoon she finally packs away his things. Did the dream help her move on, show that she was already moving on, or give her something to work with once awake? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Dream|Dreams]] are commonly reported following awakenings from [[w:Rapid eye movement sleep|rapid eye movement (REM) sleep]] (Solms, 2000), and REM sleep has been characterised as "overnight therapy" (Walker & van der Helm, 2009, p. 731). However, whether dreams actively contribute to emotional processing or simply reflect processes occurring elsewhere remains a subject of debate. The answer has practical implications: if dreams facilitate healing, distressing dreams may be part of recovery; if dreams only mirror emotional states, they may indicate when interventions are needed while awake. Three key terms keep these possibilities apart. ''Emotional processing'' refers to overnight changes in the retention or intensity if emotional memories. [[w:Emotional self-regulation|''Emotion regulation'']] is any process, deliberate or automatic, that alters the trajectory of an emotional response (Gross, 2015). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|''Coping'']] involves the cognitive and behavourial strategies individuals use to manage stressful situations, and is considered adaptive only when it is contextually appropriate and leads to improved outcomes (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). Notably, a dream may reflect emotional processing without regulating emotions, and may alleviate feelings without necessarily improving coping strategies. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} '''Focus questions''' * How do REM sleep and dreaming each contribute to overnight emotional processing? * What do competing theories propose dreams do with emotion? * How is dream emotion related to the way people cope while awake? * How can people work with emotional dreams to support coping? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == How do REM sleep and dreaming each contribute to overnight emotional processing? == REM sleep is a brain state characterised by rapid eye movements, heightened brain activity, and muscle paralysis. Dreaming is a conscious experience. Because the two typically coincide, research findings concerning one are often attributed to the other. ===REM sleep and emotional memories === The ''sleep to forget, sleep to remember'' model posits that the brain replays recent emotional memories during REM sleep when [[wikipedia:Norepinephrine|noradrenaline]], a neurotransmitter associated with arousal, is low (Walker & van der Helm, 2009). This replay in a physiologically calm state is hypothesized to preserve the content of a memory while diminishing its emotional intensity, allowing, for example, a past argument to be remembered clearly without making the heart race. The model predicts that emotional memories should be retained better following sleep, and that emotional reactivity upon recall should decrease. If the emotional charge persists after sleep, repeated replay across subsequent nights may occur, potentially explaining recurring dreams like Natalie's. Initial neuroimaging studies appeared to support the second prediction. In one study, 34 adults viewed emotional images twice, separated by a 12-hour interval. [[w:Amygdala|amygdala]] responses, which are associated with threat detection, decreased in participants who slept during the interval and increased in those who did not (van der Helm et al, 2011). Although low noradrenaline levels were inferred from brain wave patterns rather than measured directly. However, larger [[w:Meta-analysis|meta-analyses]] support neither prediction. Lipinska et al. (2019) examined 31 studies and found that sleep did not improve the retention of emotional memories more than neutral ones. Another synthesis of 24 studies reported no consistent effect of sleep on physiological responses to negative images, although only five studies assessed these measures. Additionally, participates rated negative images as ''more'' arousing after sleep (Lipinska et al., 2022). While selectively removing REM sleep would provide the most direct test, this approach is challenging because repeated awakenings cause stress and disrupt other sleep stages. The few human studies, if anything, suggest that emotional memories are retained more strongly with less REM sleep (Pesonen et al., 2024). The overnight-therapy function of REM sleep is therefore unconfirmed rather than disproven. ===What does dreaming add? === Dreaming is not with REM sleep: it can cease following brain damage even when REM sleep continues, and some dreams occur outside of REM sleep (Solms, 2000). Only one study has systematically measured both phenomena. Lara-Carrasco et al. (2009) partly deprived about half of of their sample of 35 adults of REM sleep, collected dream reports, and had participants rate negative images in the evening and the following morning. reduced REM sleep was associated with a greater overnight decrease in arousal, contrary to the REM model. Meanwhile, participants whose final dream was less negative rated the images as less unpleasant the next morning. The authors had predicted the opposite outcome, that better-adjusted individuals would experience more negative dreams. Instead, the results align with the idea that emotion simply continuing from dream to morning, although the one-hour interval between awakening and rating may have shaped this relationship. REM sleep and dreaming appeared to correspond to different aspects of the emotional response. However, correlational findings cannot show whether dreams actively induce overnight changes or reflect them, which is exactly where the [[#What do competing theories propose dreams do with emotion?|theories]] disagree. {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|11}}}|title=Quiz}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best summarises the evidence on REM sleep and upsetting memories? |type="()"} - REM sleep reliably reduces the emotional intensity of upsetting memories + The idea that REM sleep reduces the intensity of upsetting memories is plausible but unconfirmed </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == What do competing theories propose dreams do with emotion? == All three leading theories accept that waking emotion influences dream emotion, but they differ regarding the subsequent effects of dream emotion and the relevant timescale (see Table 1). The timescale is a critical factor for empirical testing: morning relief can be checked against tomorrow's mood, whereas changes over weeks are less readily assessed. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;" |+ style="text-align:left;" | '''Table 1'''<br />''Three Theories of What Dreams Do With Emotion'' |- ! scope="col" | ! scope="col" |Continuity hypothesis ! scope="col" |Fear extinction theory ! scope="col" |Mood regulation theory |- ! scope="row" |Core claim |Dreams simulate current concerns |Dreams place fear memories in safe new contexts |Dreams work through low mood across the night |- ! scope="row" |Natalie's recurring dream means |She is still preoccupied with the loss |Extinction under heavy emotional load |Regulation not yet complete |- ! scope="row" |Main prediction |Dream emotion carries into the next morning |Fear gradually decreases |Mood is better by morning, if it was low |- ! scope="row" |Timescale |Immediate |Weeks or longer |One night |} ''Note'' Based on Cartwright et al. (1998), Domhoff (2019), and Nielsen and Levin (2007). === Continuity hypothesis === The continuity hypothesis posits that dreams dramatise the dreamer's current concerns. In Domhoff's (2019) neurocognitive version, dreaming is described as an "embodied simulation" (p. 265) generated by the [[w:Default mode network|default mode network]], which also supports daydreaming. According to this perspective, Natalie's dream portrays her loss without resolving it, similar to daydreaming about an ex-partner. Domhoff argues that an emotion-regulating function "remains highly unliklely, and at best inconclusive, after decades of research studies' (p.287), noting that at least a quarter of REM dream reports contain no emotion. While the theory is parsimonious, the concept of mirroring can accommodate nearly any association between dreams and waking life. fits almost any link between dreams and waking life. The hypothesis can only be differentiated from functional theories if dream emotion predicts outcomes beyond those explained by waking mood alone. ===Fear extinction theory === [[w:Extinction (psychology)|Extinction]] occurs when repeated exposure to a feared cue without negative consequences leads to the formation of a new safety memory that competes with, rather than erases, the original fear memory. Nielson and Levin (2007) suggest that dreams facilitate this process offline by recombining elements of fear memories with safe or neutral material. For example, they describe a dream in which a dark alley transforms when "suddenly i found myself in a brightly lit street" (p.302), thereby alleviating fear, much as Natalie's lit doorway did. Two factors influence the outcome of extinction in dreams. ''Affect load'' is a state: the current burdon of recent stress on a person's ability to regulate emotion. ''Affect distress'' is a trait: a persistent tendency to respond to emotional stimuli with heightened distress (Nielson & Levin, 2007, p. 303). Bad dreams and nightmares exist on a continuum, with nightmares indicating that extinction is struggling under heavy affect load. From this perspective, Natalie's recurring dream suggests a significant affect load following the breakup rather than a malfunction in the extinction process. The theory predicts that a frightening dream need not bring relief the following day, but individuals whose dreams consistently engage with fear are expected to show improved fear regulation over time. The primary limitations of this theory is its flexibility. Relief following a frightening dream may be interpreted as successful extinction and distress as extinction overloaded. Consequently, unless a successful dream is defined in advance the theory can accommodate almost any outcome. ===Mood regulation theory === Mood regulation theory proposes that successive REM dreams across one night work through low mood, shifting from negative towards positive emotion. Cartwright et al. (1998) tested this in 60 students without depression. Depressed mood fell overnight, and lower mood before sleep predicted a more negative first dream. Only the 10 students with the lowest pre-sleep mood showed the predicted sequence, with negative dreams early and more positive dreams later. The authors therefore proposed a threshold: dreams moderate mood only when unhappiness is "at lest modest" (p. 7). The threshold both protects and limits the theory. It explains why studies of contented people find little, but the core pattern rested on 10 people and was not formally tested, and Kramer's group, who first proposed the theory, once failed to replicate their own effect (Nielson & Levin, 2007). Mood also improved when REM periods were interrupted, so overnight relief did not depend on undisturbed dreaming. In short, mood regulation predicts relief by morning, continuity immediate carry-over, and fear extinction that builds over weeks. Waking mood and coping provide the tests. == How is dream emotion related to the way people cope while awake? == For Gross (2015), the defining feature of emotion regulation is "the activation of a goal to influence the emotion trajectory" (p. 5), a goal that can operate implicitly. A dream has no obvious goal, so any regulation it achieves must be implicit, and the coping question is whether its effects reach waking life. ''Within-person'' comparisons ask whether a persons worse negative dreams after followed by worse days, and ''between-person'' comparisons whether people who generally dream one way also cope differently. ===Next-morning mood === For five days, 40 adults rated their dream emotion and morning mood, then viewed negative pictures, sometimes while trying to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Cognitive strategies and emotion regulation|reappraise]] them (Sikka et al., 2022). After more negative dreams, mornings felt worse. Yet dream emotion predicted neither how strongly people reacted to the pictures nor how well they regulated, and [[w:Bayes factor|Bayesian analyses]] strongly favoured no relationship. Across 4,715 days from 536 adults, frightening dreams were likewise followed by about 7% more negative morning mood (Barber et al., 2026). Dreams that mixed fear with joy, however, were followed by mornings more often free of negative mood. ===Comparing people === Between people, the pattern reverses. People with more fearful dreams on average reported more adaptive regulation strategies, such as reappraisal and acceptance, even after accounting for [[w:Neuroticism|neuroticism]], which was also linked to fearful dreaming (Barber et al., 2026). In 89 adults who kept a week-long dream diary, more dream fear went with calmer brain responses to frightening pictures: weaker amygdala activity and stronger activity in a regulating prefrontal region (Sterpenich et al., 2020). Agreement across self-rport and brain measures makes the credible, and it fits fear extinctions slow, trait-level prediction. However, the direction of influence is unclear, since good regulators may simply tolerate negative material better. Morning carry-over after frightening dreams was also stronger in good regulators (Barber et al., 2026). The authors suggest that these people may be more aware of their feelings, may reappraise the dream after waking (recognising it was only a dream), or may need a brief rise in negative feeling to desensitise, as in exposure therapy. The last two, they note, place regulation after waking, with the dream supplying material and the awake person doing the work. ===Dreaming through a real loss === Real loss offers the most demanding test. Cartwright et al. (2006) followed 30 adults going through a divorce, 20 of them depressed, collecting dreams from every REM period on three nights over 5 months. In those who later recovered from depression, dreams of the former spouse carried emotion, mostly negative, and were linked to other memories. Those who stayed depressed still dreamed of the spouse, but these dreams were largely flat and disconnected from other memories. recovery therefore accompanied dreams that engaged painfully with the loss rather than dreams that turned about positive, which fits fear extinction better than mood regulation. However, this comparison rested on six versus four people and was descriptive, and recovery from depression is an outcome, not a coping strategy. Coping itself has rarely been measured. Among 35 female undergraduates facing exams, those who dreamed about the exam reported less active problem-solving white awake, and waking reappraisal went with more problem-solving inside dreams (Delorne et al., 2002), suggesting that coping style influences dreams as much as the reverse. At every levell, dream emotion moves with feeling and adjustment, but because nobody was assigned a particular dream, none of these studies shows that dreams cause change. That requires [[#What does deliberately changing dreams dreams reveal about their role in adaptive coping?|changing dreams]] on purpose. {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|11}}}|title=Quiz}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {In the same person, what usually follows a night with a frightening dream? |type="()"} - Better emotion regulation the next day. + A somewhat worse morning mood. </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == What does deliberately changing dreams reveal about their role in adaptive coping? == The previous section showed that dream emotion moves with waking mood and coping, but not which drives which. Experiments can test this. If dreams do emotional work, changing a dream should change how someone feels, and the benefit should depend on the new dream actually occurring. ===Does changing a dream change how people feel?=== Dreams can be changed during sleep using sounds, smells, and touch, although reported success varies from 0% to about 80% (Salvesen et al, 2024). In one study, a sound paired with one of two evening tasks was replayed during REM sleep, and people dreamed more about the cued task. In an exploratory analysis, the more directly a task appeard in their dreams, the less negative they felt about it the next morning. This fits fear extinction theory, but the sound itself did not change their feelings, so a third factor (such as motivation) could explain both (Konkoly et al., 2025). In a clinical version, people with frequent [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nightmares and emotion|nightmares]] rehearsed a rewritten nightmare, and half heard a sound paired with the new ending during REM sleep. They had fewer nightmares and more joyful dreams than patients who heard an unpaired sound. Yet their dreams almost never contained the rehearsed ending, and their nightmare distress, sleep quality, and mood improved no more than the comparison group (Schwartz et al., 2022). sleep may strengthen what was practised while awake, but with only 36 patients, small differences could be missed. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Woman writing on a notebook with a pen.jpg|Woman writing on a notebook with a pen|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 2'''. Rewriting a recurring dreams ending is the core of image rehearsal therapy]] '''Case study: Natalie part 2''' During a stressful fortnight, the old dream returns and Natalie starts staying up late to avoid it. A psychologist suggests writing the dream down and giving it a new ending in which so she stops calling out and walks the other way, and rehearsing it every evening (see Figure 2). Within weeks the dream comes less often and bothers her less. Oddly, she cannot recall ever dreaming the new ending. So what helped? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Does the new ending need to be dreamed?=== Imagery rehearsal therapy, which rewrites and rehearses a nightmare, is recommended for [[w:Nightmare disorder|nightmare disorder]] (Morgenthaler et al., 2018), yet patients often improve without dreaming the new ending (Rousseau & Belleville, 2018). In fact re-imagining a nightmare exactly as it was reduced nightmares and distress about as much as rewriting it, compared with a waiting list (Kunze et al., 2017). This fits fear extinction, but with the safe re-exposure happening while awake. That trial could not show the two are equal, but in veterans with severe [[w:Post-traumatic stress disoder|PTSD]], therapy including imagery rehearsal also did no better than sleep-focused therapy without it (Cook et al., 2010; Harb et al., 2019). proposed reasons include a growing sense of control, changed beliefs about nightmares, and less avoidance, but few have been tested directly (Rousseau & Belleville, 2018). ===Is less distress the same as better coping?=== Natalie's late nights are an example of [[w:Avoidance coping|avoidance coping]], which is common with bad dreams and nightmares and may keep them going (Rousseau & Belleville, 2018). Writing down and rehearing the dream is closer to emotional approach coping: actively processing a feeling rather than escaping it (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). both are deliberate regulation while awake, not automatic processing during sleep (Gross, 2015). Less dream distress is not the same as adaptive coping, which requires better outcomes in the situation causing the stress (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). These trials measured nightmares, sleep, and symptom, not how people handled the problems behind their dreams, and involved frequent nightmares rather than sad dreams like Natalie's. Deliberately changing dreams therefore reveals more about waking coping than about dreaming. Dreams can be changed, but emotional benefits have not been shown to depend on the changed dream. The research cannot say what helped Natalie, but it points away from the new ending and towards what she did while awake:: facing the dream instead of staying up to avoid it. ==Conclusion== Natalie wondered whether the dream helped her move on, showed that she was moving on, or gave her something to work with. the evidence favours the last two. REM sleep may help keep emotional memories, but whether it softens them is unconfirmed. Dream emotion carries into the next morning, as continuity predicts, rather than changing it overnight, as mood regulation predicts. Fear extinction fits the slower patterns but has not passed its most direct tests, and experiments can change dreams, yet improvement has not been shown to depend on the changed dream. The most defensible conclusion is that dreams reflect emotional processing and supply material that people regulate and reappraise while awake. Natalie's lit doorway is most likely a sign of change already under way, and what helped was what she did with it after waking. Whether dreaming itself causes adaptive coping remains an open, testable question. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Take-home messages''' * A nights sleep does not reliably take the sting out of an upsetting memory. * A distressing dream shows what someone is carrying, not whether healing is happening. * Dreams about a loss that carry real feeling tend to accompany recovery, even when the feelings are painful. * For a recurring distressing dream, working with it while awake, by facing or rewriting it, is the best supported step. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Dreams and emotional problem-solving|Dreams and emotional problem-solving]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Nightmare disorder|Nightmare disorder]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nightmares and emotion|Nightmares and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==References== ==External links== * [https://www.sleepfoundation.org/nightmares/how-to-stop-having-nightmares How to prevent nightmares] (Sleep Foundation) * [https://shows.acast.com/sleep-science-pod/episodes/ep12-sleep-dreams-and-mental-health Sleep, dreams and mental health] (The Sleep Science Pod) * [https://www.media.mit.edu/projects/targeted-dream-incubation/overview/ Targeted dream incubation] (MIT Media Lab) * [https://theconversation.com/the-science-of-dreams-and-nightmares-what-is-going-on-in-our-brains-while-were-sleeping-210901 The science of dreams and nightmares – what is going on in our brains while we're sleeping?] (The Conversation) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Dreams]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] l6vh0wxzdrvx7ugm24lj4vf07dbr3js 0 330079 2840688 2840498 2026-10-16T13:18:02Z ~2026-55289-03 3112777 /* Applying a body-neutral perspective */ 2840688 wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__{{Title|7677676767676767 DRIZZZZZZZYYY AHHHHHHHH!!!!!!!!1=Body neutrality and emotional well-being: How a body-neutral perspective can affect emotional well-being|Body neutrality and emotional well-being: How a body-neutral perspective can affect emotional well-being}} ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}'''Consider this scenario...''' [[File:Woman with a rough life checking herself out in the mirror (8436629921).jpg|thumb|right|'''Figure 1.''' Woman looking at herself in the mirror]] Amanda is excitedly getting ready to go to a party with friends. Her excitement disappears when she looks in the mirror, beginning to compare her appearance to other women she knows. She focuses on what she perceives as flaws in her body, thinking about how she might be viewed by others at the event. As these thoughts become more intense, Amanda feels increasingly anxious and ashamed of her appearance. She considers making an excuse not to go as she worries she will be judged or that she does not look "good enough" to go out. Before texting the group chat to cancel, she stops. Amanda recognises how pumped she was seconds ago about this party, and how quickly this changes. She thinks, "Why is it that only after I look in the mirror, I believe I'm not worthy?". She realises how much her appearance has become closely connected with her emotions how she views her self-worth. Amanda decides to change the thought process. Instead of thinking "I will I look bad/good at this party" she thinks "I'm going to have to much fun at this party". This shifts the attention away from evaluating her appearance and more towards what her body allows her to do, such as spending time with friends, dancing, and enjoying the evening. Amanda also recognises that self-worth can come from many areas of her life, including her relationships, personality, interests, and achievements. She knows that negative thoughts about her appearance will still occur, but she's done with letting them determine whether she feels good about herself or whether she participates in activities she enjoys. Amanda does finishing touches to her hair, makeup, and outfit, before grabbing her bag and shoes. She leaves the house feeing better about herself and looking forward for the night ahead, all thanks to her discovery of a body-neutral perspective {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[wikipedia:Body_neutrality|Body-neutrality]] is an approach to body image which focuses on accepting the body without any particular emotion or attention to one's physical appearance. This is an important concept because body dissatisfaction is common and has negative affects on emotional well-being, self-esteem and behaviour. These affects can lead to difficulties such as anxiety, depression, and psychological issues such as disordered eating. Social media, cultural and social idealised bodies, and appearance-based social comparison are important factors that contribute to how people evaluate their bodies. Psychological research somewhat explains how body-neutral perspectives may influence emotional-well-being through the examination of self-esteem, social comparison, self-compassion, psychological flexibility, and appearance-based self-worth. Understanding such psychological processes helps identify whether and how body-neutrality may support a healthy body image and therefore emotional well-being. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * What is body neutrality, and how does it differ from other approaches to body image? * How can body image and appearance-related thinking influence emotional well-being? * How do social and cultural influences shape body image and the way we experience our bodies? * How might adopting a body-neutral perspect support emotional wellbeing?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding body-neutrality == === Body image === The concept of [[wikipedia:Body_image|body image]] has many interpretations. It was originally developed as a neurological concept, describing the brain's ability to detect weight, shape, size and form and incorporate these into core beliefs or mental frameworks (Lacey, 1986). This early definition of body image was known as 'the body percept' and focuses more on the accumulated sensory experience within one's body. The actual term 'body image' was coined by Paul Schilder (2013) who defined body image as "the picture of our own body which we form in our mind, that is to say the way in which the body appears to ourselves." Modern definitions of the term are far more in depth, explaining body image as something that is multidimensional that encompasses an individuals thoughts, feelings, attitudes, and behaviours regarding their physical appearance, body shape, size, weight, and how their body functions (Rodgers et al. 2023). Body image involves interconnected perceptual, cognitive, emotional, and behavioural components. These components explain how we percieve our bodies, develop beliefs about our appearance, experience body-related emotions, and respond through behaviour (Carey & Preston, 2019). * '''Perceptual''': How people perceive their body's size, shape, weight, and appearance. Perceptions may not always accurately reflect physical characteristics ** Example: perceiving your stomach to be bigger than it actually is * '''Cognitive''': Thoughts, beliefs, and evaluation individuals hold about their bodies. This includes beliefs about how attractive or important one's appearance is. ** Example: believing you need to lose weight to be considered attractive * '''Emotional''': Feelings associated with body appearance including satisfaction, confidence, shame, anxiety, or embarrassment ** Example: Feeling shame about your body when you compare to another person * '''Behavioural''': Actions people take in response to body image ** Example: Repeatedly checking appearance in mirrors or avoiding social situations due to being uncomfortable about appearance These components can be considered separately but they are best understood as interacting factors. For example, someone who may perceive their appearance negatively may develop critical thoughts about their body, experience feelings of shame or anxiety, and subsequently avoiding social situations, therefore displaying all body image components. === Development of body-neutrality === The development of body-neutrality is closely associated with Anne Poirier, who worked as a eating-disorder specialist and intuitive eating counsellor, helping popularise the approach through this work. Around 2015, body-neutrality started to gain popularity in online spaces as a alternative way of discussing body image, with Poirer subsequently developing workshops around the concept (Nuss et al., 2026). Poirer's approach emphasised that people should not feel like they have to love their bodies. Instead, their attention should be on body functionality and recognising personal worth beyond physical appearance. Poirer's work helped bring body-neutrality into wider discussions regarding body image. This includes popularity on social media such as Instagram or TikTok, which further increased visibility for the concept (Nuss et al., 2025). Despite its increasing popularity, there still is not an agreed-upon definition of body-neutrality. The term is often used to describe reducing importance placed on physical appearance, accepting the body without required feelings, focusing on functionality, or responding to body-related thoughts without judgement. Although these ideas overlap, they do not necessarily describe the same psychological process (Mulgrew and Hinz, 2024). For example, trying to reduce the importance of appearance involves changing how much value is placed on physical attractiveness, whereas body functionality focuses on recognising what the body allows us to do. Similarly, accepting negative body related feelings does not necessarily mean that appearance has become unimportant. These differences make it difficult to establish a single definition that captures all the ways body-neutrality is understood or practiced. Body-neutrality represents a promising approach to understanding body image by offering an alternative perspective that does not require feeling-focused attitudes towards appearance. Despite it's recent emergence and evolving definition, the concept is valuable because it helps navigate pressures surrounding body evaluation. === From body-negativity to body-positivity to body-neutrality === Body image is best understood through the varying perspectives that people have. This ranges from negative evaluations of one's appearance, positive appreciation, and neutral acceptance. Body-negativity involves dissatisfaction, criticism, or negative feelings towards one's body, often influenced by perceived flaws and societal beauty standards (Tort-Nasarre et al., 2021). Negative body image often contribute to lower self-esteem and emotional distress, including feelings of anxiety, sadness, and shame. It is also associated with disordered eating behaviours and other psychological difficulties, although these relationships are complex and do not effect everyone with body dissatisfaction (Abdoli et al., 2025). [[wikipedia:Body_positivity|Body-positivity]] is a opposing perspective because it involves encouragement in appreciating or accepting one's body regardless of shape, size, or appearance. The body-positivity movement created visibility for body-positive perspectives through social media, where people of all differing types of bodies challenges conventional beauty standards. The body-positive movement originated with fat-acceptance activism, feminist and queer social movements, with a focused attention to the stigma and exclusion experienced by people whose bodies are marginalised because of body size, disability, gender expression, etc (Cohen et al., 2019). While this movement has messages of empowerment for many, some people have found the expectation to love and celebrate their bodies difficult to achieve. For those with a negative body image, being encouraged to replace negative feelings with positive ones may feel unrealistic or create pressure to feel confident when they simply do not. This does not mean that body-positivity is ineffective, rather, it highlights that people relate to their bodies in different ways. This is where body-neutrality comes in as a valuable alternative. For those who do not want to focus on loving their appearance, it allows them to accept their bodies without requiring positive feelings. Rather than judging body image by whether someone feels positivity or negatively about their looks, a neutral perspective allows for all feelings without them being the measure of personal worth. See table 1 for an overall comparison of these perspectives. {| class="wikitable sortable" |+Table 1. Comparing and Contrasting Body-image Concepts ! !Body-negativity !Body-positivity !Body-neutrality |- |View of body |Negative evaluation |Positive appreciation |Acceptance without requiring positivity |- |Role of appearance | colspan="2" |High Importance |Reduced importance |- |Expected emotion |Shame, anxiety, distress |Pride, love, happiness |No particular feelings required |- |Basis of self-worth |May become appearance dependent |May include body appreciation |Broader than physical appearance |- |Psychological focus |Appearance evaluation |Appreciation and acceptance |Flexibility and reduced appearance centrality |- |Example thought |"I don't like how my body looks" |"I love and appreciate my body" |"I accept my body and my appearance does not determine my worth" |} == Body image and emotional well-being == === Appearance-based self-worth and emotional distress === Appearance-based self-worth is when individuals base their overall self-evaluation on whether they believe their physical attractiveness meets a certain standard. When appearance is a central focus, perceived flaws or concerns about looks becomes a central source of emotional distress. Findings from Adams et al. (2017) find that appearance-contingent self-worth is associated with greater [[wikipedia:Self-objectification|self-objectification]], which is linked to higher appearance anxiety and lower self-esteem. This suggests that people who place greater importance on appearance may become more concerned about if they meet beauty standards, causing vulnerabilities to their self-esteem because of appearance-related stress. For example, someone who believes their attractiveness determines worth may experience anxiety or shame when comparing themselves with others. This thinking can extend beyond body dissatisfaction and into how individuals evaluate themselves as a person overall. === Self-objectification and appearance monitoring === Self-objectification refers to viewing one's body from an outsider's perspective. There is great attention given to how the body looks rather than how it feels or functions. [[wikipedia:Self-monitoring|Appearance monitoring]] stems from this, and includes behaviours such as repeatedly checking mirrors, adjusting clothing to hide perceived flaws, or comparing one's appearance with others (Ahmed et al., 2025). Continually monitoring appearance can increase attention towards someone idea of a physical flaw and create greater concern about how other evaluate their body. This contributes to feelings body shame, appearance anxiety, and lower self-esteem, particularly for those who believe they do not meet expected standards (Sarda et al., 2025). When this behaviour continues, everyday situations may become opportunities for self-criticism and evaluation. Consequently, self-objectification and appearance monitoring negatively affects emotional well-being by making physical looks a source of worry and evaluation, reinforcing body dissatisfaction and increasing vulnerabilities to perceived physical imperfections. === Effects on everyday functioning === These concerning behaviours and thought processes about body image can affect how people participate in everyday activities, maintain relationships, and manage daily responsibilities. When one's attention is heavily directed towards appearance, it may be difficult to concentrate on other aspects of life. This can lead to avoidance behaviours such as not attending social events, exercising in public, or having photographs taken. Overtime, this avoidance limits social participation and prevents individuals from engaging in experiences they would otherwise enjoy. The consequences on daily life due to severe body image concerns can be illustrated through Diana's case study. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} '''Case Study: Diana''' Diana is a 25-year-old with anorexia nervosa who was examined by Di Lernia et al. (2019). Diana sought treatment at an eating disorder centre following significant weight loss. Her issues with eating started when she began a restrictive diet due to health concerns. This caused her to develop persistent thoughts about calories, weight, and particular foods. Diana also experienced distorted perceptions of her body, repeatedly body checking in mirrors, and wearing clothes that would hide her figure. During periods of high distress, she reported frequently crying while looking at herself in the mirror. {{RoundBoxBottom}} This case study shows how body image can extend into eating behaviours, daily routines, and overall emotional well-being. Persistent concerns about food, weight, and body perception show how these thoughts can become a significant part of daily life and can cause severe negative emotional responses. Although this case involves [[wikipedia:Anorexia|anorexia nervosa]] and cannot represent all experiences of negative body image, it stands as a good example of how severe body image can coincide with distress and behaviours that distrupt daily functioning and therefore emotional well-being. == Social and cultural influences == [[File:Woman Montage (1).jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Faces and figures of women, showing how different groups depict beauty. ]] === Appearance ideals and cultural influence === Culture is one of the most influential aspects on the formation of body image as it shaped how individuals understand attractiveness and evaluate their appearance overall (Vincent et al., 2025). Societal values, historical impacts, and cultural expectations influence which body shapes or physical characteristics are considered desirable. [[wikipedia:Feminine_beauty_ideal|Beauty ideals]] are not universal internationally, with all countries having differing appearance ideals. See Figure 2 for a board comparison of differing depictions of beauty. In many Western societies, thinness has been the ideal for beauty in women. However, ideals have shifted over time to include greater emphasis on curvier or more muscular bodies (Paudel et al., 2025). In Southeast Asia, preference for lighter skin is greatly influenced by historical class associations, [[wikipedia:Colorism|colourism]], and contemporary beauty industries (Khan & Khan, 2022). Across African countries and cultures, ideals also vary, with normal to overweight bodies being associated with beauty, prosperity or fertility in some contexts, while lighter skin and Eurocentric features have been favoured in others (Pradeilles et al., 2022). These ideals are largely based in culture and not necessarily the geographical regions in which they are developed. An example of this is shown through research involving South Asian women in the United Kingdom found that exposure to advertisements including white models reduce participants' satisfaction with their own skin colour, highlighting how culture and representation can change appearance evaluation (Craddock et al., 2025). This suggests that appearance ideals influence body image because individuals may encounter and internalise beauty standards associated with other cultures, making cultural influences and exposure to beauty ideals have significant impact on how individuals perceive and evaluate their bodies, regardless of where they live. The internalisation of such ideals contributes to body dissatisfaction when individuals adopt culturally prompted beauty standards as personal expectations and compare their appearance against them. An example of this is seen through research by Poloskov and Tracey (2013) that found internalisation of U.S beauty standards helped explain the relationship between [[wikipedia:Acculturation|acculturation]] towards dominant U.S culture and body dissatisfaction among Mexican American Women. Similar research by Negi et al. (2022) found that internalisation of the thin ideal accounted for the relationship between acculturation and body dissatisfaction among South and Southeast Asian women living in the United States. Such findings suggest the adoption of culturally valued appearance ideals are associated with greater dissatisfaction when individuals perceive a gap between their own appearance and standards they have internalised. === Cultural perspectives that overlap with body neutrality === Although body neutrality is a relatively recent concept in psychological research, some cultural perspectives share overlapping aspects of its emphasis on valuing the body beyond physical appearance. An example of this is described by Martin and Latner (2025) who state how [[wikipedia:Native_Hawaiians|Kānaka Maoli]] or Indigenous Hawaiian cultural knowledge systems foster appreciation of body functionality through connections to land, community, spirituality and movement. Similarly, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women in Australia found that cultural identity and sense of belonging could help against negative body image experiences (Chalmers et al., 2022). These examples highlight how perspectives that overlap with body neutrality such as valuing body functionality, relationships, community, and connections to land, can be reflected within differing cultural contexts. Although these examples may not explicitly identify as body neutrality, they share very similar emphasis on thought processes. === Social media === [[File:Social media collection 2020s.png|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Image of examples of social media platforms]] Social media has amplified body dissatisfaction for many individuals because there is now increased exposure to idealised representations of physical appearance and encouragement of comparison with others. This exposure to beauty ideals on social media can negatively affect body image. These comparisons may contribute to dissatisfaction when individuals perceive their own appearance as falling short of standards presented online. Due to the fast-paced nature of social media trends, different body types and physical features quickly become fashionable or desirable, creating changing expectations around appearance. These trends are often reinforced through editing of photographs, beauty filters, and digitally altered images that present unrealistic or difficult-to-achieve beauty standards (Merino et al., 2024). As beauty trends change and edited images continue to circulate, social media users may experience ongoing pressure to modify their appearance to meet these unrealistic standards, potentially reinforcing body dissatisfaction and negatively affection emotional well-being. '''*reference figure 3''' {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Reflecting on beauty standards''' * Who or what influences the beauty standards you see? * Why might people experience body dissatisfaction when their appearance does not match the beauty ideals promoted in their soceity? * How might body-neutrality help people respond differently to beauty standards?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Existing research on body-neutrality == === Evidence that body-neutrality improves emotional well-being === Research that has began investigating the potential benefits of body-neutrality to body image concerns and emotional well-being is still relatively new but promising. One of the more direct investigations of body-neutrality is conducted by Smith et al., (2023), who created a study that tested the outcomes of a body neutral perspective by conducting a digital, self-guided, single-session intervention designed to improve body image and mood in adolescents ages 13-17 experiencing body image and mood difficulties. Post intervention, participants reported significant improvements with body dissatisfaction, functionality appreciation, and hopelessness. The testing recieved positive acceptability ratings from participants, indicating that a body neutral perspective is a suitable approach for adolescents. Despite this positive response, the study measured changed within a single group without a control condition, making it difficult to establish if the intervention was what caused the improvements. While positive outcomes were immediate, the study also did not establish if the effects of the intervention lasted. Other promosing evidence is conducted by Smith et al. (2025) who conducted a randomised controlled trial involving 218 adolescence aged 13-17. Participants were randomly assigned to either the body-neutral intervention or a comparison intervention designed to provide supportive therapy. This provides stronger evidence than earlier studies who had an uncontrolled pilot as it allows researcher to compare changes between groups. Immediately after the intervention, participants in the body-neutral group showed significantly greater improvements in body satisfaction, functionality appreciation, and hopelessness than those in the comparison group. These findings strengthen the argument that body-neutral interventions produce short-term benefits for emotional well-being. Despite social media's negative effects of body image, it has been able to provide another context in which the benefits of body-neutrality have been investigated. Analysis of videos taken from this platform using the hashtag #bodyneutrality found that this content commonly challenged appearance-based expectations and promoted acceptance of diverse bodies (Machin et al., 2025) . Although this demonstrates how body-neutral perspectives are percieved online, It does not establish whether this content improves emotional well-being. More direct research indicates that exposure to body-neutral content may have positive effects on body image and emotional well-being. Seekis and Lawrence (2023) found that young women who viewed body-neutral Tiktok videos reported greater body satisfaction and more positive mood than those exposed to thin-ideal content. However, improvements following brief exposure to the content do not necessarily indicate lasting changing in emotional well-being. This suggests that while social media can be used as a tool to promote a body-neutral perspective and emotional well-being, the long-term effects are not promised. === Limitations of evidence === While these findings are promising, research has not yet established whether body-neutrality consistently improves emotional well-being or whether its benefits extend beyond the short term. A problem with the research is that body-neutrality is still a recent concept, so researchers have not reached a clear agreement about how it should be defined or measured. Some researchers have the approach on reducing the importance of physical appearance, while others emphasis on accepting the body without emotional input or appreciating what the body can do. This makes it difficult to compare findings across studies and determine which aspects of body-neutrality may contribute to improvements in well-being. Evidence for this limitation is provided by Mulgrew and Hinz (2024) through a study involving 229 participants, including researchers, clinicians, people with lived experience of eating disorders, and members of the general community. Participants described body-neutrality in ways that overlapped with existing concepts, particularly body acceptance, body compassion, and functionality appreciation. Researchers were not able to identify unique features that clearly distinguished body-neutrality from positive body image approaches. This suggests that some reported benefits may be a result from already established psychological processes rather than from body-neutrality as a distinct approach. Although body neutral strategies may be beneficial, further clarity is needed about what specifically makes them effective. Another discussed limitation is the evidence for long-term outcomes of body-neutrality for emotional well-being. Pellizzer and Wade (2023) stated that academic literature was limited when they developed a working definition and identified strategies for future interventions. As a result, as of now, there is not enough research to determine whether body-neutrality provides lasting benefits across different age groups and populations. Although evidence suggests that body-neutrality has a positive effect on emotional well-being, its benefits cannot be considered conclusive. Future research is needed in order to establish clear definitions that distinguish body-neutrality from existing body-image concepts, and examine whether improvements persist over longer periods. === The need for future research === While there are limitations to the research, the potential benefits from body-neutrality for emotional well-being provides hope for future research to fill in the gaps. Studies that follow participants for longer periods of time would help determine whether improvements in body satisfaction and mood are maintained beyond immediate effects. Researchers should also continue developing clearer definitions and measures of body-neutrality to distinguish it from established approaches such as body acceptance or functionality appreciation (Pellizzer & Wade, 2023). Lastly, more studies that include controlled groups are needed to test body-neutral interventions directly and compare their effectiveness to other body-image concepts. Together, this future direction would establish whether body-neutrality offers unique benefits or provides an alternative for those who find conventional body positivity approaches difficult to adopt. == Applying a body-neutral perspective == === Changing body-related thinking === Recognising unhelpful thought patterns and developing more flexible ways of interpreting appearance-related experiences is apart of adopting a body-neutral perspective. An example is [[wikipedia:Splitting_(psychology)|all-or-nothing thinking or splitting]], which involves evaluating one's appearance in extremes, such as believing they look either completely good or completely bad. These rigid processes may intensify emotional distress when people feel they do not meet their own expectations (Jakatdar et al., 2006). Recognising that appearance-related judgements are interpretations, rather than objective facts, may help people respond to these thoughts with less emotional reactivity. Another strategy involves noticing negative body-related thoughts without automatically accepting them as true. For example, someone may think "I look terrible today." Rather than dismissing the thought or forcing oneself to think positively, they can acknowledge it as a thought without treating is as an accurate judgement of themselves. This process can be related to cognitive defusion, a concept commonly used in [[wikipedia:Acceptance_and_commitment_therapy|Acceptance and Commitment Therapy]] which involves creating distance from thoughts instead of becoming caught up in the meaning of them (Boyle et al., 2025). These strategies relate to [[wikipedia:Flexibility_(personality)|psychological flexibility]], which is being able to experience negative or unwanted thoughts and feelings without allowing them to determine behaviour. Research finds that psychological flexibility is associative with several positive adaptive psychological outcomes (Fang et al., 2022). This suggests that emotional well-being may be supported not only by changing what people think about their appearance, but also by changing how they respond when difficult thoughts occur. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}'''Example scenario:''' Tilly looks through photos from a party the night before and becomes upset about how her body looks in them. She compares herself to how her other friends look in the photos. She is tempted to delete the photos but recognises that she is being caught up in self-critical thoughts. Tilly acknowledges that she feels unhappy with her appearance but reminds herself that a photo cannot determine the worth or value of the memories. Instead of continuing to criticise herself, Tilly puts away her phone and returns to an activity she enjoys.{{RoundBoxBottom}} In this scenario, Tilly demonstrated cognitive defusion by recognising her negative thoughts without treating them as facts. Psychological flexibility was shown too as she allowed herself to experience the discomfort without choosing to let it dictate her behaviour. Overall, these two strategies show practical ways to respond to body-related distress, helping people to manage difficult emotions without being consumed by self-criticism. [[File:People hugging in the beach.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Two people hugging showing an important sensory experience]] === From appearance to functionality === * Shifting attention toward health, strength, flexibility, and physical comfort * Recognising sensory experiences - seeing, hearing, moving * Appreciating what the body enables a person to experience and participate in * Valuing functionality without turning physical performance into another standard for evaluating the body (Alleva et al., 2023) * Body functionality appreciation +++++ === Healthier environments === * Developing media literacy helps critically evaluate idealisd body representations * Reducing exposure to appearance-focused content and opportunities for appearance comparison * Curating your environment and content consumed to reduce exposure to unrealistic body ideals (Fioravanti et al., 2022) * Tripartite Influence Model ++++ ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words * Body neutrality may support emotional well-being by reducing the importan *A body-neutral perspective emphasises acceptance, functionality, and psychological flexibility, rather than requiring positivity * Body neutrality may support emotional well-being by reducing importance of appearance in self-worth and decreasing the emotional impact of negative body-related thoughts * Social and cultural influences continue to shape body image, therefore, body neutrality may be most effective alongside healthier approaches to managing appearance-focused environments * Research provides promising but preliminary evidence that body-neutral approaches can improve aspects of body and emotional well-being. However, more research is needed to establish long-term effectiveness as well as distinctiveness from other similar concepts * Overall message: the goal is not necessarily to love or feel positive about the body, but to reduce the extent to which your appearance determines emotional well-being. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Body_neutrality|Body neutrality]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Body neutrality and emotional well-being|Body neutrality and emotional well-being]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[wikipedia:Body_positivity|Body positivity]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Abdoli, M., Scotto Rosato, M., Desousa, A., & Cotrufo, P. (2024). Cultural differences in body image: A systematic review. 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''Body Image'', ''14'', 118–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2015.04.001 https://www.sciencedirect.com/sdfe/pdf/download/eid/1-s2.0-0022399986900966/first-page-pdf https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9970735/ https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychiatry/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00635/full https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/15598276261481490?casa_token=CLtVTca5fboAAAAA%3AVZXxdEaZIobOVIUNsqpuvNDYxboj26-mVH0q6wzArhtqivaE-lAE97I6k_favxKjw-E_XHvw-CpTqA https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2025-86318-001 https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7908267/ https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40211-025-00544-4 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1740144518304595?casa_token=hdy0DS5cSAUAAAAA:kC46Z81NQanQQzq_0Muk0WbbEhXW-zrw1xPEe6MJC5UA-NPJn2Ts0k4IwkfiCs1gYaXm8i2UEaQ https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s40337-025-01353-4 https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9032/13/1/76 https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11905045/ https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1740144525000099 https://academic.oup.com/bjd/article-abstract/187/S1/191/6700551 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33593472/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23809859/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35923740/ https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11276240/ https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15213269.2016.1257392 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40513252/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36347166/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39633454/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37742535/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37129116/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40578276/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39146631/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18089236/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36554399/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40748001/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39146631/ }} ==External links== *[https://www.healthline.com/health/body-neutrality How to Shift from ‘Body Positivity’ to ‘Body Neutrality’ — and Why You Should] - Healthline *[https://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org/5-steps-body-neutrality/ 5 Steps to Body Neutrality] - NEDA *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X2nBomd-mpY TedTalk - Existing: Body Neutrality and Beauty Standards | Sophia Vimol Horng] - YouTube [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Body image]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] l2n90tjwbdizcq7jhbr738jo4kj26iw 2840694 2840688 2026-10-16T13:40:18Z Amyuniversity 3106627 /* Healthier environments */ 2840694 wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__{{Title|7677676767676767 DRIZZZZZZZYYY AHHHHHHHH!!!!!!!!1=Body neutrality and emotional well-being: How a body-neutral perspective can affect emotional well-being|Body neutrality and emotional well-being: How a body-neutral perspective can affect emotional well-being}} ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}'''Consider this scenario...''' [[File:Woman with a rough life checking herself out in the mirror (8436629921).jpg|thumb|right|'''Figure 1.''' Woman looking at herself in the mirror]] Amanda is excitedly getting ready to go to a party with friends. Her excitement disappears when she looks in the mirror, beginning to compare her appearance to other women she knows. She focuses on what she perceives as flaws in her body, thinking about how she might be viewed by others at the event. As these thoughts become more intense, Amanda feels increasingly anxious and ashamed of her appearance. She considers making an excuse not to go as she worries she will be judged or that she does not look "good enough" to go out. Before texting the group chat to cancel, she stops. Amanda recognises how pumped she was seconds ago about this party, and how quickly this changes. She thinks, "Why is it that only after I look in the mirror, I believe I'm not worthy?". She realises how much her appearance has become closely connected with her emotions how she views her self-worth. Amanda decides to change the thought process. Instead of thinking "I will I look bad/good at this party" she thinks "I'm going to have to much fun at this party". This shifts the attention away from evaluating her appearance and more towards what her body allows her to do, such as spending time with friends, dancing, and enjoying the evening. Amanda also recognises that self-worth can come from many areas of her life, including her relationships, personality, interests, and achievements. She knows that negative thoughts about her appearance will still occur, but she's done with letting them determine whether she feels good about herself or whether she participates in activities she enjoys. Amanda does finishing touches to her hair, makeup, and outfit, before grabbing her bag and shoes. She leaves the house feeing better about herself and looking forward for the night ahead, all thanks to her discovery of a body-neutral perspective {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[wikipedia:Body_neutrality|Body-neutrality]] is an approach to body image which focuses on accepting the body without any particular emotion or attention to one's physical appearance. This is an important concept because body dissatisfaction is common and has negative affects on emotional well-being, self-esteem and behaviour. These affects can lead to difficulties such as anxiety, depression, and psychological issues such as disordered eating. Social media, cultural and social idealised bodies, and appearance-based social comparison are important factors that contribute to how people evaluate their bodies. Psychological research somewhat explains how body-neutral perspectives may influence emotional-well-being through the examination of self-esteem, social comparison, self-compassion, psychological flexibility, and appearance-based self-worth. Understanding such psychological processes helps identify whether and how body-neutrality may support a healthy body image and therefore emotional well-being. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * What is body neutrality, and how does it differ from other approaches to body image? * How can body image and appearance-related thinking influence emotional well-being? * How do social and cultural influences shape body image and the way we experience our bodies? * How might adopting a body-neutral perspect support emotional wellbeing?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding body-neutrality == === Body image === The concept of [[wikipedia:Body_image|body image]] has many interpretations. It was originally developed as a neurological concept, describing the brain's ability to detect weight, shape, size and form and incorporate these into core beliefs or mental frameworks (Lacey, 1986). This early definition of body image was known as 'the body percept' and focuses more on the accumulated sensory experience within one's body. The actual term 'body image' was coined by Paul Schilder (2013) who defined body image as "the picture of our own body which we form in our mind, that is to say the way in which the body appears to ourselves." Modern definitions of the term are far more in depth, explaining body image as something that is multidimensional that encompasses an individuals thoughts, feelings, attitudes, and behaviours regarding their physical appearance, body shape, size, weight, and how their body functions (Rodgers et al. 2023). Body image involves interconnected perceptual, cognitive, emotional, and behavioural components. These components explain how we percieve our bodies, develop beliefs about our appearance, experience body-related emotions, and respond through behaviour (Carey & Preston, 2019). * '''Perceptual''': How people perceive their body's size, shape, weight, and appearance. Perceptions may not always accurately reflect physical characteristics ** Example: perceiving your stomach to be bigger than it actually is * '''Cognitive''': Thoughts, beliefs, and evaluation individuals hold about their bodies. This includes beliefs about how attractive or important one's appearance is. ** Example: believing you need to lose weight to be considered attractive * '''Emotional''': Feelings associated with body appearance including satisfaction, confidence, shame, anxiety, or embarrassment ** Example: Feeling shame about your body when you compare to another person * '''Behavioural''': Actions people take in response to body image ** Example: Repeatedly checking appearance in mirrors or avoiding social situations due to being uncomfortable about appearance These components can be considered separately but they are best understood as interacting factors. For example, someone who may perceive their appearance negatively may develop critical thoughts about their body, experience feelings of shame or anxiety, and subsequently avoiding social situations, therefore displaying all body image components. === Development of body-neutrality === The development of body-neutrality is closely associated with Anne Poirier, who worked as a eating-disorder specialist and intuitive eating counsellor, helping popularise the approach through this work. Around 2015, body-neutrality started to gain popularity in online spaces as a alternative way of discussing body image, with Poirer subsequently developing workshops around the concept (Nuss et al., 2026). Poirer's approach emphasised that people should not feel like they have to love their bodies. Instead, their attention should be on body functionality and recognising personal worth beyond physical appearance. Poirer's work helped bring body-neutrality into wider discussions regarding body image. This includes popularity on social media such as Instagram or TikTok, which further increased visibility for the concept (Nuss et al., 2025). Despite its increasing popularity, there still is not an agreed-upon definition of body-neutrality. The term is often used to describe reducing importance placed on physical appearance, accepting the body without required feelings, focusing on functionality, or responding to body-related thoughts without judgement. Although these ideas overlap, they do not necessarily describe the same psychological process (Mulgrew and Hinz, 2024). For example, trying to reduce the importance of appearance involves changing how much value is placed on physical attractiveness, whereas body functionality focuses on recognising what the body allows us to do. Similarly, accepting negative body related feelings does not necessarily mean that appearance has become unimportant. These differences make it difficult to establish a single definition that captures all the ways body-neutrality is understood or practiced. Body-neutrality represents a promising approach to understanding body image by offering an alternative perspective that does not require feeling-focused attitudes towards appearance. Despite it's recent emergence and evolving definition, the concept is valuable because it helps navigate pressures surrounding body evaluation. === From body-negativity to body-positivity to body-neutrality === Body image is best understood through the varying perspectives that people have. This ranges from negative evaluations of one's appearance, positive appreciation, and neutral acceptance. Body-negativity involves dissatisfaction, criticism, or negative feelings towards one's body, often influenced by perceived flaws and societal beauty standards (Tort-Nasarre et al., 2021). Negative body image often contribute to lower self-esteem and emotional distress, including feelings of anxiety, sadness, and shame. It is also associated with disordered eating behaviours and other psychological difficulties, although these relationships are complex and do not effect everyone with body dissatisfaction (Abdoli et al., 2025). [[wikipedia:Body_positivity|Body-positivity]] is a opposing perspective because it involves encouragement in appreciating or accepting one's body regardless of shape, size, or appearance. The body-positivity movement created visibility for body-positive perspectives through social media, where people of all differing types of bodies challenges conventional beauty standards. The body-positive movement originated with fat-acceptance activism, feminist and queer social movements, with a focused attention to the stigma and exclusion experienced by people whose bodies are marginalised because of body size, disability, gender expression, etc (Cohen et al., 2019). While this movement has messages of empowerment for many, some people have found the expectation to love and celebrate their bodies difficult to achieve. For those with a negative body image, being encouraged to replace negative feelings with positive ones may feel unrealistic or create pressure to feel confident when they simply do not. This does not mean that body-positivity is ineffective, rather, it highlights that people relate to their bodies in different ways. This is where body-neutrality comes in as a valuable alternative. For those who do not want to focus on loving their appearance, it allows them to accept their bodies without requiring positive feelings. Rather than judging body image by whether someone feels positivity or negatively about their looks, a neutral perspective allows for all feelings without them being the measure of personal worth. See table 1 for an overall comparison of these perspectives. {| class="wikitable sortable" |+Table 1. Comparing and Contrasting Body-image Concepts ! !Body-negativity !Body-positivity !Body-neutrality |- |View of body |Negative evaluation |Positive appreciation |Acceptance without requiring positivity |- |Role of appearance | colspan="2" |High Importance |Reduced importance |- |Expected emotion |Shame, anxiety, distress |Pride, love, happiness |No particular feelings required |- |Basis of self-worth |May become appearance dependent |May include body appreciation |Broader than physical appearance |- |Psychological focus |Appearance evaluation |Appreciation and acceptance |Flexibility and reduced appearance centrality |- |Example thought |"I don't like how my body looks" |"I love and appreciate my body" |"I accept my body and my appearance does not determine my worth" |} == Body image and emotional well-being == === Appearance-based self-worth and emotional distress === Appearance-based self-worth is when individuals base their overall self-evaluation on whether they believe their physical attractiveness meets a certain standard. When appearance is a central focus, perceived flaws or concerns about looks becomes a central source of emotional distress. Findings from Adams et al. (2017) find that appearance-contingent self-worth is associated with greater [[wikipedia:Self-objectification|self-objectification]], which is linked to higher appearance anxiety and lower self-esteem. This suggests that people who place greater importance on appearance may become more concerned about if they meet beauty standards, causing vulnerabilities to their self-esteem because of appearance-related stress. For example, someone who believes their attractiveness determines worth may experience anxiety or shame when comparing themselves with others. This thinking can extend beyond body dissatisfaction and into how individuals evaluate themselves as a person overall. === Self-objectification and appearance monitoring === Self-objectification refers to viewing one's body from an outsider's perspective. There is great attention given to how the body looks rather than how it feels or functions. [[wikipedia:Self-monitoring|Appearance monitoring]] stems from this, and includes behaviours such as repeatedly checking mirrors, adjusting clothing to hide perceived flaws, or comparing one's appearance with others (Ahmed et al., 2025). Continually monitoring appearance can increase attention towards someone idea of a physical flaw and create greater concern about how other evaluate their body. This contributes to feelings body shame, appearance anxiety, and lower self-esteem, particularly for those who believe they do not meet expected standards (Sarda et al., 2025). When this behaviour continues, everyday situations may become opportunities for self-criticism and evaluation. Consequently, self-objectification and appearance monitoring negatively affects emotional well-being by making physical looks a source of worry and evaluation, reinforcing body dissatisfaction and increasing vulnerabilities to perceived physical imperfections. === Effects on everyday functioning === These concerning behaviours and thought processes about body image can affect how people participate in everyday activities, maintain relationships, and manage daily responsibilities. When one's attention is heavily directed towards appearance, it may be difficult to concentrate on other aspects of life. This can lead to avoidance behaviours such as not attending social events, exercising in public, or having photographs taken. Overtime, this avoidance limits social participation and prevents individuals from engaging in experiences they would otherwise enjoy. The consequences on daily life due to severe body image concerns can be illustrated through Diana's case study. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} '''Case Study: Diana''' Diana is a 25-year-old with anorexia nervosa who was examined by Di Lernia et al. (2019). Diana sought treatment at an eating disorder centre following significant weight loss. Her issues with eating started when she began a restrictive diet due to health concerns. This caused her to develop persistent thoughts about calories, weight, and particular foods. Diana also experienced distorted perceptions of her body, repeatedly body checking in mirrors, and wearing clothes that would hide her figure. During periods of high distress, she reported frequently crying while looking at herself in the mirror. {{RoundBoxBottom}} This case study shows how body image can extend into eating behaviours, daily routines, and overall emotional well-being. Persistent concerns about food, weight, and body perception show how these thoughts can become a significant part of daily life and can cause severe negative emotional responses. Although this case involves [[wikipedia:Anorexia|anorexia nervosa]] and cannot represent all experiences of negative body image, it stands as a good example of how severe body image can coincide with distress and behaviours that distrupt daily functioning and therefore emotional well-being. == Social and cultural influences == [[File:Woman Montage (1).jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Faces and figures of women, showing how different groups depict beauty. ]] === Appearance ideals and cultural influence === Culture is one of the most influential aspects on the formation of body image as it shaped how individuals understand attractiveness and evaluate their appearance overall (Vincent et al., 2025). Societal values, historical impacts, and cultural expectations influence which body shapes or physical characteristics are considered desirable. [[wikipedia:Feminine_beauty_ideal|Beauty ideals]] are not universal internationally, with all countries having differing appearance ideals. See Figure 2 for a board comparison of differing depictions of beauty. In many Western societies, thinness has been the ideal for beauty in women. However, ideals have shifted over time to include greater emphasis on curvier or more muscular bodies (Paudel et al., 2025). In Southeast Asia, preference for lighter skin is greatly influenced by historical class associations, [[wikipedia:Colorism|colourism]], and contemporary beauty industries (Khan & Khan, 2022). Across African countries and cultures, ideals also vary, with normal to overweight bodies being associated with beauty, prosperity or fertility in some contexts, while lighter skin and Eurocentric features have been favoured in others (Pradeilles et al., 2022). These ideals are largely based in culture and not necessarily the geographical regions in which they are developed. An example of this is shown through research involving South Asian women in the United Kingdom found that exposure to advertisements including white models reduce participants' satisfaction with their own skin colour, highlighting how culture and representation can change appearance evaluation (Craddock et al., 2025). This suggests that appearance ideals influence body image because individuals may encounter and internalise beauty standards associated with other cultures, making cultural influences and exposure to beauty ideals have significant impact on how individuals perceive and evaluate their bodies, regardless of where they live. The internalisation of such ideals contributes to body dissatisfaction when individuals adopt culturally prompted beauty standards as personal expectations and compare their appearance against them. An example of this is seen through research by Poloskov and Tracey (2013) that found internalisation of U.S beauty standards helped explain the relationship between [[wikipedia:Acculturation|acculturation]] towards dominant U.S culture and body dissatisfaction among Mexican American Women. Similar research by Negi et al. (2022) found that internalisation of the thin ideal accounted for the relationship between acculturation and body dissatisfaction among South and Southeast Asian women living in the United States. Such findings suggest the adoption of culturally valued appearance ideals are associated with greater dissatisfaction when individuals perceive a gap between their own appearance and standards they have internalised. === Cultural perspectives that overlap with body neutrality === Although body neutrality is a relatively recent concept in psychological research, some cultural perspectives share overlapping aspects of its emphasis on valuing the body beyond physical appearance. An example of this is described by Martin and Latner (2025) who state how [[wikipedia:Native_Hawaiians|Kānaka Maoli]] or Indigenous Hawaiian cultural knowledge systems foster appreciation of body functionality through connections to land, community, spirituality and movement. Similarly, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women in Australia found that cultural identity and sense of belonging could help against negative body image experiences (Chalmers et al., 2022). These examples highlight how perspectives that overlap with body neutrality such as valuing body functionality, relationships, community, and connections to land, can be reflected within differing cultural contexts. Although these examples may not explicitly identify as body neutrality, they share very similar emphasis on thought processes. === Social media === [[File:Social media collection 2020s.png|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Image of examples of social media platforms]] Social media has amplified body dissatisfaction for many individuals because there is now increased exposure to idealised representations of physical appearance and encouragement of comparison with others. This exposure to beauty ideals on social media can negatively affect body image. These comparisons may contribute to dissatisfaction when individuals perceive their own appearance as falling short of standards presented online. Due to the fast-paced nature of social media trends, different body types and physical features quickly become fashionable or desirable, creating changing expectations around appearance. These trends are often reinforced through editing of photographs, beauty filters, and digitally altered images that present unrealistic or difficult-to-achieve beauty standards (Merino et al., 2024). As beauty trends change and edited images continue to circulate, social media users may experience ongoing pressure to modify their appearance to meet these unrealistic standards, potentially reinforcing body dissatisfaction and negatively affection emotional well-being. '''*reference figure 3''' {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Reflecting on beauty standards''' * Who or what influences the beauty standards you see? * Why might people experience body dissatisfaction when their appearance does not match the beauty ideals promoted in their soceity? * How might body-neutrality help people respond differently to beauty standards?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Existing research on body-neutrality == === Evidence that body-neutrality improves emotional well-being === Research that has began investigating the potential benefits of body-neutrality to body image concerns and emotional well-being is still relatively new but promising. One of the more direct investigations of body-neutrality is conducted by Smith et al., (2023), who created a study that tested the outcomes of a body neutral perspective by conducting a digital, self-guided, single-session intervention designed to improve body image and mood in adolescents ages 13-17 experiencing body image and mood difficulties. Post intervention, participants reported significant improvements with body dissatisfaction, functionality appreciation, and hopelessness. The testing recieved positive acceptability ratings from participants, indicating that a body neutral perspective is a suitable approach for adolescents. Despite this positive response, the study measured changed within a single group without a control condition, making it difficult to establish if the intervention was what caused the improvements. While positive outcomes were immediate, the study also did not establish if the effects of the intervention lasted. Other promosing evidence is conducted by Smith et al. (2025) who conducted a randomised controlled trial involving 218 adolescence aged 13-17. Participants were randomly assigned to either the body-neutral intervention or a comparison intervention designed to provide supportive therapy. This provides stronger evidence than earlier studies who had an uncontrolled pilot as it allows researcher to compare changes between groups. Immediately after the intervention, participants in the body-neutral group showed significantly greater improvements in body satisfaction, functionality appreciation, and hopelessness than those in the comparison group. These findings strengthen the argument that body-neutral interventions produce short-term benefits for emotional well-being. Despite social media's negative effects of body image, it has been able to provide another context in which the benefits of body-neutrality have been investigated. Analysis of videos taken from this platform using the hashtag #bodyneutrality found that this content commonly challenged appearance-based expectations and promoted acceptance of diverse bodies (Machin et al., 2025) . Although this demonstrates how body-neutral perspectives are percieved online, It does not establish whether this content improves emotional well-being. More direct research indicates that exposure to body-neutral content may have positive effects on body image and emotional well-being. Seekis and Lawrence (2023) found that young women who viewed body-neutral Tiktok videos reported greater body satisfaction and more positive mood than those exposed to thin-ideal content. However, improvements following brief exposure to the content do not necessarily indicate lasting changing in emotional well-being. This suggests that while social media can be used as a tool to promote a body-neutral perspective and emotional well-being, the long-term effects are not promised. === Limitations of evidence === While these findings are promising, research has not yet established whether body-neutrality consistently improves emotional well-being or whether its benefits extend beyond the short term. A problem with the research is that body-neutrality is still a recent concept, so researchers have not reached a clear agreement about how it should be defined or measured. Some researchers have the approach on reducing the importance of physical appearance, while others emphasis on accepting the body without emotional input or appreciating what the body can do. This makes it difficult to compare findings across studies and determine which aspects of body-neutrality may contribute to improvements in well-being. Evidence for this limitation is provided by Mulgrew and Hinz (2024) through a study involving 229 participants, including researchers, clinicians, people with lived experience of eating disorders, and members of the general community. Participants described body-neutrality in ways that overlapped with existing concepts, particularly body acceptance, body compassion, and functionality appreciation. Researchers were not able to identify unique features that clearly distinguished body-neutrality from positive body image approaches. This suggests that some reported benefits may be a result from already established psychological processes rather than from body-neutrality as a distinct approach. Although body neutral strategies may be beneficial, further clarity is needed about what specifically makes them effective. Another discussed limitation is the evidence for long-term outcomes of body-neutrality for emotional well-being. Pellizzer and Wade (2023) stated that academic literature was limited when they developed a working definition and identified strategies for future interventions. As a result, as of now, there is not enough research to determine whether body-neutrality provides lasting benefits across different age groups and populations. Although evidence suggests that body-neutrality has a positive effect on emotional well-being, its benefits cannot be considered conclusive. Future research is needed in order to establish clear definitions that distinguish body-neutrality from existing body-image concepts, and examine whether improvements persist over longer periods. === The need for future research === While there are limitations to the research, the potential benefits from body-neutrality for emotional well-being provides hope for future research to fill in the gaps. Studies that follow participants for longer periods of time would help determine whether improvements in body satisfaction and mood are maintained beyond immediate effects. Researchers should also continue developing clearer definitions and measures of body-neutrality to distinguish it from established approaches such as body acceptance or functionality appreciation (Pellizzer & Wade, 2023). Lastly, more studies that include controlled groups are needed to test body-neutral interventions directly and compare their effectiveness to other body-image concepts. Together, this future direction would establish whether body-neutrality offers unique benefits or provides an alternative for those who find conventional body positivity approaches difficult to adopt. == Applying a body-neutral perspective == === Changing body-related thinking === Recognising unhelpful thought patterns and developing more flexible ways of interpreting appearance-related experiences is apart of adopting a body-neutral perspective. An example is [[wikipedia:Splitting_(psychology)|all-or-nothing thinking or splitting]], which involves evaluating one's appearance in extremes, such as believing they look either completely good or completely bad. These rigid processes may intensify emotional distress when people feel they do not meet their own expectations (Jakatdar et al., 2006). Recognising that appearance-related judgements are interpretations, rather than objective facts, may help people respond to these thoughts with less emotional reactivity. Another strategy involves noticing negative body-related thoughts without automatically accepting them as true. For example, someone may think "I look terrible today." Rather than dismissing the thought or forcing oneself to think positively, they can acknowledge it as a thought without treating is as an accurate judgement of themselves. This process can be related to cognitive defusion, a concept commonly used in [[wikipedia:Acceptance_and_commitment_therapy|Acceptance and Commitment Therapy]] which involves creating distance from thoughts instead of becoming caught up in the meaning of them (Boyle et al., 2025). These strategies relate to [[wikipedia:Flexibility_(personality)|psychological flexibility]], which is being able to experience negative or unwanted thoughts and feelings without allowing them to determine behaviour. Research finds that psychological flexibility is associative with several positive adaptive psychological outcomes (Fang et al., 2022). This suggests that emotional well-being may be supported not only by changing what people think about their appearance, but also by changing how they respond when difficult thoughts occur. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}'''Example scenario:''' Tilly looks through photos from a party the night before and becomes upset about how her body looks in them. She compares herself to how her other friends look in the photos. She is tempted to delete the photos but recognises that she is being caught up in self-critical thoughts. Tilly acknowledges that she feels unhappy with her appearance but reminds herself that a photo cannot determine the worth or value of the memories. Instead of continuing to criticise herself, Tilly puts away her phone and returns to an activity she enjoys.{{RoundBoxBottom}} In this scenario, Tilly demonstrated cognitive defusion by recognising her negative thoughts without treating them as facts. Psychological flexibility was shown too as she allowed herself to experience the discomfort without choosing to let it dictate her behaviour. Overall, these two strategies show practical ways to respond to body-related distress, helping people to manage difficult emotions without being consumed by self-criticism. [[File:People hugging in the beach.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Two people hugging showing an important sensory experience]] === From appearance to functionality === Another signature body-neutral strategy is shifting attention away from how the body looks to what the body allows a person to experience (Alleva et al., 2023). This is also known as body functionality appreciation. This thinking process extends beyond physical strength or fitness and can include appreciating flexibility, physical comfort, sensory experiences such as seeing or hearing, the ability to move, communicate, have sexual experiences, or participate in meaningful activities. For example, instead of criticising the body for how it looks in a certain outfit, a person might appreciate it for how it allows them to dance, spend time with loved ones or experience surroundings as shown in Figure 3. === Healthier environments === * Developing media literacy helps critically evaluate idealisd body representations * Reducing exposure to appearance-focused content and opportunities for appearance comparison * Curating your environment and content consumed to reduce exposure to unrealistic body ideals (Fioravanti et al., 2022) * Tripartite Influence Model ++++ + testing your knowledge. what scenarios are displaying what concept or strategy? ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words * Body neutrality may support emotional well-being by reducing the importan *A body-neutral perspective emphasises acceptance, functionality, and psychological flexibility, rather than requiring positivity * Body neutrality may support emotional well-being by reducing importance of appearance in self-worth and decreasing the emotional impact of negative body-related thoughts * Social and cultural influences continue to shape body image, therefore, body neutrality may be most effective alongside healthier approaches to managing appearance-focused environments * Research provides promising but preliminary evidence that body-neutral approaches can improve aspects of body and emotional well-being. However, more research is needed to establish long-term effectiveness as well as distinctiveness from other similar concepts * Overall message: the goal is not necessarily to love or feel positive about the body, but to reduce the extent to which your appearance determines emotional well-being. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Body_neutrality|Body neutrality]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Body neutrality and emotional well-being|Body neutrality and emotional well-being]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[wikipedia:Body_positivity|Body positivity]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Abdoli, M., Scotto Rosato, M., Desousa, A., & Cotrufo, P. (2024). Cultural differences in body image: A systematic review. 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Demographic and sociocultural predictors of sexuality-related body image and sexual frequency: The U.S. Body Project I. ''Body Image'', ''41'', 109–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2022.01.010 Grogan, S. (2016). ''Body image: Understanding body dissatisfaction in men, women and children'' (3rd ed.). Routledge. Leboeuf, C. (2019). What is body positivity? The path from shame to pride. ''Philosophical Topics'', ''47''(2), 113–128. https://doi.org/10.5840/philtopics201947218 Mulgrew, K. E., & Hinz, A. (2024). What is body neutrality and how is it different to existing body image concepts? An analysis of experts and general community responses. ''Body Image'', ''51'', Article 101780. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2024.101780 Paterna, A., Alcaraz‐Ibáñez, M., Fuller‐Tyszkiewicz, M., & Sicilia, Á. (2021). Internalization of body shape ideals and body dissatisfaction: A systematic review and meta‐analysis. ''The International Journal of Eating Disorders'', ''54''(9), 1575–1600. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.23568 Pellizzer, M. L., & Wade, T. D. (2023). Developing a definition of body neutrality and strategies for an intervention. ''Body Image'', ''46'', 434–442. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2023.07.006 Pomichter, E., Cepeda-Benito, A., Ahmadkaraji, S., & DePalma, J. P. (2025). Exploring male body image: A scoping review of measurement approaches and mental health implications. ''International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health'', ''22''(6), 834. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22060834 Saunders, J. F., Nutter, S., Waugh, R., & Hayden, K. A. (2024). Testing body-related components of objectification theory: A meta-analysis of the relations between body shame, self-objectification, and body dissatisfaction. ''Body Image'', ''50'', Article 101738. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2024.101738 Seekis, V., & Lawrence, R. K. (2023). How exposure to body neutrality content on TikTok affects young women’s body image and mood. ''Body Image'', ''47'', Article 101629. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2023.101629 Shontz, F. C. (1989). Development and structure of the body image, Vols. 1 and 2 [Rev. of ''Development and Structure of the Body Image, Volumes 1 and 2'']. ''Psychoanalytic Psychology'', ''6''(4), 503–507. https://doi.org/10.1037/0736-9735.6.4.503 Smith, A. C., Ahuvia, I., Ito, S., & Schleider, J. L. (2023). Project Body Neutrality: Piloting a digital single‐session intervention for adolescent body image and depression. ''The International Journal of Eating Disorders'', ''56''(8), 1554–1569. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.23976 Tylka, T. L., & Wood-Barcalow, N. L. (2015). What is and what is not positive body image? Conceptual foundations and construct definition. ''Body Image'', ''14'', 118–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2015.04.001 https://www.sciencedirect.com/sdfe/pdf/download/eid/1-s2.0-0022399986900966/first-page-pdf https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9970735/ https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychiatry/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00635/full https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/15598276261481490?casa_token=CLtVTca5fboAAAAA%3AVZXxdEaZIobOVIUNsqpuvNDYxboj26-mVH0q6wzArhtqivaE-lAE97I6k_favxKjw-E_XHvw-CpTqA https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2025-86318-001 https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7908267/ https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40211-025-00544-4 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1740144518304595?casa_token=hdy0DS5cSAUAAAAA:kC46Z81NQanQQzq_0Muk0WbbEhXW-zrw1xPEe6MJC5UA-NPJn2Ts0k4IwkfiCs1gYaXm8i2UEaQ https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s40337-025-01353-4 https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9032/13/1/76 https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11905045/ https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1740144525000099 https://academic.oup.com/bjd/article-abstract/187/S1/191/6700551 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33593472/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23809859/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35923740/ https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11276240/ https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15213269.2016.1257392 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40513252/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36347166/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39633454/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37742535/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37129116/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40578276/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39146631/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18089236/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36554399/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40748001/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39146631/ }} ==External links== *[https://www.healthline.com/health/body-neutrality How to Shift from ‘Body Positivity’ to ‘Body Neutrality’ — and Why You Should] - Healthline *[https://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org/5-steps-body-neutrality/ 5 Steps to Body Neutrality] - NEDA *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X2nBomd-mpY TedTalk - Existing: Body Neutrality and Beauty Standards | Sophia Vimol Horng] - YouTube [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Body image]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] jbnulhykb1cbusrhsz59qkcsopvi7iq 2840699 2840694 2026-10-16T14:16:10Z Amyuniversity 3106627 /* Healthier environments */ 2840699 wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__{{Title|7677676767676767 DRIZZZZZZZYYY AHHHHHHHH!!!!!!!!1=Body neutrality and emotional well-being: How a body-neutral perspective can affect emotional well-being|Body neutrality and emotional well-being: How a body-neutral perspective can affect emotional well-being}} ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}'''Consider this scenario...''' [[File:Woman with a rough life checking herself out in the mirror (8436629921).jpg|thumb|right|'''Figure 1.''' Woman looking at herself in the mirror]] Amanda is excitedly getting ready to go to a party with friends. Her excitement disappears when she looks in the mirror, beginning to compare her appearance to other women she knows. She focuses on what she perceives as flaws in her body, thinking about how she might be viewed by others at the event. As these thoughts become more intense, Amanda feels increasingly anxious and ashamed of her appearance. She considers making an excuse not to go as she worries she will be judged or that she does not look "good enough" to go out. Before texting the group chat to cancel, she stops. Amanda recognises how pumped she was seconds ago about this party, and how quickly this changes. She thinks, "Why is it that only after I look in the mirror, I believe I'm not worthy?". She realises how much her appearance has become closely connected with her emotions how she views her self-worth. Amanda decides to change the thought process. Instead of thinking "I will I look bad/good at this party" she thinks "I'm going to have to much fun at this party". This shifts the attention away from evaluating her appearance and more towards what her body allows her to do, such as spending time with friends, dancing, and enjoying the evening. Amanda also recognises that self-worth can come from many areas of her life, including her relationships, personality, interests, and achievements. She knows that negative thoughts about her appearance will still occur, but she's done with letting them determine whether she feels good about herself or whether she participates in activities she enjoys. Amanda does finishing touches to her hair, makeup, and outfit, before grabbing her bag and shoes. She leaves the house feeing better about herself and looking forward for the night ahead, all thanks to her discovery of a body-neutral perspective {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[wikipedia:Body_neutrality|Body-neutrality]] is an approach to body image which focuses on accepting the body without any particular emotion or attention to one's physical appearance. This is an important concept because body dissatisfaction is common and has negative affects on emotional well-being, self-esteem and behaviour. These affects can lead to difficulties such as anxiety, depression, and psychological issues such as disordered eating. Social media, cultural and social idealised bodies, and appearance-based social comparison are important factors that contribute to how people evaluate their bodies. Psychological research somewhat explains how body-neutral perspectives may influence emotional-well-being through the examination of self-esteem, social comparison, self-compassion, psychological flexibility, and appearance-based self-worth. Understanding such psychological processes helps identify whether and how body-neutrality may support a healthy body image and therefore emotional well-being. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * What is body neutrality, and how does it differ from other approaches to body image? * How can body image and appearance-related thinking influence emotional well-being? * How do social and cultural influences shape body image and the way we experience our bodies? * How might adopting a body-neutral perspect support emotional wellbeing?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding body-neutrality == === Body image === The concept of [[wikipedia:Body_image|body image]] has many interpretations. It was originally developed as a neurological concept, describing the brain's ability to detect weight, shape, size and form and incorporate these into core beliefs or mental frameworks (Lacey, 1986). This early definition of body image was known as 'the body percept' and focuses more on the accumulated sensory experience within one's body. The actual term 'body image' was coined by Paul Schilder (2013) who defined body image as "the picture of our own body which we form in our mind, that is to say the way in which the body appears to ourselves." Modern definitions of the term are far more in depth, explaining body image as something that is multidimensional that encompasses an individuals thoughts, feelings, attitudes, and behaviours regarding their physical appearance, body shape, size, weight, and how their body functions (Rodgers et al. 2023). Body image involves interconnected perceptual, cognitive, emotional, and behavioural components. These components explain how we percieve our bodies, develop beliefs about our appearance, experience body-related emotions, and respond through behaviour (Carey & Preston, 2019). * '''Perceptual''': How people perceive their body's size, shape, weight, and appearance. Perceptions may not always accurately reflect physical characteristics ** Example: perceiving your stomach to be bigger than it actually is * '''Cognitive''': Thoughts, beliefs, and evaluation individuals hold about their bodies. This includes beliefs about how attractive or important one's appearance is. ** Example: believing you need to lose weight to be considered attractive * '''Emotional''': Feelings associated with body appearance including satisfaction, confidence, shame, anxiety, or embarrassment ** Example: Feeling shame about your body when you compare to another person * '''Behavioural''': Actions people take in response to body image ** Example: Repeatedly checking appearance in mirrors or avoiding social situations due to being uncomfortable about appearance These components can be considered separately but they are best understood as interacting factors. For example, someone who may perceive their appearance negatively may develop critical thoughts about their body, experience feelings of shame or anxiety, and subsequently avoiding social situations, therefore displaying all body image components. === Development of body-neutrality === The development of body-neutrality is closely associated with Anne Poirier, who worked as a eating-disorder specialist and intuitive eating counsellor, helping popularise the approach through this work. Around 2015, body-neutrality started to gain popularity in online spaces as a alternative way of discussing body image, with Poirer subsequently developing workshops around the concept (Nuss et al., 2026). Poirer's approach emphasised that people should not feel like they have to love their bodies. Instead, their attention should be on body functionality and recognising personal worth beyond physical appearance. Poirer's work helped bring body-neutrality into wider discussions regarding body image. This includes popularity on social media such as Instagram or TikTok, which further increased visibility for the concept (Nuss et al., 2025). Despite its increasing popularity, there still is not an agreed-upon definition of body-neutrality. The term is often used to describe reducing importance placed on physical appearance, accepting the body without required feelings, focusing on functionality, or responding to body-related thoughts without judgement. Although these ideas overlap, they do not necessarily describe the same psychological process (Mulgrew and Hinz, 2024). For example, trying to reduce the importance of appearance involves changing how much value is placed on physical attractiveness, whereas body functionality focuses on recognising what the body allows us to do. Similarly, accepting negative body related feelings does not necessarily mean that appearance has become unimportant. These differences make it difficult to establish a single definition that captures all the ways body-neutrality is understood or practiced. Body-neutrality represents a promising approach to understanding body image by offering an alternative perspective that does not require feeling-focused attitudes towards appearance. Despite it's recent emergence and evolving definition, the concept is valuable because it helps navigate pressures surrounding body evaluation. === From body-negativity to body-positivity to body-neutrality === Body image is best understood through the varying perspectives that people have. This ranges from negative evaluations of one's appearance, positive appreciation, and neutral acceptance. Body-negativity involves dissatisfaction, criticism, or negative feelings towards one's body, often influenced by perceived flaws and societal beauty standards (Tort-Nasarre et al., 2021). Negative body image often contribute to lower self-esteem and emotional distress, including feelings of anxiety, sadness, and shame. It is also associated with disordered eating behaviours and other psychological difficulties, although these relationships are complex and do not effect everyone with body dissatisfaction (Abdoli et al., 2025). [[wikipedia:Body_positivity|Body-positivity]] is a opposing perspective because it involves encouragement in appreciating or accepting one's body regardless of shape, size, or appearance. The body-positivity movement created visibility for body-positive perspectives through social media, where people of all differing types of bodies challenges conventional beauty standards. The body-positive movement originated with fat-acceptance activism, feminist and queer social movements, with a focused attention to the stigma and exclusion experienced by people whose bodies are marginalised because of body size, disability, gender expression, etc (Cohen et al., 2019). While this movement has messages of empowerment for many, some people have found the expectation to love and celebrate their bodies difficult to achieve. For those with a negative body image, being encouraged to replace negative feelings with positive ones may feel unrealistic or create pressure to feel confident when they simply do not. This does not mean that body-positivity is ineffective, rather, it highlights that people relate to their bodies in different ways. This is where body-neutrality comes in as a valuable alternative. For those who do not want to focus on loving their appearance, it allows them to accept their bodies without requiring positive feelings. Rather than judging body image by whether someone feels positivity or negatively about their looks, a neutral perspective allows for all feelings without them being the measure of personal worth. See table 1 for an overall comparison of these perspectives. {| class="wikitable sortable" |+Table 1. Comparing and Contrasting Body-image Concepts ! !Body-negativity !Body-positivity !Body-neutrality |- |View of body |Negative evaluation |Positive appreciation |Acceptance without requiring positivity |- |Role of appearance | colspan="2" |High Importance |Reduced importance |- |Expected emotion |Shame, anxiety, distress |Pride, love, happiness |No particular feelings required |- |Basis of self-worth |May become appearance dependent |May include body appreciation |Broader than physical appearance |- |Psychological focus |Appearance evaluation |Appreciation and acceptance |Flexibility and reduced appearance centrality |- |Example thought |"I don't like how my body looks" |"I love and appreciate my body" |"I accept my body and my appearance does not determine my worth" |} == Body image and emotional well-being == === Appearance-based self-worth and emotional distress === Appearance-based self-worth is when individuals base their overall self-evaluation on whether they believe their physical attractiveness meets a certain standard. When appearance is a central focus, perceived flaws or concerns about looks becomes a central source of emotional distress. Findings from Adams et al. (2017) find that appearance-contingent self-worth is associated with greater [[wikipedia:Self-objectification|self-objectification]], which is linked to higher appearance anxiety and lower self-esteem. This suggests that people who place greater importance on appearance may become more concerned about if they meet beauty standards, causing vulnerabilities to their self-esteem because of appearance-related stress. For example, someone who believes their attractiveness determines worth may experience anxiety or shame when comparing themselves with others. This thinking can extend beyond body dissatisfaction and into how individuals evaluate themselves as a person overall. === Self-objectification and appearance monitoring === Self-objectification refers to viewing one's body from an outsider's perspective. There is great attention given to how the body looks rather than how it feels or functions. [[wikipedia:Self-monitoring|Appearance monitoring]] stems from this, and includes behaviours such as repeatedly checking mirrors, adjusting clothing to hide perceived flaws, or comparing one's appearance with others (Ahmed et al., 2025). Continually monitoring appearance can increase attention towards someone idea of a physical flaw and create greater concern about how other evaluate their body. This contributes to feelings body shame, appearance anxiety, and lower self-esteem, particularly for those who believe they do not meet expected standards (Sarda et al., 2025). When this behaviour continues, everyday situations may become opportunities for self-criticism and evaluation. Consequently, self-objectification and appearance monitoring negatively affects emotional well-being by making physical looks a source of worry and evaluation, reinforcing body dissatisfaction and increasing vulnerabilities to perceived physical imperfections. === Effects on everyday functioning === These concerning behaviours and thought processes about body image can affect how people participate in everyday activities, maintain relationships, and manage daily responsibilities. When one's attention is heavily directed towards appearance, it may be difficult to concentrate on other aspects of life. This can lead to avoidance behaviours such as not attending social events, exercising in public, or having photographs taken. Overtime, this avoidance limits social participation and prevents individuals from engaging in experiences they would otherwise enjoy. The consequences on daily life due to severe body image concerns can be illustrated through Diana's case study. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} '''Case Study: Diana''' Diana is a 25-year-old with anorexia nervosa who was examined by Di Lernia et al. (2019). Diana sought treatment at an eating disorder centre following significant weight loss. Her issues with eating started when she began a restrictive diet due to health concerns. This caused her to develop persistent thoughts about calories, weight, and particular foods. Diana also experienced distorted perceptions of her body, repeatedly body checking in mirrors, and wearing clothes that would hide her figure. During periods of high distress, she reported frequently crying while looking at herself in the mirror. {{RoundBoxBottom}} This case study shows how body image can extend into eating behaviours, daily routines, and overall emotional well-being. Persistent concerns about food, weight, and body perception show how these thoughts can become a significant part of daily life and can cause severe negative emotional responses. Although this case involves [[wikipedia:Anorexia|anorexia nervosa]] and cannot represent all experiences of negative body image, it stands as a good example of how severe body image can coincide with distress and behaviours that distrupt daily functioning and therefore emotional well-being. == Social and cultural influences == [[File:Woman Montage (1).jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Faces and figures of women, showing how different groups depict beauty. ]] === Appearance ideals and cultural influence === Culture is one of the most influential aspects on the formation of body image as it shaped how individuals understand attractiveness and evaluate their appearance overall (Vincent et al., 2025). Societal values, historical impacts, and cultural expectations influence which body shapes or physical characteristics are considered desirable. [[wikipedia:Feminine_beauty_ideal|Beauty ideals]] are not universal internationally, with all countries having differing appearance ideals. See Figure 2 for a board comparison of differing depictions of beauty. In many Western societies, thinness has been the ideal for beauty in women. However, ideals have shifted over time to include greater emphasis on curvier or more muscular bodies (Paudel et al., 2025). In Southeast Asia, preference for lighter skin is greatly influenced by historical class associations, [[wikipedia:Colorism|colourism]], and contemporary beauty industries (Khan & Khan, 2022). Across African countries and cultures, ideals also vary, with normal to overweight bodies being associated with beauty, prosperity or fertility in some contexts, while lighter skin and Eurocentric features have been favoured in others (Pradeilles et al., 2022). These ideals are largely based in culture and not necessarily the geographical regions in which they are developed. An example of this is shown through research involving South Asian women in the United Kingdom found that exposure to advertisements including white models reduce participants' satisfaction with their own skin colour, highlighting how culture and representation can change appearance evaluation (Craddock et al., 2025). This suggests that appearance ideals influence body image because individuals may encounter and internalise beauty standards associated with other cultures, making cultural influences and exposure to beauty ideals have significant impact on how individuals perceive and evaluate their bodies, regardless of where they live. The internalisation of such ideals contributes to body dissatisfaction when individuals adopt culturally prompted beauty standards as personal expectations and compare their appearance against them. An example of this is seen through research by Poloskov and Tracey (2013) that found internalisation of U.S beauty standards helped explain the relationship between [[wikipedia:Acculturation|acculturation]] towards dominant U.S culture and body dissatisfaction among Mexican American Women. Similar research by Negi et al. (2022) found that internalisation of the thin ideal accounted for the relationship between acculturation and body dissatisfaction among South and Southeast Asian women living in the United States. Such findings suggest the adoption of culturally valued appearance ideals are associated with greater dissatisfaction when individuals perceive a gap between their own appearance and standards they have internalised. === Cultural perspectives that overlap with body neutrality === Although body neutrality is a relatively recent concept in psychological research, some cultural perspectives share overlapping aspects of its emphasis on valuing the body beyond physical appearance. An example of this is described by Martin and Latner (2025) who state how [[wikipedia:Native_Hawaiians|Kānaka Maoli]] or Indigenous Hawaiian cultural knowledge systems foster appreciation of body functionality through connections to land, community, spirituality and movement. Similarly, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women in Australia found that cultural identity and sense of belonging could help against negative body image experiences (Chalmers et al., 2022). These examples highlight how perspectives that overlap with body neutrality such as valuing body functionality, relationships, community, and connections to land, can be reflected within differing cultural contexts. Although these examples may not explicitly identify as body neutrality, they share very similar emphasis on thought processes. === Social media === [[File:Social media collection 2020s.png|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Image of examples of social media platforms]] Social media has amplified body dissatisfaction for many individuals because there is now increased exposure to idealised representations of physical appearance and encouragement of comparison with others. This exposure to beauty ideals on social media can negatively affect body image. These comparisons may contribute to dissatisfaction when individuals perceive their own appearance as falling short of standards presented online. Due to the fast-paced nature of social media trends, different body types and physical features quickly become fashionable or desirable, creating changing expectations around appearance. These trends are often reinforced through editing of photographs, beauty filters, and digitally altered images that present unrealistic or difficult-to-achieve beauty standards (Merino et al., 2024). As beauty trends change and edited images continue to circulate, social media users may experience ongoing pressure to modify their appearance to meet these unrealistic standards, potentially reinforcing body dissatisfaction and negatively affection emotional well-being. '''*reference figure 3''' {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Reflecting on beauty standards''' * Who or what influences the beauty standards you see? * Why might people experience body dissatisfaction when their appearance does not match the beauty ideals promoted in their soceity? * How might body-neutrality help people respond differently to beauty standards?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Existing research on body-neutrality == === Evidence that body-neutrality improves emotional well-being === Research that has began investigating the potential benefits of body-neutrality to body image concerns and emotional well-being is still relatively new but promising. One of the more direct investigations of body-neutrality is conducted by Smith et al., (2023), who created a study that tested the outcomes of a body neutral perspective by conducting a digital, self-guided, single-session intervention designed to improve body image and mood in adolescents ages 13-17 experiencing body image and mood difficulties. Post intervention, participants reported significant improvements with body dissatisfaction, functionality appreciation, and hopelessness. The testing recieved positive acceptability ratings from participants, indicating that a body neutral perspective is a suitable approach for adolescents. Despite this positive response, the study measured changed within a single group without a control condition, making it difficult to establish if the intervention was what caused the improvements. While positive outcomes were immediate, the study also did not establish if the effects of the intervention lasted. Other promosing evidence is conducted by Smith et al. (2025) who conducted a randomised controlled trial involving 218 adolescence aged 13-17. Participants were randomly assigned to either the body-neutral intervention or a comparison intervention designed to provide supportive therapy. This provides stronger evidence than earlier studies who had an uncontrolled pilot as it allows researcher to compare changes between groups. Immediately after the intervention, participants in the body-neutral group showed significantly greater improvements in body satisfaction, functionality appreciation, and hopelessness than those in the comparison group. These findings strengthen the argument that body-neutral interventions produce short-term benefits for emotional well-being. Despite social media's negative effects of body image, it has been able to provide another context in which the benefits of body-neutrality have been investigated. Analysis of videos taken from this platform using the hashtag #bodyneutrality found that this content commonly challenged appearance-based expectations and promoted acceptance of diverse bodies (Machin et al., 2025) . Although this demonstrates how body-neutral perspectives are percieved online, It does not establish whether this content improves emotional well-being. More direct research indicates that exposure to body-neutral content may have positive effects on body image and emotional well-being. Seekis and Lawrence (2023) found that young women who viewed body-neutral Tiktok videos reported greater body satisfaction and more positive mood than those exposed to thin-ideal content. However, improvements following brief exposure to the content do not necessarily indicate lasting changing in emotional well-being. This suggests that while social media can be used as a tool to promote a body-neutral perspective and emotional well-being, the long-term effects are not promised. === Limitations of evidence === While these findings are promising, research has not yet established whether body-neutrality consistently improves emotional well-being or whether its benefits extend beyond the short term. A problem with the research is that body-neutrality is still a recent concept, so researchers have not reached a clear agreement about how it should be defined or measured. Some researchers have the approach on reducing the importance of physical appearance, while others emphasis on accepting the body without emotional input or appreciating what the body can do. This makes it difficult to compare findings across studies and determine which aspects of body-neutrality may contribute to improvements in well-being. Evidence for this limitation is provided by Mulgrew and Hinz (2024) through a study involving 229 participants, including researchers, clinicians, people with lived experience of eating disorders, and members of the general community. Participants described body-neutrality in ways that overlapped with existing concepts, particularly body acceptance, body compassion, and functionality appreciation. Researchers were not able to identify unique features that clearly distinguished body-neutrality from positive body image approaches. This suggests that some reported benefits may be a result from already established psychological processes rather than from body-neutrality as a distinct approach. Although body neutral strategies may be beneficial, further clarity is needed about what specifically makes them effective. Another discussed limitation is the evidence for long-term outcomes of body-neutrality for emotional well-being. Pellizzer and Wade (2023) stated that academic literature was limited when they developed a working definition and identified strategies for future interventions. As a result, as of now, there is not enough research to determine whether body-neutrality provides lasting benefits across different age groups and populations. Although evidence suggests that body-neutrality has a positive effect on emotional well-being, its benefits cannot be considered conclusive. Future research is needed in order to establish clear definitions that distinguish body-neutrality from existing body-image concepts, and examine whether improvements persist over longer periods. === The need for future research === While there are limitations to the research, the potential benefits from body-neutrality for emotional well-being provides hope for future research to fill in the gaps. Studies that follow participants for longer periods of time would help determine whether improvements in body satisfaction and mood are maintained beyond immediate effects. Researchers should also continue developing clearer definitions and measures of body-neutrality to distinguish it from established approaches such as body acceptance or functionality appreciation (Pellizzer & Wade, 2023). Lastly, more studies that include controlled groups are needed to test body-neutral interventions directly and compare their effectiveness to other body-image concepts. Together, this future direction would establish whether body-neutrality offers unique benefits or provides an alternative for those who find conventional body positivity approaches difficult to adopt. == Applying a body-neutral perspective == === Changing body-related thinking === Recognising unhelpful thought patterns and developing more flexible ways of interpreting appearance-related experiences is apart of adopting a body-neutral perspective. An example is [[wikipedia:Splitting_(psychology)|all-or-nothing thinking or splitting]], which involves evaluating one's appearance in extremes, such as believing they look either completely good or completely bad. These rigid processes may intensify emotional distress when people feel they do not meet their own expectations (Jakatdar et al., 2006). Recognising that appearance-related judgements are interpretations, rather than objective facts, may help people respond to these thoughts with less emotional reactivity. Another strategy involves noticing negative body-related thoughts without automatically accepting them as true. For example, someone may think "I look terrible today." Rather than dismissing the thought or forcing oneself to think positively, they can acknowledge it as a thought without treating is as an accurate judgement of themselves. This process can be related to cognitive defusion, a concept commonly used in [[wikipedia:Acceptance_and_commitment_therapy|Acceptance and Commitment Therapy]] which involves creating distance from thoughts instead of becoming caught up in the meaning of them (Boyle et al., 2025). These strategies relate to [[wikipedia:Flexibility_(personality)|psychological flexibility]], which is being able to experience negative or unwanted thoughts and feelings without allowing them to determine behaviour. Research finds that psychological flexibility is associative with several positive adaptive psychological outcomes (Fang et al., 2022). This suggests that emotional well-being may be supported not only by changing what people think about their appearance, but also by changing how they respond when difficult thoughts occur. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}'''Example scenario:''' Tilly looks through photos from a party the night before and becomes upset about how her body looks in them. She compares herself to how her other friends look in the photos. She is tempted to delete the photos but recognises that she is being caught up in self-critical thoughts. Tilly acknowledges that she feels unhappy with her appearance but reminds herself that a photo cannot determine the worth or value of the memories. Instead of continuing to criticise herself, Tilly puts away her phone and returns to an activity she enjoys.{{RoundBoxBottom}} In this scenario, Tilly demonstrated cognitive defusion by recognising her negative thoughts without treating them as facts. Psychological flexibility was shown too as she allowed herself to experience the discomfort without choosing to let it dictate her behaviour. Overall, these two strategies show practical ways to respond to body-related distress, helping people to manage difficult emotions without being consumed by self-criticism. [[File:People hugging in the beach.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Two people hugging showing an important sensory experience]] === From appearance to functionality === Another signature body-neutral strategy is shifting attention away from how the body looks to what the body allows a person to experience (Alleva et al., 2023). This is also known as body functionality appreciation. This thinking process extends beyond physical strength or fitness and can include appreciating flexibility, physical comfort, sensory experiences such as seeing or hearing, the ability to move, communicate, have sexual experiences, or participate in meaningful activities. For example, instead of criticising the body for how it looks in a certain outfit, a person might appreciate it for how it allows them to dance, spend time with loved ones or experience surroundings as shown in Figure 3. === Healthier environments and content consumption === Developing a body-neutral perspective also involves changing the environments and media people engage with. Media literacy helps to critically evaluate idealised representations of bodies by recognising how images may be edited, filtered or carefully selected to promote particular appearance ideals. Instead of immediate comparison to these representations, people can consider how realistic they are and whose interests they serve. A model to consider here is the Tripartite Influence model, a psychological model explaining how family, peers, and media influence body image through two main processes. This include the internalisation of appearance ideals, where individuals adopt socially promoted body standards as personal goals, and appearance-based comparison, where individual evaluate their own appearance against others (Thompson et al., 1999). This model can be relevant when applying body-neutrality by reducing these pressures where possible, such as curating social media feeds to include diverse body representations, setting boundaries around appearance-focused conversations and questioning comments that link attractiveness with personal worth. + testing your knowledge. what scenarios are displaying what concept or strategy? ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words * Body neutrality may support emotional well-being by reducing the importan *A body-neutral perspective emphasises acceptance, functionality, and psychological flexibility, rather than requiring positivity * Body neutrality may support emotional well-being by reducing importance of appearance in self-worth and decreasing the emotional impact of negative body-related thoughts * Social and cultural influences continue to shape body image, therefore, body neutrality may be most effective alongside healthier approaches to managing appearance-focused environments * Research provides promising but preliminary evidence that body-neutral approaches can improve aspects of body and emotional well-being. However, more research is needed to establish long-term effectiveness as well as distinctiveness from other similar concepts * Overall message: the goal is not necessarily to love or feel positive about the body, but to reduce the extent to which your appearance determines emotional well-being. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Body_neutrality|Body neutrality]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Body neutrality and emotional well-being|Body neutrality and emotional well-being]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[wikipedia:Body_positivity|Body positivity]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Abdoli, M., Scotto Rosato, M., Desousa, A., & Cotrufo, P. (2024). Cultural differences in body image: A systematic review. 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''The International Journal of Eating Disorders'', ''54''(9), 1575–1600. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.23568 Pellizzer, M. L., & Wade, T. D. (2023). Developing a definition of body neutrality and strategies for an intervention. ''Body Image'', ''46'', 434–442. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2023.07.006 Pomichter, E., Cepeda-Benito, A., Ahmadkaraji, S., & DePalma, J. P. (2025). Exploring male body image: A scoping review of measurement approaches and mental health implications. ''International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health'', ''22''(6), 834. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22060834 Saunders, J. F., Nutter, S., Waugh, R., & Hayden, K. A. (2024). Testing body-related components of objectification theory: A meta-analysis of the relations between body shame, self-objectification, and body dissatisfaction. ''Body Image'', ''50'', Article 101738. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2024.101738 Seekis, V., & Lawrence, R. K. (2023). How exposure to body neutrality content on TikTok affects young women’s body image and mood. ''Body Image'', ''47'', Article 101629. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2023.101629 Shontz, F. C. (1989). Development and structure of the body image, Vols. 1 and 2 [Rev. of ''Development and Structure of the Body Image, Volumes 1 and 2'']. ''Psychoanalytic Psychology'', ''6''(4), 503–507. https://doi.org/10.1037/0736-9735.6.4.503 Smith, A. C., Ahuvia, I., Ito, S., & Schleider, J. L. (2023). Project Body Neutrality: Piloting a digital single‐session intervention for adolescent body image and depression. ''The International Journal of Eating Disorders'', ''56''(8), 1554–1569. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.23976 Tylka, T. L., & Wood-Barcalow, N. L. (2015). What is and what is not positive body image? Conceptual foundations and construct definition. ''Body Image'', ''14'', 118–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2015.04.001 https://www.sciencedirect.com/sdfe/pdf/download/eid/1-s2.0-0022399986900966/first-page-pdf https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9970735/ https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychiatry/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00635/full https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/15598276261481490?casa_token=CLtVTca5fboAAAAA%3AVZXxdEaZIobOVIUNsqpuvNDYxboj26-mVH0q6wzArhtqivaE-lAE97I6k_favxKjw-E_XHvw-CpTqA https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2025-86318-001 https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7908267/ https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40211-025-00544-4 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1740144518304595?casa_token=hdy0DS5cSAUAAAAA:kC46Z81NQanQQzq_0Muk0WbbEhXW-zrw1xPEe6MJC5UA-NPJn2Ts0k4IwkfiCs1gYaXm8i2UEaQ https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s40337-025-01353-4 https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9032/13/1/76 https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11905045/ https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1740144525000099 https://academic.oup.com/bjd/article-abstract/187/S1/191/6700551 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33593472/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23809859/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35923740/ https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11276240/ https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15213269.2016.1257392 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40513252/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36347166/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39633454/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37742535/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37129116/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40578276/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39146631/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18089236/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36554399/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40748001/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39146631/ https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1999-02140-000 }} ==External links== *[https://www.healthline.com/health/body-neutrality How to Shift from ‘Body Positivity’ to ‘Body Neutrality’ — and Why You Should] - Healthline *[https://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org/5-steps-body-neutrality/ 5 Steps to Body Neutrality] - NEDA *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X2nBomd-mpY TedTalk - Existing: Body Neutrality and Beauty Standards | Sophia Vimol Horng] - YouTube [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Body image]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] gbw5vpb56aor1ztevz5182q2uuutzfn 2840700 2840699 2026-10-16T14:22:54Z Amyuniversity 3106627 /* Healthier environments and content consumption */ 2840700 wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__{{Title|7677676767676767 DRIZZZZZZZYYY AHHHHHHHH!!!!!!!!1=Body neutrality and emotional well-being: How a body-neutral perspective can affect emotional well-being|Body neutrality and emotional well-being: How a body-neutral perspective can affect emotional well-being}} ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}'''Consider this scenario...''' [[File:Woman with a rough life checking herself out in the mirror (8436629921).jpg|thumb|right|'''Figure 1.''' Woman looking at herself in the mirror]] Amanda is excitedly getting ready to go to a party with friends. Her excitement disappears when she looks in the mirror, beginning to compare her appearance to other women she knows. She focuses on what she perceives as flaws in her body, thinking about how she might be viewed by others at the event. As these thoughts become more intense, Amanda feels increasingly anxious and ashamed of her appearance. She considers making an excuse not to go as she worries she will be judged or that she does not look "good enough" to go out. Before texting the group chat to cancel, she stops. Amanda recognises how pumped she was seconds ago about this party, and how quickly this changes. She thinks, "Why is it that only after I look in the mirror, I believe I'm not worthy?". She realises how much her appearance has become closely connected with her emotions how she views her self-worth. Amanda decides to change the thought process. Instead of thinking "I will I look bad/good at this party" she thinks "I'm going to have to much fun at this party". This shifts the attention away from evaluating her appearance and more towards what her body allows her to do, such as spending time with friends, dancing, and enjoying the evening. Amanda also recognises that self-worth can come from many areas of her life, including her relationships, personality, interests, and achievements. She knows that negative thoughts about her appearance will still occur, but she's done with letting them determine whether she feels good about herself or whether she participates in activities she enjoys. Amanda does finishing touches to her hair, makeup, and outfit, before grabbing her bag and shoes. She leaves the house feeing better about herself and looking forward for the night ahead, all thanks to her discovery of a body-neutral perspective {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[wikipedia:Body_neutrality|Body-neutrality]] is an approach to body image which focuses on accepting the body without any particular emotion or attention to one's physical appearance. This is an important concept because body dissatisfaction is common and has negative affects on emotional well-being, self-esteem and behaviour. These affects can lead to difficulties such as anxiety, depression, and psychological issues such as disordered eating. Social media, cultural and social idealised bodies, and appearance-based social comparison are important factors that contribute to how people evaluate their bodies. Psychological research somewhat explains how body-neutral perspectives may influence emotional-well-being through the examination of self-esteem, social comparison, self-compassion, psychological flexibility, and appearance-based self-worth. Understanding such psychological processes helps identify whether and how body-neutrality may support a healthy body image and therefore emotional well-being. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * What is body neutrality, and how does it differ from other approaches to body image? * How can body image and appearance-related thinking influence emotional well-being? * How do social and cultural influences shape body image and the way we experience our bodies? * How might adopting a body-neutral perspect support emotional wellbeing?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding body-neutrality == === Body image === The concept of [[wikipedia:Body_image|body image]] has many interpretations. It was originally developed as a neurological concept, describing the brain's ability to detect weight, shape, size and form and incorporate these into core beliefs or mental frameworks (Lacey, 1986). This early definition of body image was known as 'the body percept' and focuses more on the accumulated sensory experience within one's body. The actual term 'body image' was coined by Paul Schilder (2013) who defined body image as "the picture of our own body which we form in our mind, that is to say the way in which the body appears to ourselves." Modern definitions of the term are far more in depth, explaining body image as something that is multidimensional that encompasses an individuals thoughts, feelings, attitudes, and behaviours regarding their physical appearance, body shape, size, weight, and how their body functions (Rodgers et al. 2023). Body image involves interconnected perceptual, cognitive, emotional, and behavioural components. These components explain how we percieve our bodies, develop beliefs about our appearance, experience body-related emotions, and respond through behaviour (Carey & Preston, 2019). * '''Perceptual''': How people perceive their body's size, shape, weight, and appearance. Perceptions may not always accurately reflect physical characteristics ** Example: perceiving your stomach to be bigger than it actually is * '''Cognitive''': Thoughts, beliefs, and evaluation individuals hold about their bodies. This includes beliefs about how attractive or important one's appearance is. ** Example: believing you need to lose weight to be considered attractive * '''Emotional''': Feelings associated with body appearance including satisfaction, confidence, shame, anxiety, or embarrassment ** Example: Feeling shame about your body when you compare to another person * '''Behavioural''': Actions people take in response to body image ** Example: Repeatedly checking appearance in mirrors or avoiding social situations due to being uncomfortable about appearance These components can be considered separately but they are best understood as interacting factors. For example, someone who may perceive their appearance negatively may develop critical thoughts about their body, experience feelings of shame or anxiety, and subsequently avoiding social situations, therefore displaying all body image components. === Development of body-neutrality === The development of body-neutrality is closely associated with Anne Poirier, who worked as a eating-disorder specialist and intuitive eating counsellor, helping popularise the approach through this work. Around 2015, body-neutrality started to gain popularity in online spaces as a alternative way of discussing body image, with Poirer subsequently developing workshops around the concept (Nuss et al., 2026). Poirer's approach emphasised that people should not feel like they have to love their bodies. Instead, their attention should be on body functionality and recognising personal worth beyond physical appearance. Poirer's work helped bring body-neutrality into wider discussions regarding body image. This includes popularity on social media such as Instagram or TikTok, which further increased visibility for the concept (Nuss et al., 2025). Despite its increasing popularity, there still is not an agreed-upon definition of body-neutrality. The term is often used to describe reducing importance placed on physical appearance, accepting the body without required feelings, focusing on functionality, or responding to body-related thoughts without judgement. Although these ideas overlap, they do not necessarily describe the same psychological process (Mulgrew and Hinz, 2024). For example, trying to reduce the importance of appearance involves changing how much value is placed on physical attractiveness, whereas body functionality focuses on recognising what the body allows us to do. Similarly, accepting negative body related feelings does not necessarily mean that appearance has become unimportant. These differences make it difficult to establish a single definition that captures all the ways body-neutrality is understood or practiced. Body-neutrality represents a promising approach to understanding body image by offering an alternative perspective that does not require feeling-focused attitudes towards appearance. Despite it's recent emergence and evolving definition, the concept is valuable because it helps navigate pressures surrounding body evaluation. === From body-negativity to body-positivity to body-neutrality === Body image is best understood through the varying perspectives that people have. This ranges from negative evaluations of one's appearance, positive appreciation, and neutral acceptance. Body-negativity involves dissatisfaction, criticism, or negative feelings towards one's body, often influenced by perceived flaws and societal beauty standards (Tort-Nasarre et al., 2021). Negative body image often contribute to lower self-esteem and emotional distress, including feelings of anxiety, sadness, and shame. It is also associated with disordered eating behaviours and other psychological difficulties, although these relationships are complex and do not effect everyone with body dissatisfaction (Abdoli et al., 2025). [[wikipedia:Body_positivity|Body-positivity]] is a opposing perspective because it involves encouragement in appreciating or accepting one's body regardless of shape, size, or appearance. The body-positivity movement created visibility for body-positive perspectives through social media, where people of all differing types of bodies challenges conventional beauty standards. The body-positive movement originated with fat-acceptance activism, feminist and queer social movements, with a focused attention to the stigma and exclusion experienced by people whose bodies are marginalised because of body size, disability, gender expression, etc (Cohen et al., 2019). While this movement has messages of empowerment for many, some people have found the expectation to love and celebrate their bodies difficult to achieve. For those with a negative body image, being encouraged to replace negative feelings with positive ones may feel unrealistic or create pressure to feel confident when they simply do not. This does not mean that body-positivity is ineffective, rather, it highlights that people relate to their bodies in different ways. This is where body-neutrality comes in as a valuable alternative. For those who do not want to focus on loving their appearance, it allows them to accept their bodies without requiring positive feelings. Rather than judging body image by whether someone feels positivity or negatively about their looks, a neutral perspective allows for all feelings without them being the measure of personal worth. See table 1 for an overall comparison of these perspectives. {| class="wikitable sortable" |+Table 1. Comparing and Contrasting Body-image Concepts ! !Body-negativity !Body-positivity !Body-neutrality |- |View of body |Negative evaluation |Positive appreciation |Acceptance without requiring positivity |- |Role of appearance | colspan="2" |High Importance |Reduced importance |- |Expected emotion |Shame, anxiety, distress |Pride, love, happiness |No particular feelings required |- |Basis of self-worth |May become appearance dependent |May include body appreciation |Broader than physical appearance |- |Psychological focus |Appearance evaluation |Appreciation and acceptance |Flexibility and reduced appearance centrality |- |Example thought |"I don't like how my body looks" |"I love and appreciate my body" |"I accept my body and my appearance does not determine my worth" |} == Body image and emotional well-being == === Appearance-based self-worth and emotional distress === Appearance-based self-worth is when individuals base their overall self-evaluation on whether they believe their physical attractiveness meets a certain standard. When appearance is a central focus, perceived flaws or concerns about looks becomes a central source of emotional distress. Findings from Adams et al. (2017) find that appearance-contingent self-worth is associated with greater [[wikipedia:Self-objectification|self-objectification]], which is linked to higher appearance anxiety and lower self-esteem. This suggests that people who place greater importance on appearance may become more concerned about if they meet beauty standards, causing vulnerabilities to their self-esteem because of appearance-related stress. For example, someone who believes their attractiveness determines worth may experience anxiety or shame when comparing themselves with others. This thinking can extend beyond body dissatisfaction and into how individuals evaluate themselves as a person overall. === Self-objectification and appearance monitoring === Self-objectification refers to viewing one's body from an outsider's perspective. There is great attention given to how the body looks rather than how it feels or functions. [[wikipedia:Self-monitoring|Appearance monitoring]] stems from this, and includes behaviours such as repeatedly checking mirrors, adjusting clothing to hide perceived flaws, or comparing one's appearance with others (Ahmed et al., 2025). Continually monitoring appearance can increase attention towards someone idea of a physical flaw and create greater concern about how other evaluate their body. This contributes to feelings body shame, appearance anxiety, and lower self-esteem, particularly for those who believe they do not meet expected standards (Sarda et al., 2025). When this behaviour continues, everyday situations may become opportunities for self-criticism and evaluation. Consequently, self-objectification and appearance monitoring negatively affects emotional well-being by making physical looks a source of worry and evaluation, reinforcing body dissatisfaction and increasing vulnerabilities to perceived physical imperfections. === Effects on everyday functioning === These concerning behaviours and thought processes about body image can affect how people participate in everyday activities, maintain relationships, and manage daily responsibilities. When one's attention is heavily directed towards appearance, it may be difficult to concentrate on other aspects of life. This can lead to avoidance behaviours such as not attending social events, exercising in public, or having photographs taken. Overtime, this avoidance limits social participation and prevents individuals from engaging in experiences they would otherwise enjoy. The consequences on daily life due to severe body image concerns can be illustrated through Diana's case study. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} '''Case Study: Diana''' Diana is a 25-year-old with anorexia nervosa who was examined by Di Lernia et al. (2019). Diana sought treatment at an eating disorder centre following significant weight loss. Her issues with eating started when she began a restrictive diet due to health concerns. This caused her to develop persistent thoughts about calories, weight, and particular foods. Diana also experienced distorted perceptions of her body, repeatedly body checking in mirrors, and wearing clothes that would hide her figure. During periods of high distress, she reported frequently crying while looking at herself in the mirror. {{RoundBoxBottom}} This case study shows how body image can extend into eating behaviours, daily routines, and overall emotional well-being. Persistent concerns about food, weight, and body perception show how these thoughts can become a significant part of daily life and can cause severe negative emotional responses. Although this case involves [[wikipedia:Anorexia|anorexia nervosa]] and cannot represent all experiences of negative body image, it stands as a good example of how severe body image can coincide with distress and behaviours that distrupt daily functioning and therefore emotional well-being. == Social and cultural influences == [[File:Woman Montage (1).jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Faces and figures of women, showing how different groups depict beauty. ]] === Appearance ideals and cultural influence === Culture is one of the most influential aspects on the formation of body image as it shaped how individuals understand attractiveness and evaluate their appearance overall (Vincent et al., 2025). Societal values, historical impacts, and cultural expectations influence which body shapes or physical characteristics are considered desirable. [[wikipedia:Feminine_beauty_ideal|Beauty ideals]] are not universal internationally, with all countries having differing appearance ideals. See Figure 2 for a board comparison of differing depictions of beauty. In many Western societies, thinness has been the ideal for beauty in women. However, ideals have shifted over time to include greater emphasis on curvier or more muscular bodies (Paudel et al., 2025). In Southeast Asia, preference for lighter skin is greatly influenced by historical class associations, [[wikipedia:Colorism|colourism]], and contemporary beauty industries (Khan & Khan, 2022). Across African countries and cultures, ideals also vary, with normal to overweight bodies being associated with beauty, prosperity or fertility in some contexts, while lighter skin and Eurocentric features have been favoured in others (Pradeilles et al., 2022). These ideals are largely based in culture and not necessarily the geographical regions in which they are developed. An example of this is shown through research involving South Asian women in the United Kingdom found that exposure to advertisements including white models reduce participants' satisfaction with their own skin colour, highlighting how culture and representation can change appearance evaluation (Craddock et al., 2025). This suggests that appearance ideals influence body image because individuals may encounter and internalise beauty standards associated with other cultures, making cultural influences and exposure to beauty ideals have significant impact on how individuals perceive and evaluate their bodies, regardless of where they live. The internalisation of such ideals contributes to body dissatisfaction when individuals adopt culturally prompted beauty standards as personal expectations and compare their appearance against them. An example of this is seen through research by Poloskov and Tracey (2013) that found internalisation of U.S beauty standards helped explain the relationship between [[wikipedia:Acculturation|acculturation]] towards dominant U.S culture and body dissatisfaction among Mexican American Women. Similar research by Negi et al. (2022) found that internalisation of the thin ideal accounted for the relationship between acculturation and body dissatisfaction among South and Southeast Asian women living in the United States. Such findings suggest the adoption of culturally valued appearance ideals are associated with greater dissatisfaction when individuals perceive a gap between their own appearance and standards they have internalised. === Cultural perspectives that overlap with body neutrality === Although body neutrality is a relatively recent concept in psychological research, some cultural perspectives share overlapping aspects of its emphasis on valuing the body beyond physical appearance. An example of this is described by Martin and Latner (2025) who state how [[wikipedia:Native_Hawaiians|Kānaka Maoli]] or Indigenous Hawaiian cultural knowledge systems foster appreciation of body functionality through connections to land, community, spirituality and movement. Similarly, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women in Australia found that cultural identity and sense of belonging could help against negative body image experiences (Chalmers et al., 2022). These examples highlight how perspectives that overlap with body neutrality such as valuing body functionality, relationships, community, and connections to land, can be reflected within differing cultural contexts. Although these examples may not explicitly identify as body neutrality, they share very similar emphasis on thought processes. === Social media === [[File:Social media collection 2020s.png|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Image of examples of social media platforms]] Social media has amplified body dissatisfaction for many individuals because there is now increased exposure to idealised representations of physical appearance and encouragement of comparison with others. This exposure to beauty ideals on social media can negatively affect body image. These comparisons may contribute to dissatisfaction when individuals perceive their own appearance as falling short of standards presented online. Due to the fast-paced nature of social media trends, different body types and physical features quickly become fashionable or desirable, creating changing expectations around appearance. These trends are often reinforced through editing of photographs, beauty filters, and digitally altered images that present unrealistic or difficult-to-achieve beauty standards (Merino et al., 2024). As beauty trends change and edited images continue to circulate, social media users may experience ongoing pressure to modify their appearance to meet these unrealistic standards, potentially reinforcing body dissatisfaction and negatively affection emotional well-being. '''*reference figure 3''' {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Reflecting on beauty standards''' * Who or what influences the beauty standards you see? * Why might people experience body dissatisfaction when their appearance does not match the beauty ideals promoted in their soceity? * How might body-neutrality help people respond differently to beauty standards?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Existing research on body-neutrality == === Evidence that body-neutrality improves emotional well-being === Research that has began investigating the potential benefits of body-neutrality to body image concerns and emotional well-being is still relatively new but promising. One of the more direct investigations of body-neutrality is conducted by Smith et al., (2023), who created a study that tested the outcomes of a body neutral perspective by conducting a digital, self-guided, single-session intervention designed to improve body image and mood in adolescents ages 13-17 experiencing body image and mood difficulties. Post intervention, participants reported significant improvements with body dissatisfaction, functionality appreciation, and hopelessness. The testing recieved positive acceptability ratings from participants, indicating that a body neutral perspective is a suitable approach for adolescents. Despite this positive response, the study measured changed within a single group without a control condition, making it difficult to establish if the intervention was what caused the improvements. While positive outcomes were immediate, the study also did not establish if the effects of the intervention lasted. Other promosing evidence is conducted by Smith et al. (2025) who conducted a randomised controlled trial involving 218 adolescence aged 13-17. Participants were randomly assigned to either the body-neutral intervention or a comparison intervention designed to provide supportive therapy. This provides stronger evidence than earlier studies who had an uncontrolled pilot as it allows researcher to compare changes between groups. Immediately after the intervention, participants in the body-neutral group showed significantly greater improvements in body satisfaction, functionality appreciation, and hopelessness than those in the comparison group. These findings strengthen the argument that body-neutral interventions produce short-term benefits for emotional well-being. Despite social media's negative effects of body image, it has been able to provide another context in which the benefits of body-neutrality have been investigated. Analysis of videos taken from this platform using the hashtag #bodyneutrality found that this content commonly challenged appearance-based expectations and promoted acceptance of diverse bodies (Machin et al., 2025) . Although this demonstrates how body-neutral perspectives are percieved online, It does not establish whether this content improves emotional well-being. More direct research indicates that exposure to body-neutral content may have positive effects on body image and emotional well-being. Seekis and Lawrence (2023) found that young women who viewed body-neutral Tiktok videos reported greater body satisfaction and more positive mood than those exposed to thin-ideal content. However, improvements following brief exposure to the content do not necessarily indicate lasting changing in emotional well-being. This suggests that while social media can be used as a tool to promote a body-neutral perspective and emotional well-being, the long-term effects are not promised. === Limitations of evidence === While these findings are promising, research has not yet established whether body-neutrality consistently improves emotional well-being or whether its benefits extend beyond the short term. A problem with the research is that body-neutrality is still a recent concept, so researchers have not reached a clear agreement about how it should be defined or measured. Some researchers have the approach on reducing the importance of physical appearance, while others emphasis on accepting the body without emotional input or appreciating what the body can do. This makes it difficult to compare findings across studies and determine which aspects of body-neutrality may contribute to improvements in well-being. Evidence for this limitation is provided by Mulgrew and Hinz (2024) through a study involving 229 participants, including researchers, clinicians, people with lived experience of eating disorders, and members of the general community. Participants described body-neutrality in ways that overlapped with existing concepts, particularly body acceptance, body compassion, and functionality appreciation. Researchers were not able to identify unique features that clearly distinguished body-neutrality from positive body image approaches. This suggests that some reported benefits may be a result from already established psychological processes rather than from body-neutrality as a distinct approach. Although body neutral strategies may be beneficial, further clarity is needed about what specifically makes them effective. Another discussed limitation is the evidence for long-term outcomes of body-neutrality for emotional well-being. Pellizzer and Wade (2023) stated that academic literature was limited when they developed a working definition and identified strategies for future interventions. As a result, as of now, there is not enough research to determine whether body-neutrality provides lasting benefits across different age groups and populations. Although evidence suggests that body-neutrality has a positive effect on emotional well-being, its benefits cannot be considered conclusive. Future research is needed in order to establish clear definitions that distinguish body-neutrality from existing body-image concepts, and examine whether improvements persist over longer periods. === The need for future research === While there are limitations to the research, the potential benefits from body-neutrality for emotional well-being provides hope for future research to fill in the gaps. Studies that follow participants for longer periods of time would help determine whether improvements in body satisfaction and mood are maintained beyond immediate effects. Researchers should also continue developing clearer definitions and measures of body-neutrality to distinguish it from established approaches such as body acceptance or functionality appreciation (Pellizzer & Wade, 2023). Lastly, more studies that include controlled groups are needed to test body-neutral interventions directly and compare their effectiveness to other body-image concepts. Together, this future direction would establish whether body-neutrality offers unique benefits or provides an alternative for those who find conventional body positivity approaches difficult to adopt. == Applying a body-neutral perspective == === Changing body-related thinking === Recognising unhelpful thought patterns and developing more flexible ways of interpreting appearance-related experiences is apart of adopting a body-neutral perspective. An example is [[wikipedia:Splitting_(psychology)|all-or-nothing thinking or splitting]], which involves evaluating one's appearance in extremes, such as believing they look either completely good or completely bad. These rigid processes may intensify emotional distress when people feel they do not meet their own expectations (Jakatdar et al., 2006). Recognising that appearance-related judgements are interpretations, rather than objective facts, may help people respond to these thoughts with less emotional reactivity. Another strategy involves noticing negative body-related thoughts without automatically accepting them as true. For example, someone may think "I look terrible today." Rather than dismissing the thought or forcing oneself to think positively, they can acknowledge it as a thought without treating is as an accurate judgement of themselves. This process can be related to cognitive defusion, a concept commonly used in [[wikipedia:Acceptance_and_commitment_therapy|Acceptance and Commitment Therapy]] which involves creating distance from thoughts instead of becoming caught up in the meaning of them (Boyle et al., 2025). These strategies relate to [[wikipedia:Flexibility_(personality)|psychological flexibility]], which is being able to experience negative or unwanted thoughts and feelings without allowing them to determine behaviour. Research finds that psychological flexibility is associative with several positive adaptive psychological outcomes (Fang et al., 2022). This suggests that emotional well-being may be supported not only by changing what people think about their appearance, but also by changing how they respond when difficult thoughts occur. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}'''Example scenario:''' Tilly looks through photos from a party the night before and becomes upset about how her body looks in them. She compares herself to how her other friends look in the photos. She is tempted to delete the photos but recognises that she is being caught up in self-critical thoughts. Tilly acknowledges that she feels unhappy with her appearance but reminds herself that a photo cannot determine the worth or value of the memories. Instead of continuing to criticise herself, Tilly puts away her phone and returns to an activity she enjoys.{{RoundBoxBottom}} In this scenario, Tilly demonstrated cognitive defusion by recognising her negative thoughts without treating them as facts. Psychological flexibility was shown too as she allowed herself to experience the discomfort without choosing to let it dictate her behaviour. Overall, these two strategies show practical ways to respond to body-related distress, helping people to manage difficult emotions without being consumed by self-criticism. [[File:People hugging in the beach.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Two people hugging showing an important sensory experience]] === From appearance to functionality === Another signature body-neutral strategy is shifting attention away from how the body looks to what the body allows a person to experience (Alleva et al., 2023). This is also known as body functionality appreciation. This thinking process extends beyond physical strength or fitness and can include appreciating flexibility, physical comfort, sensory experiences such as seeing or hearing, the ability to move, communicate, have sexual experiences, or participate in meaningful activities. For example, instead of criticising the body for how it looks in a certain outfit, a person might appreciate it for how it allows them to dance, spend time with loved ones or experience surroundings as shown in Figure 3. === Healthier environments and content consumption === Developing a body-neutral perspective also involves changing the environments and media people engage with. Media literacy helps to critically evaluate idealised representations of bodies by recognising how images may be edited, filtered or carefully selected to promote particular appearance ideals. Instead of immediate comparison to these representations, people can consider how realistic they are and whose interests they serve. A model to consider here is the Tripartite Influence model, a psychological model explaining how family, peers, and media influence body image through two main processes. This include the internalisation of appearance ideals, where individuals adopt socially promoted body standards as personal goals, and appearance-based comparison, where individual evaluate their own appearance against others (Thompson et al., 1999). This model can be relevant when applying body-neutrality by reducing these pressures where possible, such as curating social media feeds to include diverse body representations, setting boundaries around appearance-focused conversations and questioning comments that link attractiveness with personal worth. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}== Test your knowledge: Changing body-related thinking == Select one answer for each question, then submit the quiz to check your answers. <quiz display=simple> {1. What is all-or-nothing thinking about appearance? |type="()"} - Recognising that appearance changes over time. + Judging appearance in extremes, such as completely good or completely bad. - Focusing on what the body can do. {2. What does cognitive defusion involve? |type="()"} - Replacing every negative thought with a positive one. - Avoiding situations that cause body dissatisfaction. + Recognising thoughts without automatically treating them as facts. {3. Tilly feels unhappy about photos but continues with her day. What does this demonstrate? |type="()"} + Psychological flexibility. - Appearance-based comparison. - Internalisation of appearance ideals. {4. What is body functionality appreciation? |type="()"} - Focusing on physical appearance as the main measure of self-worth. + Valuing what the body allows a person to experience and do. - Expecting the body to perform at its highest level. {5. According to the Tripartite Influence Model, what are the three main sources of appearance pressure? |type="()"} + Family, peers and media. - School, exercise and diet. - Personality, intelligence and motivation.{{RoundBoxBottom}} + testing your knowledge. what scenarios are displaying what concept or strategy? ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words * Body neutrality may support emotional well-being by reducing the importan *A body-neutral perspective emphasises acceptance, functionality, and psychological flexibility, rather than requiring positivity * Body neutrality may support emotional well-being by reducing importance of appearance in self-worth and decreasing the emotional impact of negative body-related thoughts * Social and cultural influences continue to shape body image, therefore, body neutrality may be most effective alongside healthier approaches to managing appearance-focused environments * Research provides promising but preliminary evidence that body-neutral approaches can improve aspects of body and emotional well-being. However, more research is needed to establish long-term effectiveness as well as distinctiveness from other similar concepts * Overall message: the goal is not necessarily to love or feel positive about the body, but to reduce the extent to which your appearance determines emotional well-being. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Body_neutrality|Body neutrality]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Body neutrality and emotional well-being|Body neutrality and emotional well-being]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[wikipedia:Body_positivity|Body positivity]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Abdoli, M., Scotto Rosato, M., Desousa, A., & Cotrufo, P. (2024). Cultural differences in body image: A systematic review. 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How exposure to body neutrality content on TikTok affects young women’s body image and mood. ''Body Image'', ''47'', Article 101629. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2023.101629 Shontz, F. C. (1989). Development and structure of the body image, Vols. 1 and 2 [Rev. of ''Development and Structure of the Body Image, Volumes 1 and 2'']. ''Psychoanalytic Psychology'', ''6''(4), 503–507. https://doi.org/10.1037/0736-9735.6.4.503 Smith, A. C., Ahuvia, I., Ito, S., & Schleider, J. L. (2023). Project Body Neutrality: Piloting a digital single‐session intervention for adolescent body image and depression. ''The International Journal of Eating Disorders'', ''56''(8), 1554–1569. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.23976 Tylka, T. L., & Wood-Barcalow, N. L. (2015). What is and what is not positive body image? Conceptual foundations and construct definition. ''Body Image'', ''14'', 118–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2015.04.001 https://www.sciencedirect.com/sdfe/pdf/download/eid/1-s2.0-0022399986900966/first-page-pdf https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9970735/ https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychiatry/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00635/full https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/15598276261481490?casa_token=CLtVTca5fboAAAAA%3AVZXxdEaZIobOVIUNsqpuvNDYxboj26-mVH0q6wzArhtqivaE-lAE97I6k_favxKjw-E_XHvw-CpTqA https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2025-86318-001 https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7908267/ https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40211-025-00544-4 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1740144518304595?casa_token=hdy0DS5cSAUAAAAA:kC46Z81NQanQQzq_0Muk0WbbEhXW-zrw1xPEe6MJC5UA-NPJn2Ts0k4IwkfiCs1gYaXm8i2UEaQ https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s40337-025-01353-4 https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9032/13/1/76 https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11905045/ https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1740144525000099 https://academic.oup.com/bjd/article-abstract/187/S1/191/6700551 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33593472/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23809859/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35923740/ https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11276240/ https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15213269.2016.1257392 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40513252/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36347166/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39633454/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37742535/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37129116/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40578276/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39146631/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18089236/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36554399/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40748001/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39146631/ https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1999-02140-000 }} ==External links== *[https://www.healthline.com/health/body-neutrality How to Shift from ‘Body Positivity’ to ‘Body Neutrality’ — and Why You Should] - Healthline *[https://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org/5-steps-body-neutrality/ 5 Steps to Body Neutrality] - NEDA *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X2nBomd-mpY TedTalk - Existing: Body Neutrality and Beauty Standards | Sophia Vimol Horng] - YouTube [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Body image]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] 9bnxwsw48vw5bvl7v0pl3kxjnf8cecr 2840701 2840700 2026-10-16T14:29:03Z Amyuniversity 3106627 /* Healthier environments and content consumption */ 2840701 wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__{{Title|7677676767676767 DRIZZZZZZZYYY AHHHHHHHH!!!!!!!!1=Body neutrality and emotional well-being: How a body-neutral perspective can affect emotional well-being|Body neutrality and emotional well-being: How a body-neutral perspective can affect emotional well-being}} ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}'''Consider this scenario...''' [[File:Woman with a rough life checking herself out in the mirror (8436629921).jpg|thumb|right|'''Figure 1.''' Woman looking at herself in the mirror]] Amanda is excitedly getting ready to go to a party with friends. Her excitement disappears when she looks in the mirror, beginning to compare her appearance to other women she knows. She focuses on what she perceives as flaws in her body, thinking about how she might be viewed by others at the event. As these thoughts become more intense, Amanda feels increasingly anxious and ashamed of her appearance. She considers making an excuse not to go as she worries she will be judged or that she does not look "good enough" to go out. Before texting the group chat to cancel, she stops. Amanda recognises how pumped she was seconds ago about this party, and how quickly this changes. She thinks, "Why is it that only after I look in the mirror, I believe I'm not worthy?". She realises how much her appearance has become closely connected with her emotions how she views her self-worth. Amanda decides to change the thought process. Instead of thinking "I will I look bad/good at this party" she thinks "I'm going to have to much fun at this party". This shifts the attention away from evaluating her appearance and more towards what her body allows her to do, such as spending time with friends, dancing, and enjoying the evening. Amanda also recognises that self-worth can come from many areas of her life, including her relationships, personality, interests, and achievements. She knows that negative thoughts about her appearance will still occur, but she's done with letting them determine whether she feels good about herself or whether she participates in activities she enjoys. Amanda does finishing touches to her hair, makeup, and outfit, before grabbing her bag and shoes. She leaves the house feeing better about herself and looking forward for the night ahead, all thanks to her discovery of a body-neutral perspective {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[wikipedia:Body_neutrality|Body-neutrality]] is an approach to body image which focuses on accepting the body without any particular emotion or attention to one's physical appearance. This is an important concept because body dissatisfaction is common and has negative affects on emotional well-being, self-esteem and behaviour. These affects can lead to difficulties such as anxiety, depression, and psychological issues such as disordered eating. Social media, cultural and social idealised bodies, and appearance-based social comparison are important factors that contribute to how people evaluate their bodies. Psychological research somewhat explains how body-neutral perspectives may influence emotional-well-being through the examination of self-esteem, social comparison, self-compassion, psychological flexibility, and appearance-based self-worth. Understanding such psychological processes helps identify whether and how body-neutrality may support a healthy body image and therefore emotional well-being. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * What is body neutrality, and how does it differ from other approaches to body image? * How can body image and appearance-related thinking influence emotional well-being? * How do social and cultural influences shape body image and the way we experience our bodies? * How might adopting a body-neutral perspect support emotional wellbeing?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding body-neutrality == === Body image === The concept of [[wikipedia:Body_image|body image]] has many interpretations. It was originally developed as a neurological concept, describing the brain's ability to detect weight, shape, size and form and incorporate these into core beliefs or mental frameworks (Lacey, 1986). This early definition of body image was known as 'the body percept' and focuses more on the accumulated sensory experience within one's body. The actual term 'body image' was coined by Paul Schilder (2013) who defined body image as "the picture of our own body which we form in our mind, that is to say the way in which the body appears to ourselves." Modern definitions of the term are far more in depth, explaining body image as something that is multidimensional that encompasses an individuals thoughts, feelings, attitudes, and behaviours regarding their physical appearance, body shape, size, weight, and how their body functions (Rodgers et al. 2023). Body image involves interconnected perceptual, cognitive, emotional, and behavioural components. These components explain how we percieve our bodies, develop beliefs about our appearance, experience body-related emotions, and respond through behaviour (Carey & Preston, 2019). * '''Perceptual''': How people perceive their body's size, shape, weight, and appearance. Perceptions may not always accurately reflect physical characteristics ** Example: perceiving your stomach to be bigger than it actually is * '''Cognitive''': Thoughts, beliefs, and evaluation individuals hold about their bodies. This includes beliefs about how attractive or important one's appearance is. ** Example: believing you need to lose weight to be considered attractive * '''Emotional''': Feelings associated with body appearance including satisfaction, confidence, shame, anxiety, or embarrassment ** Example: Feeling shame about your body when you compare to another person * '''Behavioural''': Actions people take in response to body image ** Example: Repeatedly checking appearance in mirrors or avoiding social situations due to being uncomfortable about appearance These components can be considered separately but they are best understood as interacting factors. For example, someone who may perceive their appearance negatively may develop critical thoughts about their body, experience feelings of shame or anxiety, and subsequently avoiding social situations, therefore displaying all body image components. === Development of body-neutrality === The development of body-neutrality is closely associated with Anne Poirier, who worked as a eating-disorder specialist and intuitive eating counsellor, helping popularise the approach through this work. Around 2015, body-neutrality started to gain popularity in online spaces as a alternative way of discussing body image, with Poirer subsequently developing workshops around the concept (Nuss et al., 2026). Poirer's approach emphasised that people should not feel like they have to love their bodies. Instead, their attention should be on body functionality and recognising personal worth beyond physical appearance. Poirer's work helped bring body-neutrality into wider discussions regarding body image. This includes popularity on social media such as Instagram or TikTok, which further increased visibility for the concept (Nuss et al., 2025). Despite its increasing popularity, there still is not an agreed-upon definition of body-neutrality. The term is often used to describe reducing importance placed on physical appearance, accepting the body without required feelings, focusing on functionality, or responding to body-related thoughts without judgement. Although these ideas overlap, they do not necessarily describe the same psychological process (Mulgrew and Hinz, 2024). For example, trying to reduce the importance of appearance involves changing how much value is placed on physical attractiveness, whereas body functionality focuses on recognising what the body allows us to do. Similarly, accepting negative body related feelings does not necessarily mean that appearance has become unimportant. These differences make it difficult to establish a single definition that captures all the ways body-neutrality is understood or practiced. Body-neutrality represents a promising approach to understanding body image by offering an alternative perspective that does not require feeling-focused attitudes towards appearance. Despite it's recent emergence and evolving definition, the concept is valuable because it helps navigate pressures surrounding body evaluation. === From body-negativity to body-positivity to body-neutrality === Body image is best understood through the varying perspectives that people have. This ranges from negative evaluations of one's appearance, positive appreciation, and neutral acceptance. Body-negativity involves dissatisfaction, criticism, or negative feelings towards one's body, often influenced by perceived flaws and societal beauty standards (Tort-Nasarre et al., 2021). Negative body image often contribute to lower self-esteem and emotional distress, including feelings of anxiety, sadness, and shame. It is also associated with disordered eating behaviours and other psychological difficulties, although these relationships are complex and do not effect everyone with body dissatisfaction (Abdoli et al., 2025). [[wikipedia:Body_positivity|Body-positivity]] is a opposing perspective because it involves encouragement in appreciating or accepting one's body regardless of shape, size, or appearance. The body-positivity movement created visibility for body-positive perspectives through social media, where people of all differing types of bodies challenges conventional beauty standards. The body-positive movement originated with fat-acceptance activism, feminist and queer social movements, with a focused attention to the stigma and exclusion experienced by people whose bodies are marginalised because of body size, disability, gender expression, etc (Cohen et al., 2019). While this movement has messages of empowerment for many, some people have found the expectation to love and celebrate their bodies difficult to achieve. For those with a negative body image, being encouraged to replace negative feelings with positive ones may feel unrealistic or create pressure to feel confident when they simply do not. This does not mean that body-positivity is ineffective, rather, it highlights that people relate to their bodies in different ways. This is where body-neutrality comes in as a valuable alternative. For those who do not want to focus on loving their appearance, it allows them to accept their bodies without requiring positive feelings. Rather than judging body image by whether someone feels positivity or negatively about their looks, a neutral perspective allows for all feelings without them being the measure of personal worth. See table 1 for an overall comparison of these perspectives. {| class="wikitable sortable" |+Table 1. Comparing and Contrasting Body-image Concepts ! !Body-negativity !Body-positivity !Body-neutrality |- |View of body |Negative evaluation |Positive appreciation |Acceptance without requiring positivity |- |Role of appearance | colspan="2" |High Importance |Reduced importance |- |Expected emotion |Shame, anxiety, distress |Pride, love, happiness |No particular feelings required |- |Basis of self-worth |May become appearance dependent |May include body appreciation |Broader than physical appearance |- |Psychological focus |Appearance evaluation |Appreciation and acceptance |Flexibility and reduced appearance centrality |- |Example thought |"I don't like how my body looks" |"I love and appreciate my body" |"I accept my body and my appearance does not determine my worth" |} == Body image and emotional well-being == === Appearance-based self-worth and emotional distress === Appearance-based self-worth is when individuals base their overall self-evaluation on whether they believe their physical attractiveness meets a certain standard. When appearance is a central focus, perceived flaws or concerns about looks becomes a central source of emotional distress. Findings from Adams et al. (2017) find that appearance-contingent self-worth is associated with greater [[wikipedia:Self-objectification|self-objectification]], which is linked to higher appearance anxiety and lower self-esteem. This suggests that people who place greater importance on appearance may become more concerned about if they meet beauty standards, causing vulnerabilities to their self-esteem because of appearance-related stress. For example, someone who believes their attractiveness determines worth may experience anxiety or shame when comparing themselves with others. This thinking can extend beyond body dissatisfaction and into how individuals evaluate themselves as a person overall. === Self-objectification and appearance monitoring === Self-objectification refers to viewing one's body from an outsider's perspective. There is great attention given to how the body looks rather than how it feels or functions. [[wikipedia:Self-monitoring|Appearance monitoring]] stems from this, and includes behaviours such as repeatedly checking mirrors, adjusting clothing to hide perceived flaws, or comparing one's appearance with others (Ahmed et al., 2025). Continually monitoring appearance can increase attention towards someone idea of a physical flaw and create greater concern about how other evaluate their body. This contributes to feelings body shame, appearance anxiety, and lower self-esteem, particularly for those who believe they do not meet expected standards (Sarda et al., 2025). When this behaviour continues, everyday situations may become opportunities for self-criticism and evaluation. Consequently, self-objectification and appearance monitoring negatively affects emotional well-being by making physical looks a source of worry and evaluation, reinforcing body dissatisfaction and increasing vulnerabilities to perceived physical imperfections. === Effects on everyday functioning === These concerning behaviours and thought processes about body image can affect how people participate in everyday activities, maintain relationships, and manage daily responsibilities. When one's attention is heavily directed towards appearance, it may be difficult to concentrate on other aspects of life. This can lead to avoidance behaviours such as not attending social events, exercising in public, or having photographs taken. Overtime, this avoidance limits social participation and prevents individuals from engaging in experiences they would otherwise enjoy. The consequences on daily life due to severe body image concerns can be illustrated through Diana's case study. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} '''Case Study: Diana''' Diana is a 25-year-old with anorexia nervosa who was examined by Di Lernia et al. (2019). Diana sought treatment at an eating disorder centre following significant weight loss. Her issues with eating started when she began a restrictive diet due to health concerns. This caused her to develop persistent thoughts about calories, weight, and particular foods. Diana also experienced distorted perceptions of her body, repeatedly body checking in mirrors, and wearing clothes that would hide her figure. During periods of high distress, she reported frequently crying while looking at herself in the mirror. {{RoundBoxBottom}} This case study shows how body image can extend into eating behaviours, daily routines, and overall emotional well-being. Persistent concerns about food, weight, and body perception show how these thoughts can become a significant part of daily life and can cause severe negative emotional responses. Although this case involves [[wikipedia:Anorexia|anorexia nervosa]] and cannot represent all experiences of negative body image, it stands as a good example of how severe body image can coincide with distress and behaviours that distrupt daily functioning and therefore emotional well-being. == Social and cultural influences == [[File:Woman Montage (1).jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Faces and figures of women, showing how different groups depict beauty. ]] === Appearance ideals and cultural influence === Culture is one of the most influential aspects on the formation of body image as it shaped how individuals understand attractiveness and evaluate their appearance overall (Vincent et al., 2025). Societal values, historical impacts, and cultural expectations influence which body shapes or physical characteristics are considered desirable. [[wikipedia:Feminine_beauty_ideal|Beauty ideals]] are not universal internationally, with all countries having differing appearance ideals. See Figure 2 for a board comparison of differing depictions of beauty. In many Western societies, thinness has been the ideal for beauty in women. However, ideals have shifted over time to include greater emphasis on curvier or more muscular bodies (Paudel et al., 2025). In Southeast Asia, preference for lighter skin is greatly influenced by historical class associations, [[wikipedia:Colorism|colourism]], and contemporary beauty industries (Khan & Khan, 2022). Across African countries and cultures, ideals also vary, with normal to overweight bodies being associated with beauty, prosperity or fertility in some contexts, while lighter skin and Eurocentric features have been favoured in others (Pradeilles et al., 2022). These ideals are largely based in culture and not necessarily the geographical regions in which they are developed. An example of this is shown through research involving South Asian women in the United Kingdom found that exposure to advertisements including white models reduce participants' satisfaction with their own skin colour, highlighting how culture and representation can change appearance evaluation (Craddock et al., 2025). This suggests that appearance ideals influence body image because individuals may encounter and internalise beauty standards associated with other cultures, making cultural influences and exposure to beauty ideals have significant impact on how individuals perceive and evaluate their bodies, regardless of where they live. The internalisation of such ideals contributes to body dissatisfaction when individuals adopt culturally prompted beauty standards as personal expectations and compare their appearance against them. An example of this is seen through research by Poloskov and Tracey (2013) that found internalisation of U.S beauty standards helped explain the relationship between [[wikipedia:Acculturation|acculturation]] towards dominant U.S culture and body dissatisfaction among Mexican American Women. Similar research by Negi et al. (2022) found that internalisation of the thin ideal accounted for the relationship between acculturation and body dissatisfaction among South and Southeast Asian women living in the United States. Such findings suggest the adoption of culturally valued appearance ideals are associated with greater dissatisfaction when individuals perceive a gap between their own appearance and standards they have internalised. === Cultural perspectives that overlap with body neutrality === Although body neutrality is a relatively recent concept in psychological research, some cultural perspectives share overlapping aspects of its emphasis on valuing the body beyond physical appearance. An example of this is described by Martin and Latner (2025) who state how [[wikipedia:Native_Hawaiians|Kānaka Maoli]] or Indigenous Hawaiian cultural knowledge systems foster appreciation of body functionality through connections to land, community, spirituality and movement. Similarly, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women in Australia found that cultural identity and sense of belonging could help against negative body image experiences (Chalmers et al., 2022). These examples highlight how perspectives that overlap with body neutrality such as valuing body functionality, relationships, community, and connections to land, can be reflected within differing cultural contexts. Although these examples may not explicitly identify as body neutrality, they share very similar emphasis on thought processes. === Social media === [[File:Social media collection 2020s.png|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Image of examples of social media platforms]] Social media has amplified body dissatisfaction for many individuals because there is now increased exposure to idealised representations of physical appearance and encouragement of comparison with others. This exposure to beauty ideals on social media can negatively affect body image. These comparisons may contribute to dissatisfaction when individuals perceive their own appearance as falling short of standards presented online. Due to the fast-paced nature of social media trends, different body types and physical features quickly become fashionable or desirable, creating changing expectations around appearance. These trends are often reinforced through editing of photographs, beauty filters, and digitally altered images that present unrealistic or difficult-to-achieve beauty standards (Merino et al., 2024). As beauty trends change and edited images continue to circulate, social media users may experience ongoing pressure to modify their appearance to meet these unrealistic standards, potentially reinforcing body dissatisfaction and negatively affection emotional well-being. '''*reference figure 3''' {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Reflecting on beauty standards''' * Who or what influences the beauty standards you see? * Why might people experience body dissatisfaction when their appearance does not match the beauty ideals promoted in their soceity? * How might body-neutrality help people respond differently to beauty standards?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Existing research on body-neutrality == === Evidence that body-neutrality improves emotional well-being === Research that has began investigating the potential benefits of body-neutrality to body image concerns and emotional well-being is still relatively new but promising. One of the more direct investigations of body-neutrality is conducted by Smith et al., (2023), who created a study that tested the outcomes of a body neutral perspective by conducting a digital, self-guided, single-session intervention designed to improve body image and mood in adolescents ages 13-17 experiencing body image and mood difficulties. Post intervention, participants reported significant improvements with body dissatisfaction, functionality appreciation, and hopelessness. The testing recieved positive acceptability ratings from participants, indicating that a body neutral perspective is a suitable approach for adolescents. Despite this positive response, the study measured changed within a single group without a control condition, making it difficult to establish if the intervention was what caused the improvements. While positive outcomes were immediate, the study also did not establish if the effects of the intervention lasted. Other promosing evidence is conducted by Smith et al. (2025) who conducted a randomised controlled trial involving 218 adolescence aged 13-17. Participants were randomly assigned to either the body-neutral intervention or a comparison intervention designed to provide supportive therapy. This provides stronger evidence than earlier studies who had an uncontrolled pilot as it allows researcher to compare changes between groups. Immediately after the intervention, participants in the body-neutral group showed significantly greater improvements in body satisfaction, functionality appreciation, and hopelessness than those in the comparison group. These findings strengthen the argument that body-neutral interventions produce short-term benefits for emotional well-being. Despite social media's negative effects of body image, it has been able to provide another context in which the benefits of body-neutrality have been investigated. Analysis of videos taken from this platform using the hashtag #bodyneutrality found that this content commonly challenged appearance-based expectations and promoted acceptance of diverse bodies (Machin et al., 2025) . Although this demonstrates how body-neutral perspectives are percieved online, It does not establish whether this content improves emotional well-being. More direct research indicates that exposure to body-neutral content may have positive effects on body image and emotional well-being. Seekis and Lawrence (2023) found that young women who viewed body-neutral Tiktok videos reported greater body satisfaction and more positive mood than those exposed to thin-ideal content. However, improvements following brief exposure to the content do not necessarily indicate lasting changing in emotional well-being. This suggests that while social media can be used as a tool to promote a body-neutral perspective and emotional well-being, the long-term effects are not promised. === Limitations of evidence === While these findings are promising, research has not yet established whether body-neutrality consistently improves emotional well-being or whether its benefits extend beyond the short term. A problem with the research is that body-neutrality is still a recent concept, so researchers have not reached a clear agreement about how it should be defined or measured. Some researchers have the approach on reducing the importance of physical appearance, while others emphasis on accepting the body without emotional input or appreciating what the body can do. This makes it difficult to compare findings across studies and determine which aspects of body-neutrality may contribute to improvements in well-being. Evidence for this limitation is provided by Mulgrew and Hinz (2024) through a study involving 229 participants, including researchers, clinicians, people with lived experience of eating disorders, and members of the general community. Participants described body-neutrality in ways that overlapped with existing concepts, particularly body acceptance, body compassion, and functionality appreciation. Researchers were not able to identify unique features that clearly distinguished body-neutrality from positive body image approaches. This suggests that some reported benefits may be a result from already established psychological processes rather than from body-neutrality as a distinct approach. Although body neutral strategies may be beneficial, further clarity is needed about what specifically makes them effective. Another discussed limitation is the evidence for long-term outcomes of body-neutrality for emotional well-being. Pellizzer and Wade (2023) stated that academic literature was limited when they developed a working definition and identified strategies for future interventions. As a result, as of now, there is not enough research to determine whether body-neutrality provides lasting benefits across different age groups and populations. Although evidence suggests that body-neutrality has a positive effect on emotional well-being, its benefits cannot be considered conclusive. Future research is needed in order to establish clear definitions that distinguish body-neutrality from existing body-image concepts, and examine whether improvements persist over longer periods. === The need for future research === While there are limitations to the research, the potential benefits from body-neutrality for emotional well-being provides hope for future research to fill in the gaps. Studies that follow participants for longer periods of time would help determine whether improvements in body satisfaction and mood are maintained beyond immediate effects. Researchers should also continue developing clearer definitions and measures of body-neutrality to distinguish it from established approaches such as body acceptance or functionality appreciation (Pellizzer & Wade, 2023). Lastly, more studies that include controlled groups are needed to test body-neutral interventions directly and compare their effectiveness to other body-image concepts. Together, this future direction would establish whether body-neutrality offers unique benefits or provides an alternative for those who find conventional body positivity approaches difficult to adopt. == Applying a body-neutral perspective == === Changing body-related thinking === Recognising unhelpful thought patterns and developing more flexible ways of interpreting appearance-related experiences is apart of adopting a body-neutral perspective. An example is [[wikipedia:Splitting_(psychology)|all-or-nothing thinking or splitting]], which involves evaluating one's appearance in extremes, such as believing they look either completely good or completely bad. These rigid processes may intensify emotional distress when people feel they do not meet their own expectations (Jakatdar et al., 2006). Recognising that appearance-related judgements are interpretations, rather than objective facts, may help people respond to these thoughts with less emotional reactivity. Another strategy involves noticing negative body-related thoughts without automatically accepting them as true. For example, someone may think "I look terrible today." Rather than dismissing the thought or forcing oneself to think positively, they can acknowledge it as a thought without treating is as an accurate judgement of themselves. This process can be related to cognitive defusion, a concept commonly used in [[wikipedia:Acceptance_and_commitment_therapy|Acceptance and Commitment Therapy]] which involves creating distance from thoughts instead of becoming caught up in the meaning of them (Boyle et al., 2025). These strategies relate to [[wikipedia:Flexibility_(personality)|psychological flexibility]], which is being able to experience negative or unwanted thoughts and feelings without allowing them to determine behaviour. Research finds that psychological flexibility is associative with several positive adaptive psychological outcomes (Fang et al., 2022). This suggests that emotional well-being may be supported not only by changing what people think about their appearance, but also by changing how they respond when difficult thoughts occur. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}'''Example scenario:''' Tilly looks through photos from a party the night before and becomes upset about how her body looks in them. She compares herself to how her other friends look in the photos. She is tempted to delete the photos but recognises that she is being caught up in self-critical thoughts. Tilly acknowledges that she feels unhappy with her appearance but reminds herself that a photo cannot determine the worth or value of the memories. Instead of continuing to criticise herself, Tilly puts away her phone and returns to an activity she enjoys.{{RoundBoxBottom}} In this scenario, Tilly demonstrated cognitive defusion by recognising her negative thoughts without treating them as facts. Psychological flexibility was shown too as she allowed herself to experience the discomfort without choosing to let it dictate her behaviour. Overall, these two strategies show practical ways to respond to body-related distress, helping people to manage difficult emotions without being consumed by self-criticism. [[File:People hugging in the beach.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Two people hugging showing an important sensory experience]] === From appearance to functionality === Another signature body-neutral strategy is shifting attention away from how the body looks to what the body allows a person to experience (Alleva et al., 2023). This is also known as body functionality appreciation. This thinking process extends beyond physical strength or fitness and can include appreciating flexibility, physical comfort, sensory experiences such as seeing or hearing, the ability to move, communicate, have sexual experiences, or participate in meaningful activities. For example, instead of criticising the body for how it looks in a certain outfit, a person might appreciate it for how it allows them to dance, spend time with loved ones or experience surroundings as shown in Figure 3. === Healthier environments and content consumption === Developing a body-neutral perspective also involves changing the environments and media people engage with. Media literacy helps to critically evaluate idealised representations of bodies by recognising how images may be edited, filtered or carefully selected to promote particular appearance ideals. Instead of immediate comparison to these representations, people can consider how realistic they are and whose interests they serve. A model to consider here is the Tripartite Influence model, a psychological model explaining how family, peers, and media influence body image through two main processes. This include the internalisation of appearance ideals, where individuals adopt socially promoted body standards as personal goals, and appearance-based comparison, where individual evaluate their own appearance against others (Thompson et al., 1999). This model can be relevant when applying body-neutrality by reducing these pressures where possible, such as curating social media feeds to include diverse body representations, setting boundaries around appearance-focused conversations and questioning comments that link attractiveness with personal worth. ===== Test your knowledge: Changing body-related thinking ===== Select one answer for each question, then submit the quiz to check your answers. <quiz display="simple"> {1. What is all-or-nothing thinking about appearance? |type="()"} - Recognising that appearance changes over time. + Judging appearance in extremes - Focusing on what the body can do rather than what it looks like {2. What does cognitive defusion involve? |type="()"} - Replacing every negative thought with a positive one - Avoiding situations that cause body dissatisfaction + Recognising thoughts without automatically treating them as facts {3. What is body functionality appreciation? |type="()"} - Focusing on physical appearance as the main measure of self-worth + Valuing what the body allows a person to experience and do - Expecting the body to perform at its highest level {4. According to the Tripartite Influence Model, what are the three main sources of appearance pressure? |type="()"} + Family, peers and media - School, exercise and diet - Personality, intelligence and motivation </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words * Body neutrality may support emotional well-being by reducing the importan *A body-neutral perspective emphasises acceptance, functionality, and psychological flexibility, rather than requiring positivity * Body neutrality may support emotional well-being by reducing importance of appearance in self-worth and decreasing the emotional impact of negative body-related thoughts * Social and cultural influences continue to shape body image, therefore, body neutrality may be most effective alongside healthier approaches to managing appearance-focused environments * Research provides promising but preliminary evidence that body-neutral approaches can improve aspects of body and emotional well-being. However, more research is needed to establish long-term effectiveness as well as distinctiveness from other similar concepts * Overall message: the goal is not necessarily to love or feel positive about the body, but to reduce the extent to which your appearance determines emotional well-being. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Body_neutrality|Body neutrality]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Body neutrality and emotional well-being|Body neutrality and emotional well-being]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[wikipedia:Body_positivity|Body positivity]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Abdoli, M., Scotto Rosato, M., Desousa, A., & Cotrufo, P. (2024). Cultural differences in body image: A systematic review. 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''Body Image'', ''14'', 118–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2015.04.001 https://www.sciencedirect.com/sdfe/pdf/download/eid/1-s2.0-0022399986900966/first-page-pdf https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9970735/ https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychiatry/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00635/full https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/15598276261481490?casa_token=CLtVTca5fboAAAAA%3AVZXxdEaZIobOVIUNsqpuvNDYxboj26-mVH0q6wzArhtqivaE-lAE97I6k_favxKjw-E_XHvw-CpTqA https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2025-86318-001 https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7908267/ https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40211-025-00544-4 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1740144518304595?casa_token=hdy0DS5cSAUAAAAA:kC46Z81NQanQQzq_0Muk0WbbEhXW-zrw1xPEe6MJC5UA-NPJn2Ts0k4IwkfiCs1gYaXm8i2UEaQ https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s40337-025-01353-4 https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9032/13/1/76 https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11905045/ https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1740144525000099 https://academic.oup.com/bjd/article-abstract/187/S1/191/6700551 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33593472/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23809859/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35923740/ https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11276240/ https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15213269.2016.1257392 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40513252/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36347166/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39633454/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37742535/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37129116/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40578276/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39146631/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18089236/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36554399/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40748001/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39146631/ https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1999-02140-000 }} ==External links== *[https://www.healthline.com/health/body-neutrality How to Shift from ‘Body Positivity’ to ‘Body Neutrality’ — and Why You Should] - Healthline *[https://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org/5-steps-body-neutrality/ 5 Steps to Body Neutrality] - NEDA *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X2nBomd-mpY TedTalk - Existing: Body Neutrality and Beauty Standards | Sophia Vimol Horng] - YouTube [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Body image]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] r4fdicky1su6elq9q8uumxcv3f0kk83 2840702 2840701 2026-10-16T14:30:31Z Amyuniversity 3106627 /* Test your knowledge: Changing body-related thinking */ 2840702 wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__{{Title|7677676767676767 DRIZZZZZZZYYY AHHHHHHHH!!!!!!!!1=Body neutrality and emotional well-being: How a body-neutral perspective can affect emotional well-being|Body neutrality and emotional well-being: How a body-neutral perspective can affect emotional well-being}} ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}'''Consider this scenario...''' [[File:Woman with a rough life checking herself out in the mirror (8436629921).jpg|thumb|right|'''Figure 1.''' Woman looking at herself in the mirror]] Amanda is excitedly getting ready to go to a party with friends. Her excitement disappears when she looks in the mirror, beginning to compare her appearance to other women she knows. She focuses on what she perceives as flaws in her body, thinking about how she might be viewed by others at the event. As these thoughts become more intense, Amanda feels increasingly anxious and ashamed of her appearance. She considers making an excuse not to go as she worries she will be judged or that she does not look "good enough" to go out. Before texting the group chat to cancel, she stops. Amanda recognises how pumped she was seconds ago about this party, and how quickly this changes. She thinks, "Why is it that only after I look in the mirror, I believe I'm not worthy?". She realises how much her appearance has become closely connected with her emotions how she views her self-worth. Amanda decides to change the thought process. Instead of thinking "I will I look bad/good at this party" she thinks "I'm going to have to much fun at this party". This shifts the attention away from evaluating her appearance and more towards what her body allows her to do, such as spending time with friends, dancing, and enjoying the evening. Amanda also recognises that self-worth can come from many areas of her life, including her relationships, personality, interests, and achievements. She knows that negative thoughts about her appearance will still occur, but she's done with letting them determine whether she feels good about herself or whether she participates in activities she enjoys. Amanda does finishing touches to her hair, makeup, and outfit, before grabbing her bag and shoes. She leaves the house feeing better about herself and looking forward for the night ahead, all thanks to her discovery of a body-neutral perspective {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[wikipedia:Body_neutrality|Body-neutrality]] is an approach to body image which focuses on accepting the body without any particular emotion or attention to one's physical appearance. This is an important concept because body dissatisfaction is common and has negative affects on emotional well-being, self-esteem and behaviour. These affects can lead to difficulties such as anxiety, depression, and psychological issues such as disordered eating. Social media, cultural and social idealised bodies, and appearance-based social comparison are important factors that contribute to how people evaluate their bodies. Psychological research somewhat explains how body-neutral perspectives may influence emotional-well-being through the examination of self-esteem, social comparison, self-compassion, psychological flexibility, and appearance-based self-worth. Understanding such psychological processes helps identify whether and how body-neutrality may support a healthy body image and therefore emotional well-being. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * What is body neutrality, and how does it differ from other approaches to body image? * How can body image and appearance-related thinking influence emotional well-being? * How do social and cultural influences shape body image and the way we experience our bodies? * How might adopting a body-neutral perspect support emotional wellbeing?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding body-neutrality == === Body image === The concept of [[wikipedia:Body_image|body image]] has many interpretations. It was originally developed as a neurological concept, describing the brain's ability to detect weight, shape, size and form and incorporate these into core beliefs or mental frameworks (Lacey, 1986). This early definition of body image was known as 'the body percept' and focuses more on the accumulated sensory experience within one's body. The actual term 'body image' was coined by Paul Schilder (2013) who defined body image as "the picture of our own body which we form in our mind, that is to say the way in which the body appears to ourselves." Modern definitions of the term are far more in depth, explaining body image as something that is multidimensional that encompasses an individuals thoughts, feelings, attitudes, and behaviours regarding their physical appearance, body shape, size, weight, and how their body functions (Rodgers et al. 2023). Body image involves interconnected perceptual, cognitive, emotional, and behavioural components. These components explain how we percieve our bodies, develop beliefs about our appearance, experience body-related emotions, and respond through behaviour (Carey & Preston, 2019). * '''Perceptual''': How people perceive their body's size, shape, weight, and appearance. Perceptions may not always accurately reflect physical characteristics ** Example: perceiving your stomach to be bigger than it actually is * '''Cognitive''': Thoughts, beliefs, and evaluation individuals hold about their bodies. This includes beliefs about how attractive or important one's appearance is. ** Example: believing you need to lose weight to be considered attractive * '''Emotional''': Feelings associated with body appearance including satisfaction, confidence, shame, anxiety, or embarrassment ** Example: Feeling shame about your body when you compare to another person * '''Behavioural''': Actions people take in response to body image ** Example: Repeatedly checking appearance in mirrors or avoiding social situations due to being uncomfortable about appearance These components can be considered separately but they are best understood as interacting factors. For example, someone who may perceive their appearance negatively may develop critical thoughts about their body, experience feelings of shame or anxiety, and subsequently avoiding social situations, therefore displaying all body image components. === Development of body-neutrality === The development of body-neutrality is closely associated with Anne Poirier, who worked as a eating-disorder specialist and intuitive eating counsellor, helping popularise the approach through this work. Around 2015, body-neutrality started to gain popularity in online spaces as a alternative way of discussing body image, with Poirer subsequently developing workshops around the concept (Nuss et al., 2026). Poirer's approach emphasised that people should not feel like they have to love their bodies. Instead, their attention should be on body functionality and recognising personal worth beyond physical appearance. Poirer's work helped bring body-neutrality into wider discussions regarding body image. This includes popularity on social media such as Instagram or TikTok, which further increased visibility for the concept (Nuss et al., 2025). Despite its increasing popularity, there still is not an agreed-upon definition of body-neutrality. The term is often used to describe reducing importance placed on physical appearance, accepting the body without required feelings, focusing on functionality, or responding to body-related thoughts without judgement. Although these ideas overlap, they do not necessarily describe the same psychological process (Mulgrew and Hinz, 2024). For example, trying to reduce the importance of appearance involves changing how much value is placed on physical attractiveness, whereas body functionality focuses on recognising what the body allows us to do. Similarly, accepting negative body related feelings does not necessarily mean that appearance has become unimportant. These differences make it difficult to establish a single definition that captures all the ways body-neutrality is understood or practiced. Body-neutrality represents a promising approach to understanding body image by offering an alternative perspective that does not require feeling-focused attitudes towards appearance. Despite it's recent emergence and evolving definition, the concept is valuable because it helps navigate pressures surrounding body evaluation. === From body-negativity to body-positivity to body-neutrality === Body image is best understood through the varying perspectives that people have. This ranges from negative evaluations of one's appearance, positive appreciation, and neutral acceptance. Body-negativity involves dissatisfaction, criticism, or negative feelings towards one's body, often influenced by perceived flaws and societal beauty standards (Tort-Nasarre et al., 2021). Negative body image often contribute to lower self-esteem and emotional distress, including feelings of anxiety, sadness, and shame. It is also associated with disordered eating behaviours and other psychological difficulties, although these relationships are complex and do not effect everyone with body dissatisfaction (Abdoli et al., 2025). [[wikipedia:Body_positivity|Body-positivity]] is a opposing perspective because it involves encouragement in appreciating or accepting one's body regardless of shape, size, or appearance. The body-positivity movement created visibility for body-positive perspectives through social media, where people of all differing types of bodies challenges conventional beauty standards. The body-positive movement originated with fat-acceptance activism, feminist and queer social movements, with a focused attention to the stigma and exclusion experienced by people whose bodies are marginalised because of body size, disability, gender expression, etc (Cohen et al., 2019). While this movement has messages of empowerment for many, some people have found the expectation to love and celebrate their bodies difficult to achieve. For those with a negative body image, being encouraged to replace negative feelings with positive ones may feel unrealistic or create pressure to feel confident when they simply do not. This does not mean that body-positivity is ineffective, rather, it highlights that people relate to their bodies in different ways. This is where body-neutrality comes in as a valuable alternative. For those who do not want to focus on loving their appearance, it allows them to accept their bodies without requiring positive feelings. Rather than judging body image by whether someone feels positivity or negatively about their looks, a neutral perspective allows for all feelings without them being the measure of personal worth. See table 1 for an overall comparison of these perspectives. {| class="wikitable sortable" |+Table 1. Comparing and Contrasting Body-image Concepts ! !Body-negativity !Body-positivity !Body-neutrality |- |View of body |Negative evaluation |Positive appreciation |Acceptance without requiring positivity |- |Role of appearance | colspan="2" |High Importance |Reduced importance |- |Expected emotion |Shame, anxiety, distress |Pride, love, happiness |No particular feelings required |- |Basis of self-worth |May become appearance dependent |May include body appreciation |Broader than physical appearance |- |Psychological focus |Appearance evaluation |Appreciation and acceptance |Flexibility and reduced appearance centrality |- |Example thought |"I don't like how my body looks" |"I love and appreciate my body" |"I accept my body and my appearance does not determine my worth" |} == Body image and emotional well-being == === Appearance-based self-worth and emotional distress === Appearance-based self-worth is when individuals base their overall self-evaluation on whether they believe their physical attractiveness meets a certain standard. When appearance is a central focus, perceived flaws or concerns about looks becomes a central source of emotional distress. Findings from Adams et al. (2017) find that appearance-contingent self-worth is associated with greater [[wikipedia:Self-objectification|self-objectification]], which is linked to higher appearance anxiety and lower self-esteem. This suggests that people who place greater importance on appearance may become more concerned about if they meet beauty standards, causing vulnerabilities to their self-esteem because of appearance-related stress. For example, someone who believes their attractiveness determines worth may experience anxiety or shame when comparing themselves with others. This thinking can extend beyond body dissatisfaction and into how individuals evaluate themselves as a person overall. === Self-objectification and appearance monitoring === Self-objectification refers to viewing one's body from an outsider's perspective. There is great attention given to how the body looks rather than how it feels or functions. [[wikipedia:Self-monitoring|Appearance monitoring]] stems from this, and includes behaviours such as repeatedly checking mirrors, adjusting clothing to hide perceived flaws, or comparing one's appearance with others (Ahmed et al., 2025). Continually monitoring appearance can increase attention towards someone idea of a physical flaw and create greater concern about how other evaluate their body. This contributes to feelings body shame, appearance anxiety, and lower self-esteem, particularly for those who believe they do not meet expected standards (Sarda et al., 2025). When this behaviour continues, everyday situations may become opportunities for self-criticism and evaluation. Consequently, self-objectification and appearance monitoring negatively affects emotional well-being by making physical looks a source of worry and evaluation, reinforcing body dissatisfaction and increasing vulnerabilities to perceived physical imperfections. === Effects on everyday functioning === These concerning behaviours and thought processes about body image can affect how people participate in everyday activities, maintain relationships, and manage daily responsibilities. When one's attention is heavily directed towards appearance, it may be difficult to concentrate on other aspects of life. This can lead to avoidance behaviours such as not attending social events, exercising in public, or having photographs taken. Overtime, this avoidance limits social participation and prevents individuals from engaging in experiences they would otherwise enjoy. The consequences on daily life due to severe body image concerns can be illustrated through Diana's case study. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} '''Case Study: Diana''' Diana is a 25-year-old with anorexia nervosa who was examined by Di Lernia et al. (2019). Diana sought treatment at an eating disorder centre following significant weight loss. Her issues with eating started when she began a restrictive diet due to health concerns. This caused her to develop persistent thoughts about calories, weight, and particular foods. Diana also experienced distorted perceptions of her body, repeatedly body checking in mirrors, and wearing clothes that would hide her figure. During periods of high distress, she reported frequently crying while looking at herself in the mirror. {{RoundBoxBottom}} This case study shows how body image can extend into eating behaviours, daily routines, and overall emotional well-being. Persistent concerns about food, weight, and body perception show how these thoughts can become a significant part of daily life and can cause severe negative emotional responses. Although this case involves [[wikipedia:Anorexia|anorexia nervosa]] and cannot represent all experiences of negative body image, it stands as a good example of how severe body image can coincide with distress and behaviours that distrupt daily functioning and therefore emotional well-being. == Social and cultural influences == [[File:Woman Montage (1).jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Faces and figures of women, showing how different groups depict beauty. ]] === Appearance ideals and cultural influence === Culture is one of the most influential aspects on the formation of body image as it shaped how individuals understand attractiveness and evaluate their appearance overall (Vincent et al., 2025). Societal values, historical impacts, and cultural expectations influence which body shapes or physical characteristics are considered desirable. [[wikipedia:Feminine_beauty_ideal|Beauty ideals]] are not universal internationally, with all countries having differing appearance ideals. See Figure 2 for a board comparison of differing depictions of beauty. In many Western societies, thinness has been the ideal for beauty in women. However, ideals have shifted over time to include greater emphasis on curvier or more muscular bodies (Paudel et al., 2025). In Southeast Asia, preference for lighter skin is greatly influenced by historical class associations, [[wikipedia:Colorism|colourism]], and contemporary beauty industries (Khan & Khan, 2022). Across African countries and cultures, ideals also vary, with normal to overweight bodies being associated with beauty, prosperity or fertility in some contexts, while lighter skin and Eurocentric features have been favoured in others (Pradeilles et al., 2022). These ideals are largely based in culture and not necessarily the geographical regions in which they are developed. An example of this is shown through research involving South Asian women in the United Kingdom found that exposure to advertisements including white models reduce participants' satisfaction with their own skin colour, highlighting how culture and representation can change appearance evaluation (Craddock et al., 2025). This suggests that appearance ideals influence body image because individuals may encounter and internalise beauty standards associated with other cultures, making cultural influences and exposure to beauty ideals have significant impact on how individuals perceive and evaluate their bodies, regardless of where they live. The internalisation of such ideals contributes to body dissatisfaction when individuals adopt culturally prompted beauty standards as personal expectations and compare their appearance against them. An example of this is seen through research by Poloskov and Tracey (2013) that found internalisation of U.S beauty standards helped explain the relationship between [[wikipedia:Acculturation|acculturation]] towards dominant U.S culture and body dissatisfaction among Mexican American Women. Similar research by Negi et al. (2022) found that internalisation of the thin ideal accounted for the relationship between acculturation and body dissatisfaction among South and Southeast Asian women living in the United States. Such findings suggest the adoption of culturally valued appearance ideals are associated with greater dissatisfaction when individuals perceive a gap between their own appearance and standards they have internalised. === Cultural perspectives that overlap with body neutrality === Although body neutrality is a relatively recent concept in psychological research, some cultural perspectives share overlapping aspects of its emphasis on valuing the body beyond physical appearance. An example of this is described by Martin and Latner (2025) who state how [[wikipedia:Native_Hawaiians|Kānaka Maoli]] or Indigenous Hawaiian cultural knowledge systems foster appreciation of body functionality through connections to land, community, spirituality and movement. Similarly, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women in Australia found that cultural identity and sense of belonging could help against negative body image experiences (Chalmers et al., 2022). These examples highlight how perspectives that overlap with body neutrality such as valuing body functionality, relationships, community, and connections to land, can be reflected within differing cultural contexts. Although these examples may not explicitly identify as body neutrality, they share very similar emphasis on thought processes. === Social media === [[File:Social media collection 2020s.png|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Image of examples of social media platforms]] Social media has amplified body dissatisfaction for many individuals because there is now increased exposure to idealised representations of physical appearance and encouragement of comparison with others. This exposure to beauty ideals on social media can negatively affect body image. These comparisons may contribute to dissatisfaction when individuals perceive their own appearance as falling short of standards presented online. Due to the fast-paced nature of social media trends, different body types and physical features quickly become fashionable or desirable, creating changing expectations around appearance. These trends are often reinforced through editing of photographs, beauty filters, and digitally altered images that present unrealistic or difficult-to-achieve beauty standards (Merino et al., 2024). As beauty trends change and edited images continue to circulate, social media users may experience ongoing pressure to modify their appearance to meet these unrealistic standards, potentially reinforcing body dissatisfaction and negatively affection emotional well-being. '''*reference figure 3''' {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Reflecting on beauty standards''' * Who or what influences the beauty standards you see? * Why might people experience body dissatisfaction when their appearance does not match the beauty ideals promoted in their soceity? * How might body-neutrality help people respond differently to beauty standards?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Existing research on body-neutrality == === Evidence that body-neutrality improves emotional well-being === Research that has began investigating the potential benefits of body-neutrality to body image concerns and emotional well-being is still relatively new but promising. One of the more direct investigations of body-neutrality is conducted by Smith et al., (2023), who created a study that tested the outcomes of a body neutral perspective by conducting a digital, self-guided, single-session intervention designed to improve body image and mood in adolescents ages 13-17 experiencing body image and mood difficulties. Post intervention, participants reported significant improvements with body dissatisfaction, functionality appreciation, and hopelessness. The testing recieved positive acceptability ratings from participants, indicating that a body neutral perspective is a suitable approach for adolescents. Despite this positive response, the study measured changed within a single group without a control condition, making it difficult to establish if the intervention was what caused the improvements. While positive outcomes were immediate, the study also did not establish if the effects of the intervention lasted. Other promosing evidence is conducted by Smith et al. (2025) who conducted a randomised controlled trial involving 218 adolescence aged 13-17. Participants were randomly assigned to either the body-neutral intervention or a comparison intervention designed to provide supportive therapy. This provides stronger evidence than earlier studies who had an uncontrolled pilot as it allows researcher to compare changes between groups. Immediately after the intervention, participants in the body-neutral group showed significantly greater improvements in body satisfaction, functionality appreciation, and hopelessness than those in the comparison group. These findings strengthen the argument that body-neutral interventions produce short-term benefits for emotional well-being. Despite social media's negative effects of body image, it has been able to provide another context in which the benefits of body-neutrality have been investigated. Analysis of videos taken from this platform using the hashtag #bodyneutrality found that this content commonly challenged appearance-based expectations and promoted acceptance of diverse bodies (Machin et al., 2025) . Although this demonstrates how body-neutral perspectives are percieved online, It does not establish whether this content improves emotional well-being. More direct research indicates that exposure to body-neutral content may have positive effects on body image and emotional well-being. Seekis and Lawrence (2023) found that young women who viewed body-neutral Tiktok videos reported greater body satisfaction and more positive mood than those exposed to thin-ideal content. However, improvements following brief exposure to the content do not necessarily indicate lasting changing in emotional well-being. This suggests that while social media can be used as a tool to promote a body-neutral perspective and emotional well-being, the long-term effects are not promised. === Limitations of evidence === While these findings are promising, research has not yet established whether body-neutrality consistently improves emotional well-being or whether its benefits extend beyond the short term. A problem with the research is that body-neutrality is still a recent concept, so researchers have not reached a clear agreement about how it should be defined or measured. Some researchers have the approach on reducing the importance of physical appearance, while others emphasis on accepting the body without emotional input or appreciating what the body can do. This makes it difficult to compare findings across studies and determine which aspects of body-neutrality may contribute to improvements in well-being. Evidence for this limitation is provided by Mulgrew and Hinz (2024) through a study involving 229 participants, including researchers, clinicians, people with lived experience of eating disorders, and members of the general community. Participants described body-neutrality in ways that overlapped with existing concepts, particularly body acceptance, body compassion, and functionality appreciation. Researchers were not able to identify unique features that clearly distinguished body-neutrality from positive body image approaches. This suggests that some reported benefits may be a result from already established psychological processes rather than from body-neutrality as a distinct approach. Although body neutral strategies may be beneficial, further clarity is needed about what specifically makes them effective. Another discussed limitation is the evidence for long-term outcomes of body-neutrality for emotional well-being. Pellizzer and Wade (2023) stated that academic literature was limited when they developed a working definition and identified strategies for future interventions. As a result, as of now, there is not enough research to determine whether body-neutrality provides lasting benefits across different age groups and populations. Although evidence suggests that body-neutrality has a positive effect on emotional well-being, its benefits cannot be considered conclusive. Future research is needed in order to establish clear definitions that distinguish body-neutrality from existing body-image concepts, and examine whether improvements persist over longer periods. === The need for future research === While there are limitations to the research, the potential benefits from body-neutrality for emotional well-being provides hope for future research to fill in the gaps. Studies that follow participants for longer periods of time would help determine whether improvements in body satisfaction and mood are maintained beyond immediate effects. Researchers should also continue developing clearer definitions and measures of body-neutrality to distinguish it from established approaches such as body acceptance or functionality appreciation (Pellizzer & Wade, 2023). Lastly, more studies that include controlled groups are needed to test body-neutral interventions directly and compare their effectiveness to other body-image concepts. Together, this future direction would establish whether body-neutrality offers unique benefits or provides an alternative for those who find conventional body positivity approaches difficult to adopt. == Applying a body-neutral perspective == === Changing body-related thinking === Recognising unhelpful thought patterns and developing more flexible ways of interpreting appearance-related experiences is apart of adopting a body-neutral perspective. An example is [[wikipedia:Splitting_(psychology)|all-or-nothing thinking or splitting]], which involves evaluating one's appearance in extremes, such as believing they look either completely good or completely bad. These rigid processes may intensify emotional distress when people feel they do not meet their own expectations (Jakatdar et al., 2006). Recognising that appearance-related judgements are interpretations, rather than objective facts, may help people respond to these thoughts with less emotional reactivity. Another strategy involves noticing negative body-related thoughts without automatically accepting them as true. For example, someone may think "I look terrible today." Rather than dismissing the thought or forcing oneself to think positively, they can acknowledge it as a thought without treating is as an accurate judgement of themselves. This process can be related to cognitive defusion, a concept commonly used in [[wikipedia:Acceptance_and_commitment_therapy|Acceptance and Commitment Therapy]] which involves creating distance from thoughts instead of becoming caught up in the meaning of them (Boyle et al., 2025). These strategies relate to [[wikipedia:Flexibility_(personality)|psychological flexibility]], which is being able to experience negative or unwanted thoughts and feelings without allowing them to determine behaviour. Research finds that psychological flexibility is associative with several positive adaptive psychological outcomes (Fang et al., 2022). This suggests that emotional well-being may be supported not only by changing what people think about their appearance, but also by changing how they respond when difficult thoughts occur. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}'''Example scenario:''' Tilly looks through photos from a party the night before and becomes upset about how her body looks in them. She compares herself to how her other friends look in the photos. She is tempted to delete the photos but recognises that she is being caught up in self-critical thoughts. Tilly acknowledges that she feels unhappy with her appearance but reminds herself that a photo cannot determine the worth or value of the memories. Instead of continuing to criticise herself, Tilly puts away her phone and returns to an activity she enjoys.{{RoundBoxBottom}} In this scenario, Tilly demonstrated cognitive defusion by recognising her negative thoughts without treating them as facts. Psychological flexibility was shown too as she allowed herself to experience the discomfort without choosing to let it dictate her behaviour. Overall, these two strategies show practical ways to respond to body-related distress, helping people to manage difficult emotions without being consumed by self-criticism. [[File:People hugging in the beach.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Two people hugging showing an important sensory experience]] === From appearance to functionality === Another signature body-neutral strategy is shifting attention away from how the body looks to what the body allows a person to experience (Alleva et al., 2023). This is also known as body functionality appreciation. This thinking process extends beyond physical strength or fitness and can include appreciating flexibility, physical comfort, sensory experiences such as seeing or hearing, the ability to move, communicate, have sexual experiences, or participate in meaningful activities. For example, instead of criticising the body for how it looks in a certain outfit, a person might appreciate it for how it allows them to dance, spend time with loved ones or experience surroundings as shown in Figure 3. === Healthier environments and content consumption === Developing a body-neutral perspective also involves changing the environments and media people engage with. Media literacy helps to critically evaluate idealised representations of bodies by recognising how images may be edited, filtered or carefully selected to promote particular appearance ideals. Instead of immediate comparison to these representations, people can consider how realistic they are and whose interests they serve. A model to consider here is the Tripartite Influence model, a psychological model explaining how family, peers, and media influence body image through two main processes. This include the internalisation of appearance ideals, where individuals adopt socially promoted body standards as personal goals, and appearance-based comparison, where individual evaluate their own appearance against others (Thompson et al., 1999). This model can be relevant when applying body-neutrality by reducing these pressures where possible, such as curating social media feeds to include diverse body representations, setting boundaries around appearance-focused conversations and questioning comments that link attractiveness with personal worth. ===== Test your knowledge! ===== Select one answer for each question, then submit the quiz to check your answers. <quiz display="simple"> {1. What is all-or-nothing thinking about appearance? |type="()"} - Recognising that appearance changes over time. + Judging appearance in extremes - Focusing on what the body can do rather than what it looks like {2. What does cognitive defusion involve? |type="()"} - Replacing every negative thought with a positive one - Avoiding situations that cause body dissatisfaction + Recognising thoughts without automatically treating them as facts {3. What is body functionality appreciation? |type="()"} - Focusing on physical appearance as the main measure of self-worth + Valuing what the body allows a person to experience and do - Expecting the body to perform at its highest level {4. According to the Tripartite Influence Model, what are the three main sources of appearance pressure? |type="()"} + Family, peers and media - School, exercise and diet - Personality, intelligence and motivation </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words * Body neutrality may support emotional well-being by reducing the importan *A body-neutral perspective emphasises acceptance, functionality, and psychological flexibility, rather than requiring positivity * Body neutrality may support emotional well-being by reducing importance of appearance in self-worth and decreasing the emotional impact of negative body-related thoughts * Social and cultural influences continue to shape body image, therefore, body neutrality may be most effective alongside healthier approaches to managing appearance-focused environments * Research provides promising but preliminary evidence that body-neutral approaches can improve aspects of body and emotional well-being. However, more research is needed to establish long-term effectiveness as well as distinctiveness from other similar concepts * Overall message: the goal is not necessarily to love or feel positive about the body, but to reduce the extent to which your appearance determines emotional well-being. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Body_neutrality|Body neutrality]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Body neutrality and emotional well-being|Body neutrality and emotional well-being]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[wikipedia:Body_positivity|Body positivity]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Abdoli, M., Scotto Rosato, M., Desousa, A., & Cotrufo, P. (2024). Cultural differences in body image: A systematic review. 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Demographic and sociocultural predictors of sexuality-related body image and sexual frequency: The U.S. Body Project I. ''Body Image'', ''41'', 109–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2022.01.010 Grogan, S. (2016). ''Body image: Understanding body dissatisfaction in men, women and children'' (3rd ed.). Routledge. Leboeuf, C. (2019). What is body positivity? The path from shame to pride. ''Philosophical Topics'', ''47''(2), 113–128. https://doi.org/10.5840/philtopics201947218 Mulgrew, K. E., & Hinz, A. (2024). What is body neutrality and how is it different to existing body image concepts? An analysis of experts and general community responses. ''Body Image'', ''51'', Article 101780. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2024.101780 Paterna, A., Alcaraz‐Ibáñez, M., Fuller‐Tyszkiewicz, M., & Sicilia, Á. (2021). Internalization of body shape ideals and body dissatisfaction: A systematic review and meta‐analysis. ''The International Journal of Eating Disorders'', ''54''(9), 1575–1600. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.23568 Pellizzer, M. L., & Wade, T. D. (2023). Developing a definition of body neutrality and strategies for an intervention. ''Body Image'', ''46'', 434–442. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2023.07.006 Pomichter, E., Cepeda-Benito, A., Ahmadkaraji, S., & DePalma, J. P. (2025). Exploring male body image: A scoping review of measurement approaches and mental health implications. ''International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health'', ''22''(6), 834. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22060834 Saunders, J. F., Nutter, S., Waugh, R., & Hayden, K. A. (2024). Testing body-related components of objectification theory: A meta-analysis of the relations between body shame, self-objectification, and body dissatisfaction. ''Body Image'', ''50'', Article 101738. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2024.101738 Seekis, V., & Lawrence, R. K. (2023). How exposure to body neutrality content on TikTok affects young women’s body image and mood. ''Body Image'', ''47'', Article 101629. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2023.101629 Shontz, F. C. (1989). Development and structure of the body image, Vols. 1 and 2 [Rev. of ''Development and Structure of the Body Image, Volumes 1 and 2'']. ''Psychoanalytic Psychology'', ''6''(4), 503–507. https://doi.org/10.1037/0736-9735.6.4.503 Smith, A. C., Ahuvia, I., Ito, S., & Schleider, J. L. (2023). Project Body Neutrality: Piloting a digital single‐session intervention for adolescent body image and depression. ''The International Journal of Eating Disorders'', ''56''(8), 1554–1569. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.23976 Tylka, T. L., & Wood-Barcalow, N. L. (2015). What is and what is not positive body image? Conceptual foundations and construct definition. ''Body Image'', ''14'', 118–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2015.04.001 https://www.sciencedirect.com/sdfe/pdf/download/eid/1-s2.0-0022399986900966/first-page-pdf https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9970735/ https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychiatry/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00635/full https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/15598276261481490?casa_token=CLtVTca5fboAAAAA%3AVZXxdEaZIobOVIUNsqpuvNDYxboj26-mVH0q6wzArhtqivaE-lAE97I6k_favxKjw-E_XHvw-CpTqA https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2025-86318-001 https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7908267/ https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40211-025-00544-4 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1740144518304595?casa_token=hdy0DS5cSAUAAAAA:kC46Z81NQanQQzq_0Muk0WbbEhXW-zrw1xPEe6MJC5UA-NPJn2Ts0k4IwkfiCs1gYaXm8i2UEaQ https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s40337-025-01353-4 https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9032/13/1/76 https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11905045/ https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1740144525000099 https://academic.oup.com/bjd/article-abstract/187/S1/191/6700551 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33593472/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23809859/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35923740/ https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11276240/ https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15213269.2016.1257392 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40513252/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36347166/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39633454/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37742535/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37129116/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40578276/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39146631/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18089236/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36554399/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40748001/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39146631/ https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1999-02140-000 }} ==External links== *[https://www.healthline.com/health/body-neutrality How to Shift from ‘Body Positivity’ to ‘Body Neutrality’ — and Why You Should] - Healthline *[https://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org/5-steps-body-neutrality/ 5 Steps to Body Neutrality] - NEDA *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X2nBomd-mpY TedTalk - Existing: Body Neutrality and Beauty Standards | Sophia Vimol Horng] - YouTube [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Body image]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] rvz7yzhufqmv76p5atxr8664o76nhsy 2840704 2840702 2026-10-16T14:31:54Z Amyuniversity 3106627 /* Test your knowledge! */ 2840704 wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__{{Title|7677676767676767 DRIZZZZZZZYYY AHHHHHHHH!!!!!!!!1=Body neutrality and emotional well-being: How a body-neutral perspective can affect emotional well-being|Body neutrality and emotional well-being: How a body-neutral perspective can affect emotional well-being}} ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}'''Consider this scenario...''' [[File:Woman with a rough life checking herself out in the mirror (8436629921).jpg|thumb|right|'''Figure 1.''' Woman looking at herself in the mirror]] Amanda is excitedly getting ready to go to a party with friends. Her excitement disappears when she looks in the mirror, beginning to compare her appearance to other women she knows. She focuses on what she perceives as flaws in her body, thinking about how she might be viewed by others at the event. As these thoughts become more intense, Amanda feels increasingly anxious and ashamed of her appearance. She considers making an excuse not to go as she worries she will be judged or that she does not look "good enough" to go out. Before texting the group chat to cancel, she stops. Amanda recognises how pumped she was seconds ago about this party, and how quickly this changes. She thinks, "Why is it that only after I look in the mirror, I believe I'm not worthy?". She realises how much her appearance has become closely connected with her emotions how she views her self-worth. Amanda decides to change the thought process. Instead of thinking "I will I look bad/good at this party" she thinks "I'm going to have to much fun at this party". This shifts the attention away from evaluating her appearance and more towards what her body allows her to do, such as spending time with friends, dancing, and enjoying the evening. Amanda also recognises that self-worth can come from many areas of her life, including her relationships, personality, interests, and achievements. She knows that negative thoughts about her appearance will still occur, but she's done with letting them determine whether she feels good about herself or whether she participates in activities she enjoys. Amanda does finishing touches to her hair, makeup, and outfit, before grabbing her bag and shoes. She leaves the house feeing better about herself and looking forward for the night ahead, all thanks to her discovery of a body-neutral perspective {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[wikipedia:Body_neutrality|Body-neutrality]] is an approach to body image which focuses on accepting the body without any particular emotion or attention to one's physical appearance. This is an important concept because body dissatisfaction is common and has negative affects on emotional well-being, self-esteem and behaviour. These affects can lead to difficulties such as anxiety, depression, and psychological issues such as disordered eating. Social media, cultural and social idealised bodies, and appearance-based social comparison are important factors that contribute to how people evaluate their bodies. Psychological research somewhat explains how body-neutral perspectives may influence emotional-well-being through the examination of self-esteem, social comparison, self-compassion, psychological flexibility, and appearance-based self-worth. Understanding such psychological processes helps identify whether and how body-neutrality may support a healthy body image and therefore emotional well-being. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * What is body neutrality, and how does it differ from other approaches to body image? * How can body image and appearance-related thinking influence emotional well-being? * How do social and cultural influences shape body image and the way we experience our bodies? * How might adopting a body-neutral perspect support emotional wellbeing?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding body-neutrality == === Body image === The concept of [[wikipedia:Body_image|body image]] has many interpretations. It was originally developed as a neurological concept, describing the brain's ability to detect weight, shape, size and form and incorporate these into core beliefs or mental frameworks (Lacey, 1986). This early definition of body image was known as 'the body percept' and focuses more on the accumulated sensory experience within one's body. The actual term 'body image' was coined by Paul Schilder (2013) who defined body image as "the picture of our own body which we form in our mind, that is to say the way in which the body appears to ourselves." Modern definitions of the term are far more in depth, explaining body image as something that is multidimensional that encompasses an individuals thoughts, feelings, attitudes, and behaviours regarding their physical appearance, body shape, size, weight, and how their body functions (Rodgers et al. 2023). Body image involves interconnected perceptual, cognitive, emotional, and behavioural components. These components explain how we percieve our bodies, develop beliefs about our appearance, experience body-related emotions, and respond through behaviour (Carey & Preston, 2019). * '''Perceptual''': How people perceive their body's size, shape, weight, and appearance. Perceptions may not always accurately reflect physical characteristics ** Example: perceiving your stomach to be bigger than it actually is * '''Cognitive''': Thoughts, beliefs, and evaluation individuals hold about their bodies. This includes beliefs about how attractive or important one's appearance is. ** Example: believing you need to lose weight to be considered attractive * '''Emotional''': Feelings associated with body appearance including satisfaction, confidence, shame, anxiety, or embarrassment ** Example: Feeling shame about your body when you compare to another person * '''Behavioural''': Actions people take in response to body image ** Example: Repeatedly checking appearance in mirrors or avoiding social situations due to being uncomfortable about appearance These components can be considered separately but they are best understood as interacting factors. For example, someone who may perceive their appearance negatively may develop critical thoughts about their body, experience feelings of shame or anxiety, and subsequently avoiding social situations, therefore displaying all body image components. === Development of body-neutrality === The development of body-neutrality is closely associated with Anne Poirier, who worked as a eating-disorder specialist and intuitive eating counsellor, helping popularise the approach through this work. Around 2015, body-neutrality started to gain popularity in online spaces as a alternative way of discussing body image, with Poirer subsequently developing workshops around the concept (Nuss et al., 2026). Poirer's approach emphasised that people should not feel like they have to love their bodies. Instead, their attention should be on body functionality and recognising personal worth beyond physical appearance. Poirer's work helped bring body-neutrality into wider discussions regarding body image. This includes popularity on social media such as Instagram or TikTok, which further increased visibility for the concept (Nuss et al., 2025). Despite its increasing popularity, there still is not an agreed-upon definition of body-neutrality. The term is often used to describe reducing importance placed on physical appearance, accepting the body without required feelings, focusing on functionality, or responding to body-related thoughts without judgement. Although these ideas overlap, they do not necessarily describe the same psychological process (Mulgrew and Hinz, 2024). For example, trying to reduce the importance of appearance involves changing how much value is placed on physical attractiveness, whereas body functionality focuses on recognising what the body allows us to do. Similarly, accepting negative body related feelings does not necessarily mean that appearance has become unimportant. These differences make it difficult to establish a single definition that captures all the ways body-neutrality is understood or practiced. Body-neutrality represents a promising approach to understanding body image by offering an alternative perspective that does not require feeling-focused attitudes towards appearance. Despite it's recent emergence and evolving definition, the concept is valuable because it helps navigate pressures surrounding body evaluation. === From body-negativity to body-positivity to body-neutrality === Body image is best understood through the varying perspectives that people have. This ranges from negative evaluations of one's appearance, positive appreciation, and neutral acceptance. Body-negativity involves dissatisfaction, criticism, or negative feelings towards one's body, often influenced by perceived flaws and societal beauty standards (Tort-Nasarre et al., 2021). Negative body image often contribute to lower self-esteem and emotional distress, including feelings of anxiety, sadness, and shame. It is also associated with disordered eating behaviours and other psychological difficulties, although these relationships are complex and do not effect everyone with body dissatisfaction (Abdoli et al., 2025). [[wikipedia:Body_positivity|Body-positivity]] is a opposing perspective because it involves encouragement in appreciating or accepting one's body regardless of shape, size, or appearance. The body-positivity movement created visibility for body-positive perspectives through social media, where people of all differing types of bodies challenges conventional beauty standards. The body-positive movement originated with fat-acceptance activism, feminist and queer social movements, with a focused attention to the stigma and exclusion experienced by people whose bodies are marginalised because of body size, disability, gender expression, etc (Cohen et al., 2019). While this movement has messages of empowerment for many, some people have found the expectation to love and celebrate their bodies difficult to achieve. For those with a negative body image, being encouraged to replace negative feelings with positive ones may feel unrealistic or create pressure to feel confident when they simply do not. This does not mean that body-positivity is ineffective, rather, it highlights that people relate to their bodies in different ways. This is where body-neutrality comes in as a valuable alternative. For those who do not want to focus on loving their appearance, it allows them to accept their bodies without requiring positive feelings. Rather than judging body image by whether someone feels positivity or negatively about their looks, a neutral perspective allows for all feelings without them being the measure of personal worth. See table 1 for an overall comparison of these perspectives. {| class="wikitable sortable" |+Table 1. Comparing and Contrasting Body-image Concepts ! !Body-negativity !Body-positivity !Body-neutrality |- |View of body |Negative evaluation |Positive appreciation |Acceptance without requiring positivity |- |Role of appearance | colspan="2" |High Importance |Reduced importance |- |Expected emotion |Shame, anxiety, distress |Pride, love, happiness |No particular feelings required |- |Basis of self-worth |May become appearance dependent |May include body appreciation |Broader than physical appearance |- |Psychological focus |Appearance evaluation |Appreciation and acceptance |Flexibility and reduced appearance centrality |- |Example thought |"I don't like how my body looks" |"I love and appreciate my body" |"I accept my body and my appearance does not determine my worth" |} == Body image and emotional well-being == === Appearance-based self-worth and emotional distress === Appearance-based self-worth is when individuals base their overall self-evaluation on whether they believe their physical attractiveness meets a certain standard. When appearance is a central focus, perceived flaws or concerns about looks becomes a central source of emotional distress. Findings from Adams et al. (2017) find that appearance-contingent self-worth is associated with greater [[wikipedia:Self-objectification|self-objectification]], which is linked to higher appearance anxiety and lower self-esteem. This suggests that people who place greater importance on appearance may become more concerned about if they meet beauty standards, causing vulnerabilities to their self-esteem because of appearance-related stress. For example, someone who believes their attractiveness determines worth may experience anxiety or shame when comparing themselves with others. This thinking can extend beyond body dissatisfaction and into how individuals evaluate themselves as a person overall. === Self-objectification and appearance monitoring === Self-objectification refers to viewing one's body from an outsider's perspective. There is great attention given to how the body looks rather than how it feels or functions. [[wikipedia:Self-monitoring|Appearance monitoring]] stems from this, and includes behaviours such as repeatedly checking mirrors, adjusting clothing to hide perceived flaws, or comparing one's appearance with others (Ahmed et al., 2025). Continually monitoring appearance can increase attention towards someone idea of a physical flaw and create greater concern about how other evaluate their body. This contributes to feelings body shame, appearance anxiety, and lower self-esteem, particularly for those who believe they do not meet expected standards (Sarda et al., 2025). When this behaviour continues, everyday situations may become opportunities for self-criticism and evaluation. Consequently, self-objectification and appearance monitoring negatively affects emotional well-being by making physical looks a source of worry and evaluation, reinforcing body dissatisfaction and increasing vulnerabilities to perceived physical imperfections. === Effects on everyday functioning === These concerning behaviours and thought processes about body image can affect how people participate in everyday activities, maintain relationships, and manage daily responsibilities. When one's attention is heavily directed towards appearance, it may be difficult to concentrate on other aspects of life. This can lead to avoidance behaviours such as not attending social events, exercising in public, or having photographs taken. Overtime, this avoidance limits social participation and prevents individuals from engaging in experiences they would otherwise enjoy. The consequences on daily life due to severe body image concerns can be illustrated through Diana's case study. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} '''Case Study: Diana''' Diana is a 25-year-old with anorexia nervosa who was examined by Di Lernia et al. (2019). Diana sought treatment at an eating disorder centre following significant weight loss. Her issues with eating started when she began a restrictive diet due to health concerns. This caused her to develop persistent thoughts about calories, weight, and particular foods. Diana also experienced distorted perceptions of her body, repeatedly body checking in mirrors, and wearing clothes that would hide her figure. During periods of high distress, she reported frequently crying while looking at herself in the mirror. {{RoundBoxBottom}} This case study shows how body image can extend into eating behaviours, daily routines, and overall emotional well-being. Persistent concerns about food, weight, and body perception show how these thoughts can become a significant part of daily life and can cause severe negative emotional responses. Although this case involves [[wikipedia:Anorexia|anorexia nervosa]] and cannot represent all experiences of negative body image, it stands as a good example of how severe body image can coincide with distress and behaviours that distrupt daily functioning and therefore emotional well-being. == Social and cultural influences == [[File:Woman Montage (1).jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Faces and figures of women, showing how different groups depict beauty. ]] === Appearance ideals and cultural influence === Culture is one of the most influential aspects on the formation of body image as it shaped how individuals understand attractiveness and evaluate their appearance overall (Vincent et al., 2025). Societal values, historical impacts, and cultural expectations influence which body shapes or physical characteristics are considered desirable. [[wikipedia:Feminine_beauty_ideal|Beauty ideals]] are not universal internationally, with all countries having differing appearance ideals. See Figure 2 for a board comparison of differing depictions of beauty. In many Western societies, thinness has been the ideal for beauty in women. However, ideals have shifted over time to include greater emphasis on curvier or more muscular bodies (Paudel et al., 2025). In Southeast Asia, preference for lighter skin is greatly influenced by historical class associations, [[wikipedia:Colorism|colourism]], and contemporary beauty industries (Khan & Khan, 2022). Across African countries and cultures, ideals also vary, with normal to overweight bodies being associated with beauty, prosperity or fertility in some contexts, while lighter skin and Eurocentric features have been favoured in others (Pradeilles et al., 2022). These ideals are largely based in culture and not necessarily the geographical regions in which they are developed. An example of this is shown through research involving South Asian women in the United Kingdom found that exposure to advertisements including white models reduce participants' satisfaction with their own skin colour, highlighting how culture and representation can change appearance evaluation (Craddock et al., 2025). This suggests that appearance ideals influence body image because individuals may encounter and internalise beauty standards associated with other cultures, making cultural influences and exposure to beauty ideals have significant impact on how individuals perceive and evaluate their bodies, regardless of where they live. The internalisation of such ideals contributes to body dissatisfaction when individuals adopt culturally prompted beauty standards as personal expectations and compare their appearance against them. An example of this is seen through research by Poloskov and Tracey (2013) that found internalisation of U.S beauty standards helped explain the relationship between [[wikipedia:Acculturation|acculturation]] towards dominant U.S culture and body dissatisfaction among Mexican American Women. Similar research by Negi et al. (2022) found that internalisation of the thin ideal accounted for the relationship between acculturation and body dissatisfaction among South and Southeast Asian women living in the United States. Such findings suggest the adoption of culturally valued appearance ideals are associated with greater dissatisfaction when individuals perceive a gap between their own appearance and standards they have internalised. === Cultural perspectives that overlap with body neutrality === Although body neutrality is a relatively recent concept in psychological research, some cultural perspectives share overlapping aspects of its emphasis on valuing the body beyond physical appearance. An example of this is described by Martin and Latner (2025) who state how [[wikipedia:Native_Hawaiians|Kānaka Maoli]] or Indigenous Hawaiian cultural knowledge systems foster appreciation of body functionality through connections to land, community, spirituality and movement. Similarly, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women in Australia found that cultural identity and sense of belonging could help against negative body image experiences (Chalmers et al., 2022). These examples highlight how perspectives that overlap with body neutrality such as valuing body functionality, relationships, community, and connections to land, can be reflected within differing cultural contexts. Although these examples may not explicitly identify as body neutrality, they share very similar emphasis on thought processes. === Social media === [[File:Social media collection 2020s.png|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Image of examples of social media platforms]] Social media has amplified body dissatisfaction for many individuals because there is now increased exposure to idealised representations of physical appearance and encouragement of comparison with others. This exposure to beauty ideals on social media can negatively affect body image. These comparisons may contribute to dissatisfaction when individuals perceive their own appearance as falling short of standards presented online. Due to the fast-paced nature of social media trends, different body types and physical features quickly become fashionable or desirable, creating changing expectations around appearance. These trends are often reinforced through editing of photographs, beauty filters, and digitally altered images that present unrealistic or difficult-to-achieve beauty standards (Merino et al., 2024). As beauty trends change and edited images continue to circulate, social media users may experience ongoing pressure to modify their appearance to meet these unrealistic standards, potentially reinforcing body dissatisfaction and negatively affection emotional well-being. '''*reference figure 3''' {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Reflecting on beauty standards''' * Who or what influences the beauty standards you see? * Why might people experience body dissatisfaction when their appearance does not match the beauty ideals promoted in their soceity? * How might body-neutrality help people respond differently to beauty standards?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Existing research on body-neutrality == === Evidence that body-neutrality improves emotional well-being === Research that has began investigating the potential benefits of body-neutrality to body image concerns and emotional well-being is still relatively new but promising. One of the more direct investigations of body-neutrality is conducted by Smith et al., (2023), who created a study that tested the outcomes of a body neutral perspective by conducting a digital, self-guided, single-session intervention designed to improve body image and mood in adolescents ages 13-17 experiencing body image and mood difficulties. Post intervention, participants reported significant improvements with body dissatisfaction, functionality appreciation, and hopelessness. The testing recieved positive acceptability ratings from participants, indicating that a body neutral perspective is a suitable approach for adolescents. Despite this positive response, the study measured changed within a single group without a control condition, making it difficult to establish if the intervention was what caused the improvements. While positive outcomes were immediate, the study also did not establish if the effects of the intervention lasted. Other promosing evidence is conducted by Smith et al. (2025) who conducted a randomised controlled trial involving 218 adolescence aged 13-17. Participants were randomly assigned to either the body-neutral intervention or a comparison intervention designed to provide supportive therapy. This provides stronger evidence than earlier studies who had an uncontrolled pilot as it allows researcher to compare changes between groups. Immediately after the intervention, participants in the body-neutral group showed significantly greater improvements in body satisfaction, functionality appreciation, and hopelessness than those in the comparison group. These findings strengthen the argument that body-neutral interventions produce short-term benefits for emotional well-being. Despite social media's negative effects of body image, it has been able to provide another context in which the benefits of body-neutrality have been investigated. Analysis of videos taken from this platform using the hashtag #bodyneutrality found that this content commonly challenged appearance-based expectations and promoted acceptance of diverse bodies (Machin et al., 2025) . Although this demonstrates how body-neutral perspectives are percieved online, It does not establish whether this content improves emotional well-being. More direct research indicates that exposure to body-neutral content may have positive effects on body image and emotional well-being. Seekis and Lawrence (2023) found that young women who viewed body-neutral Tiktok videos reported greater body satisfaction and more positive mood than those exposed to thin-ideal content. However, improvements following brief exposure to the content do not necessarily indicate lasting changing in emotional well-being. This suggests that while social media can be used as a tool to promote a body-neutral perspective and emotional well-being, the long-term effects are not promised. === Limitations of evidence === While these findings are promising, research has not yet established whether body-neutrality consistently improves emotional well-being or whether its benefits extend beyond the short term. A problem with the research is that body-neutrality is still a recent concept, so researchers have not reached a clear agreement about how it should be defined or measured. Some researchers have the approach on reducing the importance of physical appearance, while others emphasis on accepting the body without emotional input or appreciating what the body can do. This makes it difficult to compare findings across studies and determine which aspects of body-neutrality may contribute to improvements in well-being. Evidence for this limitation is provided by Mulgrew and Hinz (2024) through a study involving 229 participants, including researchers, clinicians, people with lived experience of eating disorders, and members of the general community. Participants described body-neutrality in ways that overlapped with existing concepts, particularly body acceptance, body compassion, and functionality appreciation. Researchers were not able to identify unique features that clearly distinguished body-neutrality from positive body image approaches. This suggests that some reported benefits may be a result from already established psychological processes rather than from body-neutrality as a distinct approach. Although body neutral strategies may be beneficial, further clarity is needed about what specifically makes them effective. Another discussed limitation is the evidence for long-term outcomes of body-neutrality for emotional well-being. Pellizzer and Wade (2023) stated that academic literature was limited when they developed a working definition and identified strategies for future interventions. As a result, as of now, there is not enough research to determine whether body-neutrality provides lasting benefits across different age groups and populations. Although evidence suggests that body-neutrality has a positive effect on emotional well-being, its benefits cannot be considered conclusive. Future research is needed in order to establish clear definitions that distinguish body-neutrality from existing body-image concepts, and examine whether improvements persist over longer periods. === The need for future research === While there are limitations to the research, the potential benefits from body-neutrality for emotional well-being provides hope for future research to fill in the gaps. Studies that follow participants for longer periods of time would help determine whether improvements in body satisfaction and mood are maintained beyond immediate effects. Researchers should also continue developing clearer definitions and measures of body-neutrality to distinguish it from established approaches such as body acceptance or functionality appreciation (Pellizzer & Wade, 2023). Lastly, more studies that include controlled groups are needed to test body-neutral interventions directly and compare their effectiveness to other body-image concepts. Together, this future direction would establish whether body-neutrality offers unique benefits or provides an alternative for those who find conventional body positivity approaches difficult to adopt. == Applying a body-neutral perspective == === Changing body-related thinking === Recognising unhelpful thought patterns and developing more flexible ways of interpreting appearance-related experiences is apart of adopting a body-neutral perspective. An example is [[wikipedia:Splitting_(psychology)|all-or-nothing thinking or splitting]], which involves evaluating one's appearance in extremes, such as believing they look either completely good or completely bad. These rigid processes may intensify emotional distress when people feel they do not meet their own expectations (Jakatdar et al., 2006). Recognising that appearance-related judgements are interpretations, rather than objective facts, may help people respond to these thoughts with less emotional reactivity. Another strategy involves noticing negative body-related thoughts without automatically accepting them as true. For example, someone may think "I look terrible today." Rather than dismissing the thought or forcing oneself to think positively, they can acknowledge it as a thought without treating is as an accurate judgement of themselves. This process can be related to cognitive defusion, a concept commonly used in [[wikipedia:Acceptance_and_commitment_therapy|Acceptance and Commitment Therapy]] which involves creating distance from thoughts instead of becoming caught up in the meaning of them (Boyle et al., 2025). These strategies relate to [[wikipedia:Flexibility_(personality)|psychological flexibility]], which is being able to experience negative or unwanted thoughts and feelings without allowing them to determine behaviour. Research finds that psychological flexibility is associative with several positive adaptive psychological outcomes (Fang et al., 2022). This suggests that emotional well-being may be supported not only by changing what people think about their appearance, but also by changing how they respond when difficult thoughts occur. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}'''Example scenario:''' Tilly looks through photos from a party the night before and becomes upset about how her body looks in them. She compares herself to how her other friends look in the photos. She is tempted to delete the photos but recognises that she is being caught up in self-critical thoughts. Tilly acknowledges that she feels unhappy with her appearance but reminds herself that a photo cannot determine the worth or value of the memories. Instead of continuing to criticise herself, Tilly puts away her phone and returns to an activity she enjoys.{{RoundBoxBottom}} In this scenario, Tilly demonstrated cognitive defusion by recognising her negative thoughts without treating them as facts. Psychological flexibility was shown too as she allowed herself to experience the discomfort without choosing to let it dictate her behaviour. Overall, these two strategies show practical ways to respond to body-related distress, helping people to manage difficult emotions without being consumed by self-criticism. [[File:People hugging in the beach.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Two people hugging showing an important sensory experience]] === From appearance to functionality === Another signature body-neutral strategy is shifting attention away from how the body looks to what the body allows a person to experience (Alleva et al., 2023). This is also known as body functionality appreciation. This thinking process extends beyond physical strength or fitness and can include appreciating flexibility, physical comfort, sensory experiences such as seeing or hearing, the ability to move, communicate, have sexual experiences, or participate in meaningful activities. For example, instead of criticising the body for how it looks in a certain outfit, a person might appreciate it for how it allows them to dance, spend time with loved ones or experience surroundings as shown in Figure 3. === Healthier environments and content consumption === Developing a body-neutral perspective also involves changing the environments and media people engage with. Media literacy helps to critically evaluate idealised representations of bodies by recognising how images may be edited, filtered or carefully selected to promote particular appearance ideals. Instead of immediate comparison to these representations, people can consider how realistic they are and whose interests they serve. A model to consider here is the Tripartite Influence model, a psychological model explaining how family, peers, and media influence body image through two main processes. This include the internalisation of appearance ideals, where individuals adopt socially promoted body standards as personal goals, and appearance-based comparison, where individual evaluate their own appearance against others (Thompson et al., 1999). This model can be relevant when applying body-neutrality by reducing these pressures where possible, such as curating social media feeds to include diverse body representations, setting boundaries around appearance-focused conversations and questioning comments that link attractiveness with personal worth. === Test your knowledge! === Select one answer for each question, then submit the quiz to check your answers. <quiz display="simple"> {'''What is all-or-nothing thinking about appearance?''' |type="()"} - Recognising that appearance changes over time. + Judging appearance in extremes - Focusing on what the body can do rather than what it looks like {'''What does cognitive defusion involve?''' |type="()"} - Replacing every negative thought with a positive one - Avoiding situations that cause body dissatisfaction + Recognising thoughts without automatically treating them as facts {'''What is body functionality appreciation?''' |type="()"} - Focusing on physical appearance as the main measure of self-worth + Valuing what the body allows a person to experience and do - Expecting the body to perform at its highest level {'''According to the Tripartite Influence Model, what are the three main sources of appearance pressure?''' |type="()"} + Family, peers and media - School, exercise and diet - Personality, intelligence and motivation </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words * Body neutrality may support emotional well-being by reducing the importan *A body-neutral perspective emphasises acceptance, functionality, and psychological flexibility, rather than requiring positivity * Body neutrality may support emotional well-being by reducing importance of appearance in self-worth and decreasing the emotional impact of negative body-related thoughts * Social and cultural influences continue to shape body image, therefore, body neutrality may be most effective alongside healthier approaches to managing appearance-focused environments * Research provides promising but preliminary evidence that body-neutral approaches can improve aspects of body and emotional well-being. However, more research is needed to establish long-term effectiveness as well as distinctiveness from other similar concepts * Overall message: the goal is not necessarily to love or feel positive about the body, but to reduce the extent to which your appearance determines emotional well-being. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Body_neutrality|Body neutrality]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Body neutrality and emotional well-being|Body neutrality and emotional well-being]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[wikipedia:Body_positivity|Body positivity]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Abdoli, M., Scotto Rosato, M., Desousa, A., & Cotrufo, P. (2024). Cultural differences in body image: A systematic review. 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Before that, she saw herself as independent, outgoing, and competent. She enjoyed her studies, socialised with friends, and felt confident managing stressful situations. After her diagnosis, Mia became increasingly concerned about what other people might think of her anxiety. She has previously heard people describe mental health problems as being “attention seeking”, “dramatic”, or a sign of being “weak”. Although none of her friends never said this about her {{awkward}}, she decided to not tell them about her diagnosis. As time went by, the stereotypes begin to influence how Mia sees herself. The belief that “people with mental health illnesses are weak” gradually becomes “I am weak because I have a mental illness”. When she struggles with a university assignment, instead of seeing it as a challenge, she thinks “maybe I can’t do this like everyone else can”. She also withdraws from social occasions and previous opportunities she enjoyed. Importantly, Mia’s friends never changed their behaviour. What changed was Mia’s perception of herself. A negative stereotype that exists within her social environment has been internalised into her own self-beliefs. Mia’s experience demonstrates the central problem explored in this book chapter: How does a social stereotype become an emotional burden carried by the individual? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Socially-held negative stereotypes about mental health shape people's perceptions and feelings and can become inward-directed and develop into self-imposed stigma. Self-imposed stigma significantly affects wellbeing and can make coping with a socially-perceived difference all the more challenging. This chapter explores the influence of self-imposed stigma on mental well-being by reviewing psychological theories {{ic|and research?}} that explain how self-stigma develops, its effects on emotions like shame and hopelessness, and how fluctuations in self-esteem and self-efficacy affect motivation and action. Understanding the origins and effects of self-stigma can inform strategies to break the cycle of self-stigma and thus reduce its damaging effects on people's wellbeing. {{robelbox|title=Focus questions}} <div style4="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> {{ic|Use wiki-style bullet-points as taught in Tutorial 2}} • What is self-stigma and how does it differ from public stigma? • How does self-stigma impact self-esteem, hope, and emotions? • Which psychological theories explain the link between self-stigma and emotional well-being? • How can the emotional effects of self-stigma influence motivation and behaviour? • What factors can help individuals decrease self-stigma? </div> {{Robelbox/close}} ==Understanding self-stigma== Mental health stigma operates at several levels. Self-stigma {{ic|Perhaps expand on a definition of stigma, then self-stigma rather than immediately stating its effects?}} is a hidden struggle that can profoundly affect people's emotional and physical wellbeing (Bonnelame, 2024). Public stigma refers to negative stereotypes, discriminatory comments, and prejudice towards people with mental health conditions held by society. According to Corrigan et al. (2011), over 20% of individuals with serious mental illness experience negative self-stigma {{ic|What about for people without mental illness? The topic is not restricted to those with mental health problems.}}. When individuals with mental health struggles internalise and believe in the negative stereotypes society creates about their experience, individuals can become self-critical, have low self-esteem, experience negative attitudes, and develop feelings of shame {{fact}}. This distinction is clear in Mia’s experience. Hearing someone claim that people with anxiety are weak represents a socially held stereotype. It is not self-stigma when Mia becomes aware of the stereotype. It becomes more personally harmful when she begins agreeing with the stereotype and decides that because she has anxiety, she must be weak. === '''<big>From public stigma to self-stigma</big>  ''' === Corrigan et al. (2011) conceptualised a progressive model of self-stigma involving constructs of awareness, agreement, application, and harm. It begins with a person becoming aware that a stereotype exists. Awareness does not mean the individual agrees with the stereotype. The next stage is agreement, the individual begins to accept the stereotype as accurate, they may think “people with mental illness really are less capable”. Through application, the stereotype becomes harmful when the individual applies the belief to themselves, “I have a mental illness, so I must be less capable”. This application internalises harm through reduced self-esteem, hope and self-efficacy (Corrigan et al., 2011) {{ic|Is there any other research or a seminal paper that backs up this theory?}} [[File:Self-stigma.png|center|539x539px|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' The self-stigma process {{fact}}]] Figure 2 shows that exposure to stigma does not automatically produce self-stigma. It is possible for an individual to recognise a stereotype about anxiety being “weak” but completely reject it. The process depends entirely on whether the individual chooses to believe negative social beliefs or is motivated to resist them. == Emotional consequences of self-stigma == The emotional consequences of self-stigma extend beyond simply “feeling bad”. Internalising a stereotype can change how individuals evaluate their worth, goals, and future. Emotions such as shame and hopelessness are likely to influence self-esteem {{fact}}. A meta-analysis by Livingston and Boyd (2010) identified a consistent negative relationship between internalised stigma and psychological factors of hope, self-esteem, and empowerment {{expand}}. A study from Hawke (2025) further demonstrated a relationship {{expand}} between self-stigma, self-esteem, and quality of life. This suggests emotional wellbeing as one of the pathways through which social stigma becomes personally damaging. If negative stereotypes are considered to be personally meaningful, a diagnosis or psychological difficulty is possible to be brought into identity; self-stigma can encourage this transition. A person may begin defining themselves through stereotyped characteristics rather than viewing their mental health condition as one aspect of their entire identity. There is an important psychological difference between thinking “this is what anxiety feels like” and “there is something wrong with me because I have anxiety”. The first describes an experience and the second turns that experience into a deeper judgement of self-worth and shame. Mia previously understood herself as a student, friend and capable young adult. After internalising negative beliefs about anxiety, her interpretation of them has changed, but she has not forgotten about them. She now evaluates daily challenges through the assumption that she is somehow less capable. {{ic|Consider discussing research to support this idea?}} === '''<big>Self-esteem and self-worth</big>''' === In line with modified labelling theory {{fact}} {{explain}}, demoralisation from self-stigma leads to reduced [[self-esteem]]. Self-esteem refers to a persons{{g}} evaluation of how they view themselves (Hepper, 2016). Self-stigma can threaten self-esteem as negative stereotypes become negative self-evaluations. Instead of believing and accepting that some people hold negative attitudes towards mental illness, the person may conclude that those negative characteristics describe themself. Self-worth is rooted in the idea that individuals like to see themselves as favourable, they act in a way that maintains and enhances a positive self-view (Stets & Burke, 2014). People internalise their judgement of personal worth from others' responses. The desire for human agency has been labelled the self-efficacy motive connected to a second dimension of self-esteem (Stets & Burke, 2014). The “why try” effect further develops modified labelling theory by involving self-efficacy {{fact}}. Findings from two studies {{fact}} examining people with mental illness who held low confidence in various circumstances related to their mental illness were unsuccessful in achieving goals. In the second study {{ic|explain method}}, a path between stigma, efficacy, and goal attainment was implied in a study of people with serious psychiatric disabilities. Results showed that self-stigma was associated with {{ic|direction?}} self-efficacy, which then related to low quality of life (Corrigan, 2019). The behavioural consequence of [[wikipedia:Idealization_and_devaluation|devaluation]] (a person avoiding a situation because of self-stigma, low self-esteem, and feelings of public disrespect) {{g}}. The “why try” model goes beyond social avoidance, as people may apply specific stereotypes when defining themselves because of low confidence {{fact}}. “Why should I ask if my friends want to hang out with someone like me?” {{g}} The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale measures self-esteem and identifies when negative self-beliefs need attention (NovoPsych, 2021) {{ic|Use peer-reviewed articles as citations}}. Self-stigma influences how individuals treat their current and future selves. Świtaj and Grygiel (2017) studied individuals with serious mental health conditions such as [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Depression and motivation|depression]], [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Affective disorders#Bipolar|bipolar disorder]], and [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2024/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder_and_emotion post-traumatic stress disorder]. They found that positive self-esteem and hope jointly reduced internalised stigma and improved quality of life. This supports the idea that self-stigma affects wellbeing through multiple pathways rather than through one remote emotion. Table 1 details consequences of emotions which affect one’s quality of life. One consequence may strengthen another and contribute to an ongoing cycle. Emotional health is affected by a combination of factors, including depression symptoms, social hardships, and prejudice. Therefore, self-stigma should be understood as one component within a complex psychological and social system. '''<small>Table 1</small>''' ''Possible Emotional and Psychological Consequences of Self-stigma (based on Switaj and Grygielm (2017)).'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Self Belief !Internal thought !Consequence |- |Shame |"There is something wrong with me" |Embarrassment |- |Reduced self-esteem |"I am not good enough" |Negative self-evaluation |- |Reduced self-efficacy |"I can't cope with this" |Avoidance of challenges |- |Hopelessness |"Things won't improve for me" |Lower goal pursuit |- |Social withdrawl |"People will judge me if they know" |Isolation and reduced support |- |Lack of quality of life |"My illness limits my identity" |Reduced participation in meaningful activities |} == Why does self-stigma effect emotion? == Psychological theory helps explain why internalised stereotypes influence emotions, motivation, and behaviour. It is only part of the problem to understand that self-stigma is associated with emotional distress. The “why try” effect {{f}} and self-discrepancy theory {{f}} provide two useful explanations for how negative self-beliefs can influence both emotional experiences and decisions about goal pursuit. ===The “why try” effect=== A consequence of self-stigma is the “why try” effect (Rüsch et al., 2015), a sense of uselessness that occurs when people believe they do not deserve to achieve personal goals because they apply mental illness stereotypes of hopelessness to themselves. Much of the “why try” effect has been framed through modified labelling theory, where it is described as the “three A’s” of self-stigma: awareness, agreement, and application (Corrigan et al., 2009). To experience stigma, an individual must believe the stereotype describing a group; however, that alone is not enough. The individual must apply the third application to the stereotype oneself is being given to present a hierarchical relationship {{rewrite}} (Corrigan et al., 2009). Mia, for example, may decide not to apply for a competitive internship at a university because she thinks her anxiety will prevent her from doing so. Because there was never an application to evaluate, the university never turned down her application. Her externalised expectation influenced her behaviour before the next {{clarify}} could even respond. Research {{fact}} has begun to examine strategies that facilitate empowerment in a way that enhances quality of life in a way that prioritises empowerment in an affirmative approach rather than a dysfunctional approach. This is why self-stigma can have significant motivational consequences and reduce achievement and positive experiences in life. ===Self-discrepancy theory=== According to Higgins' (1987) self-discrepancy theory, individuals have three self-representations: their ought self, ideal self, and actual self. This theory presents another perspective on the emotional effects of self-stigma is the self-discrepancy theory {{g}}. The real self is a person’s perception of who they are now. The ought self is who they feel they should be, but the ideal self is who they would like to become (Higgins, 1987)'''.''' The perceived gap between these identities may widen because of self-stigma {{f}}. For example, a student’s ideal self might be confident, self-sufficient, and academically successful. If that stereotype is internalised, mental illness leaves a person incapable and makes them perceive their true self as becoming more and more different from this ideal. Emotional consequences stem not merely from having a diagnosis, but from what the diagnosis suggests about the self. When someone feels they are no longer the person they wanted or anticipated to become, they may feel disappointed, ashamed or hopeless. The self-discrepancy theory and the “why try” effect complement one another. Self-discrepancy theory helps explain the emotional discomfort associated with negative identity evaluations, while the “why try” effect helps explain how reduced self-esteem and self-efficacy may translate into reduced goal drive. {{robelbox|theme=12|title=Case Study- Sabrina}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> Sabrina has recently started a new job and has been diagnosed with an anxiety disorder. During her lunch break, she hears a colleague describe another person who experienced a panic attack as “dramatic”. Sabrina initially thinks, “They probably think people with anxiety are dramatic too”. A few weeks later, this negative thought turned into “Maybe I am dramatic”. Before an upcoming team-building activity, Sabrina becomes concerned that someone will notice her anxiety. She begins to worry, thinking that she doesn’t belong in her new workplace and that she may embarrass herself. She originally wanted to get to know her colleagues; instead, she spiralled, decided to tell her supervisor she was unwell, and went home. </div> {{Robelbox/close}} '''<big>Reflection questions:</big>''' {{ic|Use bullet-points as shown in Tutorial 2}} ·      Where does public stigma appear in Sabrina’s experience? {{vague}} ·      What emotional consequences might Mia experience? and how could these emotions influence her motivation? ·      Why might avoiding situations strengthen rather than challenge her negative self-beliefs? == Breaking the cycle == One challenge with stigma is how people absorb social comments; individuals may choose to reject negative stereotypes instead of letting them define them. Psychological interventions like cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) can help struggling individuals recognise, question, and restructure internalised thoughts and beliefs (Corrigan et al. 2011) {{ic|This source doesn't mention CBT}}. Support is needed to reduce public stigma and discrimination, as stereotypes originate in these social environments. Reducing self-stigma should not only mean placing responsibility entirely on one individual but also learning to accept their identity. A meta-analysis by Firmin (2016) {{ic|Not in References}} discovered that greater stigma resistance is linked to better life outcomes, including higher self-efficacy, hope, and improved quality of life and recovery {{ic|How strong are these relationships? Are they causal?}}. The study highlighted the importance of cultural and personal differences, noting that stigma does not define everyone and that people can challenge negative stereotypes about themselves rather than accepting them as truth. For instance, it could transform the thought: "people think anxiety makes someone weak, so I must be weak." into: "that stereotype exists, but it does not determine my abilities or worth." This does not mean denying stigma; it means recognising stereotypes without letting them define one's identity. ===Narrative enhancement and cognitive behavioural therapy=== A widespread group therapy known as narrative enhancement and cognitive behavioural therapy (NECT) is used to eliminate negative self-perceptions associated with particular mental health conditions {{fact}}. The approach is aimed at challenging and changing negative beliefs about mental illness using psychoeducational strategies alongside skill development activities that target self-stigmatising thoughts and motivate individuals to create more positive personal experiences (Young, 2016) {{ic|This source appears to be about CBT? It doesn't mention "narrative".}}. Someone who thinks “my depression makes me incapable” can be guided to view this as an internalised stereotype rather than truth. Cognitive strategies that challenge negative thoughts, regulate emotions, and promote healthier coping skills can help balance a realistic perspective and highlight other important parts of their identity (Roe et al., 2021). An experimental research design by Dubreucq and Faraldo (2021) examined NECT among individuals who struggled with mental illness in self-stigma interventions in relation to regular treatment. Self-stigma interventions showed considerable variability in the populations studied, intervention structures, and outcomes {{vague}}. Implications showed that long-term effects and generalisability remain uncertain. ===Social support and changing public stigma=== {{which}} Interventions directed towards individuals address only part of the problem. Self-stigma begins with stereotypes in social environments. Asking individuals to simply “think differently” ignores the possibility that they may continue encountering prejudice or discrimination. Friends, family members, peers, educators, employers, and health professionals can counteract stereotypes by addressing mental health challenges without confining individuals solely to a diagnosis. Reducing public stigma may decrease the negative messages available to be internalised in the first place. {{fact}} Education and meaningful social interactions with individuals who have experienced mental illness have been studied {{fact}} as methods to challenge public stigma. Evidence from Corrigan et al. (2009) indicates these strategies can reduce stigmatising attitudes, although the effects tend to be temporary. Reducing self-stigma requires action at individual, interpersonal, and social levels, recognising that people can develop skills to resist stigma while society also holds responsibility for reducing the stigma they are being asked to resist. <quiz display="simple"> {Which example best represents stigma resistance? |type="()"} + The stereotype exists, but it does not determine my individual abilities. - My diagnosis means I should lower my expectations. - People probably know my limitations better than I do. - If I hide my diagnosis completely, stigma cannot affect me. </quiz> ==Conclusion== Self-stigma develops when negative social stereotypes are internalised and transformed into personal self-beliefs. While exposure to stigma may start with external factors, its emotional consequences become harmful when individuals accept these stereotypes and apply them to themselves. This shows how societal attitudes can become deeply personal and shape individuals’ self-perception of worth, abilities, and future. Understanding self-stigma provides more than an explanation for emotional distress; it reveals opportunities for change. By interrupting the process through which social stereotypes become part of one’s self-concept, individuals can protect their self-esteem by ignoring external factors at both the personal and societal level without being limited by the stereotypes attached to their diagnosis. ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Self-concept clarity|Self-concept clarity]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Self-efficacy and motivation|Self-efficacy and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bonnelame, R. (2024). Understanding and overcoming self-stigma. Mifwa. https://www.mifwa.org.au/blog/understanding-and-overcoming-self-stigma/ Corrigan, P. W., Larson, J. E., & Rusch, N. (2009). Self‐stigma and the “why try” effect: Impact on life goals and evidence‐based practices. ''World Psychiatry, 8''(2), 75–81. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2051-5545.2009.tb00218.x Corrigan, P. W., Rafacz, J., & Rüsch, N. (2011). Examining a progressive model of self-stigma and its impact on people with serious mental illness. ''Psychiatry Research, 189''(3), 339–343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2011.05.024 Dubreucq, J., & Faraldo, M. (2021). Narrative enhancement and cognitive therapy (NECT) to improve social functioning in people with serious mental illness: Study protocol for a stepped-wedge cluster randomized controlled trial. ''Trials, 22''(1), 124. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-021-05067-1 Hawke, L. D., Amartey, A., & Szatmari, P. (2025). The association between mental health self-stigma and multiple mental health conditions: A systematic review. SSM - Mental Health, 8, 100475. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100475 Hepper, E. (2016, December). Self-esteem. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301662815_Self-Esteem Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/19545638_Self-Discrepancy_A_Theory_Relating_Self_and_Affect Livingston, J. D., & Boyd, J. E. (2010). Correlates and consequences of internalized stigma for people living with mental illness: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Social Science & Medicine, 71''(12), 2150–2161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.09.030 NovoPsych. (2021, March). Rosenberg self-esteem scale (RSES). NovoPsych. https://novopsych.com/assessments/well-being/rosenberg-self-esteem-scale-rses/ Roe, D., Hasson-Ohayon, I., Mashiach-Eizenberg, M., Derhy, O., Lysaker, P. H., & Yanos, P. T. (2013). Narrative enhancement and cognitive therapy (NECT) effectiveness: A quasi-experimental study. ''Journal of Clinical Psychology, 70''(4), 303–312. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22050 Roe, D., Yamin, A., Hasson-Ohayon, I., Lysaker, P. H., & Yanos, P. T. (2021). Narrative enhancement cognitive therapy (NECT). ''The Recovery of the Self in Psychosis'', 116–134. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429486500-8 Rose, A. L., Atkey, S. K., Flett, G. L., & Goldberg, J. O. (2019). Self‐stigma and domains of well‐being in high school youth: Associations with self‐efficacy, self‐esteem, and self‐criticism. ''Psychology in the Schools, 56''(8). https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22276 Rüsch, N., Corrigan, P. W., Schmidt, A., Jones, N., Bink, A. B., & Corrigan, P. W. (2015, July 20). What is the impact of self-stigma? Loss of self-respect and the “why try” effect. Taylor & Francis. ''Journal of Mental Health.'' https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.3109/09638237.2015.1021902 Stets, J. E., & Burke, P. J. (2014). Self-esteem and identities. ''Sociological Perspectives, 57''(4), 409–433. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731121414536141 Świtaj, P., & Grygiel, P. (2017). The relationship between internalized stigma and quality of life among people with mental illness: Are self-esteem and sense of coherence sequential mediators? ''Quality of Life Research, 26''(9), 2471–2478. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-017-1596-3 Young, D. K.-W. (2016). Cognitive behavioral Therapy Group for reducing self-stigma for people with mental illness. ''Research on Social Work Practice, 28''(7), 827–837. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731516681849 }} ==External links== {{expand}} *[[w:Self-determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{ic|Move to See also}} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Stigma]] so0vtxbxo3enbpr7271f2hq2fm6vfhe 10 330232 2840739 2840661 2026-10-16T21:17:44Z Jtneill 10242 # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) 2840739 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>Feedback [[wikiversity:FAQ/Template|template]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] exercise for the [[motivation and emotion]] unit. Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]. __NOTOC__</noinclude><includeonly> ==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] review and feedback== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} This chapter has been reviewed according to the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. Written feedback is provided below, plus there is a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Please also check the chapter's [[Help:Page history|page history]] to check for editing changes made whilst reviewing through the chapter. Chapter marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} along with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Social contribution|social contribution]] marks and feedback. Keep an eye on Announcements. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=}}[[File:Wikiuutiset logo typewriter.png|right|85px]] ===Overall=== {{{1|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Overview (5%)|Overview]]=== {{{2|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Theory (20%)|Theory]]=== {{{3|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Research (25%)|Research]]=== {{{4|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Integration (10%)|Integration]]=== {{{5|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Conclusion (5%)|Conclusion]]=== {{{6|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Style (20%)|Style]]=== {{{7|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Learning features (5%)|Learning features]]=== {{{8|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Social contribution (10%)|Social contribution]]=== {{{9|No comment}}} {{RoundBoxBottom}}</includeonly><noinclude>{{collapse top|Simple example}} ==Simple example== See also [[#Detailed example|detailed example]] <pre> <!-- Official feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} ~~~~ </pre> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2025 (UTC) {{Collapse bottom}} ==Detailed example== Example use of the template, with some common feedback comments: <small><small><small><pre> <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic, sufficient chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of genAI—express more in your own words; watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]] #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits #* Use more specific #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits to help other contributors understand what was changed #* Use [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to briefly describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources; it appears that the feedback about the topic development in this respect has gone unheeded; if so, it violates academic integrity principles. #* I suspect there may be unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one previous [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the edit summary. # Reminds the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Remove excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags) ## Some/many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st or 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]]. ## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bold, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, Studiosity, and/or peer feedback ## Check and make [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ correct use of commas] ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: #### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or #### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ### Do not include author first name or initials ### Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ### A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ### Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ### Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ### Check and correct placement of full-stops ### Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources ## For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both ## Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include hyperlinked dois (for 1-click access) ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of feature box(es) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to related book chapters ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} ~~~~ </pre></small></small></small> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic, sufficient chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of genAI—express more in your own words; watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]] #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits #* Use more specific #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits to help other contributors understand what was changed #* Use [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to briefly describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources; it appears that the feedback about the topic development in this respect has gone unheeded; if so, it violates academic integrity principles. #* I suspect there may be unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one previous [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the edit summary. # Reminds the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Remove excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags) ## Some/many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st of 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]].## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bo]ld, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, Studiosity, and/or peer feedback ## Check and make [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ correct use of commas] ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: #### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or #### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ### Do not include author first name or initials ### Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ### A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ### Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ### Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ### Check and correct placement of full-stops ### Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources ## For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both ## Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include hyperlinked dois (for 1-click access) ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of feature box(es) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to related book chapters ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2025 (UTC) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] * [[Template:METF]] * [[Template:MEMF]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]] </noinclude> 4nhvns85c9zdq4crznaixhom4xagxmm 2840742 2840739 2026-10-16T21:36:42Z Jtneill 10242 #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI, with insufficient acknowledged in edit summaries when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles 2840742 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>Feedback [[wikiversity:FAQ/Template|template]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] exercise for the [[motivation and emotion]] unit. Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]. __NOTOC__</noinclude><includeonly> ==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] review and feedback== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} This chapter has been reviewed according to the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. Written feedback is provided below, plus there is a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Please also check the chapter's [[Help:Page history|page history]] to check for editing changes made whilst reviewing through the chapter. Chapter marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} along with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Social contribution|social contribution]] marks and feedback. Keep an eye on Announcements. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=}}[[File:Wikiuutiset logo typewriter.png|right|85px]] ===Overall=== {{{1|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Overview (5%)|Overview]]=== {{{2|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Theory (20%)|Theory]]=== {{{3|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Research (25%)|Research]]=== {{{4|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Integration (10%)|Integration]]=== {{{5|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Conclusion (5%)|Conclusion]]=== {{{6|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Style (20%)|Style]]=== {{{7|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Learning features (5%)|Learning features]]=== {{{8|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Social contribution (10%)|Social contribution]]=== {{{9|No comment}}} {{RoundBoxBottom}}</includeonly><noinclude>{{collapse top|Simple example}} ==Simple example== See also [[#Detailed example|detailed example]] <pre> <!-- Official feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} ~~~~ </pre> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2025 (UTC) {{Collapse bottom}} ==Detailed example== Example use of the template, with some common feedback comments: <small><small><small><pre> <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic, sufficient chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of genAI—express more in your own words; watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]] #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits #* Use more specific #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits to help other contributors understand what was changed #* Use [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to briefly describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI, with insufficient acknowledged in edit summaries when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources; it appears that the feedback about the topic development in this respect has gone unheeded; if so, it violates academic integrity principles. #* I suspect there may be unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one previous [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the edit summary. # Reminds the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Remove excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags) ## Some/many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st or 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]]. ## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bold, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, Studiosity, and/or peer feedback ## Check and make [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ correct use of commas] ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: #### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or #### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ### Do not include author first name or initials ### Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ### A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ### Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ### Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ### Check and correct placement of full-stops ### Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources ## For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both ## Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include hyperlinked dois (for 1-click access) ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of feature box(es) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to related book chapters ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} ~~~~ </pre></small></small></small> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic, sufficient chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of genAI—express more in your own words; watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]] #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits #* Use more specific #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits to help other contributors understand what was changed #* Use [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to briefly describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI, with insufficient acknowledged in edit summaries when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources; it appears that the feedback about the topic development in this respect has gone unheeded; if so, it violates academic integrity principles. #* I suspect there may be unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one previous [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the edit summary. # Reminds the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Remove excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags) ## Some/many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st of 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]].## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bo]ld, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, Studiosity, and/or peer feedback ## Check and make [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ correct use of commas] ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: #### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or #### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ### Do not include author first name or initials ### Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ### A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ### Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ### Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ### Check and correct placement of full-stops ### Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources ## For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both ## Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include hyperlinked dois (for 1-click access) ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of feature box(es) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to related book chapters ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2025 (UTC) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] * [[Template:METF]] * [[Template:MEMF]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]] </noinclude> ijoltju31qsqq37rn9786j0ttf2wcb1 2840745 2840742 2026-10-16T21:42:13Z Jtneill 10242 2840745 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>Feedback [[wikiversity:FAQ/Template|template]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] exercise for the [[motivation and emotion]] unit. Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]. __NOTOC__</noinclude><includeonly> ==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] review and feedback== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} This chapter has been reviewed according to the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. Written feedback is provided below, plus there is a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Please also check the chapter's [[Help:Page history|page history]] to check for editing changes made whilst reviewing through the chapter. Chapter marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} along with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Social contribution|social contribution]] marks and feedback. Keep an eye on Announcements. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=}}[[File:Wikiuutiset logo typewriter.png|right|85px]] ===Overall=== {{{1|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Overview (5%)|Overview]]=== {{{2|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Theory (20%)|Theory]]=== {{{3|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Research (25%)|Research]]=== {{{4|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Integration (10%)|Integration]]=== {{{5|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Conclusion (5%)|Conclusion]]=== {{{6|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Style (20%)|Style]]=== {{{7|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Learning features (5%)|Learning features]]=== {{{8|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Social contribution (10%)|Social contribution]]=== {{{9|No comment}}} {{RoundBoxBottom}}</includeonly><noinclude>{{collapse top|Simple example}} ==Simple example== See also [[#Detailed example|detailed example]] <pre> <!-- Official feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} ~~~~ </pre> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2025 (UTC) {{Collapse bottom}} ==Detailed example== Example use of the template, with some common feedback comments: <small><small><small><pre> <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic, sufficient chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of genAI—express more in your own words; watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]] #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits #* Use more specific #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits to help other contributors understand what was changed #* Use [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to briefly describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI, with insufficient acknowledged in edit summaries when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources; it appears that the feedback about the topic development in this respect has gone unheeded; if so, it violates academic integrity principles. #* I suspect there may be unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the edit summary. # Reminds the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Remove excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags) ## Some/many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st or 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]]. ## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bold, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, Studiosity, and/or peer feedback ## Check and make [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ correct use of commas] ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: #### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or #### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ### Do not include author first name or initials ### Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ### A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ### Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ### Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ### Check and correct placement of full-stops ### Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources ## For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both ## Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include hyperlinked dois (for 1-click access) ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of feature box(es) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to related book chapters ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} ~~~~ </pre></small></small></small> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic, sufficient chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of genAI—express more in your own words; watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]] #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits #* Use more specific #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits to help other contributors understand what was changed #* Use [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to briefly describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI, with insufficient acknowledged in edit summaries when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources; it appears that the feedback about the topic development in this respect has gone unheeded; if so, it violates academic integrity principles. #* I suspect there may be unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the edit summary. # Reminds the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Remove excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags) ## Some/many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st of 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]].## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bo]ld, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, Studiosity, and/or peer feedback ## Check and make [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ correct use of commas] ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: #### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or #### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ### Do not include author first name or initials ### Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ### A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ### Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ### Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ### Check and correct placement of full-stops ### Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources ## For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both ## Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include hyperlinked dois (for 1-click access) ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of feature box(es) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to related book chapters ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2025 (UTC) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] * [[Template:METF]] * [[Template:MEMF]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]] </noinclude> t6u2dkcds58u62un5h0mv3af00df08t 2840747 2840745 2026-10-16T21:45:41Z Jtneill 10242 # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links 2840747 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>Feedback [[wikiversity:FAQ/Template|template]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] exercise for the [[motivation and emotion]] unit. Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]. __NOTOC__</noinclude><includeonly> ==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] review and feedback== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} This chapter has been reviewed according to the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. Written feedback is provided below, plus there is a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Please also check the chapter's [[Help:Page history|page history]] to check for editing changes made whilst reviewing through the chapter. Chapter marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} along with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Social contribution|social contribution]] marks and feedback. Keep an eye on Announcements. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=}}[[File:Wikiuutiset logo typewriter.png|right|85px]] ===Overall=== {{{1|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Overview (5%)|Overview]]=== {{{2|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Theory (20%)|Theory]]=== {{{3|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Research (25%)|Research]]=== {{{4|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Integration (10%)|Integration]]=== {{{5|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Conclusion (5%)|Conclusion]]=== {{{6|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Style (20%)|Style]]=== {{{7|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Learning features (5%)|Learning features]]=== {{{8|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Social contribution (10%)|Social contribution]]=== {{{9|No comment}}} {{RoundBoxBottom}}</includeonly><noinclude>{{collapse top|Simple example}} ==Simple example== See also [[#Detailed example|detailed example]] <pre> <!-- Official feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} ~~~~ </pre> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2025 (UTC) {{Collapse bottom}} ==Detailed example== Example use of the template, with some common feedback comments: <small><small><small><pre> <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic, sufficient chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of genAI—express more in your own words; watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]] #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits #* Use more specific #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits to help other contributors understand what was changed #* Use [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to briefly describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI, with insufficient acknowledged in edit summaries when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources; it appears that the feedback about the topic development in this respect has gone unheeded; if so, it violates academic integrity principles. #* I suspect there may be unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the edit summary. # Reminds the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Remove excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags) ## Some/many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st or 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]]. ## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bold, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, Studiosity, and/or peer feedback ## Check and make [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ correct use of commas] ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: #### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or #### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ### Do not include author first name or initials ### Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ### A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ### Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ### Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ### Check and correct placement of full-stops ### Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources ## For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both ## Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include hyperlinked dois (for 1-click access) ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of feature box(es) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to related book chapters ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} ~~~~ </pre></small></small></small> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic, sufficient chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of genAI—express more in your own words; watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]] #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits #* Use more specific #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits to help other contributors understand what was changed #* Use [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to briefly describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI, with insufficient acknowledged in edit summaries when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources; it appears that the feedback about the topic development in this respect has gone unheeded; if so, it violates academic integrity principles. #* I suspect there may be unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the edit summary. # Reminds the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Remove excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags) ## Some/many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st of 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]].## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bo]ld, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, Studiosity, and/or peer feedback ## Check and make [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ correct use of commas] ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: #### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or #### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ### Do not include author first name or initials ### Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ### A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ### Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ### Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ### Check and correct placement of full-stops ### Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources ## For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both ## Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include hyperlinked dois (for 1-click access) ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of feature box(es) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to related book chapters ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2025 (UTC) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] * [[Template:METF]] * [[Template:MEMF]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]] </noinclude> gn0631lhu2sv5eoi5czrwnsqgezjziv 2840748 2840747 2026-10-16T21:52:00Z Jtneill 10242 + links to Studiosity 2840748 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>Feedback [[wikiversity:FAQ/Template|template]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] exercise for the [[motivation and emotion]] unit. Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]. __NOTOC__</noinclude><includeonly> ==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] review and feedback== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} This chapter has been reviewed according to the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. Written feedback is provided below, plus there is a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Please also check the chapter's [[Help:Page history|page history]] to check for editing changes made whilst reviewing through the chapter. Chapter marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} along with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Social contribution|social contribution]] marks and feedback. Keep an eye on Announcements. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=}}[[File:Wikiuutiset logo typewriter.png|right|85px]] ===Overall=== {{{1|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Overview (5%)|Overview]]=== {{{2|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Theory (20%)|Theory]]=== {{{3|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Research (25%)|Research]]=== {{{4|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Integration (10%)|Integration]]=== {{{5|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Conclusion (5%)|Conclusion]]=== {{{6|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Style (20%)|Style]]=== {{{7|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Learning features (5%)|Learning features]]=== {{{8|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Social contribution (10%)|Social contribution]]=== {{{9|No comment}}} {{RoundBoxBottom}}</includeonly><noinclude>{{collapse top|Simple example}} ==Simple example== See also [[#Detailed example|detailed example]] <pre> <!-- Official feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} ~~~~ </pre> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2025 (UTC) {{Collapse bottom}} ==Detailed example== Example use of the template, with some common feedback comments: <small><small><small><pre> <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic, sufficient chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of genAI—express more in your own words; watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]] #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits #* Use more specific #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits to help other contributors understand what was changed #* Use [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to briefly describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI, with insufficient acknowledged in edit summaries when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources; it appears that the feedback about the topic development in this respect has gone unheeded; if so, it violates academic integrity principles. #* I suspect there may be unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the edit summary. # Reminds the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Remove excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to improve the quality of written expression ## Some/many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st or 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]]. ## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bold, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Check and make [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ correct use of commas] ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: #### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or #### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ### Do not include author first name or initials ### Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ### A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ### Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ### Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ### Check and correct placement of full-stops ### Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources ## For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both ## Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include hyperlinked dois (for 1-click access) ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of feature box(es) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to related book chapters ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} ~~~~ </pre></small></small></small> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic, sufficient chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of genAI—express more in your own words; watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]] #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits #* Use more specific #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits to help other contributors understand what was changed #* Use [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to briefly describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI, with insufficient acknowledged in edit summaries when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources; it appears that the feedback about the topic development in this respect has gone unheeded; if so, it violates academic integrity principles. #* I suspect there may be unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the edit summary. # Reminds the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Remove excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to improve the quality of written expression ## Some/many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st of 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]].## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bo]ld, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Check and make [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ correct use of commas] ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: #### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or #### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ### Do not include author first name or initials ### Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ### A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ### Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ### Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ### Check and correct placement of full-stops ### Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources ## For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both ## Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include hyperlinked dois (for 1-click access) ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of feature box(es) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to related book chapters ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2025 (UTC) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] * [[Template:METF]] * [[Template:MEMF]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]] </noinclude> jfe9imit7kpk8hlws3j17usfdqxa7cr 2840749 2840748 2026-10-16T21:52:54Z Jtneill 10242 2840749 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>Feedback [[wikiversity:FAQ/Template|template]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] exercise for the [[motivation and emotion]] unit. Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]. __NOTOC__</noinclude><includeonly> ==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] review and feedback== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} This chapter has been reviewed according to the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. Written feedback is provided below, plus there is a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Please also check the chapter's [[Help:Page history|page history]] to check for editing changes made whilst reviewing through the chapter. Chapter marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} along with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Social contribution|social contribution]] marks and feedback. Keep an eye on Announcements. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=}}[[File:Wikiuutiset logo typewriter.png|right|85px]] ===Overall=== {{{1|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Overview (5%)|Overview]]=== {{{2|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Theory (20%)|Theory]]=== {{{3|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Research (25%)|Research]]=== {{{4|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Integration (10%)|Integration]]=== {{{5|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Conclusion (5%)|Conclusion]]=== {{{6|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Style (20%)|Style]]=== {{{7|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Learning features (5%)|Learning features]]=== {{{8|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Social contribution (10%)|Social contribution]]=== {{{9|No comment}}} {{RoundBoxBottom}}</includeonly><noinclude>{{collapse top|Simple example}} ==Simple example== See also [[#Detailed example|detailed example]] <pre> <!-- Official feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} ~~~~ </pre> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2025 (UTC) {{Collapse bottom}} ==Detailed example== Example use of the template, with some common feedback comments: <small><small><small><pre> <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic, sufficient chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of genAI—express more in your own words; watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]] #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits #* Use more specific #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits to help other contributors understand what was changed #* Use [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to briefly describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI, with insufficient acknowledged in edit summaries when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources; it appears that the feedback about the topic development in this respect has gone unheeded; if so, it violates academic integrity principles. #* I suspect there may be unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the edit summary. # Reminds the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Remove excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st or 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]]. ## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bold, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Check and make [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ correct use of commas] ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: #### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or #### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ### Do not include author first name or initials ### Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ### A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ### Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ### Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ### Check and correct placement of full-stops ### Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources ## For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both ## Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include hyperlinked dois (for 1-click access) ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of feature box(es) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to related book chapters ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} ~~~~ </pre></small></small></small> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic, sufficient chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of genAI—express more in your own words; watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]] #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits #* Use more specific #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits to help other contributors understand what was changed #* Use [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to briefly describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI, with insufficient acknowledged in edit summaries when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources; it appears that the feedback about the topic development in this respect has gone unheeded; if so, it violates academic integrity principles. #* I suspect there may be unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the edit summary. # Reminds the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Remove excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st of 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]].## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bo]ld, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Check and make [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ correct use of commas] ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: #### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or #### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ### Do not include author first name or initials ### Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ### A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ### Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ### Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ### Check and correct placement of full-stops ### Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources ## For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both ## Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include hyperlinked dois (for 1-click access) ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of feature box(es) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to related book chapters ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2025 (UTC) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] * [[Template:METF]] * [[Template:MEMF]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]] </noinclude> 0g75urwinxcxy7s4m28vosgxpmf33hq 2840768 2840749 2026-10-17T00:41:37Z Jtneill 10242 2840768 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>Feedback [[wikiversity:FAQ/Template|template]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] exercise for the [[motivation and emotion]] unit. Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]. __NOTOC__</noinclude><includeonly> ==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] review and feedback== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} This chapter has been reviewed according to the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. Written feedback is provided below, plus there is a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Please also check the chapter's [[Help:Page history|page history]] to check for editing changes made whilst reviewing through the chapter. Chapter marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} along with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Social contribution|social contribution]] marks and feedback. Keep an eye on Announcements. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=}}[[File:Wikiuutiset logo typewriter.png|right|85px]] ===Overall=== {{{1|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Overview (5%)|Overview]]=== {{{2|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Theory (20%)|Theory]]=== {{{3|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Research (25%)|Research]]=== {{{4|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Integration (10%)|Integration]]=== {{{5|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Conclusion (5%)|Conclusion]]=== {{{6|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Style (20%)|Style]]=== {{{7|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Learning features (5%)|Learning features]]=== {{{8|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Social contribution (10%)|Social contribution]]=== {{{9|No comment}}} {{RoundBoxBottom}}</includeonly><noinclude>{{collapse top|Simple example}} ==Simple example== See also [[#Detailed example|detailed example]] <pre> <!-- Official feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} ~~~~ </pre> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2025 (UTC) {{Collapse bottom}} ==Detailed example== Example use of the template, with some common feedback comments: <small><small><small><pre> <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic, sufficient chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of genAI—express more in your own words; watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]] #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits #* Use more specific #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits to help other contributors understand what was changed #* Use [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to briefly describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI, with insufficient acknowledged in edit summaries when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources; it appears that the feedback about the topic development in this respect has gone unheeded; if so, it violates academic integrity principles. #* I suspect there may be unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the edit summary. # Reminds the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Remove excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st or 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]]. ## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bold, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Check and make [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ correct use of commas] ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: #### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or #### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ### Do not include author first name or initials ### Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ### A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ### Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ### Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ### Check and correct placement of full-stops ### Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources ## For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both ## Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include hyperlinked dois (for 1-click access) ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of feature box(es) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to related book chapters ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} ~~~~ </pre></small></small></small> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic, sufficient chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of genAI—express more in your own words; watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]] #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits #* Use more specific #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits to help other contributors understand what was changed #* Use [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to briefly describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI, with insufficient acknowledged in edit summaries when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources; it appears that the feedback about the topic development in this respect has gone unheeded; if so, it violates academic integrity principles. #* I suspect there may be unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the edit summary. # Reminds the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Remove excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st of 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]].## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bo]ld, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Check and make [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ correct use of commas] ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: #### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or #### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ### Do not include author first name or initials ### Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ### A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ### Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ### Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ### Check and correct placement of full-stops ### Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources ## For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both ## Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include hyperlinked dois (for 1-click access) ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of feature box(es) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to related book chapters ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2025 (UTC) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] * [[Template:METF]] * [[Template:MEMF]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]] </noinclude> cf5jrl8bh6akfqm2ddpgr89q5ygri1n 2840769 2840768 2026-10-17T00:53:43Z Jtneill 10242 ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. 2840769 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>Feedback [[wikiversity:FAQ/Template|template]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] exercise for the [[motivation and emotion]] unit. Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]. __NOTOC__</noinclude><includeonly> ==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] review and feedback== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} This chapter has been reviewed according to the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. Written feedback is provided below, plus there is a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Please also check the chapter's [[Help:Page history|page history]] to check for editing changes made whilst reviewing through the chapter. Chapter marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} along with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Social contribution|social contribution]] marks and feedback. Keep an eye on Announcements. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=}}[[File:Wikiuutiset logo typewriter.png|right|85px]] ===Overall=== {{{1|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Overview (5%)|Overview]]=== {{{2|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Theory (20%)|Theory]]=== {{{3|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Research (25%)|Research]]=== {{{4|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Integration (10%)|Integration]]=== {{{5|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Conclusion (5%)|Conclusion]]=== {{{6|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Style (20%)|Style]]=== {{{7|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Learning features (5%)|Learning features]]=== {{{8|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Social contribution (10%)|Social contribution]]=== {{{9|No comment}}} {{RoundBoxBottom}}</includeonly><noinclude>{{collapse top|Simple example}} ==Simple example== See also [[#Detailed example|detailed example]] <pre> <!-- Official feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} ~~~~ </pre> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2025 (UTC) {{Collapse bottom}} ==Detailed example== Example use of the template, with some common feedback comments: <small><small><small><pre> <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic, sufficient chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of genAI—express more in your own words; watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]] #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits #* Use more specific #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits to help other contributors understand what was changed #* Use [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to briefly describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI, with insufficient acknowledged in edit summaries when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources; it appears that the feedback about the topic development in this respect has gone unheeded; if so, it violates academic integrity principles. #* I suspect there may be unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the edit summary. # Reminds the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Remove excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st or 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]]. ## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bold, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: #### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or #### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ### Do not include author first name or initials ### Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ### A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ### Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ### Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ### Check and correct placement of full-stops ### Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources ## For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both ## Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include hyperlinked dois (for 1-click access) ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of feature box(es) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to related book chapters ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} ~~~~ </pre></small></small></small> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic, sufficient chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of genAI—express more in your own words; watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]] #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits #* Use more specific #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits to help other contributors understand what was changed #* Use [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to briefly describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI, with insufficient acknowledged in edit summaries when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources; it appears that the feedback about the topic development in this respect has gone unheeded; if so, it violates academic integrity principles. #* I suspect there may be unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the edit summary. # Reminds the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Remove excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st of 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]].## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bo]ld, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: #### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or #### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ### Do not include author first name or initials ### Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ### A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ### Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ### Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ### Check and correct placement of full-stops ### Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources ## For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both ## Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include hyperlinked dois (for 1-click access) ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of feature box(es) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to related book chapters ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2025 (UTC) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] * [[Template:METF]] * [[Template:MEMF]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]] </noinclude> rr093wh9rvew4ejy3sc5oczjb41dfd3 2840770 2840769 2026-10-17T01:00:33Z Jtneill 10242 2840770 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>Feedback [[wikiversity:FAQ/Template|template]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] exercise for the [[motivation and emotion]] unit. Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]. __NOTOC__</noinclude><includeonly> ==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] review and feedback== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} This chapter has been reviewed according to the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. Written feedback is provided below, plus there is a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Please also check the chapter's [[Help:Page history|page history]] to check for editing changes made whilst reviewing through the chapter. Chapter marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} along with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Social contribution|social contribution]] marks and feedback. Keep an eye on Announcements. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=}}[[File:Wikiuutiset logo typewriter.png|right|85px]] ===Overall=== {{{1|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Overview (5%)|Overview]]=== {{{2|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Theory (20%)|Theory]]=== {{{3|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Research (25%)|Research]]=== {{{4|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Integration (10%)|Integration]]=== {{{5|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Conclusion (5%)|Conclusion]]=== {{{6|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Style (20%)|Style]]=== {{{7|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Learning features (5%)|Learning features]]=== {{{8|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Social contribution (10%)|Social contribution]]=== {{{9|No comment}}} {{RoundBoxBottom}}</includeonly><noinclude>{{collapse top|Simple example}} ==Simple example== See also [[#Detailed example|detailed example]] <pre> <!-- Official feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} ~~~~ </pre> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2025 (UTC) {{Collapse bottom}} ==Detailed example== Example use of the template, with some common feedback comments: <small><small><small><pre> <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic, sufficient chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of genAI—express more in your own words; watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]] #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits #* Use more specific #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits to help other contributors understand what was changed #* Use [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to briefly describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI, with insufficient acknowledged in edit summaries when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources; it appears that the feedback about the topic development in this respect has gone unheeded; if so, it violates academic integrity principles. #* I suspect there may be unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the edit summary. # Reminds the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Remove excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/Many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/Many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st or 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]]. ## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bold, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: #### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or #### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ### Do not include author first name or initials ### Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ### A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ### Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ### Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ### Check and correct placement of full-stops ### Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources ## For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both ## Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include hyperlinked dois (for 1-click access) ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of feature box(es) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to related book chapters ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} ~~~~ </pre></small></small></small> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic, sufficient chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of genAI—express more in your own words; watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]] #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits #* Use more specific #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits to help other contributors understand what was changed #* Use [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to briefly describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI, with insufficient acknowledged in edit summaries when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources; it appears that the feedback about the topic development in this respect has gone unheeded; if so, it violates academic integrity principles. #* I suspect there may be unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the edit summary. # Reminds the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Remove excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/Many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/Many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st of 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]].## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bo]ld, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: #### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or #### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ### Do not include author first name or initials ### Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ### A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ### Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ### Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ### Check and correct placement of full-stops ### Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources ## For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both ## Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include hyperlinked dois (for 1-click access) ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of feature box(es) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to related book chapters ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2025 (UTC) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] * [[Template:METF]] * [[Template:MEMF]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]] </noinclude> hlaykshjh18ilp54jpcxtd2s06up8kf 2840776 2840770 2026-10-17T01:09:01Z Jtneill 10242 2840776 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>Feedback [[wikiversity:FAQ/Template|template]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] exercise for the [[motivation and emotion]] unit. Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]. __NOTOC__</noinclude><includeonly> ==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] review and feedback== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} This chapter has been reviewed according to the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. Written feedback is provided below, plus there is a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Please also check the chapter's [[Help:Page history|page history]] to check for editing changes made whilst reviewing through the chapter. Chapter marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} along with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Social contribution|social contribution]] marks and feedback. Keep an eye on Announcements. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=}}[[File:Wikiuutiset logo typewriter.png|right|85px]] ===Overall=== {{{1|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Overview (5%)|Overview]]=== {{{2|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Theory (20%)|Theory]]=== {{{3|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Research (25%)|Research]]=== {{{4|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Integration (10%)|Integration]]=== {{{5|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Conclusion (5%)|Conclusion]]=== {{{6|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Style (20%)|Style]]=== {{{7|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Learning features (5%)|Learning features]]=== {{{8|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Social contribution (10%)|Social contribution]]=== {{{9|No comment}}} {{RoundBoxBottom}}</includeonly><noinclude>{{collapse top|Simple example}} ==Simple example== See also [[#Detailed example|detailed example]] <pre> <!-- Official feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} ~~~~ </pre> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2025 (UTC) {{Collapse bottom}} ==Detailed example== Example use of the template, with some common feedback comments: <small><small><small><pre> <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic, sufficient chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of genAI—express more in your own words; watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]] #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits #* Use more specific #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits to help other contributors understand what was changed #* Use [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to briefly describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI, with insufficient acknowledged in edit summaries when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources; it appears that the feedback about the topic development in this respect has gone unheeded; if so, it violates academic integrity principles. #* I suspect there may be unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the edit summary. # Reminds the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Reduce excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/Many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/Many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st or 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]]. ## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bold, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: #### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or #### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ### Do not include author first name or initials ### Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ### A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ### Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ### Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ### Check and correct placement of full-stops ### Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources ## For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both ## Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include hyperlinked dois (for 1-click access) ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of feature box(es) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to related book chapters ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} ~~~~ </pre></small></small></small> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic, sufficient chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of genAI—express more in your own words; watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]] #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits #* Use more specific #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits to help other contributors understand what was changed #* Use [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to briefly describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI, with insufficient acknowledged in edit summaries when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources; it appears that the feedback about the topic development in this respect has gone unheeded; if so, it violates academic integrity principles. #* I suspect there may be unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the edit summary. # Reminds the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Reduce excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/Many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/Many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st of 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]].## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bo]ld, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: #### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or #### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ### Do not include author first name or initials ### Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ### A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ### Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ### Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ### Check and correct placement of full-stops ### Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources ## For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both ## Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include hyperlinked dois (for 1-click access) ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of feature box(es) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to related book chapters ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2025 (UTC) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] * [[Template:METF]] * [[Template:MEMF]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]] </noinclude> nfnhnplnqlxs88gttkdbwuy31y06mib 2840780 2840776 2026-10-17T01:16:15Z Jtneill 10242 2840780 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>Feedback [[wikiversity:FAQ/Template|template]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] exercise for the [[motivation and emotion]] unit. Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]. __NOTOC__</noinclude><includeonly> ==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] review and feedback== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} This chapter has been reviewed according to the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. Written feedback is provided below, plus there is a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Please also check the chapter's [[Help:Page history|page history]] to check for editing changes made whilst reviewing through the chapter. Chapter marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} along with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Social contribution|social contribution]] marks and feedback. Keep an eye on Announcements. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=}}[[File:Wikiuutiset logo typewriter.png|right|85px]] ===Overall=== {{{1|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Overview (5%)|Overview]]=== {{{2|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Theory (20%)|Theory]]=== {{{3|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Research (25%)|Research]]=== {{{4|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Integration (10%)|Integration]]=== {{{5|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Conclusion (5%)|Conclusion]]=== {{{6|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Style (20%)|Style]]=== {{{7|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Learning features (5%)|Learning features]]=== {{{8|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Social contribution (10%)|Social contribution]]=== {{{9|No comment}}} {{RoundBoxBottom}}</includeonly><noinclude>{{collapse top|Simple example}} ==Simple example== See also [[#Detailed example|detailed example]] <pre> <!-- Official feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} ~~~~ </pre> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2025 (UTC) {{Collapse bottom}} ==Detailed example== Example use of the template, with some common feedback comments: <small><small><small><pre> <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic, sufficient chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of genAI—express more in your own words; watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]] #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits #* Use more specific [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in each edit #* Use [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to briefly describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI, with insufficient acknowledged in edit summaries when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources; it appears that the feedback about the topic development in this respect has gone unheeded; if so, it violates academic integrity principles. #* I suspect there may be unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the edit summary. # Reminds the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Reduce excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/Many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/Many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st or 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]]. ## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bold, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: #### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or #### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ### Do not include author first name or initials ### Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ### A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ### Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ### Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ### Check and correct placement of full-stops ### Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources ## For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both ## Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include hyperlinked dois (for 1-click access) ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of feature box(es) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to related book chapters ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} ~~~~ </pre></small></small></small> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic, sufficient chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of genAI—express more in your own words; watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]] #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits #* Use more specific [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in each edit #* Use [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to briefly describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI, with insufficient acknowledged in edit summaries when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources; it appears that the feedback about the topic development in this respect has gone unheeded; if so, it violates academic integrity principles. #* I suspect there may be unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the edit summary. # Reminds the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Reduce excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/Many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/Many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st of 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]].## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bo]ld, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: #### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or #### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ### Do not include author first name or initials ### Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ### A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ### Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ### Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ### Check and correct placement of full-stops ### Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources ## For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both ## Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include hyperlinked dois (for 1-click access) ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of feature box(es) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to related book chapters ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2025 (UTC) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] * [[Template:METF]] * [[Template:MEMF]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]] </noinclude> llvww5bovugxtyrzre5pkpzesg0g3jg 2840782 2840780 2026-10-17T01:29:24Z Jtneill 10242 2840782 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>Feedback [[wikiversity:FAQ/Template|template]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] exercise for the [[motivation and emotion]] unit. Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]. __NOTOC__</noinclude><includeonly> ==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] review and feedback== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} This chapter has been reviewed according to the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. Written feedback is provided below, plus there is a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Please also check the chapter's [[Help:Page history|page history]] to check for editing changes made whilst reviewing through the chapter. Chapter marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} along with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Social contribution|social contribution]] marks and feedback. Keep an eye on Announcements. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=}}[[File:Wikiuutiset logo typewriter.png|right|85px]] ===Overall=== {{{1|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Overview (5%)|Overview]]=== {{{2|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Theory (20%)|Theory]]=== {{{3|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Research (25%)|Research]]=== {{{4|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Integration (10%)|Integration]]=== {{{5|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Conclusion (5%)|Conclusion]]=== {{{6|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Style (20%)|Style]]=== {{{7|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Learning features (5%)|Learning features]]=== {{{8|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Social contribution (10%)|Social contribution]]=== {{{9|No comment}}} {{RoundBoxBottom}}</includeonly><noinclude>{{collapse top|Simple example}} ==Simple example== See also [[#Detailed example|detailed example]] <pre> <!-- Official feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} ~~~~ </pre> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2025 (UTC) {{Collapse bottom}} ==Detailed example== Example use of the template, with some common feedback comments: <small><small><small><pre> <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic, sufficient chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of genAI—express more in your own words; watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]] #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits #* Use more specific [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in each edit #* Use [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to briefly describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI, with insufficient acknowledged in edit summaries when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources; it appears that the feedback about the topic development in this respect has gone unheeded; if so, it violates academic integrity principles. #* I suspect there may be unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the edit summary. # Reminds the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Reduce excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/Many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/Many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st or 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]]. ## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bold, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: #### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or #### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ### Do not include author first name or initials ### Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ### A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ### Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ### Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ### Check and correct placement of full-stops ### Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources ## For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both ## Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include dois where available ### Hyperlink dois for 1-click access ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of feature box(es) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to related book chapters ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} ~~~~ </pre></small></small></small> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic, sufficient chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of genAI—express more in your own words; watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]] #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits #* Use more specific [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in each edit #* Use [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to briefly describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI, with insufficient acknowledged in edit summaries when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources; it appears that the feedback about the topic development in this respect has gone unheeded; if so, it violates academic integrity principles. #* I suspect there may be unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the edit summary. # Reminds the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Reduce excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/Many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/Many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st of 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]].## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bo]ld, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: #### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or #### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ### Do not include author first name or initials ### Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ### A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ### Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ### Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ### Check and correct placement of full-stops ### Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources ## For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both ## Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include dois where available ### Hyperlink dois for 1-click access ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of feature box(es) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to related book chapters ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2025 (UTC) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] * [[Template:METF]] * [[Template:MEMF]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]] </noinclude> ia3zlp2knnsumar2gn900oqet2vs2hl 2840784 2840782 2026-10-17T01:32:29Z Jtneill 10242 2840784 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>Feedback [[wikiversity:FAQ/Template|template]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] exercise for the [[motivation and emotion]] unit. Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]. __NOTOC__</noinclude><includeonly> ==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] review and feedback== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} This chapter has been reviewed according to the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. Written feedback is provided below, plus there is a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Please also check the chapter's [[Help:Page history|page history]] to check for editing changes made whilst reviewing through the chapter. Chapter marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} along with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Social contribution|social contribution]] marks and feedback. Keep an eye on Announcements. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=}}[[File:Wikiuutiset logo typewriter.png|right|85px]] ===Overall=== {{{1|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Overview (5%)|Overview]]=== {{{2|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Theory (20%)|Theory]]=== {{{3|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Research (25%)|Research]]=== {{{4|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Integration (10%)|Integration]]=== {{{5|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Conclusion (5%)|Conclusion]]=== {{{6|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Style (20%)|Style]]=== {{{7|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Learning features (5%)|Learning features]]=== {{{8|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Social contribution (10%)|Social contribution]]=== {{{9|No comment}}} {{RoundBoxBottom}}</includeonly><noinclude>{{collapse top|Simple example}} ==Simple example== See also [[#Detailed example|detailed example]] <pre> <!-- Official feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} ~~~~ </pre> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2025 (UTC) {{Collapse bottom}} ==Detailed example== Example use of the template, with some common feedback comments: <small><small><small><pre> <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic, sufficient chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of genAI—express more in your own words; watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]] #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits #* Use more specific [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in each edit #* Use [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to briefly describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI, with insufficient acknowledged in edit summaries when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources; it appears that the feedback about the topic development in this respect has gone unheeded; if so, it violates academic integrity principles. #* I suspect there may be unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the edit summary. # Reminds the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Reduce excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/Many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/Many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st or 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]]. ## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bold, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: #### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or #### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ### Do not include author first name or initials ### Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ### A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ### Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ### Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ### Check and correct placement of full-stops ### Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources ## For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both ## Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include dois where available ### Hyperlink dois for 1-click access ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of feature box(es) # No use of feature boxes other than the opening scenario # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to related book chapters ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} ~~~~ </pre></small></small></small> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic, sufficient chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of genAI—express more in your own words; watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]] #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits #* Use more specific [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in each edit #* Use [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to briefly describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI, with insufficient acknowledged in edit summaries when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources; it appears that the feedback about the topic development in this respect has gone unheeded; if so, it violates academic integrity principles. #* I suspect there may be unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the edit summary. # Reminds the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Reduce excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/Many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/Many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st of 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]].## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bo]ld, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: #### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or #### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ### Do not include author first name or initials ### Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ### A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ### Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ### Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ### Check and correct placement of full-stops ### Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources ## For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both ## Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include dois where available ### Hyperlink dois for 1-click access ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of feature box(es) # No use of feature boxes other than the opening scenario # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to related book chapters ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2025 (UTC) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] * [[Template:METF]] * [[Template:MEMF]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]] </noinclude> 5mu6esj7tpejnzpnw0ghupka0bmnemq 2840786 2840784 2026-10-17T01:33:39Z Jtneill 10242 2840786 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>Feedback [[wikiversity:FAQ/Template|template]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] exercise for the [[motivation and emotion]] unit. Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]. __NOTOC__</noinclude><includeonly> ==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] review and feedback== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} This chapter has been reviewed according to the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. Written feedback is provided below, plus there is a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Please also check the chapter's [[Help:Page history|page history]] to check for editing changes made whilst reviewing through the chapter. Chapter marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} along with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Social contribution|social contribution]] marks and feedback. Keep an eye on Announcements. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=}}[[File:Wikiuutiset logo typewriter.png|right|85px]] ===Overall=== {{{1|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Overview (5%)|Overview]]=== {{{2|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Theory (20%)|Theory]]=== {{{3|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Research (25%)|Research]]=== {{{4|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Integration (10%)|Integration]]=== {{{5|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Conclusion (5%)|Conclusion]]=== {{{6|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Style (20%)|Style]]=== {{{7|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Learning features (5%)|Learning features]]=== {{{8|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Social contribution (10%)|Social contribution]]=== {{{9|No comment}}} {{RoundBoxBottom}}</includeonly><noinclude>{{collapse top|Simple example}} ==Simple example== See also [[#Detailed example|detailed example]] <pre> <!-- Official feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} ~~~~ </pre> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2025 (UTC) {{Collapse bottom}} ==Detailed example== Example use of the template, with some common feedback comments: <small><small><small><pre> <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic, sufficient chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of genAI—express more in your own words; watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]] #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits #* Use more specific [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in each edit #* Use [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to briefly describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI, with insufficient acknowledged in edit summaries when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources; it appears that the feedback about the topic development in this respect has gone unheeded; if so, it violates academic integrity principles. #* I suspect there may be unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the edit summary. # Reminds the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Reduce excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/Many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/Many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st or 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]]. ## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bold, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: #### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or #### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ### Do not include author first name or initials ### Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ### A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ### Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ### Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ### Check and correct placement of full-stops ### Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources ## For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both ## Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include dois where available ### Hyperlink dois for 1-click access ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of feature box(es) # No use of feature boxes other than the opening scenario # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of scenarios, case studies, or examples # No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples, other than opening scenario <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to related book chapters ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} ~~~~ </pre></small></small></small> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic, sufficient chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of genAI—express more in your own words; watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]] #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits #* Use more specific [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in each edit #* Use [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to briefly describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI, with insufficient acknowledged in edit summaries when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources; it appears that the feedback about the topic development in this respect has gone unheeded; if so, it violates academic integrity principles. #* I suspect there may be unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the edit summary. # Reminds the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Reduce excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/Many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/Many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st of 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]].## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bo]ld, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: #### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or #### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ### Do not include author first name or initials ### Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ### A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ### Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ### Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ### Check and correct placement of full-stops ### Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources ## For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both ## Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include dois where available ### Hyperlink dois for 1-click access ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of feature box(es) # No use of feature boxes other than the opening scenario # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of scenarios, case studies, or examples # No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples, other than opening scenario <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to related book chapters ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2025 (UTC) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] * [[Template:METF]] * [[Template:MEMF]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]] </noinclude> lgcxgy1vo8q10uu97iyt9xu1zhig9cn 2840820 2840786 2026-10-17T03:47:35Z Jtneill 10242 # Instead of a diagram, use an image which illustrates the scenario taking a place; use the diagram in a subsequent section 2840820 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>Feedback [[wikiversity:FAQ/Template|template]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] exercise for the [[motivation and emotion]] unit. Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]. __NOTOC__</noinclude><includeonly> ==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] review and feedback== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} This chapter has been reviewed according to the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. Written feedback is provided below, plus there is a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Please also check the chapter's [[Help:Page history|page history]] to check for editing changes made whilst reviewing through the chapter. Chapter marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} along with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Social contribution|social contribution]] marks and feedback. Keep an eye on Announcements. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=}}[[File:Wikiuutiset logo typewriter.png|right|85px]] ===Overall=== {{{1|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Overview (5%)|Overview]]=== {{{2|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Theory (20%)|Theory]]=== {{{3|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Research (25%)|Research]]=== {{{4|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Integration (10%)|Integration]]=== {{{5|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Conclusion (5%)|Conclusion]]=== {{{6|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Style (20%)|Style]]=== {{{7|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Learning features (5%)|Learning features]]=== {{{8|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Social contribution (10%)|Social contribution]]=== {{{9|No comment}}} {{RoundBoxBottom}}</includeonly><noinclude>{{collapse top|Simple example}} ==Simple example== See also [[#Detailed example|detailed example]] <pre> <!-- Official feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} ~~~~ </pre> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2025 (UTC) {{Collapse bottom}} ==Detailed example== Example use of the template, with some common feedback comments: <small><small><small><pre> <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic, sufficient chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of genAI—express more in your own words; watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]] #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits #* Use more specific [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in each edit #* Use [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to briefly describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI, with insufficient acknowledged in edit summaries when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources; it appears that the feedback about the topic development in this respect has gone unheeded; if so, it violates academic integrity principles. #* I suspect there may be unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Figure --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Instead of a diagram, use an image which illustrates the scenario taking a place; use the diagram in a subsequent section # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature box --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the edit summary. # Reminds the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Reduce excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/Many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/Many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st or 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]]. ## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bold, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: #### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or #### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ### Do not include author first name or initials ### Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ### A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ### Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ### Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ### Check and correct placement of full-stops ### Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources ## For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both ## Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include dois where available ### Hyperlink dois for 1-click access ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of feature box(es) # No use of feature boxes other than the opening scenario # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of scenarios, case studies, or examples # No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples, other than opening scenario <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to related book chapters ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} ~~~~ </pre></small></small></small> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic, sufficient chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of genAI—express more in your own words; watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]] #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits #* Use more specific [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in each edit #* Use [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to briefly describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI, with insufficient acknowledged in edit summaries when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources; it appears that the feedback about the topic development in this respect has gone unheeded; if so, it violates academic integrity principles. #* I suspect there may be unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Figure --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Instead of a diagram, use an image which illustrates the scenario taking a place; use the diagram in a subsequent section # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature box --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the edit summary. # Reminds the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Reduce excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/Many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/Many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st of 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]].## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bo]ld, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: #### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or #### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ### Do not include author first name or initials ### Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ### A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ### Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ### Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ### Check and correct placement of full-stops ### Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources ## For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both ## Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include dois where available ### Hyperlink dois for 1-click access ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of feature box(es) # No use of feature boxes other than the opening scenario # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of scenarios, case studies, or examples # No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples, other than opening scenario <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to related book chapters ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2025 (UTC) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] * [[Template:METF]] * [[Template:MEMF]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]] </noinclude> 4v1gqr9w668wmyk7lbd9bzes9e5ptq9 2840827 2840820 2026-10-17T04:02:06Z Jtneill 10242 2840827 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>Feedback [[wikiversity:FAQ/Template|template]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] exercise for the [[motivation and emotion]] unit. Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]. __NOTOC__</noinclude><includeonly> ==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] review and feedback== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} This chapter has been reviewed according to the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. Written feedback is provided below, plus there is a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Please also check the chapter's [[Help:Page history|page history]] to check for editing changes made whilst reviewing through the chapter. Chapter marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} along with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Social contribution|social contribution]] marks and feedback. Keep an eye on Announcements. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=}}[[File:Wikiuutiset logo typewriter.png|right|85px]] ===Overall=== {{{1|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Overview (5%)|Overview]]=== {{{2|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Theory (20%)|Theory]]=== {{{3|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Research (25%)|Research]]=== {{{4|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Integration (10%)|Integration]]=== {{{5|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Conclusion (5%)|Conclusion]]=== {{{6|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Style (20%)|Style]]=== {{{7|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Learning features (5%)|Learning features]]=== {{{8|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Social contribution (10%)|Social contribution]]=== {{{9|No comment}}} {{RoundBoxBottom}}</includeonly><noinclude>{{collapse top|Simple example}} ==Simple example== See also [[#Detailed example|detailed example]] <pre> <!-- Official feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} ~~~~ </pre> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2025 (UTC) {{Collapse bottom}} ==Detailed example== Example use of the template, with some common feedback comments: <small><small><small><pre> <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic, sufficient chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of genAI—express more in your own words; watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]] #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits #* Use more specific [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in each edit #* Use [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to briefly describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI, with insufficient acknowledged in edit summaries when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources despite previous feedback about this issue. Unacknowledged use of GenAI-generated content raises concerns about compliance with academic integrity principles and assessment requirements and [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence|Wikiversity's artificial intelligence policy]]. <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Figure --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Instead of a diagram, use an image which illustrates the scenario taking a place; use the diagram in a subsequent section # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature box --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the edit summary. # Reminds the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Reduce excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/Many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/Many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st or 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]]. ## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bold, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: #### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or #### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ### Do not include author first name or initials ### Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ### A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ### Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ### Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ### Check and correct placement of full-stops ### Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources ## For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both ## Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include dois where available ### Hyperlink dois for 1-click access ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of feature box(es) # No use of feature boxes other than the opening scenario # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of scenarios, case studies, or examples # No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples, other than opening scenario <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to related book chapters ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} ~~~~ </pre></small></small></small> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic, sufficient chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of genAI—express more in your own words; watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]] #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits #* Use more specific [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in each edit #* Use [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to briefly describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI, with insufficient acknowledged in edit summaries when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources despite previous feedback about this issue. Unacknowledged use of GenAI-generated content raises concerns about compliance with academic integrity principles and assessment requirements and [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence|Wikiversity's artificial intelligence policy]]. <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Figure --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Instead of a diagram, use an image which illustrates the scenario taking a place; use the diagram in a subsequent section # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature box --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the edit summary. # Reminds the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Reduce excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/Many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/Many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st of 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]].## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bo]ld, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: #### in-text, Smith et al. 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See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2025 (UTC) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] * [[Template:METF]] * [[Template:MEMF]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]] </noinclude> cdd22hgl67uoszmcwynvfg74bivg6xr 0 330631 2840736 2840058 2026-10-16T20:47:39Z Grimes2 2895877 /* Tuning */ 2840736 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Basic tetrachords== The Babylonian Tonal System is based on tetrachords. 1½1, ½11, 11½ <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1 e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g} </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { e1 -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a} </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { c1 d e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup} </score> and the tritone<br> 111 <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { f1 g a b} </score> Two consecutive tetrachords build a heptachord. ==Heptachord linear== 1½11½1 <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { a1^"kitmum" b -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup c\stopGroup d e-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup f\stopGroup g } </score> ==Heptachord circle== [[File:Heptachordal circle.svg|thumb|left|Heptachord circle]] {{clear}} ==7 heptachord modes== The 7 modal patterns for the Babylonian heptachords are: {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center; |+ Babylonian tonal system ! Mode !! Pattern !! Center note || Semitones || Tritones |- | ''kitmum'' || 1½11½1 || D || 10 || 0 |- | ''pītum'' || ½11½11 || E || 10 || 0 |- | ''qablītum'' || 11½11½ || C || 10 || 0 |- | ''išartum'' || 1½111½ || G || 10 || 1 |- | ''embūbum'' || ½111½1 || A || 10 || 1 |- | ''nīd qablim'' || 111½11 || B || 11 || 2 |- | ''nīš tuḫrim'' || 11½111 || F || 11 || 2 |} <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { a1^"kitmum" b -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup c\stopGroup d e-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup f\stopGroup g } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { b1^"pītum" -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup c\stopGroup d e-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup f\stopGroup g a} </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { g1^"qablītum" a b -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup c\stopGroup d e-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup f\stopGroup } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"išartum" e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a b-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup c\stopGroup} </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c { e1^"embūbum" -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a b-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup c\stopGroup d} </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { f,1^"nīd qablim" g a b -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup c\stopGroup d e} </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { c1^"nīš tuḫrim" d e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a b} </score> ==2 consecutive heptachords== <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { a1^"kitmum" b -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup c\stopGroup d e-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup f\stopGroup g a-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup bes\stopGroup c d-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup es\stopGroup f} </score> Flatward shift for higher notes. ==7 consecutive heptachords== 7 consecutive heptachords build the 7 Babylonian modes: [[File:Kitmum.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] [[File:Pitum.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] [[File:Qablitum.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] [[File:Isartum.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] [[File:Embubum.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] [[File:Nid quablim.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] [[File:Nis tuhrim.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] {{clear}} ===6 cyclic consecutive heptachords=== [[File:Circle of fourths.svg|thumb|left|Circle of fourths, ''kitmum'', 36 notes, 60 semitones = Anu 𒀭]] {{clear}} ==Tuning== A tuning procedure ‘loosening’ (TU.LU) in Music of Mesopotamia for a 7-stringed instrument based on a transposition to D/D♭: <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"išartum 2-5" e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a b-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup c\stopGroup } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"kitmum 6 2-6" e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup bes\stopGroup c } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"embūbum 3 3-6" -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup es\stopGroup f g a-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup bes\stopGroup c } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"pītum 7-4 3-7" -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup es\stopGroup f g -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup as\stopGroup bes c } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { des1^"nīd qablim 4-1 7-4" es f g-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup as\stopGroup bes c } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { des1^"nīš tuḫrim 1-5 4-1" es f -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup ges\stopGroup as bes c } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { des1^"qablītum 5-2 1-5" es f -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup ges\stopGroup as bes-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup ces\stopGroup } </score> ‘tightening’ (GÍD.I) <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"išartum" e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a b-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup c\stopGroup } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"qablītum" e fis -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup g\stopGroup a b-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup c\stopGroup } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"niš tuĥrim" e fis -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup g\stopGroup a b cis } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"nīd qablim" e fis gis-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup a\stopGroup b cis } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { dis1^"pītum" -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup e\stopGroup fis gis -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup a\stopGroup b cis } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { dis1^"embūbum" -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup e\stopGroup fis gis ais-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup b\stopGroup cis } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { dis1^"kitmum" eis -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup fis\stopGroup gis ais-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup b\stopGroup cis } </score> ==''kitmum'' chords== <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { <dis fis ais>1 <eis gis b> <fis ais cis> <gis b dis> <ais cis e> <b dis fis> <cis e gis> \break <dis, fis a> <e gis b> <fis a cis> <gis b d> <a cis e> <b d fis> <cis e g> \break <d, fis a> <e g b> <fis a c> <g b d> <a c e> <b d f> <c e g> \break <d, f a> <e g bes> <f a c> <g bes d> <a c es> <bes d f> <c es g> \break <d, f as> <es g bes> <f as c> <g bes des> <as c es> <bes d f> <c es ges> \break <des, f as> <es ges bes> <f as ces> <ges bes des> } </score> ==Further reading== * {{cite conference | first = Leon | last = Crickmore | title = A New Light on the Babylonian Tonal System | conference = Proceedings of the International Conference of Near Eastern Archaeomusicology (ICONEA 2008), The British Museum, London, December 4–6, 2008, editors: Richard Dumbrill and Irving Finkel | publisher = Iconea Publications | url = https://musicircle.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Crickmore-Iconea20081.pdf | place = London | year = 2008 | pages = 11-22 }} * {{cite web | title=Babylonian Tonal System | website=Allan Pettersson Fanpage | url=https://pettersson-fanpage.de/Babylon/Babylon.html | access-date=19 January 2026}} [[Category:Music theory]] [[Category:Musicology]] [[Category:Mesopotamia]] 5ojkfz303b9wlt8f7pqnam8u6zqgk23 2840737 2840736 2026-10-16T20:52:19Z Grimes2 2895877 /* Tuning */ 2840737 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Basic tetrachords== The Babylonian Tonal System is based on tetrachords. 1½1, ½11, 11½ <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1 e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g} </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { e1 -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a} </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { c1 d e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup} </score> and the tritone<br> 111 <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { f1 g a b} </score> Two consecutive tetrachords build a heptachord. ==Heptachord linear== 1½11½1 <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { a1^"kitmum" b -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup c\stopGroup d e-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup f\stopGroup g } </score> ==Heptachord circle== [[File:Heptachordal circle.svg|thumb|left|Heptachord circle]] {{clear}} ==7 heptachord modes== The 7 modal patterns for the Babylonian heptachords are: {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center; |+ Babylonian tonal system ! Mode !! Pattern !! Center note || Semitones || Tritones |- | ''kitmum'' || 1½11½1 || D || 10 || 0 |- | ''pītum'' || ½11½11 || E || 10 || 0 |- | ''qablītum'' || 11½11½ || C || 10 || 0 |- | ''išartum'' || 1½111½ || G || 10 || 1 |- | ''embūbum'' || ½111½1 || A || 10 || 1 |- | ''nīd qablim'' || 111½11 || B || 11 || 2 |- | ''nīš tuḫrim'' || 11½111 || F || 11 || 2 |} <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { a1^"kitmum" b -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup c\stopGroup d e-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup f\stopGroup g } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { b1^"pītum" -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup c\stopGroup d e-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup f\stopGroup g a} </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { g1^"qablītum" a b -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup c\stopGroup d e-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup f\stopGroup } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"išartum" e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a b-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup c\stopGroup} </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c { e1^"embūbum" -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a b-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup c\stopGroup d} </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { f,1^"nīd qablim" g a b -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup c\stopGroup d e} </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { c1^"nīš tuḫrim" d e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a b} </score> ==2 consecutive heptachords== <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { a1^"kitmum" b -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup c\stopGroup d e-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup f\stopGroup g a-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup bes\stopGroup c d-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup es\stopGroup f} </score> Flatward shift for higher notes. ==7 consecutive heptachords== 7 consecutive heptachords build the 7 Babylonian modes: [[File:Kitmum.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] [[File:Pitum.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] [[File:Qablitum.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] [[File:Isartum.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] [[File:Embubum.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] [[File:Nid quablim.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] [[File:Nis tuhrim.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] {{clear}} ===6 cyclic consecutive heptachords=== [[File:Circle of fourths.svg|thumb|left|Circle of fourths, ''kitmum'', 36 notes, 60 semitones = Anu 𒀭]] {{clear}} ==Tuning== A tuning procedure ‘loosening’ (TU.LU) in Music of Mesopotamia for a 7-stringed instrument based on a transposition to D/D♭: <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"išartum 2-5" e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a b-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup c\stopGroup } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"kitmum 2, 2-6" e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup bes\stopGroup c } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"embūbum 6, 3-6" -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup es\stopGroup f g a-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup bes\stopGroup c } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"pītum 3, 3-7" -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup es\stopGroup f g -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup as\stopGroup bes c } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { des1^"nīd qablim 7, 4-7" es f g-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup as\stopGroup bes c } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { des1^"nīš tuḫrim 4, 1-4" es f -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup ges\stopGroup as bes c } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { des1^"qablītum 1, 1-5" es f -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup ges\stopGroup as bes-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup ces\stopGroup } </score> ‘tightening’ (GÍD.I) <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"išartum" e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a b-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup c\stopGroup } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"qablītum" e fis -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup g\stopGroup a b-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup c\stopGroup } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"niš tuĥrim" e fis -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup g\stopGroup a b cis } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"nīd qablim" e fis gis-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup a\stopGroup b cis } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { dis1^"pītum" -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup e\stopGroup fis gis -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup a\stopGroup b cis } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { dis1^"embūbum" -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup e\stopGroup fis gis ais-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup b\stopGroup cis } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { dis1^"kitmum" eis -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup fis\stopGroup gis ais-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup b\stopGroup cis } </score> ==''kitmum'' chords== <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { <dis fis ais>1 <eis gis b> <fis ais cis> <gis b dis> <ais cis e> <b dis fis> <cis e gis> \break <dis, fis a> <e gis b> <fis a cis> <gis b d> <a cis e> <b d fis> <cis e g> \break <d, fis a> <e g b> <fis a c> <g b d> <a c e> <b d f> <c e g> \break <d, f a> <e g bes> <f a c> <g bes d> <a c es> <bes d f> <c es g> \break <d, f as> <es g bes> <f as c> <g bes des> <as c es> <bes d f> <c es ges> \break <des, f as> <es ges bes> <f as ces> <ges bes des> } </score> ==Further reading== * {{cite conference | first = Leon | last = Crickmore | title = A New Light on the Babylonian Tonal System | conference = Proceedings of the International Conference of Near Eastern Archaeomusicology (ICONEA 2008), The British Museum, London, December 4–6, 2008, editors: Richard Dumbrill and Irving Finkel | publisher = Iconea Publications | url = https://musicircle.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Crickmore-Iconea20081.pdf | place = London | year = 2008 | pages = 11-22 }} * {{cite web | title=Babylonian Tonal System | website=Allan Pettersson Fanpage | url=https://pettersson-fanpage.de/Babylon/Babylon.html | access-date=19 January 2026}} [[Category:Music theory]] [[Category:Musicology]] [[Category:Mesopotamia]] n25tm0kg4aocz0wqdu58z40og0r6scm 2840738 2840737 2026-10-16T21:06:40Z Grimes2 2895877 /* Tuning */ 2840738 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Basic tetrachords== The Babylonian Tonal System is based on tetrachords. 1½1, ½11, 11½ <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1 e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g} </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { e1 -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a} </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { c1 d e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup} </score> and the tritone<br> 111 <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { f1 g a b} </score> Two consecutive tetrachords build a heptachord. ==Heptachord linear== 1½11½1 <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { a1^"kitmum" b -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup c\stopGroup d e-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup f\stopGroup g } </score> ==Heptachord circle== [[File:Heptachordal circle.svg|thumb|left|Heptachord circle]] {{clear}} ==7 heptachord modes== The 7 modal patterns for the Babylonian heptachords are: {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center; |+ Babylonian tonal system ! Mode !! Pattern !! Center note || Semitones || Tritones |- | ''kitmum'' || 1½11½1 || D || 10 || 0 |- | ''pītum'' || ½11½11 || E || 10 || 0 |- | ''qablītum'' || 11½11½ || C || 10 || 0 |- | ''išartum'' || 1½111½ || G || 10 || 1 |- | ''embūbum'' || ½111½1 || A || 10 || 1 |- | ''nīd qablim'' || 111½11 || B || 11 || 2 |- | ''nīš tuḫrim'' || 11½111 || F || 11 || 2 |} <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { a1^"kitmum" b -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup c\stopGroup d e-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup f\stopGroup g } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { b1^"pītum" -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup c\stopGroup d e-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup f\stopGroup g a} </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { g1^"qablītum" a b -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup c\stopGroup d e-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup f\stopGroup } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"išartum" e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a b-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup c\stopGroup} </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c { e1^"embūbum" -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a b-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup c\stopGroup d} </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { f,1^"nīd qablim" g a b -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup c\stopGroup d e} </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { c1^"nīš tuḫrim" d e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a b} </score> ==2 consecutive heptachords== <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { a1^"kitmum" b -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup c\stopGroup d e-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup f\stopGroup g a-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup bes\stopGroup c d-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup es\stopGroup f} </score> Flatward shift for higher notes. ==7 consecutive heptachords== 7 consecutive heptachords build the 7 Babylonian modes: [[File:Kitmum.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] [[File:Pitum.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] [[File:Qablitum.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] [[File:Isartum.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] [[File:Embubum.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] [[File:Nid quablim.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] [[File:Nis tuhrim.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] {{clear}} ===6 cyclic consecutive heptachords=== [[File:Circle of fourths.svg|thumb|left|Circle of fourths, ''kitmum'', 36 notes, 60 semitones = Anu 𒀭]] {{clear}} ==Tuning== A tuning procedure ‘loosening’ (TU.LU) in Music of Mesopotamia for a 7-stringed instrument based on a transposition to D/D♭: <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"išartum 2-5" e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a b-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup c\stopGroup } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"kitmum 2, 2-6" e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup bes\stopGroup c } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"embūbum 6, 3-6" -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup es\stopGroup f g a-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup bes\stopGroup c } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"pītum 3, 3-7" -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup es\stopGroup f g -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup as\stopGroup bes c } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { des1^"nīd qablim 7, 4-7" es f g-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup as\stopGroup bes c } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { des1^"nīš tuḫrim 4, 1-4" es f -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup ges\stopGroup as bes c } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { des1^"qablītum 1, 1-5" es f -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup ges\stopGroup as bes-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup ces\stopGroup } </score> ‘tightening’ (GÍD.I) <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"išartum 2-5" e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a b-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup c\stopGroup } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"qablītum 5, 1-5" e fis -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup g\stopGroup a b-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup c\stopGroup } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"niš tuĥrim 1, 1-4" e fis -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup g\stopGroup a b cis } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"nīd qablim 4, 4-7" e fis gis-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup a\stopGroup b cis } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { dis1^"pītum 7, 3-7" -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup e\stopGroup fis gis -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup a\stopGroup b cis } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { dis1^"embūbum 3, 3-6" -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup e\stopGroup fis gis ais-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup b\stopGroup cis } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { dis1^"kitmum 6, 2-6" eis -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup fis\stopGroup gis ais-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup b\stopGroup cis } </score> ==''kitmum'' chords== <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { <dis fis ais>1 <eis gis b> <fis ais cis> <gis b dis> <ais cis e> <b dis fis> <cis e gis> \break <dis, fis a> <e gis b> <fis a cis> <gis b d> <a cis e> <b d fis> <cis e g> \break <d, fis a> <e g b> <fis a c> <g b d> <a c e> <b d f> <c e g> \break <d, f a> <e g bes> <f a c> <g bes d> <a c es> <bes d f> <c es g> \break <d, f as> <es g bes> <f as c> <g bes des> <as c es> <bes d f> <c es ges> \break <des, f as> <es ges bes> <f as ces> <ges bes des> } </score> ==Further reading== * {{cite conference | first = Leon | last = Crickmore | title = A New Light on the Babylonian Tonal System | conference = Proceedings of the International Conference of Near Eastern Archaeomusicology (ICONEA 2008), The British Museum, London, December 4–6, 2008, editors: Richard Dumbrill and Irving Finkel | publisher = Iconea Publications | url = https://musicircle.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Crickmore-Iconea20081.pdf | place = London | year = 2008 | pages = 11-22 }} * {{cite web | title=Babylonian Tonal System | website=Allan Pettersson Fanpage | url=https://pettersson-fanpage.de/Babylon/Babylon.html | access-date=19 January 2026}} [[Category:Music theory]] [[Category:Musicology]] [[Category:Mesopotamia]] 5phfwsb63k3mcwr0qxk5aoqsh7ug55z 2840744 2840738 2026-10-16T21:40:06Z Grimes2 2895877 /* Tuning */ 2840744 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Basic tetrachords== The Babylonian Tonal System is based on tetrachords. 1½1, ½11, 11½ <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1 e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g} </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { e1 -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a} </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { c1 d e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup} </score> and the tritone<br> 111 <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { f1 g a b} </score> Two consecutive tetrachords build a heptachord. ==Heptachord linear== 1½11½1 <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { a1^"kitmum" b -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup c\stopGroup d e-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup f\stopGroup g } </score> ==Heptachord circle== [[File:Heptachordal circle.svg|thumb|left|Heptachord circle]] {{clear}} ==7 heptachord modes== The 7 modal patterns for the Babylonian heptachords are: {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center; |+ Babylonian tonal system ! Mode !! Pattern !! Center note || Semitones || Tritones |- | ''kitmum'' || 1½11½1 || D || 10 || 0 |- | ''pītum'' || ½11½11 || E || 10 || 0 |- | ''qablītum'' || 11½11½ || C || 10 || 0 |- | ''išartum'' || 1½111½ || G || 10 || 1 |- | ''embūbum'' || ½111½1 || A || 10 || 1 |- | ''nīd qablim'' || 111½11 || B || 11 || 2 |- | ''nīš tuḫrim'' || 11½111 || F || 11 || 2 |} <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { a1^"kitmum" b -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup c\stopGroup d e-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup f\stopGroup g } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { b1^"pītum" -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup c\stopGroup d e-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup f\stopGroup g a} </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { g1^"qablītum" a b -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup c\stopGroup d e-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup f\stopGroup } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"išartum" e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a b-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup c\stopGroup} </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c { e1^"embūbum" -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a b-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup c\stopGroup d} </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { f,1^"nīd qablim" g a b -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup c\stopGroup d e} </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { c1^"nīš tuḫrim" d e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a b} </score> ==2 consecutive heptachords== <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { a1^"kitmum" b -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup c\stopGroup d e-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup f\stopGroup g a-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup bes\stopGroup c d-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup es\stopGroup f} </score> Flatward shift for higher notes. ==7 consecutive heptachords== 7 consecutive heptachords build the 7 Babylonian modes: [[File:Kitmum.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] [[File:Pitum.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] [[File:Qablitum.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] [[File:Isartum.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] [[File:Embubum.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] [[File:Nid quablim.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] [[File:Nis tuhrim.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] {{clear}} ===6 cyclic consecutive heptachords=== [[File:Circle of fourths.svg|thumb|left|Circle of fourths, ''kitmum'', 36 notes, 60 semitones = Anu 𒀭]] {{clear}} ==Tuning== A tuning procedure ‘loosening’ (TU.LU) in Music of Mesopotamia for a 7-stringed instrument based on transposition: <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"išartum 2-5" e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a b-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup c\stopGroup } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"kitmum 2, 2-6" e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup bes\stopGroup c } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"embūbum 6, 3-6" -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup es\stopGroup f g a-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup bes\stopGroup c } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"pītum 3, 3-7" -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup es\stopGroup f g -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup as\stopGroup bes c } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { des1^"nīd qablim 7, 4-7" es f g-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup as\stopGroup bes c } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { des1^"nīš tuḫrim 4, 1-4" es f -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup ges\stopGroup as bes c } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { des1^"qablītum 1, 1-5" es f -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup ges\stopGroup as bes-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup ces\stopGroup } </score> ‘tightening’ (GÍD.I) <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"išartum 2-5" e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a b-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup c\stopGroup } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"qablītum 5, 1-5" e fis -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup g\stopGroup a b-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup c\stopGroup } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"niš tuĥrim 1, 1-4" e fis -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup g\stopGroup a b cis } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"nīd qablim 4, 4-7" e fis gis-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup a\stopGroup b cis } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { dis1^"pītum 7, 3-7" -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup e\stopGroup fis gis -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup a\stopGroup b cis } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { dis1^"embūbum 3, 3-6" -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup e\stopGroup fis gis ais-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup b\stopGroup cis } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { dis1^"kitmum 6, 2-6" eis -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup fis\stopGroup gis ais-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup b\stopGroup cis } </score> ==''kitmum'' chords== <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { <dis fis ais>1 <eis gis b> <fis ais cis> <gis b dis> <ais cis e> <b dis fis> <cis e gis> \break <dis, fis a> <e gis b> <fis a cis> <gis b d> <a cis e> <b d fis> <cis e g> \break <d, fis a> <e g b> <fis a c> <g b d> <a c e> <b d f> <c e g> \break <d, f a> <e g bes> <f a c> <g bes d> <a c es> <bes d f> <c es g> \break <d, f as> <es g bes> <f as c> <g bes des> <as c es> <bes d f> <c es ges> \break <des, f as> <es ges bes> <f as ces> <ges bes des> } </score> ==Further reading== * {{cite conference | first = Leon | last = Crickmore | title = A New Light on the Babylonian Tonal System | conference = Proceedings of the International Conference of Near Eastern Archaeomusicology (ICONEA 2008), The British Museum, London, December 4–6, 2008, editors: Richard Dumbrill and Irving Finkel | publisher = Iconea Publications | url = https://musicircle.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Crickmore-Iconea20081.pdf | place = London | year = 2008 | pages = 11-22 }} * {{cite web | title=Babylonian Tonal System | website=Allan Pettersson Fanpage | url=https://pettersson-fanpage.de/Babylon/Babylon.html | access-date=19 January 2026}} [[Category:Music theory]] [[Category:Musicology]] [[Category:Mesopotamia]] f89taz2pxdg2iu3dg6t579y5dyspucn 2840883 2840744 2026-10-17T06:53:55Z Grimes2 2895877 /* Tuning */ 2840883 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Basic tetrachords== The Babylonian Tonal System is based on tetrachords. 1½1, ½11, 11½ <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1 e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g} </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { e1 -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a} </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { c1 d e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup} </score> and the tritone<br> 111 <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { f1 g a b} </score> Two consecutive tetrachords build a heptachord. ==Heptachord linear== 1½11½1 <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { a1^"kitmum" b -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup c\stopGroup d e-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup f\stopGroup g } </score> ==Heptachord circle== [[File:Heptachordal circle.svg|thumb|left|Heptachord circle]] {{clear}} ==7 heptachord modes== The 7 modal patterns for the Babylonian heptachords are: {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center; |+ Babylonian tonal system ! Mode !! Pattern !! Center note || Semitones || Tritones |- | ''kitmum'' || 1½11½1 || D || 10 || 0 |- | ''pītum'' || ½11½11 || E || 10 || 0 |- | ''qablītum'' || 11½11½ || C || 10 || 0 |- | ''išartum'' || 1½111½ || G || 10 || 1 |- | ''embūbum'' || ½111½1 || A || 10 || 1 |- | ''nīd qablim'' || 111½11 || B || 11 || 2 |- | ''nīš tuḫrim'' || 11½111 || F || 11 || 2 |} <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { a1^"kitmum" b -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup c\stopGroup d e-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup f\stopGroup g } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { b1^"pītum" -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup c\stopGroup d e-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup f\stopGroup g a} </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { g1^"qablītum" a b -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup c\stopGroup d e-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup f\stopGroup } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"išartum" e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a b-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup c\stopGroup} </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c { e1^"embūbum" -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a b-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup c\stopGroup d} </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { f,1^"nīd qablim" g a b -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup c\stopGroup d e} </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { c1^"nīš tuḫrim" d e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a b} </score> ==2 consecutive heptachords== <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Ambitus_engraver \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { a1^"kitmum" b -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup c\stopGroup d e-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup f\stopGroup g a-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup bes\stopGroup c d-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup es\stopGroup f} </score> Flatward shift for higher notes. ==7 consecutive heptachords== 7 consecutive heptachords build the 7 Babylonian modes: [[File:Kitmum.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] [[File:Pitum.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] [[File:Qablitum.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] [[File:Isartum.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] [[File:Embubum.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] [[File:Nid quablim.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] [[File:Nis tuhrim.svg|thumb|left|1000px]] {{clear}} ===6 cyclic consecutive heptachords=== [[File:Circle of fourths.svg|thumb|left|Circle of fourths, ''kitmum'', 36 notes, 60 semitones = Anu 𒀭]] {{clear}} ==Tuning== A tuning procedure 'loosening' (TU.LU) in Music of Mesopotamia for a 7-stringed instrument based on transposition: <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"išartum 2-5" e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a b-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup c\stopGroup } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"kitmum 2, 2-6" e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup bes\stopGroup c } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"embūbum 6, 3-6" -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup es\stopGroup f g a-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup bes\stopGroup c } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"pītum 3, 3-7" -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup es\stopGroup f g -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup as\stopGroup bes c } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { des1^"nīd qablim 7, 4-7" es f g-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup as\stopGroup bes c } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { des1^"nīš tuḫrim 4, 1-4" es f -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup ges\stopGroup as bes c } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { des1^"qablītum 1, 1-5" es f -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup ges\stopGroup as bes-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup ces\stopGroup } </score> 'tightening' (GÍD.I) <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"išartum 2-5" e -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup f\stopGroup g a b-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup c\stopGroup } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"qablītum 5, 1-5" e fis -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup g\stopGroup a b-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup c\stopGroup } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"niš tuĥrim 1, 1-4" e fis -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup g\stopGroup a b cis } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { d1^"nīd qablim 4, 4-7" e fis gis-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup a\stopGroup b cis } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { dis1^"pītum 7, 3-7" -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup e\stopGroup fis gis -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup a\stopGroup b cis } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { dis1^"embūbum 3, 3-6" -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup e\stopGroup fis gis ais-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup b\stopGroup cis } </score> <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { dis1^"kitmum 6, 2-6" eis -\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone" \startGroup fis\stopGroup gis ais-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "semitone"\startGroup b\stopGroup cis } </score> ==''kitmum'' chords== <score> \new Staff \with { \consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" } \relative c' { <dis fis ais>1 <eis gis b> <fis ais cis> <gis b dis> <ais cis e> <b dis fis> <cis e gis> \break <dis, fis a> <e gis b> <fis a cis> <gis b d> <a cis e> <b d fis> <cis e g> \break <d, fis a> <e g b> <fis a c> <g b d> <a c e> <b d f> <c e g> \break <d, f a> <e g bes> <f a c> <g bes d> <a c es> <bes d f> <c es g> \break <d, f as> <es g bes> <f as c> <g bes des> <as c es> <bes d f> <c es ges> \break <des, f as> <es ges bes> <f as ces> <ges bes des> } </score> ==Further reading== * {{cite conference | first = Leon | last = Crickmore | title = A New Light on the Babylonian Tonal System | conference = Proceedings of the International Conference of Near Eastern Archaeomusicology (ICONEA 2008), The British Museum, London, December 4–6, 2008, editors: Richard Dumbrill and Irving Finkel | publisher = Iconea Publications | url = https://musicircle.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Crickmore-Iconea20081.pdf | place = London | year = 2008 | pages = 11-22 }} * {{cite web | title=Babylonian Tonal System | website=Allan Pettersson Fanpage | url=https://pettersson-fanpage.de/Babylon/Babylon.html | access-date=19 January 2026}} [[Category:Music theory]] [[Category:Musicology]] [[Category:Mesopotamia]] fvrksd9ypy8s1mecyy462wsmpujgqk8 0 331092 2840815 2838265 2026-10-17T03:32:02Z Jtneill 10242 /* Social Contribution */ Move to talk page 2840815 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Mindset and stigma:<br>What role do growth versus fixed mindsets play in prejudice and stigma?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Fixed versus growth mindset.png|thumb|Figure 1. Fixed and growth mindsets provide contrasting ways of understanding whether human characteristics can change]] ;Two different reactions Emma has recently started a new job. During lunch, she mentions that she has previously received treatment for a substance-use disorder. One colleague believes that personal characteristics are largely fixed and assumes that Emma will always be unreliable. Another colleague also wonders why Emma did not change her behaviour sooner. The colleagues' reactions demonstrate how beliefs about changeability may influence stigma. A fixed mindset may encourage stable stereotypes, whereas a growth mindset may create hope for change. However, believing that change is possible can also increase blame when a person is perceived as responsible for not changing. This chapter examines these competing pathways (see Figure 1) {{RoundBoxBottom}} This example illustrates a central problem in the psychology of [[wikipedia:Social_stigma|stigma]]; beliefs about change can generate both compassion and condemnation. A fixed mindset treats human attributes a relatively stable, while a growth mindset treats then as capable of development (Molden and Dweck, 2006). Fixed beliefs can make stereotypes appear natural and permanent. Growth beliefs can weaken these assumptions encourage hope and motivate positive contact. However, changeability may be confused with controllability. If observers beliefs that a person could change through effort alone, they may hold that person responsible for not changing (Hoyt & Burnette, 2020){{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What are growth and fixed mindsets, and how are they connected to stigma * How do fixed mindsets contribute to stretyping, essentialism and prejudice * Through what processes growth mindsets reduce prejudice and stigma? * When can growth mindsets reduce prejudice and stigma? * How can mindset research inform effective stigma-reduction interventions {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What are growth and fixed mindsets? == Mindsets, also called <u>[https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/implicit-theory implicit theories]</u>, are beliefs about whether human attributes are fixed or capable of development. Implicit does not necessarily mean unconscious. Instead, mindsets operate as informal theories through which people organise social information, explain behaviour and anticipate the future (Molden & Dweck, 2006). They matter motivationally because expectations about change influence whether effort appears worthwhile. A fixed, or entity, mindset proposes that an attribute reflects an enduring quality. Someone with a fixed view of personality might interpret one unfriendly act as proof that a person is fundamentally unfriendly. A growth, or incremental, mindset proposes that attributes can develop through learning, experience, strategies, support and changing circumstances. Someone holding this view may still disapprove of an action, but is more likely to ask what produced it and whether it could change. Mindsets are often domain-specific rather than global personality traits. The same person might believe that intelligence can develop, prejudice is permanent, recovery from depression is possible and body weight is entirely controllable. Consequently, a general endorsement of "growth" does not reveal how someone will judge a particular identity or condition (Hoyt & Burnette, 2020; Molden & Dweck, 2006). A meta-analysis of implicit theories and self-regulation nevertheless indicates that incremental beliefs are generally associated with mastery-oriented goals and more adaptive responses to setbacks, although effects vary between people and contexts (Burnette et al., 2013) [[File:Growth-mindset-vs-fixed-mindset.png|thumb|Figure 2: Explaining the difference between Fixed mindset and Growth mindset in multiple dimensions of expressing one's critical thinking of external situations. ]]Mindsets also shape <u>[https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/causal-attribution causal attribution]</u>, or how observers explain another person's behaviour. Attribution theory proposes that perceived controllability influences judgements of responsibility, emotional reactions and subsequent behaviour. When a stigmatised characteristic is considered controllable, observers are more likely to assign personal responsibility, experience anger and endorse punitive responses; perceived uncontrollability may instead evoke sympathy and assistance (Weiner et al, 1988). Entity theorists generally favour dispositional explanations, inferring stable internal traits from behaviour, whereas incremental theorists attend more closely to processes and circumstances (Chiu et al., 1997). However, a growth beliefs may increase blame if changeability is interpreted as complete personal control. Attribution theory therefore explains why growth mindsets can reduce essentialism while simultaneously intensifying responsibility and stigma. This distinction connects mindsets with <u>[https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/phc3.12823 psychological essentialism]</u>, the belief that members of a category share a deep, defining essence that produces observable characteristics. Categories may therefore appear uniform, natural and sharply separated/ A fixed mindset can strengthen essentialism because stable attributes seem to require an enduring internal cause; a growth mindset can weaken it by highlighting development. A characteristic can however be stable without being biological, while a biological explanation does not necessarily imply permanence. Mindset, essentialism, controllability and blame should therefore be treated as related but distinct constructs (Hoyt & Burnette, 2020, 2025). '''Table 1 - Comparing fixed and growth mindsets''' {| class="wikitable" !Aspect !Fixed mindset !Growth mindset |- |Core belief |Personal and group characteristics are relatively permanent. |Personal characteristics and attitudes can develop or change. |- |Explanation of behaviour |Emphasises enduring traits and internal characteristics. |Considers learning, circumstances, strategies and social support. |- |Connection with essentialism |May strengthen beliefs that groups possess an inherent and defining essence. |May weaken beliefs that group differences are natural and permanent. |- |Effect on stereotypes |May encourage generalisation and stable stereotypical judgements. |May encourage attention to individual differences and new information. |- |Intergroup expectations |May create pessimism about whether people, prejudice or relationships can improve. |May produce more positive expectations and encourage intergroup contact. |- |Potential benefit |May reduce blame when a characteristic is perceived as uncontrollable. |May reduce prejudice through lower essentialism and greater expectations for change. |- |Potential risk |May promote social avoidance and the belief that stigmatised people cannot change. |May increase blame when people are considered responsible for not changing. |} ==<small>Note: Based on Hoyt and Burnette (2020, 2025), Molden and Dweck (2006), Levy et al. (1998)</small>== Neither label guarantees a compassionate outcome, Fixed beliefs may reduce responsibility, while growth beliefs may become punitive when translated into a demand to change. The crucial issue is the casual and moral meaning attached to change (Hoyt & Burnette, 2020). === Test your knowledge: Fixed and growth mindsets === Complete the following questions to check your understanding of fixed and growth mindset theory<quiz display="simple"> {In mindset theory, what does a fixed or entity mindset propose? |type="()"} - Attributes develop continuously through experience. + Attributes are relatively stable and difficult to change. - Behaviour is determined entirely by the social environment. - Every characteristic changes through sufficient effort. || A fixed mindset treats personal characteristics as relatively stable and enduring. {Which statement best represents a growth or incremental mindset? |type="()"} - A person's characteristics permanently define their future. - Personal change occurs immediately once someone chooses it. - People possess no enduring personal characteristics. + Attributes can develop through experience, strategies and support. || A growth mindset recognises that attributes can develop through learning, experience, effective strategies and supportive conditions. {Why are mindsets described as domain-specific? |type="()"} + People can hold different mindset beliefs about different attributes. - Mindsets operate only within educational environments. - Everyone develops one permanent mindset during childhood. - Growth beliefs apply only to individual achievement. || A person may believe that intelligence can develop while viewing personality, prejudice or another attribute as relatively fixed. {How might someone with a fixed mindset interpret one unfriendly action? |type="()"} - The situation temporarily affected the person's behaviour. - The action cannot support any social judgement. + The person possesses an enduring unfriendly character. - The person will behave differently next time. || Fixed beliefs encourage observers to interpret behaviour as evidence of a stable internal trait. {How can mindset beliefs affect motivation? |type="()"} - They determine ability but have no effect on future action. + Expectations about change influence whether effort seems worthwhile. - Growth beliefs guarantee persistence in every situation. - Fixed beliefs always increase mastery-oriented motivation. || When change appears possible, effort, learning and engagement may seem more worthwhile. </quiz> == How do fixed mindsets sustain prejudice and stigma? == Prejudice refers to negative attitudes toward people because of their group membership, whereas stigma involves social devaluation associated with an attribute, identity or condition. Stigma can include labelling, stereotypes, emotional reactions, status loss and discrimination (Link and Phelan 2001). Mindsets contribute by shaping whether differences appear defining and whether improvement or constructive contact seems possible. === Essentialism and stereotyping === Fixed mindsets encourage observers to convert behaviour into identity. If one action is treated as evidence of an unchanging essence, variation within a group receives less attention and stereotyping becomes easier. Across five experiments, entity theories predicted stronger stereotype formation and endorsement, while experimentally induced incremental theories reduced the tendency to generalise traits from limited information (Levy et al., 1998). Levy and Dweck (1999) extended his work to children, who formed stronger stereotypical impressions of unfamiliar schools after receiving static rather than dynamic descriptions of people. These experiments support a casual mechanism because the researchers manipulated the interpretive framework and used unfamiliar groups, reducing the influence of established political attitudes. However, brief descriptions of artificial groups do not reproduce the history, institutions and unequal power surrounding real stigmatised identities. The studies show how a fixed framework can facilitate stereotypes; they do not prove that a short growth message can undo entrenched stigma. Essentialism may also legitimise inequality by making social arrangements appear inevitable. If poverty is interrupted as evidence of an enduring type of person, labour conditions, housing costs and discrimination become less visible. If substance dependence is treated as a fixed moral defect, recovery may be discounted and exclusion may appear reasonable. Fixed beliefs can therefore preserve stigma even when overt hostility is rejected, because avoidance is framed as realism rather than prejudice. '''<big>Pessimistic expectations and avoidance</big>''' Fixed mindsets can affect intergroup behaviour by creating pessimistic expectations. If observers believe that their own prejudice cannot change, they may anticipate anxiety, failure or appearing biased during an interaction. Avoidance then becomes self-protection. Yet avoidance removes opportunities to encounter individual variation and cooperation, leaving the original expectations untested. Across, eight studies, White American participants who viewed prejudice as fixed showed less interest in interracial interaction, diversity activities and attempts to reduce their own prejudice. These patterns remained after measured explicit and implicit prejudice were considered, and fixed belief's also predicted less friendly behaviour during laboratory interactions (Carr et al., 2012). Therefore, harmful social outcomes may reflect motivational withdrawal as well as conscious hostility. Neel and Shapiro (2012) similarly found across four studies that beliefs about whether racial bias is malleable predicted different strategies for difficult interracial encounters. Measured and experimentally induced fixed beliefs promoted avoidance, whereas malleable beliefs promoted learning-oriented engagement. The use of multiple methods strengthens the evidence, but both research programs focused largely on White Americans. Their conclusions may not generalise across cultures, identities or forms of stigma, and avoidance by targets of discrimination may be a protective response rather than a motivational deficit. '''<big>A self-reinforcing cycle</big>''' [[File:Two-Mindsets-graphic-2018 07-01.jpg|left|thumb|Figure 3: A self-reinforcing cycle through which fixed mindsets may sustain stigma. Fixed beliefs encourage essentialism and pessimistic expectations, which promote avoidance and limit corrective intergroup contact. ]] Taken together, the research supported by the cycle shown in Figure 3, indicates that fixed mindsets sustain stigma through connected cognitive and motivational processes. Entity beliefs encourage stable group judgements, while pessimistic expectations make intergroup engagement appear uncomfortable or pointless (Carr et al., 2012; Levy & Dweck, 1999; Neel & Shapiro, 2012). Avoidance then prevents corrective experiences that might challenge the original stereotype. However, much of this evidence comes from short-term experiments involving White American participants and racial attitudes. The proposed cycle is theoretically persuasive, but further field and cross-cultural research is needed to determine whether it generalises across populations and forms of stigma. == How can growth mindsets reduce prejudice and stigma? == Growth mindsets interrupt this cycle by presenting people, attitudes and relationships as capable of development. Their benefits operate through at least two pathways; reducing essentialism and creative constructive expectations about engagement. These processes are related but should not be collapsed. A person might recognise variation within a stigmatised group without wanting contact, or seek contact while retaining stereotypical beliefs (Hoyt & Burnette, 2025). === Reduced essentialism and encouraging individuation === If attributes can develop, one action provides less evidence of an enduring essence. Observers have reason to consider time, context and individual variation. Growth beliefs can consequently encourage <u>[https://medium.com/@AyeshaArnold/understanding-individuation-a-journey-to-self-discovery-268ff8bd6aff individuation],</u> judging a person using information specific to them rather than treating them as interchangeable with a category. Emma's history of substance use then becomes one part of a changing life rather than a permanent identity (Levy et al., 1998; Molden & Dweck, 2006). The early stereotype experiments support this pathways but also reveal an important boundary. Dynamic theories did not require denying every group pattern; they reduced the generalisation of limited information into stable traits (Levy et al., 1998). The aim is therefore not to ignore identity or inequality, but to reject the assumption that group membership determines an individual's character or future. Growth beliefs about poverty have similarly been associated with less stigma, although the effect depends on what people believe enables change (Hoyt & Burnette, 2025). Growth framed through education, secure housing and fair employment conveys social possibility; growth framed only as willpower may increase blame. === More constructive intergroup expectations === Growth mindsets can also change emotional and motivational expectations. Difficult intergroup interactions often involve anxiety about rejection, embarrassment or causing offence. Believing that people and prejudice can change makes an imperfect interaction less diagnostic; discomfort becomes a manageable part of learning rather than proof that future contact will fail (Carr et al., 2012; Hoyt et al., 2024). Malleable beliefs about prejudice have predicted greater interest in interracial interactions, feedback and prejudice-reduction activities (Carr et al., 2012; Neel & Shapiro, 2012). More recently, Hoyt et al. (2024) found that growth mindsets about people were associated with stronger interracial-contact intentions among White Americans through more positive expectations and lower anxiety. This mediation fits the theory; beliefs about development alter expected outcomes, which then influence approach motivation. The evidence is promising, but intentions are not sustained relationship. Positive contact depends on cooperation, institutional support and whether stigmatised people feel safe. Encouraging contact without preparing observers to listen may transfer the intervention's burden to those affected to stigma. Growth-oriented initiatives therefore need supportive norms, skills and accountability rather than optimism alone. == When can growth mindsets increase stigma? == Popular discussions often portray growth mindsets as uniformly positive. Stigma research shows why this conclusion is unsafe. Changeability describes whether change is possible; controllability describes how much personal choice determines an outcome. The concepts can be psychologically confused. When people hear that weight, poverty, addiction or mental health can change, they may infer that individuals can change whenever they choose. Failure to change then appears to reveal laziness, weak character or insufficient motivation (Hoyt & Burnette, 2020; Hoyt et al., 2017). === The stigma-asymmetry model === [[File:Obestity stigma model non.pdf|thumb|450x450px|Figure 4: The stigma obesity stigma asymmetry model with represents the two opposing pathways which leads to]] The obesity stigma asymmetry model describes two opposing pathways. Across three experiments, messages presenting weight as changeable reduced essentialist thinking but also increased blame; those indirect effects had contrasting implications for anti-fat prejudice (Hoyt et al., 2017). Related research found that weight mindsets predicted anti-fat attirubtes and body shame through causal attributions (Burnette et al., 2017). An apparently weak overall effect can therefore conceal two meaningful mechanisms operating in opposite directions. Figure 4 explains why a growth message may improve one attitude while worsening another. However, experimental health messages simplify complex conditions, and immediate self-reports do not show whether attitudes endure or guide behaviour. Weight stigma also cannot stand in for racial, disability, mental-health or substance-use stigma. The model offers an important warning, but its boundaries require direct testing across conditions and cultures '''Compulsory optimism and structural barriers''' Growth language becomes harmful when it suggests that effort guarantees success. People differ in access to treatment, time, money, safety and supportive relationships. Symptoms may fluctuate, discrimination may restrict opportunities, and some characteristics do not require correction. Telling a person that '''''"anything is possible if you try"''''' can erase these realities and turn unequal outcomes into evidence of personal failure (Hoyt & Burnette, 2020) The target of change also matters. A disability intervention might encourage institutions to improve accessibility, or imply that disabled people should overcome themselves. A prejudice campaign might motivate observers to revise biased beliefs, or pressure minority-group members to appear more acceptable. Ethical growth messaging therefore asks who is expected to change, under what conditions and for whose benefit. Fixed explanations are not automatically protective. Biological explanations of mental illness, for example, may reduce blame while increasing perceived dangerousness and desired social distance (Kvaale et al., 2013). Reducing one component of stigma does not ensure an overall improvement. Evaluations should separately assess stereotypes, blame, emotion and social distance and behaviour. An individual focus can also conceal <u>[https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5172391/ structural stigma]</u>. Discrimination is embedded in policies, institutional routines, resource allocation and cultural representations, not only in private beliefs (Link & Phelan, 2001). Teaching a growth mindset cannot compensate for inaccessible healthcare, discriminatory hiring and punitive policy. Moreover, much mindset research uses Western, educated samples and United States racial contexts. Beliefs about agency and responsibility vary culturally, so effects are likely to depend on the stigma, audience, message and setting (Hoyt & Burnette, 2025). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Case study follow-up''' Emma's colleague learns that recovery is possible but is influenced by treatment access, social support, discrimination and life circumstances. Rather than assuming that Emma is permanently unreliable or entirely responsible for past difficulties, the colleague considers her current conduct and recognises both her capacity for development and the barriers she has faced. The appropriate response both her capacity for development and the barriers she has faced. The appropriate response is neither hopelessness nor blame, but respectful individuation and practical support. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == How can mindsets inform stigma-reduction interventions? == The evidence does not justify replacing every fixed message with a slogan about effort. It supports balanced growth messages that combine realistic hope, credible pathways, contextual explanation and shared responsibility. Interventions should target the mechanism relevant to a specific problem rather than treating "growth mindset" as a universal cure (Hoyt & Burnette, 2020, 2025). <big>'''Principle 1 - Separate changeability from person control'''</big> Messages should explicitly state that change can be possible without being immediate, easy or entirely voluntary. Recovery may require evidence-based treatment, stable housing, supportive relationships and repeated attempts. Likewise, prejudice can be learned and changed, but doing so requires reflection, corrective feedback and supportive social norms. This distinction reduces the likelihood that possibility will be translated into blame (Hoyt & Burnette, 2020). <big>'''Principle 2: Identify the appropriate target of change'''</big> The desired change may be in an observer's stereotype, an institution's practice or a social norm, not in the stigmatised person. In school's, students can learn that stereotypes are acquired interpretations that can be questioned. In workplaces, staff can develop inclusive skills while leaders change procedures that produce inequality. In healthcare, professionals can communicate hope about treatment while examining barriers, diagnostic bias and disrespectful care (Hoyt & Burnette, 2020; Levy and Dweck, 1999). <big>'''Principle 3 - Provide strategies and supportive conditions'''</big> A credible growth message describes how improvement can occur. Carr et al's (2012) and Neel and Shapiro's (2012) findings suggest that presenting prejudice as malleable may increase willingness to enter learning situations. An intervention could pair this message with structured intergroup cooperation, feedback, perspective taking and opportunities to practise responding to biased behaviour. Information alone is unlikely to be enough if the environment punishes mistakes or tolerates discrimination. '''<big>Principle 4 - Use narratives without creating exceptionalism</big>''' Stories of recovery can make development concrete but exceptional success stories may imply that continued struggle reflects failure. Narratives should represent varied pathways, setbacks and support, include lived experience, and avoid reducing people to inspirational examples (Hoyt & Burnette, 2020) <big>'''Principle 5 - Evaluate benefits and harms'''</big> Evaluation should measure more than immediate agreement with a growth statement. Relevant outcomes include essentialism, blame, anxiety, empathy and social distance, willingness for contact and discriminatory behaviour. Researchers should examine whether effects persist, whether they differ across groups and whether stigmatised people experience the intervention as respectful. Because opposing pathways can cancel each other out, mediation analyses can clarify whether reduced essentialism is accompanied by increased blame (Hoyt et al, 2017). Randomised designs can test casual effects, while longitudinal and field research can determine whether changes last and transfer into everyday conduct. Qualitative feedback is also valuable because fixed-choice scales may miss unintended meanings. Co-design with affected communities can identify language that researchers might otherwise assume is empowering. Finally, interventions should report null and adverse effects rather than treating them as failures to be hidden. === Practical applications === Interventions should inevitably evaluate both benefits and harms. Outcomes should include essentialism, blame, anxiety, empathy, social distance, contact and discriminatory behaviour. Randomised studies can test causal effects, while longitudinal and field research can assess durability and real-word conduct. Qualitative feedback can reveal unintended meanings that fixed-choice scales miss. Because opposing pathways can cancel one another, mediation analysis is particularly valuable for detecting whether reduced essentialism occurs alongside increased blame (Hoyt et al., 2017). ; ==Conclusion== Growth and fixed mindsets influence stigma by shaping how people explain behaviour, judge social groups and anticipate future interactions. Fixed mindsets can strengthen essentialism, stable stereotypes and avoidance. Growth mindsets can reduce these processes by highlighting development, individual variation and the possibility of constructive contact. However, their effects are not uniformly positive. When changeability is interpreted as personal controllability, growth beliefs may increase responsibility and blame. Effective stigma-reduction interventions should therefore communicate realistic hope rather than guaranteed change. Messages should identify practical pathways to improvement, recognise structural and situational barriers, and distribute responsibility across individuals, observers and institutions. Overall, growth mindsets are most likely to reduce stigma when they are combined with contextual understanding, social support and structural reform. ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Growth mindset and challenge|Growth mindset and challenge]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Implicit_personality_theory|Implicit theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Psychological essentialism|Psychological essentialism]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Social stigma|Social stigma]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Burnette, J. L., O'Boyle, E. H., VanEpps, E. M., Pollack, J. M., & Finkel, E. J. (2013). Mind-sets matter: A meta-analytic review of implicit theories and self-regulation. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''139''(3), 655–701. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029531 Carr, P. B., Dweck, C. S., & Pauker, K. (2012). “Prejudiced” behavior without prejudice? Beliefs about the malleability of prejudice affect interracial interactions. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''103''(3), 452–471. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028849 Chiu, C., Hong, Y., & Dweck, C. S. (1997). Lay dispositionism and implicit theories of personality. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''73''(1), 19–30. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.1.19 Hoyt, C. L., & Burnette, J. L. (2020). Growth mindset messaging in stigma-relevant contexts: Harnessing benefits without costs. ''Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences'', ''7''(2), 157–164. https://doi.org/10.1177/2372732220941216 Hoyt, C. L., & Burnette, J. L. (2025). How mindsets can mitigate or sustain prejudice. ''Current Directions in Psychological Science'', ''34''(2), 82–87. https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214241301290 Hoyt, C. L., Burnette, J. L., Auster-Gussman, L., Blodorn, A., & Major, B. (2017). The obesity stigma asymmetry model: The indirect and divergent effects of blame and changeability beliefs on antifat prejudice. ''Stigma and Health'', ''2''(1), 53–65. https://doi.org/10.1037/sah0000026 Hoyt, C. L., Rafferty, D., Earl, S., & Burnette, J. L. (2024). Growth mindsets of people can promote interracial contact intentions among White Americans via positive expectations and reduced anxiety. ''Group Processes & Intergroup Relations'', ''27''(4), 903–924. https://doi.org/10.1177/13684302231187262 Kvaale, E. P., Gottdiener, W. H., & Haslam, N. (2013, November). Biogenetic explanations and stigma: a meta-analytic review of associations among laypeople. Social Science & Medicine (1982); PubMed. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.07.017 ‌ Levy, S. R., & Dweck, C. S. (1999). The impact of children's static versus dynamic conceptions of people on stereotype formation. ''Child Development'', ''70''(5), 1163–1180. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00085 Molden, D. C., & Dweck, C. S. (2006). Finding “meaning” in psychology: A lay theories approach to self-regulation, social perception, and social development. ''American Psychologist'', ''61''(3), 192–203. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.61.3.192 Neel, R., & Shapiro, J. R. (2012). Is racial bias malleable? Whites' lay theories of racial bias predict divergent strategies for interracial interactions. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''103''(1), 101–120. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028237 Weiner, B., Perry, R. P., & Magnusson, J. (1988). An attributional analysis of reactions to stigmas. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55(5), 738–748. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.55.5.738 Hyperlinked references Arnold, A. (2024, September 24). Unlocking Your True Self: The Psychology of Individuation and Personal Growth. Medium. https://medium.com/@AyeshaArnold/understanding-individuation-a-journey-to-self-discovery-268ff8bd6aff ‌ Runco, M. A. (2011). Implicit Theories. Encyclopedia of Creativity, 644–646. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-375038-9.00119-9 Martin, A., & Rief, W. (2011). Relevance of Cognitive and Behavioral Factors in Medically Unexplained Syndromes and Somatoform Disorders. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 34(3), 565–578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psc.2011.05.007 ‌ Neufeld, E. (2022). Psychological essentialism and the structure of concepts. Philosophy Compass, 17(5). https://doi.org/10.1111/phc3.12823 ‌ Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2016, November). Structural stigma: Research evidence and implications for psychological science. The American Psychologist; PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000068 ‌}} ==External links== *[[wikipedia:Social_stigma|stigma]] * [https://www.apa.org/topics/racism-bias-discrimination Racism, bias, and discrimination] (American Psychological Association) * [https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/functional-fixedness fixedness] * [https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/spc3.12370 essentialism] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Mindset/Growth]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Stigma]] qr35ijtc7rhbxwsf9ime15v90tv3pzn 2840831 2840815 2026-10-17T04:58:18Z Jtneill 10242 Copyediting 2840831 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Mindset and stigma:<br>What role do growth versus fixed mindsets play in prejudice and stigma?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Fixed versus growth mindset.png|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Fixed and growth mindsets provide contrasting ways of understanding whether human characteristics can change]] ;Two different reactions Emma recently started a new job. During a work lunch, she mentions that she has previously received treatment for a substance-use disorder. One colleague believes that personal characteristics are largely fixed and assumes that Emma will always be unreliable. In contrast, another colleague is curious about how Emma managed to change her behaviour. The two colleagues' reactions illustate how difference beliefs about changeability may influence stigma. A fixed mindset may encourage stable negative stereotypes, whereas a growth mindset may create hope for change. However, believing that change is possible can increase blame when a person is perceived as responsible for not changing. This chapter examines these how contrasting mindsets beliefs affect social stigma (see Figure 1) {{RoundBoxBottom}} This example illustrates a central problem in the psychology of [[wikipedia:Social_stigma|stigma]]; beliefs about personal change can generate both compassion and condemnation. A fixed mindset treats human attributes as relatively stable, while a growth mindset treats then as capable of development (Molden and Dweck, 2006). Fixed beliefs can make stereotypes appear natural and permanent. Growth beliefs can weaken these assumptions {{g}} encourage hope and motivate positive contact. However, changeability may be confused with controllability. If observers{{g}} beliefs that a person could change through effort alone, they may hold that person responsible for not changing (Hoyt & Burnette, 2020) {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What are growth and fixed mindsets, and how are they connected to stigma{{g}} * How do fixed mindsets contribute to stretyping, essentialism and prejudice{{g}} * Through what processes growth mindsets reduce prejudice and stigma?{{g}} * When can growth mindsets reduce prejudice and stigma? * How can mindset research inform effective stigma-reduction interventions{{g}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What are growth and fixed mindsets? == Mindsets, also called <u>[https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/implicit-theory implicit theories]</u>, are beliefs about whether human attributes are fixed or capable of development. Implicit does not necessarily mean unconscious. Instead, mindsets operate as informal theories through which people organise social information, explain behaviour and anticipate the future (Molden & Dweck, 2006). They matter motivationally because expectations about change influence whether effort appears worthwhile. A fixed, or entity, mindset proposes that an attribute reflects an enduring quality {{f}}. Someone with a fixed view of personality might interpret one unfriendly act as proof that a person is fundamentally unfriendly. A growth, or incremental, mindset proposes that attributes can develop through learning, experience, strategies, support and changing circumstances {{f}}. Someone holding this view may still disapprove of an action, but is more likely to ask what produced it and whether it could change. Mindsets are often domain-specific rather than global personality traits {{f}}. The same person might believe that intelligence can develop, prejudice is permanent, recovery from depression is possible and body weight is entirely controllable. Consequently, a general endorsement of "growth" does not reveal how someone will judge a particular identity or condition (Hoyt & Burnette, 2020; Molden & Dweck, 2006). A meta-analysis of implicit theories and self-regulation nevertheless indicates that incremental beliefs {{ic|explain "incremental beliefs"}} are generally associated with mastery-oriented goals and more adaptive responses to setbacks, although effects vary between people and contexts (Burnette et al., 2013). [[File:Growth-mindset-vs-fixed-mindset.png|thumb|400px|'''Figure 2'''. Explaining the difference between Fixed mindset and Growth mindset in multiple dimensions of expressing one's critical thinking of external situations. ]] Mindsets also shape <u>[https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/causal-attribution causal attribution]</u>, or how observers explain another person's behaviour. Attribution theory proposes that perceived controllability influences judgements of responsibility, emotional reactions and subsequent behaviour. When a stigmatised characteristic is considered controllable, observers are more likely to assign personal responsibility, experience anger and endorse punitive responses; perceived uncontrollability may instead evoke sympathy and assistance (Weiner et al, 1988). Entity theorists generally favour dispositional explanations, inferring stable internal traits from behaviour, whereas incremental theorists attend more closely to processes and circumstances (Chiu et al., 1997). However, a growth beliefs may increase blame if changeability is interpreted as complete personal control. Attribution theory therefore explains why growth mindsets can reduce essentialism {{ic|explain "essentialism"}} while simultaneously intensifying responsibility and stigma. This distinction connects mindsets with <u>[https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/phc3.12823 psychological essentialism]</u>, the belief that members of a category share a deep, defining essence that produces observable characteristics. Categories may therefore appear uniform, natural and sharply separated. A fixed mindset can strengthen essentialism because stable attributes seem to require an enduring internal cause; a growth mindset can weaken it by highlighting development. A characteristic can however be stable without being biological, while a biological explanation does not necessarily imply permanence {{f}}. Mindset, essentialism, controllability and blame should therefore be treated as related but distinct constructs (Hoyt & Burnette, 2020, 2025). '''Table 1 - Comparing fixed and growth mindsets''' {| class="wikitable" !Aspect !Fixed mindset !Growth mindset |- |Core belief |Personal and group characteristics are relatively permanent. |Personal characteristics and attitudes can develop or change. |- |Explanation of behaviour |Emphasises enduring traits and internal characteristics. |Considers learning, circumstances, strategies and social support. |- |Connection with essentialism |May strengthen beliefs that groups possess an inherent and defining essence. |May weaken beliefs that group differences are natural and permanent. |- |Effect on stereotypes |May encourage generalisation and stable stereotypical judgements. |May encourage attention to individual differences and new information. |- |Intergroup expectations |May create pessimism about whether people, prejudice or relationships can improve. |May produce more positive expectations and encourage intergroup contact. |- |Potential benefit |May reduce blame when a characteristic is perceived as uncontrollable. |May reduce prejudice through lower essentialism and greater expectations for change. |- |Potential risk |May promote social avoidance and the belief that stigmatised people cannot change. |May increase blame when people are considered responsible for not changing. |} ''Note''. Based on Hoyt and Burnette (2020, 2025), Molden and Dweck (2006), Levy et al. (1998) Neither label guarantees a compassionate outcome, Fixed beliefs may reduce responsibility, while growth beliefs may become punitive when translated into a demand to change. The crucial issue is the casual and moral meaning attached to change {{explain}} (Hoyt & Burnette, 2020). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} Check your understanding of fixed and growth mindset theory <quiz display="simple"> {In mindset theory, what does a fixed or entity mindset propose? |type="()"} - Attributes develop continuously through experience. + Attributes are relatively stable and difficult to change. - Behaviour is determined entirely by the social environment. - Every characteristic changes through sufficient effort. || A fixed mindset treats personal characteristics as relatively stable and enduring. {Which statement best represents a growth or incremental mindset? |type="()"} - A person's characteristics permanently define their future. - Personal change occurs immediately once someone chooses it. - People possess no enduring personal characteristics. + Attributes can develop through experience, strategies and support. || A growth mindset recognises that attributes can develop through learning, experience, effective strategies and supportive conditions. {Why are mindsets described as domain-specific? |type="()"} + People can hold different mindset beliefs about different attributes. - Mindsets operate only within educational environments. - Everyone develops one permanent mindset during childhood. - Growth beliefs apply only to individual achievement. || A person may believe that intelligence can develop while viewing personality, prejudice or another attribute as relatively fixed. {How might someone with a fixed mindset interpret one unfriendly action? |type="()"} - The situation temporarily affected the person's behaviour. - The action cannot support any social judgement. + The person possesses an enduring unfriendly character. - The person will behave differently next time. || Fixed beliefs encourage observers to interpret behaviour as evidence of a stable internal trait. {How can mindset beliefs affect motivation? |type="()"} - They determine ability but have no effect on future action. + Expectations about change influence whether effort seems worthwhile. - Growth beliefs guarantee persistence in every situation. - Fixed beliefs always increase mastery-oriented motivation. || When change appears possible, effort, learning and engagement may seem more worthwhile. </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == How do fixed mindsets sustain prejudice and stigma? == Prejudice refers to negative attitudes toward people because of their group membership, whereas stigma involves social devaluation associated with an attribute, identity or condition. Stigma can include labelling, stereotypes, emotional reactions, status loss and discrimination (Link and Phelan 2001). Mindsets contribute by shaping whether differences appear defining and whether improvement or constructive contact seems possible. === Essentialism and stereotyping === Fixed mindsets encourage observers to convert behaviour into identity. If one action is treated as evidence of an unchanging essence, variation within a group receives less attention and stereotyping becomes easier. Across five experiments, entity theories predicted stronger stereotype formation and endorsement, while experimentally induced incremental theories reduced the tendency to generalise traits from limited information (Levy et al., 1998). Levy and Dweck (1999) extended his {{who}} work to children, who formed stronger stereotypical impressions of unfamiliar schools after receiving static rather than dynamic descriptions of people. These experiments support a casual mechanism because the researchers manipulated the interpretive framework and used unfamiliar groups, reducing the influence of established political attitudes. However, brief descriptions of artificial groups do not reproduce the history, institutions and unequal power surrounding real stigmatised identities. The studies show how a fixed framework can facilitate stereotypes; they do not prove that a short growth message can undo entrenched stigma. {{f}} Essentialism may also legitimise inequality by making social arrangements appear inevitable. If poverty is interrupted as evidence of an enduring type of person, labour conditions, housing costs and discrimination become less visible. If substance dependence is treated as a fixed moral defect, recovery may be discounted and exclusion may appear reasonable. Fixed beliefs can therefore preserve stigma even when overt hostility is rejected, because avoidance is framed as realism rather than prejudice. {{f}} '''<big>Pessimistic expectations and avoidance</big>''' Fixed mindsets can affect intergroup behaviour by creating pessimistic expectations. If observers believe that their own prejudice cannot change, they may anticipate anxiety, failure or appearing biased during an interaction. Avoidance then becomes self-protection. Yet avoidance removes opportunities to encounter individual variation and cooperation, leaving the original expectations untested. {{f}} Across, eight studies {{f}}, White American participants who viewed prejudice as fixed showed less interest in interracial interaction, diversity activities and attempts to reduce their own prejudice. These patterns remained after measured explicit and implicit prejudice were considered, and fixed belief's {{g}} also predicted less friendly behaviour during laboratory interactions (Carr et al., 2012). Therefore, harmful social outcomes may reflect motivational withdrawal as well as conscious hostility. Neel and Shapiro (2012) similarly found across four studies that beliefs about whether racial bias is malleable predicted different strategies for difficult interracial encounters. Measured and experimentally induced fixed beliefs promoted avoidance, whereas malleable beliefs promoted learning-oriented engagement. The use of multiple methods {{explain}} strengthens the evidence, but both research programs focused largely on White Americans. Their conclusions may not generalise across cultures, identities or forms of stigma, and avoidance by targets of discrimination may be a protective response rather than a motivational deficit. '''<big>A self-reinforcing cycle</big>''' [[File:Two-Mindsets-graphic-2018 07-01.jpg|right|thumb|400px|'''Figure 3'''. Characteristics of fixed vs. growth mindsets. ]] Taken together, the research support that fixed mindsets sustain stigma through connected cognitive and motivational processes (see Figure 3). Entity beliefs encourage stable group judgements, while pessimistic expectations make intergroup engagement appear uncomfortable or pointless (Carr et al., 2012; Levy & Dweck, 1999; Neel & Shapiro, 2012). Avoidance then prevents corrective experiences that might challenge the original stereotype. However, much of this evidence comes from short-term experiments involving White American participants and racial attitudes. The proposed cycle is theoretically persuasive, but further field and cross-cultural research is needed to determine whether it generalises across populations and forms of stigma. == How can growth mindsets reduce prejudice and stigma? == Growth mindsets interrupt this cycle by presenting people, attitudes and relationships as capable of development. Their benefits operate through at least two pathways; reducing essentialism and creative constructive expectations about engagement. These processes are related but should not be collapsed. A person might recognise variation within a stigmatised group without wanting contact, or seek contact while retaining stereotypical beliefs (Hoyt & Burnette, 2025). === Reduced essentialism and encouraging individuation === If {{missing}} attributes can develop, one action provides less evidence of an enduring essence {{rewrite}}. Observers have reason to consider time, context and individual variation. Growth beliefs can consequently encourage <u>[https://medium.com/@AyeshaArnold/understanding-individuation-a-journey-to-self-discovery-268ff8bd6aff individuation],</u> judging a person using information specific to them rather than treating them as interchangeable with a category. Emma's history of substance use then becomes one part of a changing life rather than a permanent identity (Levy et al., 1998; Molden & Dweck, 2006). The early stereotype experiments {{f}} support this pathways {{g}} but also reveal an important boundary. Dynamic theories did not require denying every group pattern; they reduced the generalisation of limited information into stable traits (Levy et al., 1998). The aim is therefore not to ignore identity or inequality, but to reject the assumption that group membership determines an individual's character or future. Growth beliefs about poverty have similarly been associated with less stigma, although the effect depends on what people believe enables change (Hoyt & Burnette, 2025). Growth framed through education, secure housing and fair employment conveys social possibility; growth framed only as willpower may increase blame. === More constructive intergroup expectations === Growth mindsets can also change emotional and motivational expectations. Difficult intergroup interactions often involve anxiety about rejection, embarrassment or causing offence. Believing that people and prejudice can change makes an imperfect interaction less diagnostic; discomfort becomes a manageable part of learning rather than proof that future contact will fail (Carr et al., 2012; Hoyt et al., 2024). Malleable beliefs about prejudice have predicted greater interest in interracial interactions, feedback and prejudice-reduction activities (Carr et al., 2012; Neel & Shapiro, 2012). More recently, Hoyt et al. (2024) found that growth mindsets about people were associated with stronger interracial-contact intentions among White Americans through more positive expectations and lower anxiety. This mediation fits the theory; beliefs about development alter expected outcomes, which then influence approach motivation. The evidence is promising, but intentions are not sustained relationship {{g}}. Positive contact depends on cooperation, institutional support and whether stigmatised people feel safe. Encouraging contact without preparing observers to listen may transfer the intervention's burden to those affected to stigma. Growth-oriented initiatives therefore need supportive norms, skills and accountability rather than optimism alone. == When can growth mindsets increase stigma? == Popular discussions often portray growth mindsets as uniformly positive {{f}}. Stigma research {{f}} shows why this conclusion is unsafe. Changeability describes whether change is possible; controllability describes how much personal choice determines an outcome. The concepts can be psychologically confused. When people hear that weight, poverty, addiction or mental health can change, they may infer that individuals can change whenever they choose. Failure to change then appears to reveal laziness, weak character or insufficient motivation (Hoyt & Burnette, 2020; Hoyt et al., 2017). === The stigma-asymmetry model === [[File:Obestity stigma model non.pdf|thumb|450x450px|'''Figure 4'''. The stigma obesity stigma asymmetry model {{f}} with represents the two opposing pathways which leads to {{missing}}]] The obesity stigma asymmetry model {{f}} describes two opposing pathways. Across three experiments, messages presenting weight as changeable reduced essentialist thinking but also increased blame; those indirect effects had contrasting implications for anti-fat prejudice (Hoyt et al., 2017). Related research found that weight mindsets predicted anti-fat attirubtes and body shame through causal attributions (Burnette et al., 2017). An apparently weak overall effect can therefore conceal two meaningful mechanisms operating in opposite directions. Figure 4 explains why a growth message may improve one attitude while worsening another. However, experimental health messages simplify complex conditions, and immediate self-reports do not show whether attitudes endure or guide behaviour. Weight stigma also cannot stand in for racial, disability, mental-health or substance-use stigma. The model offers an important warning, but its boundaries require direct testing across conditions and cultures {{g}} {{f}} '''Compulsory optimism and structural barriers''' Growth language becomes harmful when it suggests that effort guarantees success. People differ in access to treatment, time, money, safety and supportive relationships. Symptoms may fluctuate, discrimination may restrict opportunities, and some characteristics do not require correction. Telling a person that '''''"anything is possible if you try"''''' can erase these realities and turn unequal outcomes into evidence of personal failure (Hoyt & Burnette, 2020) The target of change also matters. A disability intervention might encourage institutions to improve accessibility, or imply that disabled people should overcome themselves. A prejudice campaign might motivate observers to revise biased beliefs, or pressure minority-group members to appear more acceptable. Ethical growth messaging therefore asks who is expected to change, under what conditions and for whose benefit. {{f}} Fixed explanations are not automatically protective {{ic|of what?}}. Biological explanations of mental illness, for example, may reduce blame while increasing perceived dangerousness and desired social distance (Kvaale et al., 2013). Reducing one component of stigma does not ensure an overall improvement {{ic|in what?}}. Evaluations {{ic|of what?}} should separately assess stereotypes, blame, emotion and social distance and behaviour. An individual focus on understanding stigma can also conceal <u>[https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5172391/ structural stigma]</u>. Discrimination is embedded in policies, institutional routines, resource allocation and cultural representations, not only in private beliefs (Link & Phelan, 2001). Teaching a growth mindset cannot compensate for inaccessible healthcare, discriminatory hiring and punitive policy. Moreover, much mindset research uses Western, educated samples and United States racial contexts. Beliefs about agency and responsibility vary culturally, so effects are likely to depend on the stigma, audience, message and setting (Hoyt & Burnette, 2025). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Case study follow-up''' Emma's colleague learns that recovery is possible but is influenced by treatment access, social support, discrimination and life circumstances. Rather than assuming that Emma is permanently unreliable or entirely responsible for past difficulties, the colleague considers her current conduct and recognises both her capacity for development and the barriers she has faced. The appropriate response {{g}} both her capacity for development and the barriers she has faced. The appropriate response is neither hopelessness nor blame, but respectful individuation and practical support. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == How can mindsets inform stigma-reduction interventions? == The evidence does not justify replacing every fixed message with a slogan about effort. It supports balanced growth messages that combine realistic hope, credible pathways, contextual explanation and shared responsibility. Interventions should target the mechanism relevant to a specific problem rather than treating "growth mindset" as a universal cure (Hoyt & Burnette, 2020, 2025). <big>'''Principle 1 - Separate changeability from person control'''</big> Messages should explicitly state that change can be possible without being immediate, easy or entirely voluntary. Recovery may require evidence-based treatment, stable housing, supportive relationships and repeated attempts. Likewise, prejudice can be learned and changed, but doing so requires reflection, corrective feedback and supportive social norms. This distinction reduces the likelihood that possibility will be translated into blame (Hoyt & Burnette, 2020). <big>'''Principle 2: Identify the appropriate target of change'''</big> The desired change may be in an observer's stereotype, an institution's practice or a social norm, not in the stigmatised person. In school's {{g}}, students can learn that stereotypes are acquired interpretations that can be questioned. In workplaces, staff can develop inclusive skills while leaders {{missing}} change procedures that produce inequality. In healthcare, professionals can communicate hope about treatment while examining barriers, diagnostic bias and disrespectful care (Hoyt & Burnette, 2020; Levy and Dweck, 1999). <big>'''Principle 3 - Provide strategies and supportive conditions'''</big> A credible growth message describes how improvement can occur. Carr et al.'s (2012) and Neel and Shapiro's (2012) findings suggest that presenting prejudice as malleable may increase willingness to enter learning situations. An intervention could pair this message with structured intergroup cooperation, feedback, perspective taking and opportunities to practise responding to biased behaviour. Information alone is unlikely to be enough if the environment punishes mistakes or tolerates discrimination. '''<big>Principle 4 - Use narratives without creating exceptionalism</big>''' Stories of recovery can make development concrete but exceptional success stories may imply that continued struggle reflects failure. Narratives should represent varied pathways, setbacks and support, include lived experience, and avoid reducing people to inspirational examples (Hoyt & Burnette, 2020) <big>'''Principle 5 - Evaluate benefits and harms'''</big> Evaluation should measure more than immediate agreement with a growth statement. Relevant outcomes include essentialism, blame, anxiety, empathy and social distance, willingness for contact and discriminatory behaviour. Researchers should examine whether effects persist, whether they differ across groups and whether stigmatised people experience the intervention as respectful. Because opposing pathways can cancel each other out, mediation analyses can clarify whether reduced essentialism is accompanied by increased blame (Hoyt et al, 2017). Randomised designs can test casual effects, while longitudinal and field research can determine whether changes last and transfer into everyday conduct. Qualitative feedback is also valuable because fixed-choice scales may miss unintended meanings. Co-design with affected communities can identify language that researchers might otherwise assume is empowering. Finally, interventions should report null and adverse effects rather than treating them as failures to be hidden. === Practical applications === Interventions should inevitably evaluate both benefits and harms. Outcomes should include essentialism, blame, anxiety, empathy, social distance, contact and discriminatory behaviour. Randomised studies can test causal effects, while longitudinal and field research can assess durability and real-word conduct. Qualitative feedback can reveal unintended meanings that fixed-choice scales miss. Because opposing pathways can cancel one another, mediation analysis is particularly valuable for detecting whether reduced essentialism occurs alongside increased blame (Hoyt et al., 2017). ==Conclusion== Growth and fixed mindsets influence stigma by shaping how people explain behaviour, judge social groups and anticipate future interactions. Fixed mindsets can strengthen essentialism, stable stereotypes and avoidance. Growth mindsets can reduce these processes by highlighting development, individual variation and the possibility of constructive contact. However, their effects are not uniformly positive. When changeability is interpreted as personal controllability, growth beliefs may increase responsibility and blame. Effective stigma-reduction interventions should therefore communicate realistic hope rather than guaranteed change. Messages should identify practical pathways to improvement, recognise structural and situational barriers, and distribute responsibility across individuals, observers and institutions. Overall, growth mindsets are most likely to reduce stigma when they are combined with contextual understanding, social support and structural reform. ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Growth mindset and challenge|Growth mindset and challenge]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Implicit_personality_theory|Implicit theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Psychological essentialism|Psychological essentialism]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Social stigma|Social stigma]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Burnette, J. L., O'Boyle, E. H., VanEpps, E. M., Pollack, J. M., & Finkel, E. J. (2013). Mind-sets matter: A meta-analytic review of implicit theories and self-regulation. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''139''(3), 655–701. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029531 Carr, P. B., Dweck, C. S., & Pauker, K. (2012). “Prejudiced” behavior without prejudice? Beliefs about the malleability of prejudice affect interracial interactions. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''103''(3), 452–471. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028849 Chiu, C., Hong, Y., & Dweck, C. S. (1997). Lay dispositionism and implicit theories of personality. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''73''(1), 19–30. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.1.19 Hoyt, C. L., & Burnette, J. L. (2020). Growth mindset messaging in stigma-relevant contexts: Harnessing benefits without costs. ''Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences'', ''7''(2), 157–164. https://doi.org/10.1177/2372732220941216 Hoyt, C. L., & Burnette, J. L. (2025). How mindsets can mitigate or sustain prejudice. ''Current Directions in Psychological Science'', ''34''(2), 82–87. https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214241301290 Hoyt, C. L., Burnette, J. L., Auster-Gussman, L., Blodorn, A., & Major, B. (2017). The obesity stigma asymmetry model: The indirect and divergent effects of blame and changeability beliefs on antifat prejudice. ''Stigma and Health'', ''2''(1), 53–65. https://doi.org/10.1037/sah0000026 Hoyt, C. L., Rafferty, D., Earl, S., & Burnette, J. L. (2024). Growth mindsets of people can promote interracial contact intentions among White Americans via positive expectations and reduced anxiety. ''Group Processes & Intergroup Relations'', ''27''(4), 903–924. https://doi.org/10.1177/13684302231187262 Kvaale, E. P., Gottdiener, W. H., & Haslam, N. (2013, November). Biogenetic explanations and stigma: a meta-analytic review of associations among laypeople. Social Science & Medicine (1982); PubMed. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.07.017 ‌ Levy, S. R., & Dweck, C. S. (1999). The impact of children's static versus dynamic conceptions of people on stereotype formation. ''Child Development'', ''70''(5), 1163–1180. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00085 Molden, D. C., & Dweck, C. S. (2006). Finding “meaning” in psychology: A lay theories approach to self-regulation, social perception, and social development. ''American Psychologist'', ''61''(3), 192–203. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.61.3.192 Neel, R., & Shapiro, J. R. (2012). Is racial bias malleable? Whites' lay theories of racial bias predict divergent strategies for interracial interactions. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''103''(1), 101–120. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028237 Weiner, B., Perry, R. P., & Magnusson, J. (1988). An attributional analysis of reactions to stigmas. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55(5), 738–748. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.55.5.738 Arnold, A. (2024, September 24). Unlocking Your True Self: The Psychology of Individuation and Personal Growth. Medium. https://medium.com/@AyeshaArnold/understanding-individuation-a-journey-to-self-discovery-268ff8bd6aff ‌ Runco, M. A. (2011). Implicit Theories. Encyclopedia of Creativity, 644–646. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-375038-9.00119-9 Martin, A., & Rief, W. (2011). Relevance of Cognitive and Behavioral Factors in Medically Unexplained Syndromes and Somatoform Disorders. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 34(3), 565–578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psc.2011.05.007 ‌ Neufeld, E. (2022). Psychological essentialism and the structure of concepts. Philosophy Compass, 17(5). https://doi.org/10.1111/phc3.12823 ‌ Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2016, November). Structural stigma: Research evidence and implications for psychological science. The American Psychologist; PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000068 }} ==External links== * [https://www.apa.org/topics/racism-bias-discrimination Racism, bias, and discrimination] (American Psychological Association) * [https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/functional-fixedness fixedness] * [https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/spc3.12370 essentialism] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Mindset/Growth]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Stigma]] n3tn730955gq4cpq6rtddhr2luaoue2 0 331096 2840881 2829571 2026-10-17T06:49:47Z U3228742 3005570 /* What is "cognitive hardiness"? */ added a question mark and captialisation of first word of sentences 2840881 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Cognitive hardiness and stress resilience:<br>How does cognitive hardiness promote resilience to stress and adversity?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Busy office lady.svg|thumb|180px|'''Figure 1.''' Office worker feeling overwhelmed]] Case study You are new manager of a new team. You recently hired two new people to fill in critical roles in the team. Both new employees do not have much experience in the role so you are aware there will be a steep learning curve for the both of them. As time goes on, you notice that one employee has been able to keep up with the pace of the work and the learning demands on her. As for the second employee, you are noticing that he is struggling. He is not able to keep on top of his workload, and on top of that, he is displaying anxious behaviour, stress and showing lack of control over his performance. You wonder why the two of them are different in their performance. {{RoundBoxBottom}} * This case study illustrates what is perhaps on a lot of our minds "what makes others deal better with stress and adversity and in fact, thrive in it. Is it a function of their personality, intelligence, social support, upbringing or any other external factors?" This is a question that Kobasa (REF) sought to answer when he observed a group of intelligent people under extremely stressful situation. He found that people who thrived in adversity and stressful situation shared similar personality traits and coined the term "cognitive hardiness" to describe it. Cognitive hardiness enabled individuals to view stress and adversity with a sense of control and an opportunity for growth rather than something to fear. * Stress and adversity are part of human life but we can better manage this by developing cognitive hardiness (cite studies where cognitive hardiness has contributed to success (academic performance at university - Maddi et al. 2009) and improved mental health state (Sadeghpour et al. 2021). *In this book chapter, we will look more into this term "cognitive hardiness" and answer the question of how hardiness promote resilience in the face of stress and adversity. *Understanding the function of cognitive hardiness and the characteristics that make up the construct, will help us understand how we can be better resilient in the face of stress and adversity across many context such as education performance, work performance and maintaining general mental wellbeing (Chuning et al., 2024). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}Focus Questions 1. What is "cognitive hardiness" and "resilience"? 2. What is the role of hardinesss in promoting resilience? 3. What is the relationship between resilience and stress and adversity? 4. How do we build cognitive hardiness? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links <nowiki>**</nowiki> == Let's talk Definition == === What is "cognitive hardiness"? === 1.       What is cognitive hardiness? -  Kobasa while examining high stress individuals with a low incidence of illness, coined the term ‘cognitive hardiness’ to described the adaptive behaviours of resilient individuals. For Kobasa these individuals demonstrated 3 c’s (Biggs et al., 2023; Sherrica Senewiratne et al., 2025). * Control – perceived level of mastery over the stressor * Commitment – level of persistence to overcome the stressor * Challenge – ability to perceive the stressor as a challenge and opportunity for growth as opposed to a threat to be removed -  ''‘Cognitive hardiness is a psychological resource that enables individuals to proactively engage in a mental appraisal of a potential stressor against their perceived level of commitment, control and challenge to determine the coping response which augments their opportunities for personal growth’'' (Sherrica Senewiratne et al., 2025). - Used interchangeably with ‘grit’ and ‘resilience’ as they have similar characteristics, however, they are different constructs. Grit – persistence and constancy rather than adaptability. The tendency to persist despite difficulty but many not do so with grace. Whereas cognitive hardiness refers to ability to accept difficulty, persisting and directing efforts productively. This exhibits flexibility and adaptability (Biggs et al., 2023; Sherrica Senewiratne et al., 2025). === What is "resilience"? === -  A person ability to bounce back and move forward following an adversity (Biggs et al., 2023; Sherrica Senewiratne et al., 2025). === What is "stress"? === - ‘Stress is defined in terms of a disruption of the equilibrium of the cognitive-emotional-environmental system by external factors’ (Demerouti et al., 2001) == What is the relationship between resilience and stress and adversity? == * Stress and adversity can come from different forms and level - the point at which a person can no longer handle their stress and adversity is when it has reached more than their mental capacity to cope. * Cite studies - covid19 (Song et al., 2021), mothers with disabled children (include reference - from Journal of Psychopathology, pg 40 onwards) * Include how people deal with stress and adversity by going over the different coping strategies o   '''Cognitive appraisal – how people evaluate stress and adversity which triggers their fight or flight response''' == What is the role of cognitive hardiness in promoting resilience? == * Include the theoretical history of hardiness and growth of positive psychology - talks about the capacity of humans to grow and develop in the face of adversity. == Antecedents to cognitive hardiness == * '''Higher internal locust of control''' * '''Cognitive flexibility''' * '''Personality''' == How do we build cognitive hardiness? == * While it may seem like cognitive hardiness is fixed throughout a lifetime, research have identified that it can change with experience. Consider the roles of the following: * How do we stress-test our cognitive hardiness? * Role of personality * Role of biological gene * Role of environment * Psychological theories?? ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Biggs, A. T., Seech, T. R., Johnston, S. L., & Russell, D. W. (2023). Psychological endurance: how grit, resilience, and related factors contribute to sustained effort despite adversity. The Journal of General Psychology, 151(3), 271–313. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221309.2023.2253955 Chuning, A. E., Durham, M. R., William D.S. Killgore, & Smith, R. (2024). Psychological resilience and hardiness as protective factors in the relationship between depression/anxiety and well-being: Exploratory and confirmatory evidence. Personality and Individual Differences, 225, 112664–112664. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2024.112664 Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., Nachreiner, F., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2001). The job demands-resources model of burnout. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(3), 499–512. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11419809/ Sherrica Senewiratne, Sen Sendjaya, Asanka Gunasekara, & Newman, A. (2025). Cognitive hardiness in the workplace: a systematic review and call for future research. Management Review Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11301-025-00512-w Song, S., Yang, X., Yang, H., Zhou, P., Ma, H., Teng, C., Chen, H., Ou, H., Li, J., Mathews, C. A., Nutley, S., Liu, N., Zhang, X., & Zhang, N. (2021). Psychological Resilience as a Protective Factor for Depression and Anxiety Among the Public During the Outbreak of COVID-19. Frontiers in Psychology, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.618509 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Hardiness]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Resilience]] erd94yphvek258jxfhkg3y3lmymeq50 0 331109 2840802 2840376 2026-10-17T02:09:54Z U3211150 3106672 /* Understanding adaptive and maladaptive self-reflection */ rearrange paragraph 2840802 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection:<br>When does self-reflection promote wellbeing and when does it contribute to psychological distress?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Le Penseur in the Jardin du Musée Rodin, Paris 14 June 2015.jpg|Le_Penseur_in_the_Jardin_du_Musée_Rodin,_Paris_14_June_2015]|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Reflection may produce insight, but repeated self-focused thought may contribute to distress.]] '''Scenario: An embarrassing encounter''' Trevor's day at university was fairly ordinary. While walking to get his second coffee, he exchanged a brief smile with another student. Distracted, he failed to notice the uneven ground and tripped in front of her. He quickly walked away, flushed and deeply embarrassed. Trevor repeatedly replayed the incident in his mind, becoming absorbed in self-focused thought (see Figure 1). He decided that if he saw her again, he would avoid her to prevent further embarrassment. When Trevor told his friend Alucard what had happened, Alucard suggested that she might not have noticed. This prompted Trevor to consider whether his prediction of rejection was supported by what had actually occurred. Soon afterwards, Trevor saw the same student approaching. Although he still felt embarrassed, he reconsidered his interpretation and introduced himself. He discovered that she was happy to speak with him. Trevor's response illustrates how reflecting on the same experience may be associated with different emotional and behavioural outcomes. Why might repeatedly replaying the event have prolonged his embarrassment, while reconsidering his interpretation helped him respond more constructively? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Self-reflection|Self-reflection]] involves examining one’s thoughts, emotions and behaviour, but this process does not necessarily produce insight or psychological wellbeing. Self-reflection and insight are related but distinguishable: reflection describes the process of self-examination, whereas insight involves developing clearer self-understanding (Grant et al., 2002). This distinction is practically important because deliberate self-analysis may appear constructive even when it maintains embarrassment, avoidance or distress. The effects of self-focused thought may depend on how it is performed. Trapnell and Campbell (1999) distinguished curiosity-driven reflection from recurrent [[w:Rumination (psychology)|rumination]] prompted by perceived threats, losses or injustices involving the self. More broadly, repetitive thought may be relatively constructive or unconstructive depending on its content, context and level of processing (Watkins, 2008). Psychological perspective may also matter, as analysing a negative experience from a self-distanced perspective may reduce immediate emotional reactivity compared with self-immersed analysis (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). Understanding these processes may help explain why reflection sometimes supports insight and constructive action but, in other circumstances, contributes to continuing distress.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What distinguishes adaptive self-reflection from maladaptive self-focused thought? * Under what conditions may self-reflection support psychological wellbeing? * Under what conditions may self-focused thought contribute to psychological distress? * What psychological processes influence the outcomes of self-reflection? * How might people engage in more adaptive self-reflection? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding adaptive and maladaptive self-reflection == Self-focused thought is not explicitly helpful or harmful. It may involve distinguishable processes which influence the overall wellbeing outcomes. Whether adaptive or maladaptive behaviours are executed may rely on motivation, processing style, capacity to generate insight and the relationship with repetitive negative thinking. Self-reflection can be defined as the inspection and evaluation of one's thoughts, emotions and behaviour, along with the act of directed attention towards internal experiences and processes. However, engaging in the act of self-reflection is not the same as gaining clarity and understanding of what these internal experiences mean (Grant et al., 2002). Adaptive and maladaptive describe the likely outcomes of self-focused thought compared to specific fixed good/bad distinctions. Adaptive self-reflection may involve the flexible, purposeful processing that supports insight, problem-solving or movement towards personally relevant goals (Watkins, 2008). On the other hand, maladaptive self-reflection involves a more self-focused thought process that refers to repetitive attention to distress and its causes or consequences. Rumination is a central example of maladaptive processes, but not every emotionally difficult reflective episode is necessarily maladaptive. Therefore, engaging in these behaviour may potentially interfere with problem-solving and supportive behaviours that can lead to positive outcomes and reaching insight. (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008). {{cmbox | type = style | image = [[File:Emblem-question-yellow.svg|40px]] | style = width: 400px; | textstyle = color: black; font-weight: bold; font-style: italic; | text = Does self-reflection differ from insight? }} While self-reflection and insight are related, they are both distinguishable factors. Reflection involves the process of self-examination, whereas insight describes the possible outcome. Suggesting that higher levels of self-examination do not with certainty produce clear self-understanding. Moreover, insight is defined as the clarity to understanding of one's thoughts, emotions and behaviours compared to the evaluative process of self-reflection (Grant et al,. 2002). Grant et al.'s (2002) results found that self-reflection associated positively with anxiety and stress. Whereas, insight was negatively associated with depression, anxiety and stress, while positively associated with cognitive flexibility and self-regulation. These findings were primarily correlational and participants included a sample of undergraduate psychology students which may limit the generalisability. Therefore, these findings demonstrate association among self-reflection insight and psychological outcomes, but they do not establish causal relationships. Trapnell and Campbell (1999) identified two motivationally distinct forms of private self-attention. They distinguish between curiosity-driven reflection or intellectual interest in the self compared to recurrent self-rumination likely to be prompted by threats, losses or injustices regarding the self. Additionally they introduced the "self-absorption paradox", which highlights how self-focused attention can be associated with both self-understanding and psychological distress. This suggests that the motivation and quality of self-focused attention may be more informative than the amount of reflection alone. Trapnell and Campbell's (1999) model provides a key theoretical differentiation for dispositional reflection and rumination. While their research support the distinction between the different processes of reflection. However, it does not establish causation between reflection supporting adaptive outcomes and repetitive thought causing harmful outcomes. (now lets apply this to trevor scen? extra bubble/box seperate or keep integrated to paragraph ) When these theories are applied to Trevor's scenario, He replays the incident with self-focused attention, but it does not initially provide him with easing distress or more accurate understanding. Furthermore, the act of repeated replaying the embarrassment and anticipated rejection resembles the threat-focused rumination, whereas questioning his initial assumptions illustrates curiosity-driven reflection. According to Treynor et al. (2003), rumination may contain at least two distinguishable components: brooding and reflective pondering. Brooding can be defined as the passive comparison between one's current circumstance and an unattained standard, while reflective pondering can be defined as purposeful attention intended to understand or address distress. however, reflection and reflective pondering are from two different measures and should not be treated as identical constructs,It important to highlight these as differing constructs as they both associate differently when measured alongside depressive symptoms. Reflective pondering showed a different and less consistently maladaptive pattern than brooding, although, it is also measured alongside depressive rumination and should not automatically be equated to adaptive self-reflection. This highlighted how different processes of rumination have different relationships with depressive symptoms. (Treynor et al., 2003). Takano and Tanno (2009), proposed that self-reflection and self-rumination are distinguishable but may not be entirely independent. In a two-wave study, self-reflection predicted subsequent self-rumination within the authors' statistical model, suggesting that the two processes may co exist. Self-reflection was associated with lower depression, whereas self-rumination was associated with higher depression Important to note that the estimated total effect of reflection on depression was close to zero, as reflection and rumination occurred together. This suggests that adaptive reflection processes may coexist with maladaptive processes that counteract positive outcomes. The small, predominantly male undergraduate sample and brief follow-up period limit generalisability, while the observational design prevents firm causal conclusions. Ultimately research suggests that adaptive self-reflection appears more likely to involve curiosity, flexibility and movement towards insight or constructive action, whereas maladaptive self-focused thought more commonly involves threat-focused repetitions, passive brooding and difficulty disengaging. However, these processes may overlap, and deliberate reflection should be assumed to be beneficial. == Adaptive self-reflection and wellbeing == Self reflection is more likely to support wellbeing when insight is gained to facilitate constructive meaningInsight was positively associated with happiness and life satisfaction, whereas self-reflection alone did not show the same relationship with subjective wellbeing (Lyke, 2009). * Adaptive self-reflection was indirectly associated with greater resilience and wellbeing through insight when rumination was low. When rumination was high, the pattern was less favourable (Bucknell et al., 2022). * A randomised control trial, found that self reflective writing was more effective than descriptive writing in reinforced perceived resilience. Additionally, reflection on successful coping demonstrates better maintenance of benefits than reflecting on unsuccessful coping (Bucknell et al., 2024). * An app-based journal that targeted positive processes was associated with increased psychological wellbeing among participants with average or higher baseline dispositional self-reflection, after statistically controlling for rumination (MacIsaac et al., 2023) '''Concluding sentence''' - the evidence highlighted that the possible benefits of reflection depend on whether the action produces greater insight, constructing meaning and recognising effective coping. Find research potential locus of control x self-reflection as a point '''Limitations''' * Lyke (2009) is correlational and does not prove insight causes wellbeing * Bucknell et al. (2022) is a cross-sectional moderated mediation analysis, proposed indirect statistical pathway does not infer causation * Bucknell et al. (2024) experimental outcomes were targeted to perceived resilience rather than self reflection. Participants also consisted of Australian ministry workers limiting generalisability * MacIsaac et al. (2023), study was longitudinal but lacked experimental assignment and a control group. Participants chose how much they used the journal, and the app contained other features. Additionally, the nature of the quasi-experiment makes it difficult to confirm whether outcomes are influenced by individuals pre existing reflection intentions and behaviours. == Maladaptive self-reflection and psychological distress == [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]'''Focus questions -''' Under what conditions may self-focused thought contribute to psychological distress? '''Topic sentence/introductory message -''' Self-focused thought may contribute to psychological distress when it becomes repetitive, negative and difficult to detach from, especially when interfering with constructive behaviour and problem solving. '''Key points''' *Response style theory proposes that repetitive focus on distress and its causes and consequences may reinforce negative thinking, impair problem solving and interfere with constructive understanding and behaviours (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008) *A meta-analysis of effect sizes highlighted an association between self-focused attention and negative affect. The strength of this association differed by the form of self-focus, distress and samples (Mor & Winquist, 2002) *Cross-sectional mediation models indicated that brooding statistically accounted for part of the relationship between lower self-compassion and depressive symptoms, while brooding and worry correlated with anxiety (Raes, 2010). *Dunn & Luchner (2022) researched reflection on personal mistakes and how rumination conditions effected negative affect. Results found that no significant improvement in negative emotion, which indicates that rumination may maintain psychological distress. '''Concluding sentence''' - self-focused thought may involve distress when it maintains attention toward negative content without facilitating insight or effective problem-solving. '''Limitations''' * Identifies overall association, not the causality of self-focus and distress. Additionally this meta-analysis is quite dated , social norms and stressors have changed so a more recent meta-analysis may be more useful. (Mor & Winquist, 2002) * Nolen-Hoeksema et al. (2008) concluded that rumination predicted the onset of depression more consistently than the duration of the depressive episode, findings concerning duration were mixed. * Raes (2010) cross-sectional design may limit generalisability and causality. * Dunn and Luchner (2022) did not find a strong implication that rumination significantly caused a decreased mood. Additionally, the study focuses on reflection of personal mistakes and not self-reflection in general. == Factors influencing the outcomes of self-reflection == '''Focus question -''' What psychological processes influence the outcomes of self-reflection? '''Topic sentence -''' The outcomes of self-reflection may be influenced by the interaction of cognitive, emotional, personal and cultural factors rather than on the amount of maladaptive process alone. '''Key points''' *A theoretical review proposed that repetitive thought may be constructive or unconstructive depending on its emotional content, situational context and level of construal, including whether processing is relatively abstract or concrete (Watkins, 2008). *Experimental evidence suggests that analysing a negative experience from a psychologically distanced perspective may support faster cardiovascular recovery than analysing it from a self-immersed perspective (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). *Cross-cultural studies found that Russian participants reported greater spontaneous self-distancing and less distress while reflecting on negative experiences than American participants, indicating that cultural context may influence how reflection is performed and experienced (Grossmann & Kross, 2010). *The relationship between adaptive reflection, insight and wellbeing differed according to participants’ levels of rumination, suggesting that rumination may interfere with otherwise constructive reflective processing (Bucknell et al., 2022). *An experiment involving reflection on a significant mistake suggested that self-criticism may also influence outcomes, as reflection was associated with reduced negative emotion among participants high in the “hated self” form of self-criticism (Dunn & Luchner, 2022). '''Concluding sentence''' - important influences may include processing style, psychological distance, emotional content, rumination, self-criticism, culture and the extent to which reflection generates insight or action. '''Limitations''' == Developing more adaptive self-reflection == '''Focus question''' - How might people engage in more adaptive self-reflection? *Adaptive self-reflection may be encouraged by giving reflection a clear structure, directing attention towards specific experiences and supporting perspective, insight and constructive action. *Analysing a negative experience from a self-distanced perspective may reduce immediate physiological reactivity compared with analysing the experience from a self-immersed perspective (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). *In a one-month randomised trial with distressed students, both [[w:Mindfulness|mindfulness meditation]] and relaxation training reduced distress and increased positive states of mind relative to a control condition; mindfulness meditation also reduced rumination relative to the control condition (Jain et al., 2007). *Positively focused journalling prompts concerning growth, mastery, goals and the future were associated with improved psychological wellbeing among participants with average or higher dispositional self-reflection (MacIsaac et al., 2023). *Structured reflection on successful coping experiences may be particularly useful, as its effects on perceived resilience were maintained more effectively than reflection focused on unsuccessful coping experiences (Bucknell et al., 2024). *in relation to recalling a significant personal mistake, reflection was associated with reduced negative emotion among participants high in hated-self criticism, whereas rumination produced no significant emotional change. (Dunn & Luchner, 2022). '''Concluding sentence''' - promising strategies include psychological distancing, mindfulness, positively focused journalling and structured reflection on successful coping; however, these approaches should not be presented as universally effective. '''Limitations''' *Ayduk and Kross (2008), dated source and supports immediate self-distancing over a more universal and long term intervention. *Jain et al. (2007), Sample included 83 distressed students limiting generalisability. Additionally, mindfulness was not significantly stronger for relaxation for distress or positive states of mind. *Bucknell et al. (2024), study targeted perceived resilience and was a specific occupational sample. ;Quiz Time to quiz your knowledge! Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Self-reflection involves examining one's thoughts, emotions and behaviour: |type="()"} + True - False {Self-reflection is always adaptive when it is deliberate and purposeful: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== *Self-reflection does not appear to be definitively adaptive or maladaptive; its outcomes may depend on how reflection is processed and the context. *Adaptive self-reflection may involve curiosity, flexible thinking and movement towards insight, problem-solving or constructive action. *Maladaptive self-focused thought may involve threat-focused repetition, passive brooding and difficulty disengaging from distress. *Reflection alone does not necessarily produce insight or psychological wellbeing. *Factors such as psychological distance, rumination, emotional content, self-criticism and cultural context may influence reflective outcomes. *Strategies such as mindfulness, self-distancing, positively focused journalling and structured reflection on successful coping may encourage more adaptive reflection. '''Concluding sentence''' - outcomes do not rely on whether an individual reflects or not, but whether their reflection generates clearer understanding and constructive action or maintains repetitive negative attention. ==See also== * [[w:Emotion regulation|Emotion regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Rumination (psychology)|Rumination]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Rumination|Rumination]] (Book chapter, 2013) * [[w:Self-awareness|Self-awareness]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ayduk, Ö., & Kross, E. (2008). Enhancing the pace of recovery: Self-distanced analysis of negative experiences reduces blood pressure reactivity. ''Psychological Science, 19''(3), 229–231. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02073.x Bucknell, K. J., Kangas, M., & Crane, M. F. (2022). Adaptive self-reflection and resilience: The moderating effects of rumination on insight as a mediator. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 185'', 111234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.111234 Bucknell, K. J., Kangas, M., Karin, E., & Crane, M. F. (2024). A randomized controlled trial comparing the effects of self‐reflective writing focused on successful and unsuccessful coping experiences on resilience. ''Stress and Health, 40''(2), e3311. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.3311 Dunn, N. A., & Luchner, A. F. (2022). The emotional impact of self‐criticism on self‐reflection and rumination. ''Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 95''(4), 1126–1139. https://doi.org/10.1111/papt.12422 Grant, A. M., Franklin, J., & Langford, P. (2002). The self-reflection and insight scale: A new measure of private self-consciousness. ''Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 30''(8), 821–836. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2002.30.8.821 Grossmann, I., & Kross, E. (2010). The impact of culture on adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection. ''Psychological Science, 21''(8), 1150–1157. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610376655 Jain, S., Shapiro, S. L., Swanick, S., Roesch, S. C., Mills, P. J., Bell, I., & Schwartz, G. E. (2007). A randomized controlled trial of mindfulness meditation versus relaxation training: Effects on distress, positive states of mind, rumination, and distraction. ''Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 33''(1), 11–21. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324796abm3301_2 Lyke, J. A. (2009). Insight, but not self-reflection, is related to subjective well-being. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 46''(1), 66–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2008.09.010 MacIsaac, A., Mushquash, A. R., & Wekerle, C. (2023). Writing yourself well: Dispositional self-reflection moderates the effect of a smartphone app-based journaling intervention on psychological wellbeing across time. ''Behaviour Change, 40''(4), 297–313. https://doi.org/10.1017/bec.2022.24 Mor, N., & Winquist, J. (2002). Self-focused attention and negative affect: A meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin, 128''(4), 638–662. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.638 Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3''(5), 400–424. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x Raes, F. (2010). Rumination and worry as mediators of the relationship between self-compassion and depression and anxiety. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 48''(6), 757–761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.023 Takano, K., & Tanno, Y. (2009). Self-rumination, self-reflection, and depression: Self-rumination counteracts the adaptive effect of self-reflection. ''Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47''(3), 260–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2008.12.008 Trapnell, P. D., & Campbell, J. D. (1999). Private self-consciousness and the five-factor model of personality: Distinguishing rumination from reflection. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76''(2), 284–304. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.76.2.284 Treynor, W., Gonzalez, R., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2003). Rumination reconsidered: A psychometric analysis. ''Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27''(3), 247–259. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023910315561 Watkins, E. (2004). Adaptive and maladaptive ruminative self-focus during emotional processing. ''Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42''(9), 1037–1052. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2004.01.009 Watkins, E. R. (2008). Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought. ''Psychological Bulletin, 134''(2), 163–206. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.163 }} ==External links== * [https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/break-the-cycle Breaking the cycle of rumination] (Harvard Health Publishing) * [https://www.smilingmind.com.au/ Smiling Mind] (Smiling Mind) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Cognition]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] 459i0nbn9kyn8enxq2gzf6btaooh7xz 2840804 2840802 2026-10-17T02:11:44Z U3211150 3106672 add round box to trevor application 2840804 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection:<br>When does self-reflection promote wellbeing and when does it contribute to psychological distress?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Le Penseur in the Jardin du Musée Rodin, Paris 14 June 2015.jpg|Le_Penseur_in_the_Jardin_du_Musée_Rodin,_Paris_14_June_2015]|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Reflection may produce insight, but repeated self-focused thought may contribute to distress.]] '''Scenario: An embarrassing encounter''' Trevor's day at university was fairly ordinary. While walking to get his second coffee, he exchanged a brief smile with another student. Distracted, he failed to notice the uneven ground and tripped in front of her. He quickly walked away, flushed and deeply embarrassed. Trevor repeatedly replayed the incident in his mind, becoming absorbed in self-focused thought (see Figure 1). He decided that if he saw her again, he would avoid her to prevent further embarrassment. When Trevor told his friend Alucard what had happened, Alucard suggested that she might not have noticed. This prompted Trevor to consider whether his prediction of rejection was supported by what had actually occurred. Soon afterwards, Trevor saw the same student approaching. Although he still felt embarrassed, he reconsidered his interpretation and introduced himself. He discovered that she was happy to speak with him. Trevor's response illustrates how reflecting on the same experience may be associated with different emotional and behavioural outcomes. Why might repeatedly replaying the event have prolonged his embarrassment, while reconsidering his interpretation helped him respond more constructively? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Self-reflection|Self-reflection]] involves examining one’s thoughts, emotions and behaviour, but this process does not necessarily produce insight or psychological wellbeing. Self-reflection and insight are related but distinguishable: reflection describes the process of self-examination, whereas insight involves developing clearer self-understanding (Grant et al., 2002). This distinction is practically important because deliberate self-analysis may appear constructive even when it maintains embarrassment, avoidance or distress. The effects of self-focused thought may depend on how it is performed. Trapnell and Campbell (1999) distinguished curiosity-driven reflection from recurrent [[w:Rumination (psychology)|rumination]] prompted by perceived threats, losses or injustices involving the self. More broadly, repetitive thought may be relatively constructive or unconstructive depending on its content, context and level of processing (Watkins, 2008). Psychological perspective may also matter, as analysing a negative experience from a self-distanced perspective may reduce immediate emotional reactivity compared with self-immersed analysis (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). Understanding these processes may help explain why reflection sometimes supports insight and constructive action but, in other circumstances, contributes to continuing distress.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What distinguishes adaptive self-reflection from maladaptive self-focused thought? * Under what conditions may self-reflection support psychological wellbeing? * Under what conditions may self-focused thought contribute to psychological distress? * What psychological processes influence the outcomes of self-reflection? * How might people engage in more adaptive self-reflection? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding adaptive and maladaptive self-reflection == Self-focused thought is not explicitly helpful or harmful. It may involve distinguishable processes which influence the overall wellbeing outcomes. Whether adaptive or maladaptive behaviours are executed may rely on motivation, processing style, capacity to generate insight and the relationship with repetitive negative thinking. Self-reflection can be defined as the inspection and evaluation of one's thoughts, emotions and behaviour, along with the act of directed attention towards internal experiences and processes. However, engaging in the act of self-reflection is not the same as gaining clarity and understanding of what these internal experiences mean (Grant et al., 2002). Adaptive and maladaptive describe the likely outcomes of self-focused thought compared to specific fixed good/bad distinctions. Adaptive self-reflection may involve the flexible, purposeful processing that supports insight, problem-solving or movement towards personally relevant goals (Watkins, 2008). On the other hand, maladaptive self-reflection involves a more self-focused thought process that refers to repetitive attention to distress and its causes or consequences. Rumination is a central example of maladaptive processes, but not every emotionally difficult reflective episode is necessarily maladaptive. Therefore, engaging in these behaviour may potentially interfere with problem-solving and supportive behaviours that can lead to positive outcomes and reaching insight. (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008). {{cmbox | type = style | image = [[File:Emblem-question-yellow.svg|40px]] | style = width: 400px; | textstyle = color: black; font-weight: bold; font-style: italic; | text = Does self-reflection differ from insight? }} While self-reflection and insight are related, they are both distinguishable factors. Reflection involves the process of self-examination, whereas insight describes the possible outcome. Suggesting that higher levels of self-examination do not with certainty produce clear self-understanding. Moreover, insight is defined as the clarity to understanding of one's thoughts, emotions and behaviours compared to the evaluative process of self-reflection (Grant et al,. 2002). Grant et al.'s (2002) results found that self-reflection associated positively with anxiety and stress. Whereas, insight was negatively associated with depression, anxiety and stress, while positively associated with cognitive flexibility and self-regulation. These findings were primarily correlational and participants included a sample of undergraduate psychology students which may limit the generalisability. Therefore, these findings demonstrate association among self-reflection insight and psychological outcomes, but they do not establish causal relationships. Trapnell and Campbell (1999) identified two motivationally distinct forms of private self-attention. They distinguish between curiosity-driven reflection or intellectual interest in the self compared to recurrent self-rumination likely to be prompted by threats, losses or injustices regarding the self. Additionally they introduced the "self-absorption paradox", which highlights how self-focused attention can be associated with both self-understanding and psychological distress. This suggests that the motivation and quality of self-focused attention may be more informative than the amount of reflection alone. Trapnell and Campbell's (1999) model provides a key theoretical differentiation for dispositional reflection and rumination. While their research support the distinction between the different processes of reflection. However, it does not establish causation between reflection supporting adaptive outcomes and repetitive thought causing harmful outcomes. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ''' Now lets apply this back to Trevor''' When these theories are applied to Trevor's scenario, He replays the incident with self-focused attention, but it does not initially provide him with easing distress or more accurate understanding. Furthermore, the act of repeated replaying the embarrassment and anticipated rejection resembles the threat-focused rumination, whereas questioning his initial assumptions illustrates curiosity-driven reflection. {{RoundBoxBottom}} According to Treynor et al. (2003), rumination may contain at least two distinguishable components: brooding and reflective pondering. Brooding can be defined as the passive comparison between one's current circumstance and an unattained standard, while reflective pondering can be defined as purposeful attention intended to understand or address distress. however, reflection and reflective pondering are from two different measures and should not be treated as identical constructs,It important to highlight these as differing constructs as they both associate differently when measured alongside depressive symptoms. Reflective pondering showed a different and less consistently maladaptive pattern than brooding, although, it is also measured alongside depressive rumination and should not automatically be equated to adaptive self-reflection. This highlighted how different processes of rumination have different relationships with depressive symptoms. (Treynor et al., 2003). Takano and Tanno (2009), proposed that self-reflection and self-rumination are distinguishable but may not be entirely independent. In a two-wave study, self-reflection predicted subsequent self-rumination within the authors' statistical model, suggesting that the two processes may co exist. Self-reflection was associated with lower depression, whereas self-rumination was associated with higher depression Important to note that the estimated total effect of reflection on depression was close to zero, as reflection and rumination occurred together. This suggests that adaptive reflection processes may coexist with maladaptive processes that counteract positive outcomes. The small, predominantly male undergraduate sample and brief follow-up period limit generalisability, while the observational design prevents firm causal conclusions. Ultimately research suggests that adaptive self-reflection appears more likely to involve curiosity, flexibility and movement towards insight or constructive action, whereas maladaptive self-focused thought more commonly involves threat-focused repetitions, passive brooding and difficulty disengaging. However, these processes may overlap, and deliberate reflection should be assumed to be beneficial. == Adaptive self-reflection and wellbeing == Self reflection is more likely to support wellbeing when insight is gained to facilitate constructive meaningInsight was positively associated with happiness and life satisfaction, whereas self-reflection alone did not show the same relationship with subjective wellbeing (Lyke, 2009). * Adaptive self-reflection was indirectly associated with greater resilience and wellbeing through insight when rumination was low. When rumination was high, the pattern was less favourable (Bucknell et al., 2022). * A randomised control trial, found that self reflective writing was more effective than descriptive writing in reinforced perceived resilience. Additionally, reflection on successful coping demonstrates better maintenance of benefits than reflecting on unsuccessful coping (Bucknell et al., 2024). * An app-based journal that targeted positive processes was associated with increased psychological wellbeing among participants with average or higher baseline dispositional self-reflection, after statistically controlling for rumination (MacIsaac et al., 2023) '''Concluding sentence''' - the evidence highlighted that the possible benefits of reflection depend on whether the action produces greater insight, constructing meaning and recognising effective coping. Find research potential locus of control x self-reflection as a point '''Limitations''' * Lyke (2009) is correlational and does not prove insight causes wellbeing * Bucknell et al. (2022) is a cross-sectional moderated mediation analysis, proposed indirect statistical pathway does not infer causation * Bucknell et al. (2024) experimental outcomes were targeted to perceived resilience rather than self reflection. Participants also consisted of Australian ministry workers limiting generalisability * MacIsaac et al. (2023), study was longitudinal but lacked experimental assignment and a control group. Participants chose how much they used the journal, and the app contained other features. Additionally, the nature of the quasi-experiment makes it difficult to confirm whether outcomes are influenced by individuals pre existing reflection intentions and behaviours. == Maladaptive self-reflection and psychological distress == [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]'''Focus questions -''' Under what conditions may self-focused thought contribute to psychological distress? '''Topic sentence/introductory message -''' Self-focused thought may contribute to psychological distress when it becomes repetitive, negative and difficult to detach from, especially when interfering with constructive behaviour and problem solving. '''Key points''' *Response style theory proposes that repetitive focus on distress and its causes and consequences may reinforce negative thinking, impair problem solving and interfere with constructive understanding and behaviours (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008) *A meta-analysis of effect sizes highlighted an association between self-focused attention and negative affect. The strength of this association differed by the form of self-focus, distress and samples (Mor & Winquist, 2002) *Cross-sectional mediation models indicated that brooding statistically accounted for part of the relationship between lower self-compassion and depressive symptoms, while brooding and worry correlated with anxiety (Raes, 2010). *Dunn & Luchner (2022) researched reflection on personal mistakes and how rumination conditions effected negative affect. Results found that no significant improvement in negative emotion, which indicates that rumination may maintain psychological distress. '''Concluding sentence''' - self-focused thought may involve distress when it maintains attention toward negative content without facilitating insight or effective problem-solving. '''Limitations''' * Identifies overall association, not the causality of self-focus and distress. Additionally this meta-analysis is quite dated , social norms and stressors have changed so a more recent meta-analysis may be more useful. (Mor & Winquist, 2002) * Nolen-Hoeksema et al. (2008) concluded that rumination predicted the onset of depression more consistently than the duration of the depressive episode, findings concerning duration were mixed. * Raes (2010) cross-sectional design may limit generalisability and causality. * Dunn and Luchner (2022) did not find a strong implication that rumination significantly caused a decreased mood. Additionally, the study focuses on reflection of personal mistakes and not self-reflection in general. == Factors influencing the outcomes of self-reflection == '''Focus question -''' What psychological processes influence the outcomes of self-reflection? '''Topic sentence -''' The outcomes of self-reflection may be influenced by the interaction of cognitive, emotional, personal and cultural factors rather than on the amount of maladaptive process alone. '''Key points''' *A theoretical review proposed that repetitive thought may be constructive or unconstructive depending on its emotional content, situational context and level of construal, including whether processing is relatively abstract or concrete (Watkins, 2008). *Experimental evidence suggests that analysing a negative experience from a psychologically distanced perspective may support faster cardiovascular recovery than analysing it from a self-immersed perspective (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). *Cross-cultural studies found that Russian participants reported greater spontaneous self-distancing and less distress while reflecting on negative experiences than American participants, indicating that cultural context may influence how reflection is performed and experienced (Grossmann & Kross, 2010). *The relationship between adaptive reflection, insight and wellbeing differed according to participants’ levels of rumination, suggesting that rumination may interfere with otherwise constructive reflective processing (Bucknell et al., 2022). *An experiment involving reflection on a significant mistake suggested that self-criticism may also influence outcomes, as reflection was associated with reduced negative emotion among participants high in the “hated self” form of self-criticism (Dunn & Luchner, 2022). '''Concluding sentence''' - important influences may include processing style, psychological distance, emotional content, rumination, self-criticism, culture and the extent to which reflection generates insight or action. '''Limitations''' == Developing more adaptive self-reflection == '''Focus question''' - How might people engage in more adaptive self-reflection? *Adaptive self-reflection may be encouraged by giving reflection a clear structure, directing attention towards specific experiences and supporting perspective, insight and constructive action. *Analysing a negative experience from a self-distanced perspective may reduce immediate physiological reactivity compared with analysing the experience from a self-immersed perspective (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). *In a one-month randomised trial with distressed students, both [[w:Mindfulness|mindfulness meditation]] and relaxation training reduced distress and increased positive states of mind relative to a control condition; mindfulness meditation also reduced rumination relative to the control condition (Jain et al., 2007). *Positively focused journalling prompts concerning growth, mastery, goals and the future were associated with improved psychological wellbeing among participants with average or higher dispositional self-reflection (MacIsaac et al., 2023). *Structured reflection on successful coping experiences may be particularly useful, as its effects on perceived resilience were maintained more effectively than reflection focused on unsuccessful coping experiences (Bucknell et al., 2024). *in relation to recalling a significant personal mistake, reflection was associated with reduced negative emotion among participants high in hated-self criticism, whereas rumination produced no significant emotional change. (Dunn & Luchner, 2022). '''Concluding sentence''' - promising strategies include psychological distancing, mindfulness, positively focused journalling and structured reflection on successful coping; however, these approaches should not be presented as universally effective. '''Limitations''' *Ayduk and Kross (2008), dated source and supports immediate self-distancing over a more universal and long term intervention. *Jain et al. (2007), Sample included 83 distressed students limiting generalisability. Additionally, mindfulness was not significantly stronger for relaxation for distress or positive states of mind. *Bucknell et al. (2024), study targeted perceived resilience and was a specific occupational sample. ;Quiz Time to quiz your knowledge! Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Self-reflection involves examining one's thoughts, emotions and behaviour: |type="()"} + True - False {Self-reflection is always adaptive when it is deliberate and purposeful: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== *Self-reflection does not appear to be definitively adaptive or maladaptive; its outcomes may depend on how reflection is processed and the context. *Adaptive self-reflection may involve curiosity, flexible thinking and movement towards insight, problem-solving or constructive action. *Maladaptive self-focused thought may involve threat-focused repetition, passive brooding and difficulty disengaging from distress. *Reflection alone does not necessarily produce insight or psychological wellbeing. *Factors such as psychological distance, rumination, emotional content, self-criticism and cultural context may influence reflective outcomes. *Strategies such as mindfulness, self-distancing, positively focused journalling and structured reflection on successful coping may encourage more adaptive reflection. '''Concluding sentence''' - outcomes do not rely on whether an individual reflects or not, but whether their reflection generates clearer understanding and constructive action or maintains repetitive negative attention. ==See also== * [[w:Emotion regulation|Emotion regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Rumination (psychology)|Rumination]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Rumination|Rumination]] (Book chapter, 2013) * [[w:Self-awareness|Self-awareness]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ayduk, Ö., & Kross, E. (2008). Enhancing the pace of recovery: Self-distanced analysis of negative experiences reduces blood pressure reactivity. ''Psychological Science, 19''(3), 229–231. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02073.x Bucknell, K. J., Kangas, M., & Crane, M. F. (2022). Adaptive self-reflection and resilience: The moderating effects of rumination on insight as a mediator. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 185'', 111234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.111234 Bucknell, K. J., Kangas, M., Karin, E., & Crane, M. F. (2024). A randomized controlled trial comparing the effects of self‐reflective writing focused on successful and unsuccessful coping experiences on resilience. ''Stress and Health, 40''(2), e3311. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.3311 Dunn, N. A., & Luchner, A. F. (2022). The emotional impact of self‐criticism on self‐reflection and rumination. ''Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 95''(4), 1126–1139. https://doi.org/10.1111/papt.12422 Grant, A. M., Franklin, J., & Langford, P. (2002). The self-reflection and insight scale: A new measure of private self-consciousness. ''Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 30''(8), 821–836. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2002.30.8.821 Grossmann, I., & Kross, E. (2010). The impact of culture on adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection. ''Psychological Science, 21''(8), 1150–1157. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610376655 Jain, S., Shapiro, S. L., Swanick, S., Roesch, S. C., Mills, P. J., Bell, I., & Schwartz, G. E. (2007). A randomized controlled trial of mindfulness meditation versus relaxation training: Effects on distress, positive states of mind, rumination, and distraction. ''Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 33''(1), 11–21. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324796abm3301_2 Lyke, J. A. (2009). Insight, but not self-reflection, is related to subjective well-being. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 46''(1), 66–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2008.09.010 MacIsaac, A., Mushquash, A. R., & Wekerle, C. (2023). Writing yourself well: Dispositional self-reflection moderates the effect of a smartphone app-based journaling intervention on psychological wellbeing across time. ''Behaviour Change, 40''(4), 297–313. https://doi.org/10.1017/bec.2022.24 Mor, N., & Winquist, J. (2002). Self-focused attention and negative affect: A meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin, 128''(4), 638–662. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.638 Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3''(5), 400–424. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x Raes, F. (2010). Rumination and worry as mediators of the relationship between self-compassion and depression and anxiety. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 48''(6), 757–761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.023 Takano, K., & Tanno, Y. (2009). Self-rumination, self-reflection, and depression: Self-rumination counteracts the adaptive effect of self-reflection. ''Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47''(3), 260–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2008.12.008 Trapnell, P. D., & Campbell, J. D. (1999). Private self-consciousness and the five-factor model of personality: Distinguishing rumination from reflection. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76''(2), 284–304. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.76.2.284 Treynor, W., Gonzalez, R., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2003). Rumination reconsidered: A psychometric analysis. ''Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27''(3), 247–259. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023910315561 Watkins, E. (2004). Adaptive and maladaptive ruminative self-focus during emotional processing. ''Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42''(9), 1037–1052. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2004.01.009 Watkins, E. R. (2008). Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought. ''Psychological Bulletin, 134''(2), 163–206. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.163 }} ==External links== * [https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/break-the-cycle Breaking the cycle of rumination] (Harvard Health Publishing) * [https://www.smilingmind.com.au/ Smiling Mind] (Smiling Mind) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Cognition]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] 13uuftobt5pw0g12q870cu8fl8zud0m 2840805 2840804 2026-10-17T02:12:17Z U3211150 3106672 /* Understanding adaptive and maladaptive self-reflection */ 2840805 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection:<br>When does self-reflection promote wellbeing and when does it contribute to psychological distress?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Le Penseur in the Jardin du Musée Rodin, Paris 14 June 2015.jpg|Le_Penseur_in_the_Jardin_du_Musée_Rodin,_Paris_14_June_2015]|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Reflection may produce insight, but repeated self-focused thought may contribute to distress.]] '''Scenario: An embarrassing encounter''' Trevor's day at university was fairly ordinary. While walking to get his second coffee, he exchanged a brief smile with another student. Distracted, he failed to notice the uneven ground and tripped in front of her. He quickly walked away, flushed and deeply embarrassed. Trevor repeatedly replayed the incident in his mind, becoming absorbed in self-focused thought (see Figure 1). He decided that if he saw her again, he would avoid her to prevent further embarrassment. When Trevor told his friend Alucard what had happened, Alucard suggested that she might not have noticed. This prompted Trevor to consider whether his prediction of rejection was supported by what had actually occurred. Soon afterwards, Trevor saw the same student approaching. Although he still felt embarrassed, he reconsidered his interpretation and introduced himself. He discovered that she was happy to speak with him. Trevor's response illustrates how reflecting on the same experience may be associated with different emotional and behavioural outcomes. Why might repeatedly replaying the event have prolonged his embarrassment, while reconsidering his interpretation helped him respond more constructively? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Self-reflection|Self-reflection]] involves examining one’s thoughts, emotions and behaviour, but this process does not necessarily produce insight or psychological wellbeing. Self-reflection and insight are related but distinguishable: reflection describes the process of self-examination, whereas insight involves developing clearer self-understanding (Grant et al., 2002). This distinction is practically important because deliberate self-analysis may appear constructive even when it maintains embarrassment, avoidance or distress. The effects of self-focused thought may depend on how it is performed. Trapnell and Campbell (1999) distinguished curiosity-driven reflection from recurrent [[w:Rumination (psychology)|rumination]] prompted by perceived threats, losses or injustices involving the self. More broadly, repetitive thought may be relatively constructive or unconstructive depending on its content, context and level of processing (Watkins, 2008). Psychological perspective may also matter, as analysing a negative experience from a self-distanced perspective may reduce immediate emotional reactivity compared with self-immersed analysis (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). Understanding these processes may help explain why reflection sometimes supports insight and constructive action but, in other circumstances, contributes to continuing distress.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What distinguishes adaptive self-reflection from maladaptive self-focused thought? * Under what conditions may self-reflection support psychological wellbeing? * Under what conditions may self-focused thought contribute to psychological distress? * What psychological processes influence the outcomes of self-reflection? * How might people engage in more adaptive self-reflection? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding adaptive and maladaptive self-reflection == Self-focused thought is not explicitly helpful or harmful. It may involve distinguishable processes which influence the overall wellbeing outcomes. Whether adaptive or maladaptive behaviours are executed may rely on motivation, processing style, capacity to generate insight and the relationship with repetitive negative thinking. Self-reflection can be defined as the inspection and evaluation of one's thoughts, emotions and behaviour, along with the act of directed attention towards internal experiences and processes. However, engaging in the act of self-reflection is not the same as gaining clarity and understanding of what these internal experiences mean (Grant et al., 2002). Adaptive and maladaptive describe the likely outcomes of self-focused thought compared to specific fixed good/bad distinctions. Adaptive self-reflection may involve the flexible, purposeful processing that supports insight, problem-solving or movement towards personally relevant goals (Watkins, 2008). On the other hand, maladaptive self-reflection involves a more self-focused thought process that refers to repetitive attention to distress and its causes or consequences. Rumination is a central example of maladaptive processes, but not every emotionally difficult reflective episode is necessarily maladaptive. Therefore, engaging in these behaviour may potentially interfere with problem-solving and supportive behaviours that can lead to positive outcomes and reaching insight. (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008). {{cmbox | type = style | image = [[File:Emblem-question-yellow.svg|40px]] | style = width: 400px; | textstyle = color: black; font-weight: bold; font-style: italic; | text = Does self-reflection differ from insight? }} While self-reflection and insight are related, they are both distinguishable factors. Reflection involves the process of self-examination, whereas insight describes the possible outcome. Suggesting that higher levels of self-examination do not with certainty produce clear self-understanding. Moreover, insight is defined as the clarity to understanding of one's thoughts, emotions and behaviours compared to the evaluative process of self-reflection (Grant et al,. 2002). Grant et al.'s (2002) results found that self-reflection associated positively with anxiety and stress. Whereas, insight was negatively associated with depression, anxiety and stress, while positively associated with cognitive flexibility and self-regulation. These findings were primarily correlational and participants included a sample of undergraduate psychology students which may limit the generalisability. Therefore, these findings demonstrate association among self-reflection insight and psychological outcomes, but they do not establish causal relationships. Trapnell and Campbell (1999) identified two motivationally distinct forms of private self-attention. They distinguish between curiosity-driven reflection or intellectual interest in the self compared to recurrent self-rumination likely to be prompted by threats, losses or injustices regarding the self. Additionally they introduced the "self-absorption paradox", which highlights how self-focused attention can be associated with both self-understanding and psychological distress. This suggests that the motivation and quality of self-focused attention may be more informative than the amount of reflection alone. Trapnell and Campbell's (1999) model provides a key theoretical differentiation for dispositional reflection and rumination. While their research support the distinction between the different processes of reflection. However, it does not establish causation between reflection supporting adaptive outcomes and repetitive thought causing harmful outcomes. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} When these theories are applied to Trevor's scenario, He replays the incident with self-focused attention, but it does not initially provide him with easing distress or more accurate understanding. Furthermore, the act of repeated replaying the embarrassment and anticipated rejection resembles the threat-focused rumination, whereas questioning his initial assumptions illustrates curiosity-driven reflection. {{RoundBoxBottom}} According to Treynor et al. (2003), rumination may contain at least two distinguishable components: brooding and reflective pondering. Brooding can be defined as the passive comparison between one's current circumstance and an unattained standard, while reflective pondering can be defined as purposeful attention intended to understand or address distress. however, reflection and reflective pondering are from two different measures and should not be treated as identical constructs,It important to highlight these as differing constructs as they both associate differently when measured alongside depressive symptoms. Reflective pondering showed a different and less consistently maladaptive pattern than brooding, although, it is also measured alongside depressive rumination and should not automatically be equated to adaptive self-reflection. This highlighted how different processes of rumination have different relationships with depressive symptoms. (Treynor et al., 2003). Takano and Tanno (2009), proposed that self-reflection and self-rumination are distinguishable but may not be entirely independent. In a two-wave study, self-reflection predicted subsequent self-rumination within the authors' statistical model, suggesting that the two processes may co exist. Self-reflection was associated with lower depression, whereas self-rumination was associated with higher depression Important to note that the estimated total effect of reflection on depression was close to zero, as reflection and rumination occurred together. This suggests that adaptive reflection processes may coexist with maladaptive processes that counteract positive outcomes. The small, predominantly male undergraduate sample and brief follow-up period limit generalisability, while the observational design prevents firm causal conclusions. Ultimately research suggests that adaptive self-reflection appears more likely to involve curiosity, flexibility and movement towards insight or constructive action, whereas maladaptive self-focused thought more commonly involves threat-focused repetitions, passive brooding and difficulty disengaging. However, these processes may overlap, and deliberate reflection should be assumed to be beneficial. == Adaptive self-reflection and wellbeing == Self reflection is more likely to support wellbeing when insight is gained to facilitate constructive meaningInsight was positively associated with happiness and life satisfaction, whereas self-reflection alone did not show the same relationship with subjective wellbeing (Lyke, 2009). * Adaptive self-reflection was indirectly associated with greater resilience and wellbeing through insight when rumination was low. When rumination was high, the pattern was less favourable (Bucknell et al., 2022). * A randomised control trial, found that self reflective writing was more effective than descriptive writing in reinforced perceived resilience. Additionally, reflection on successful coping demonstrates better maintenance of benefits than reflecting on unsuccessful coping (Bucknell et al., 2024). * An app-based journal that targeted positive processes was associated with increased psychological wellbeing among participants with average or higher baseline dispositional self-reflection, after statistically controlling for rumination (MacIsaac et al., 2023) '''Concluding sentence''' - the evidence highlighted that the possible benefits of reflection depend on whether the action produces greater insight, constructing meaning and recognising effective coping. Find research potential locus of control x self-reflection as a point '''Limitations''' * Lyke (2009) is correlational and does not prove insight causes wellbeing * Bucknell et al. (2022) is a cross-sectional moderated mediation analysis, proposed indirect statistical pathway does not infer causation * Bucknell et al. (2024) experimental outcomes were targeted to perceived resilience rather than self reflection. Participants also consisted of Australian ministry workers limiting generalisability * MacIsaac et al. (2023), study was longitudinal but lacked experimental assignment and a control group. Participants chose how much they used the journal, and the app contained other features. Additionally, the nature of the quasi-experiment makes it difficult to confirm whether outcomes are influenced by individuals pre existing reflection intentions and behaviours. == Maladaptive self-reflection and psychological distress == [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]'''Focus questions -''' Under what conditions may self-focused thought contribute to psychological distress? '''Topic sentence/introductory message -''' Self-focused thought may contribute to psychological distress when it becomes repetitive, negative and difficult to detach from, especially when interfering with constructive behaviour and problem solving. '''Key points''' *Response style theory proposes that repetitive focus on distress and its causes and consequences may reinforce negative thinking, impair problem solving and interfere with constructive understanding and behaviours (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008) *A meta-analysis of effect sizes highlighted an association between self-focused attention and negative affect. The strength of this association differed by the form of self-focus, distress and samples (Mor & Winquist, 2002) *Cross-sectional mediation models indicated that brooding statistically accounted for part of the relationship between lower self-compassion and depressive symptoms, while brooding and worry correlated with anxiety (Raes, 2010). *Dunn & Luchner (2022) researched reflection on personal mistakes and how rumination conditions effected negative affect. Results found that no significant improvement in negative emotion, which indicates that rumination may maintain psychological distress. '''Concluding sentence''' - self-focused thought may involve distress when it maintains attention toward negative content without facilitating insight or effective problem-solving. '''Limitations''' * Identifies overall association, not the causality of self-focus and distress. Additionally this meta-analysis is quite dated , social norms and stressors have changed so a more recent meta-analysis may be more useful. (Mor & Winquist, 2002) * Nolen-Hoeksema et al. (2008) concluded that rumination predicted the onset of depression more consistently than the duration of the depressive episode, findings concerning duration were mixed. * Raes (2010) cross-sectional design may limit generalisability and causality. * Dunn and Luchner (2022) did not find a strong implication that rumination significantly caused a decreased mood. Additionally, the study focuses on reflection of personal mistakes and not self-reflection in general. == Factors influencing the outcomes of self-reflection == '''Focus question -''' What psychological processes influence the outcomes of self-reflection? '''Topic sentence -''' The outcomes of self-reflection may be influenced by the interaction of cognitive, emotional, personal and cultural factors rather than on the amount of maladaptive process alone. '''Key points''' *A theoretical review proposed that repetitive thought may be constructive or unconstructive depending on its emotional content, situational context and level of construal, including whether processing is relatively abstract or concrete (Watkins, 2008). *Experimental evidence suggests that analysing a negative experience from a psychologically distanced perspective may support faster cardiovascular recovery than analysing it from a self-immersed perspective (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). *Cross-cultural studies found that Russian participants reported greater spontaneous self-distancing and less distress while reflecting on negative experiences than American participants, indicating that cultural context may influence how reflection is performed and experienced (Grossmann & Kross, 2010). *The relationship between adaptive reflection, insight and wellbeing differed according to participants’ levels of rumination, suggesting that rumination may interfere with otherwise constructive reflective processing (Bucknell et al., 2022). *An experiment involving reflection on a significant mistake suggested that self-criticism may also influence outcomes, as reflection was associated with reduced negative emotion among participants high in the “hated self” form of self-criticism (Dunn & Luchner, 2022). '''Concluding sentence''' - important influences may include processing style, psychological distance, emotional content, rumination, self-criticism, culture and the extent to which reflection generates insight or action. '''Limitations''' == Developing more adaptive self-reflection == '''Focus question''' - How might people engage in more adaptive self-reflection? *Adaptive self-reflection may be encouraged by giving reflection a clear structure, directing attention towards specific experiences and supporting perspective, insight and constructive action. *Analysing a negative experience from a self-distanced perspective may reduce immediate physiological reactivity compared with analysing the experience from a self-immersed perspective (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). *In a one-month randomised trial with distressed students, both [[w:Mindfulness|mindfulness meditation]] and relaxation training reduced distress and increased positive states of mind relative to a control condition; mindfulness meditation also reduced rumination relative to the control condition (Jain et al., 2007). *Positively focused journalling prompts concerning growth, mastery, goals and the future were associated with improved psychological wellbeing among participants with average or higher dispositional self-reflection (MacIsaac et al., 2023). *Structured reflection on successful coping experiences may be particularly useful, as its effects on perceived resilience were maintained more effectively than reflection focused on unsuccessful coping experiences (Bucknell et al., 2024). *in relation to recalling a significant personal mistake, reflection was associated with reduced negative emotion among participants high in hated-self criticism, whereas rumination produced no significant emotional change. (Dunn & Luchner, 2022). '''Concluding sentence''' - promising strategies include psychological distancing, mindfulness, positively focused journalling and structured reflection on successful coping; however, these approaches should not be presented as universally effective. '''Limitations''' *Ayduk and Kross (2008), dated source and supports immediate self-distancing over a more universal and long term intervention. *Jain et al. (2007), Sample included 83 distressed students limiting generalisability. Additionally, mindfulness was not significantly stronger for relaxation for distress or positive states of mind. *Bucknell et al. (2024), study targeted perceived resilience and was a specific occupational sample. ;Quiz Time to quiz your knowledge! Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Self-reflection involves examining one's thoughts, emotions and behaviour: |type="()"} + True - False {Self-reflection is always adaptive when it is deliberate and purposeful: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== *Self-reflection does not appear to be definitively adaptive or maladaptive; its outcomes may depend on how reflection is processed and the context. *Adaptive self-reflection may involve curiosity, flexible thinking and movement towards insight, problem-solving or constructive action. *Maladaptive self-focused thought may involve threat-focused repetition, passive brooding and difficulty disengaging from distress. *Reflection alone does not necessarily produce insight or psychological wellbeing. *Factors such as psychological distance, rumination, emotional content, self-criticism and cultural context may influence reflective outcomes. *Strategies such as mindfulness, self-distancing, positively focused journalling and structured reflection on successful coping may encourage more adaptive reflection. '''Concluding sentence''' - outcomes do not rely on whether an individual reflects or not, but whether their reflection generates clearer understanding and constructive action or maintains repetitive negative attention. ==See also== * [[w:Emotion regulation|Emotion regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Rumination (psychology)|Rumination]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Rumination|Rumination]] (Book chapter, 2013) * [[w:Self-awareness|Self-awareness]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ayduk, Ö., & Kross, E. (2008). Enhancing the pace of recovery: Self-distanced analysis of negative experiences reduces blood pressure reactivity. ''Psychological Science, 19''(3), 229–231. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02073.x Bucknell, K. J., Kangas, M., & Crane, M. F. (2022). Adaptive self-reflection and resilience: The moderating effects of rumination on insight as a mediator. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 185'', 111234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.111234 Bucknell, K. J., Kangas, M., Karin, E., & Crane, M. F. (2024). A randomized controlled trial comparing the effects of self‐reflective writing focused on successful and unsuccessful coping experiences on resilience. ''Stress and Health, 40''(2), e3311. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.3311 Dunn, N. A., & Luchner, A. F. (2022). The emotional impact of self‐criticism on self‐reflection and rumination. ''Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 95''(4), 1126–1139. https://doi.org/10.1111/papt.12422 Grant, A. M., Franklin, J., & Langford, P. (2002). The self-reflection and insight scale: A new measure of private self-consciousness. ''Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 30''(8), 821–836. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2002.30.8.821 Grossmann, I., & Kross, E. (2010). The impact of culture on adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection. ''Psychological Science, 21''(8), 1150–1157. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610376655 Jain, S., Shapiro, S. L., Swanick, S., Roesch, S. C., Mills, P. J., Bell, I., & Schwartz, G. E. (2007). A randomized controlled trial of mindfulness meditation versus relaxation training: Effects on distress, positive states of mind, rumination, and distraction. ''Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 33''(1), 11–21. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324796abm3301_2 Lyke, J. A. (2009). Insight, but not self-reflection, is related to subjective well-being. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 46''(1), 66–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2008.09.010 MacIsaac, A., Mushquash, A. R., & Wekerle, C. (2023). Writing yourself well: Dispositional self-reflection moderates the effect of a smartphone app-based journaling intervention on psychological wellbeing across time. ''Behaviour Change, 40''(4), 297–313. https://doi.org/10.1017/bec.2022.24 Mor, N., & Winquist, J. (2002). Self-focused attention and negative affect: A meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin, 128''(4), 638–662. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.638 Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3''(5), 400–424. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x Raes, F. (2010). Rumination and worry as mediators of the relationship between self-compassion and depression and anxiety. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 48''(6), 757–761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.023 Takano, K., & Tanno, Y. (2009). Self-rumination, self-reflection, and depression: Self-rumination counteracts the adaptive effect of self-reflection. ''Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47''(3), 260–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2008.12.008 Trapnell, P. D., & Campbell, J. D. (1999). Private self-consciousness and the five-factor model of personality: Distinguishing rumination from reflection. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76''(2), 284–304. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.76.2.284 Treynor, W., Gonzalez, R., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2003). Rumination reconsidered: A psychometric analysis. ''Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27''(3), 247–259. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023910315561 Watkins, E. (2004). Adaptive and maladaptive ruminative self-focus during emotional processing. ''Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42''(9), 1037–1052. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2004.01.009 Watkins, E. R. (2008). Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought. ''Psychological Bulletin, 134''(2), 163–206. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.163 }} ==External links== * [https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/break-the-cycle Breaking the cycle of rumination] (Harvard Health Publishing) * [https://www.smilingmind.com.au/ Smiling Mind] (Smiling Mind) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Cognition]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] kjbyp1y4r2jtq5yspwbtyrucr38bixe 2840807 2840805 2026-10-17T02:13:36Z U3211150 3106672 /* Understanding adaptive and maladaptive self-reflection */ edit box 2840807 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection:<br>When does self-reflection promote wellbeing and when does it contribute to psychological distress?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Le Penseur in the Jardin du Musée Rodin, Paris 14 June 2015.jpg|Le_Penseur_in_the_Jardin_du_Musée_Rodin,_Paris_14_June_2015]|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Reflection may produce insight, but repeated self-focused thought may contribute to distress.]] '''Scenario: An embarrassing encounter''' Trevor's day at university was fairly ordinary. While walking to get his second coffee, he exchanged a brief smile with another student. Distracted, he failed to notice the uneven ground and tripped in front of her. He quickly walked away, flushed and deeply embarrassed. Trevor repeatedly replayed the incident in his mind, becoming absorbed in self-focused thought (see Figure 1). He decided that if he saw her again, he would avoid her to prevent further embarrassment. When Trevor told his friend Alucard what had happened, Alucard suggested that she might not have noticed. This prompted Trevor to consider whether his prediction of rejection was supported by what had actually occurred. Soon afterwards, Trevor saw the same student approaching. Although he still felt embarrassed, he reconsidered his interpretation and introduced himself. He discovered that she was happy to speak with him. Trevor's response illustrates how reflecting on the same experience may be associated with different emotional and behavioural outcomes. Why might repeatedly replaying the event have prolonged his embarrassment, while reconsidering his interpretation helped him respond more constructively? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Self-reflection|Self-reflection]] involves examining one’s thoughts, emotions and behaviour, but this process does not necessarily produce insight or psychological wellbeing. Self-reflection and insight are related but distinguishable: reflection describes the process of self-examination, whereas insight involves developing clearer self-understanding (Grant et al., 2002). This distinction is practically important because deliberate self-analysis may appear constructive even when it maintains embarrassment, avoidance or distress. The effects of self-focused thought may depend on how it is performed. Trapnell and Campbell (1999) distinguished curiosity-driven reflection from recurrent [[w:Rumination (psychology)|rumination]] prompted by perceived threats, losses or injustices involving the self. More broadly, repetitive thought may be relatively constructive or unconstructive depending on its content, context and level of processing (Watkins, 2008). Psychological perspective may also matter, as analysing a negative experience from a self-distanced perspective may reduce immediate emotional reactivity compared with self-immersed analysis (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). Understanding these processes may help explain why reflection sometimes supports insight and constructive action but, in other circumstances, contributes to continuing distress.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What distinguishes adaptive self-reflection from maladaptive self-focused thought? * Under what conditions may self-reflection support psychological wellbeing? * Under what conditions may self-focused thought contribute to psychological distress? * What psychological processes influence the outcomes of self-reflection? * How might people engage in more adaptive self-reflection? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding adaptive and maladaptive self-reflection == Self-focused thought is not explicitly helpful or harmful. It may involve distinguishable processes which influence the overall wellbeing outcomes. Whether adaptive or maladaptive behaviours are executed may rely on motivation, processing style, capacity to generate insight and the relationship with repetitive negative thinking. Self-reflection can be defined as the inspection and evaluation of one's thoughts, emotions and behaviour, along with the act of directed attention towards internal experiences and processes. However, engaging in the act of self-reflection is not the same as gaining clarity and understanding of what these internal experiences mean (Grant et al., 2002). Adaptive and maladaptive describe the likely outcomes of self-focused thought compared to specific fixed good/bad distinctions. Adaptive self-reflection may involve the flexible, purposeful processing that supports insight, problem-solving or movement towards personally relevant goals (Watkins, 2008). On the other hand, maladaptive self-reflection involves a more self-focused thought process that refers to repetitive attention to distress and its causes or consequences. Rumination is a central example of maladaptive processes, but not every emotionally difficult reflective episode is necessarily maladaptive. Therefore, engaging in these behaviour may potentially interfere with problem-solving and supportive behaviours that can lead to positive outcomes and reaching insight. (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008). {{cmbox | type = style | image = [[File:Emblem-question-yellow.svg|40px]] | style = width: 400px; | textstyle = color: black; font-weight: bold; font-style: italic; | text = Does self-reflection differ from insight? }} While self-reflection and insight are related, they are both distinguishable factors. Reflection involves the process of self-examination, whereas insight describes the possible outcome. Suggesting that higher levels of self-examination do not with certainty produce clear self-understanding. Moreover, insight is defined as the clarity to understanding of one's thoughts, emotions and behaviours compared to the evaluative process of self-reflection (Grant et al,. 2002). Grant et al.'s (2002) results found that self-reflection associated positively with anxiety and stress. Whereas, insight was negatively associated with depression, anxiety and stress, while positively associated with cognitive flexibility and self-regulation. These findings were primarily correlational and participants included a sample of undergraduate psychology students which may limit the generalisability. Therefore, these findings demonstrate association among self-reflection insight and psychological outcomes, but they do not establish causal relationships. Trapnell and Campbell (1999) identified two motivationally distinct forms of private self-attention. They distinguish between curiosity-driven reflection or intellectual interest in the self compared to recurrent self-rumination likely to be prompted by threats, losses or injustices regarding the self. Additionally they introduced the "self-absorption paradox", which highlights how self-focused attention can be associated with both self-understanding and psychological distress. This suggests that the motivation and quality of self-focused attention may be more informative than the amount of reflection alone. Trapnell and Campbell's (1999) model provides a key theoretical differentiation for dispositional reflection and rumination. While their research support the distinction between the different processes of reflection. However, it does not establish causation between reflection supporting adaptive outcomes and repetitive thought causing harmful outcomes. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Now lets apply these theories to Trevors scenario''' He replays the incident with self-focused attention, but it does not initially provide him with easing distress or more accurate understanding. Furthermore, the act of repeated replaying the embarrassment and anticipated rejection resembles the threat-focused rumination, whereas questioning his initial assumptions illustrates curiosity-driven reflection. {{RoundBoxBottom}} According to Treynor et al. (2003), rumination may contain at least two distinguishable components: brooding and reflective pondering. Brooding can be defined as the passive comparison between one's current circumstance and an unattained standard, while reflective pondering can be defined as purposeful attention intended to understand or address distress. however, reflection and reflective pondering are from two different measures and should not be treated as identical constructs,It important to highlight these as differing constructs as they both associate differently when measured alongside depressive symptoms. Reflective pondering showed a different and less consistently maladaptive pattern than brooding, although, it is also measured alongside depressive rumination and should not automatically be equated to adaptive self-reflection. This highlighted how different processes of rumination have different relationships with depressive symptoms. (Treynor et al., 2003). Takano and Tanno (2009), proposed that self-reflection and self-rumination are distinguishable but may not be entirely independent. In a two-wave study, self-reflection predicted subsequent self-rumination within the authors' statistical model, suggesting that the two processes may co exist. Self-reflection was associated with lower depression, whereas self-rumination was associated with higher depression Important to note that the estimated total effect of reflection on depression was close to zero, as reflection and rumination occurred together. This suggests that adaptive reflection processes may coexist with maladaptive processes that counteract positive outcomes. The small, predominantly male undergraduate sample and brief follow-up period limit generalisability, while the observational design prevents firm causal conclusions. Ultimately research suggests that adaptive self-reflection appears more likely to involve curiosity, flexibility and movement towards insight or constructive action, whereas maladaptive self-focused thought more commonly involves threat-focused repetitions, passive brooding and difficulty disengaging. However, these processes may overlap, and deliberate reflection should be assumed to be beneficial. == Adaptive self-reflection and wellbeing == Self reflection is more likely to support wellbeing when insight is gained to facilitate constructive meaningInsight was positively associated with happiness and life satisfaction, whereas self-reflection alone did not show the same relationship with subjective wellbeing (Lyke, 2009). * Adaptive self-reflection was indirectly associated with greater resilience and wellbeing through insight when rumination was low. When rumination was high, the pattern was less favourable (Bucknell et al., 2022). * A randomised control trial, found that self reflective writing was more effective than descriptive writing in reinforced perceived resilience. Additionally, reflection on successful coping demonstrates better maintenance of benefits than reflecting on unsuccessful coping (Bucknell et al., 2024). * An app-based journal that targeted positive processes was associated with increased psychological wellbeing among participants with average or higher baseline dispositional self-reflection, after statistically controlling for rumination (MacIsaac et al., 2023) '''Concluding sentence''' - the evidence highlighted that the possible benefits of reflection depend on whether the action produces greater insight, constructing meaning and recognising effective coping. Find research potential locus of control x self-reflection as a point '''Limitations''' * Lyke (2009) is correlational and does not prove insight causes wellbeing * Bucknell et al. (2022) is a cross-sectional moderated mediation analysis, proposed indirect statistical pathway does not infer causation * Bucknell et al. (2024) experimental outcomes were targeted to perceived resilience rather than self reflection. Participants also consisted of Australian ministry workers limiting generalisability * MacIsaac et al. (2023), study was longitudinal but lacked experimental assignment and a control group. Participants chose how much they used the journal, and the app contained other features. Additionally, the nature of the quasi-experiment makes it difficult to confirm whether outcomes are influenced by individuals pre existing reflection intentions and behaviours. == Maladaptive self-reflection and psychological distress == [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]'''Focus questions -''' Under what conditions may self-focused thought contribute to psychological distress? '''Topic sentence/introductory message -''' Self-focused thought may contribute to psychological distress when it becomes repetitive, negative and difficult to detach from, especially when interfering with constructive behaviour and problem solving. '''Key points''' *Response style theory proposes that repetitive focus on distress and its causes and consequences may reinforce negative thinking, impair problem solving and interfere with constructive understanding and behaviours (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008) *A meta-analysis of effect sizes highlighted an association between self-focused attention and negative affect. The strength of this association differed by the form of self-focus, distress and samples (Mor & Winquist, 2002) *Cross-sectional mediation models indicated that brooding statistically accounted for part of the relationship between lower self-compassion and depressive symptoms, while brooding and worry correlated with anxiety (Raes, 2010). *Dunn & Luchner (2022) researched reflection on personal mistakes and how rumination conditions effected negative affect. Results found that no significant improvement in negative emotion, which indicates that rumination may maintain psychological distress. '''Concluding sentence''' - self-focused thought may involve distress when it maintains attention toward negative content without facilitating insight or effective problem-solving. '''Limitations''' * Identifies overall association, not the causality of self-focus and distress. Additionally this meta-analysis is quite dated , social norms and stressors have changed so a more recent meta-analysis may be more useful. (Mor & Winquist, 2002) * Nolen-Hoeksema et al. (2008) concluded that rumination predicted the onset of depression more consistently than the duration of the depressive episode, findings concerning duration were mixed. * Raes (2010) cross-sectional design may limit generalisability and causality. * Dunn and Luchner (2022) did not find a strong implication that rumination significantly caused a decreased mood. Additionally, the study focuses on reflection of personal mistakes and not self-reflection in general. == Factors influencing the outcomes of self-reflection == '''Focus question -''' What psychological processes influence the outcomes of self-reflection? '''Topic sentence -''' The outcomes of self-reflection may be influenced by the interaction of cognitive, emotional, personal and cultural factors rather than on the amount of maladaptive process alone. '''Key points''' *A theoretical review proposed that repetitive thought may be constructive or unconstructive depending on its emotional content, situational context and level of construal, including whether processing is relatively abstract or concrete (Watkins, 2008). *Experimental evidence suggests that analysing a negative experience from a psychologically distanced perspective may support faster cardiovascular recovery than analysing it from a self-immersed perspective (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). *Cross-cultural studies found that Russian participants reported greater spontaneous self-distancing and less distress while reflecting on negative experiences than American participants, indicating that cultural context may influence how reflection is performed and experienced (Grossmann & Kross, 2010). *The relationship between adaptive reflection, insight and wellbeing differed according to participants’ levels of rumination, suggesting that rumination may interfere with otherwise constructive reflective processing (Bucknell et al., 2022). *An experiment involving reflection on a significant mistake suggested that self-criticism may also influence outcomes, as reflection was associated with reduced negative emotion among participants high in the “hated self” form of self-criticism (Dunn & Luchner, 2022). '''Concluding sentence''' - important influences may include processing style, psychological distance, emotional content, rumination, self-criticism, culture and the extent to which reflection generates insight or action. '''Limitations''' == Developing more adaptive self-reflection == '''Focus question''' - How might people engage in more adaptive self-reflection? *Adaptive self-reflection may be encouraged by giving reflection a clear structure, directing attention towards specific experiences and supporting perspective, insight and constructive action. *Analysing a negative experience from a self-distanced perspective may reduce immediate physiological reactivity compared with analysing the experience from a self-immersed perspective (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). *In a one-month randomised trial with distressed students, both [[w:Mindfulness|mindfulness meditation]] and relaxation training reduced distress and increased positive states of mind relative to a control condition; mindfulness meditation also reduced rumination relative to the control condition (Jain et al., 2007). *Positively focused journalling prompts concerning growth, mastery, goals and the future were associated with improved psychological wellbeing among participants with average or higher dispositional self-reflection (MacIsaac et al., 2023). *Structured reflection on successful coping experiences may be particularly useful, as its effects on perceived resilience were maintained more effectively than reflection focused on unsuccessful coping experiences (Bucknell et al., 2024). *in relation to recalling a significant personal mistake, reflection was associated with reduced negative emotion among participants high in hated-self criticism, whereas rumination produced no significant emotional change. (Dunn & Luchner, 2022). '''Concluding sentence''' - promising strategies include psychological distancing, mindfulness, positively focused journalling and structured reflection on successful coping; however, these approaches should not be presented as universally effective. '''Limitations''' *Ayduk and Kross (2008), dated source and supports immediate self-distancing over a more universal and long term intervention. *Jain et al. (2007), Sample included 83 distressed students limiting generalisability. Additionally, mindfulness was not significantly stronger for relaxation for distress or positive states of mind. *Bucknell et al. (2024), study targeted perceived resilience and was a specific occupational sample. ;Quiz Time to quiz your knowledge! Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Self-reflection involves examining one's thoughts, emotions and behaviour: |type="()"} + True - False {Self-reflection is always adaptive when it is deliberate and purposeful: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== *Self-reflection does not appear to be definitively adaptive or maladaptive; its outcomes may depend on how reflection is processed and the context. *Adaptive self-reflection may involve curiosity, flexible thinking and movement towards insight, problem-solving or constructive action. *Maladaptive self-focused thought may involve threat-focused repetition, passive brooding and difficulty disengaging from distress. *Reflection alone does not necessarily produce insight or psychological wellbeing. *Factors such as psychological distance, rumination, emotional content, self-criticism and cultural context may influence reflective outcomes. *Strategies such as mindfulness, self-distancing, positively focused journalling and structured reflection on successful coping may encourage more adaptive reflection. '''Concluding sentence''' - outcomes do not rely on whether an individual reflects or not, but whether their reflection generates clearer understanding and constructive action or maintains repetitive negative attention. ==See also== * [[w:Emotion regulation|Emotion regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Rumination (psychology)|Rumination]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Rumination|Rumination]] (Book chapter, 2013) * [[w:Self-awareness|Self-awareness]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ayduk, Ö., & Kross, E. (2008). Enhancing the pace of recovery: Self-distanced analysis of negative experiences reduces blood pressure reactivity. ''Psychological Science, 19''(3), 229–231. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02073.x Bucknell, K. J., Kangas, M., & Crane, M. F. (2022). Adaptive self-reflection and resilience: The moderating effects of rumination on insight as a mediator. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 185'', 111234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.111234 Bucknell, K. J., Kangas, M., Karin, E., & Crane, M. F. (2024). A randomized controlled trial comparing the effects of self‐reflective writing focused on successful and unsuccessful coping experiences on resilience. ''Stress and Health, 40''(2), e3311. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.3311 Dunn, N. A., & Luchner, A. F. (2022). The emotional impact of self‐criticism on self‐reflection and rumination. ''Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 95''(4), 1126–1139. https://doi.org/10.1111/papt.12422 Grant, A. M., Franklin, J., & Langford, P. (2002). The self-reflection and insight scale: A new measure of private self-consciousness. ''Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 30''(8), 821–836. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2002.30.8.821 Grossmann, I., & Kross, E. (2010). The impact of culture on adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection. ''Psychological Science, 21''(8), 1150–1157. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610376655 Jain, S., Shapiro, S. L., Swanick, S., Roesch, S. C., Mills, P. J., Bell, I., & Schwartz, G. E. (2007). A randomized controlled trial of mindfulness meditation versus relaxation training: Effects on distress, positive states of mind, rumination, and distraction. ''Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 33''(1), 11–21. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324796abm3301_2 Lyke, J. A. (2009). Insight, but not self-reflection, is related to subjective well-being. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 46''(1), 66–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2008.09.010 MacIsaac, A., Mushquash, A. R., & Wekerle, C. (2023). Writing yourself well: Dispositional self-reflection moderates the effect of a smartphone app-based journaling intervention on psychological wellbeing across time. ''Behaviour Change, 40''(4), 297–313. https://doi.org/10.1017/bec.2022.24 Mor, N., & Winquist, J. (2002). Self-focused attention and negative affect: A meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin, 128''(4), 638–662. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.638 Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3''(5), 400–424. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x Raes, F. (2010). Rumination and worry as mediators of the relationship between self-compassion and depression and anxiety. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 48''(6), 757–761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.023 Takano, K., & Tanno, Y. (2009). Self-rumination, self-reflection, and depression: Self-rumination counteracts the adaptive effect of self-reflection. ''Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47''(3), 260–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2008.12.008 Trapnell, P. D., & Campbell, J. D. (1999). Private self-consciousness and the five-factor model of personality: Distinguishing rumination from reflection. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76''(2), 284–304. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.76.2.284 Treynor, W., Gonzalez, R., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2003). Rumination reconsidered: A psychometric analysis. ''Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27''(3), 247–259. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023910315561 Watkins, E. (2004). Adaptive and maladaptive ruminative self-focus during emotional processing. ''Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42''(9), 1037–1052. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2004.01.009 Watkins, E. R. (2008). Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought. ''Psychological Bulletin, 134''(2), 163–206. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.163 }} ==External links== * [https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/break-the-cycle Breaking the cycle of rumination] (Harvard Health Publishing) * [https://www.smilingmind.com.au/ Smiling Mind] (Smiling Mind) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Cognition]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] bxkhba629owvs53jp9nt4khtd4r0guo 2840808 2840807 2026-10-17T02:14:51Z U3211150 3106672 /* Overview */ 2840808 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection:<br>When does self-reflection promote wellbeing and when does it contribute to psychological distress?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} [[File:Le Penseur in the Jardin du Musée Rodin, Paris 14 June 2015.jpg|Le_Penseur_in_the_Jardin_du_Musée_Rodin,_Paris_14_June_2015]|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Reflection may produce insight, but repeated self-focused thought may contribute to distress.]] '''Scenario: An embarrassing encounter''' Trevor's day at university was fairly ordinary. While walking to get his second coffee, he exchanged a brief smile with another student. Distracted, he failed to notice the uneven ground and tripped in front of her. He quickly walked away, flushed and deeply embarrassed. Trevor repeatedly replayed the incident in his mind, becoming absorbed in self-focused thought (see Figure 1). He decided that if he saw her again, he would avoid her to prevent further embarrassment. When Trevor told his friend Alucard what had happened, Alucard suggested that she might not have noticed. This prompted Trevor to consider whether his prediction of rejection was supported by what had actually occurred. Soon afterwards, Trevor saw the same student approaching. Although he still felt embarrassed, he reconsidered his interpretation and introduced himself. He discovered that she was happy to speak with him. Trevor's response illustrates how reflecting on the same experience may be associated with different emotional and behavioural outcomes. Why might repeatedly replaying the event have prolonged his embarrassment, while reconsidering his interpretation helped him respond more constructively? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Self-reflection|Self-reflection]] involves examining one’s thoughts, emotions and behaviour, but this process does not necessarily produce insight or psychological wellbeing. Self-reflection and insight are related but distinguishable: reflection describes the process of self-examination, whereas insight involves developing clearer self-understanding (Grant et al., 2002). This distinction is practically important because deliberate self-analysis may appear constructive even when it maintains embarrassment, avoidance or distress. The effects of self-focused thought may depend on how it is performed. Trapnell and Campbell (1999) distinguished curiosity-driven reflection from recurrent [[w:Rumination (psychology)|rumination]] prompted by perceived threats, losses or injustices involving the self. More broadly, repetitive thought may be relatively constructive or unconstructive depending on its content, context and level of processing (Watkins, 2008). Psychological perspective may also matter, as analysing a negative experience from a self-distanced perspective may reduce immediate emotional reactivity compared with self-immersed analysis (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). Understanding these processes may help explain why reflection sometimes supports insight and constructive action but, in other circumstances, contributes to continuing distress.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What distinguishes adaptive self-reflection from maladaptive self-focused thought? * Under what conditions may self-reflection support psychological wellbeing? * Under what conditions may self-focused thought contribute to psychological distress? * What psychological processes influence the outcomes of self-reflection? * How might people engage in more adaptive self-reflection? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding adaptive and maladaptive self-reflection == Self-focused thought is not explicitly helpful or harmful. It may involve distinguishable processes which influence the overall wellbeing outcomes. Whether adaptive or maladaptive behaviours are executed may rely on motivation, processing style, capacity to generate insight and the relationship with repetitive negative thinking. Self-reflection can be defined as the inspection and evaluation of one's thoughts, emotions and behaviour, along with the act of directed attention towards internal experiences and processes. However, engaging in the act of self-reflection is not the same as gaining clarity and understanding of what these internal experiences mean (Grant et al., 2002). Adaptive and maladaptive describe the likely outcomes of self-focused thought compared to specific fixed good/bad distinctions. Adaptive self-reflection may involve the flexible, purposeful processing that supports insight, problem-solving or movement towards personally relevant goals (Watkins, 2008). On the other hand, maladaptive self-reflection involves a more self-focused thought process that refers to repetitive attention to distress and its causes or consequences. Rumination is a central example of maladaptive processes, but not every emotionally difficult reflective episode is necessarily maladaptive. Therefore, engaging in these behaviour may potentially interfere with problem-solving and supportive behaviours that can lead to positive outcomes and reaching insight. (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008). {{cmbox | type = style | image = [[File:Emblem-question-yellow.svg|40px]] | style = width: 400px; | textstyle = color: black; font-weight: bold; font-style: italic; | text = Does self-reflection differ from insight? }} While self-reflection and insight are related, they are both distinguishable factors. Reflection involves the process of self-examination, whereas insight describes the possible outcome. Suggesting that higher levels of self-examination do not with certainty produce clear self-understanding. Moreover, insight is defined as the clarity to understanding of one's thoughts, emotions and behaviours compared to the evaluative process of self-reflection (Grant et al,. 2002). Grant et al.'s (2002) results found that self-reflection associated positively with anxiety and stress. Whereas, insight was negatively associated with depression, anxiety and stress, while positively associated with cognitive flexibility and self-regulation. These findings were primarily correlational and participants included a sample of undergraduate psychology students which may limit the generalisability. Therefore, these findings demonstrate association among self-reflection insight and psychological outcomes, but they do not establish causal relationships. Trapnell and Campbell (1999) identified two motivationally distinct forms of private self-attention. They distinguish between curiosity-driven reflection or intellectual interest in the self compared to recurrent self-rumination likely to be prompted by threats, losses or injustices regarding the self. Additionally they introduced the "self-absorption paradox", which highlights how self-focused attention can be associated with both self-understanding and psychological distress. This suggests that the motivation and quality of self-focused attention may be more informative than the amount of reflection alone. Trapnell and Campbell's (1999) model provides a key theoretical differentiation for dispositional reflection and rumination. While their research support the distinction between the different processes of reflection. However, it does not establish causation between reflection supporting adaptive outcomes and repetitive thought causing harmful outcomes. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Now lets apply these theories to Trevors scenario''' He replays the incident with self-focused attention, but it does not initially provide him with easing distress or more accurate understanding. Furthermore, the act of repeated replaying the embarrassment and anticipated rejection resembles the threat-focused rumination, whereas questioning his initial assumptions illustrates curiosity-driven reflection. {{RoundBoxBottom}} According to Treynor et al. (2003), rumination may contain at least two distinguishable components: brooding and reflective pondering. Brooding can be defined as the passive comparison between one's current circumstance and an unattained standard, while reflective pondering can be defined as purposeful attention intended to understand or address distress. however, reflection and reflective pondering are from two different measures and should not be treated as identical constructs,It important to highlight these as differing constructs as they both associate differently when measured alongside depressive symptoms. Reflective pondering showed a different and less consistently maladaptive pattern than brooding, although, it is also measured alongside depressive rumination and should not automatically be equated to adaptive self-reflection. This highlighted how different processes of rumination have different relationships with depressive symptoms. (Treynor et al., 2003). Takano and Tanno (2009), proposed that self-reflection and self-rumination are distinguishable but may not be entirely independent. In a two-wave study, self-reflection predicted subsequent self-rumination within the authors' statistical model, suggesting that the two processes may co exist. Self-reflection was associated with lower depression, whereas self-rumination was associated with higher depression Important to note that the estimated total effect of reflection on depression was close to zero, as reflection and rumination occurred together. This suggests that adaptive reflection processes may coexist with maladaptive processes that counteract positive outcomes. The small, predominantly male undergraduate sample and brief follow-up period limit generalisability, while the observational design prevents firm causal conclusions. Ultimately research suggests that adaptive self-reflection appears more likely to involve curiosity, flexibility and movement towards insight or constructive action, whereas maladaptive self-focused thought more commonly involves threat-focused repetitions, passive brooding and difficulty disengaging. However, these processes may overlap, and deliberate reflection should be assumed to be beneficial. == Adaptive self-reflection and wellbeing == Self reflection is more likely to support wellbeing when insight is gained to facilitate constructive meaningInsight was positively associated with happiness and life satisfaction, whereas self-reflection alone did not show the same relationship with subjective wellbeing (Lyke, 2009). * Adaptive self-reflection was indirectly associated with greater resilience and wellbeing through insight when rumination was low. When rumination was high, the pattern was less favourable (Bucknell et al., 2022). * A randomised control trial, found that self reflective writing was more effective than descriptive writing in reinforced perceived resilience. Additionally, reflection on successful coping demonstrates better maintenance of benefits than reflecting on unsuccessful coping (Bucknell et al., 2024). * An app-based journal that targeted positive processes was associated with increased psychological wellbeing among participants with average or higher baseline dispositional self-reflection, after statistically controlling for rumination (MacIsaac et al., 2023) '''Concluding sentence''' - the evidence highlighted that the possible benefits of reflection depend on whether the action produces greater insight, constructing meaning and recognising effective coping. Find research potential locus of control x self-reflection as a point '''Limitations''' * Lyke (2009) is correlational and does not prove insight causes wellbeing * Bucknell et al. (2022) is a cross-sectional moderated mediation analysis, proposed indirect statistical pathway does not infer causation * Bucknell et al. (2024) experimental outcomes were targeted to perceived resilience rather than self reflection. Participants also consisted of Australian ministry workers limiting generalisability * MacIsaac et al. (2023), study was longitudinal but lacked experimental assignment and a control group. Participants chose how much they used the journal, and the app contained other features. Additionally, the nature of the quasi-experiment makes it difficult to confirm whether outcomes are influenced by individuals pre existing reflection intentions and behaviours. == Maladaptive self-reflection and psychological distress == [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]'''Focus questions -''' Under what conditions may self-focused thought contribute to psychological distress? '''Topic sentence/introductory message -''' Self-focused thought may contribute to psychological distress when it becomes repetitive, negative and difficult to detach from, especially when interfering with constructive behaviour and problem solving. '''Key points''' *Response style theory proposes that repetitive focus on distress and its causes and consequences may reinforce negative thinking, impair problem solving and interfere with constructive understanding and behaviours (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008) *A meta-analysis of effect sizes highlighted an association between self-focused attention and negative affect. The strength of this association differed by the form of self-focus, distress and samples (Mor & Winquist, 2002) *Cross-sectional mediation models indicated that brooding statistically accounted for part of the relationship between lower self-compassion and depressive symptoms, while brooding and worry correlated with anxiety (Raes, 2010). *Dunn & Luchner (2022) researched reflection on personal mistakes and how rumination conditions effected negative affect. Results found that no significant improvement in negative emotion, which indicates that rumination may maintain psychological distress. '''Concluding sentence''' - self-focused thought may involve distress when it maintains attention toward negative content without facilitating insight or effective problem-solving. '''Limitations''' * Identifies overall association, not the causality of self-focus and distress. Additionally this meta-analysis is quite dated , social norms and stressors have changed so a more recent meta-analysis may be more useful. (Mor & Winquist, 2002) * Nolen-Hoeksema et al. (2008) concluded that rumination predicted the onset of depression more consistently than the duration of the depressive episode, findings concerning duration were mixed. * Raes (2010) cross-sectional design may limit generalisability and causality. * Dunn and Luchner (2022) did not find a strong implication that rumination significantly caused a decreased mood. Additionally, the study focuses on reflection of personal mistakes and not self-reflection in general. == Factors influencing the outcomes of self-reflection == '''Focus question -''' What psychological processes influence the outcomes of self-reflection? '''Topic sentence -''' The outcomes of self-reflection may be influenced by the interaction of cognitive, emotional, personal and cultural factors rather than on the amount of maladaptive process alone. '''Key points''' *A theoretical review proposed that repetitive thought may be constructive or unconstructive depending on its emotional content, situational context and level of construal, including whether processing is relatively abstract or concrete (Watkins, 2008). *Experimental evidence suggests that analysing a negative experience from a psychologically distanced perspective may support faster cardiovascular recovery than analysing it from a self-immersed perspective (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). *Cross-cultural studies found that Russian participants reported greater spontaneous self-distancing and less distress while reflecting on negative experiences than American participants, indicating that cultural context may influence how reflection is performed and experienced (Grossmann & Kross, 2010). *The relationship between adaptive reflection, insight and wellbeing differed according to participants’ levels of rumination, suggesting that rumination may interfere with otherwise constructive reflective processing (Bucknell et al., 2022). *An experiment involving reflection on a significant mistake suggested that self-criticism may also influence outcomes, as reflection was associated with reduced negative emotion among participants high in the “hated self” form of self-criticism (Dunn & Luchner, 2022). '''Concluding sentence''' - important influences may include processing style, psychological distance, emotional content, rumination, self-criticism, culture and the extent to which reflection generates insight or action. '''Limitations''' == Developing more adaptive self-reflection == '''Focus question''' - How might people engage in more adaptive self-reflection? *Adaptive self-reflection may be encouraged by giving reflection a clear structure, directing attention towards specific experiences and supporting perspective, insight and constructive action. *Analysing a negative experience from a self-distanced perspective may reduce immediate physiological reactivity compared with analysing the experience from a self-immersed perspective (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). *In a one-month randomised trial with distressed students, both [[w:Mindfulness|mindfulness meditation]] and relaxation training reduced distress and increased positive states of mind relative to a control condition; mindfulness meditation also reduced rumination relative to the control condition (Jain et al., 2007). *Positively focused journalling prompts concerning growth, mastery, goals and the future were associated with improved psychological wellbeing among participants with average or higher dispositional self-reflection (MacIsaac et al., 2023). *Structured reflection on successful coping experiences may be particularly useful, as its effects on perceived resilience were maintained more effectively than reflection focused on unsuccessful coping experiences (Bucknell et al., 2024). *in relation to recalling a significant personal mistake, reflection was associated with reduced negative emotion among participants high in hated-self criticism, whereas rumination produced no significant emotional change. (Dunn & Luchner, 2022). '''Concluding sentence''' - promising strategies include psychological distancing, mindfulness, positively focused journalling and structured reflection on successful coping; however, these approaches should not be presented as universally effective. '''Limitations''' *Ayduk and Kross (2008), dated source and supports immediate self-distancing over a more universal and long term intervention. *Jain et al. (2007), Sample included 83 distressed students limiting generalisability. Additionally, mindfulness was not significantly stronger for relaxation for distress or positive states of mind. *Bucknell et al. (2024), study targeted perceived resilience and was a specific occupational sample. ;Quiz Time to quiz your knowledge! Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Self-reflection involves examining one's thoughts, emotions and behaviour: |type="()"} + True - False {Self-reflection is always adaptive when it is deliberate and purposeful: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== *Self-reflection does not appear to be definitively adaptive or maladaptive; its outcomes may depend on how reflection is processed and the context. *Adaptive self-reflection may involve curiosity, flexible thinking and movement towards insight, problem-solving or constructive action. *Maladaptive self-focused thought may involve threat-focused repetition, passive brooding and difficulty disengaging from distress. *Reflection alone does not necessarily produce insight or psychological wellbeing. *Factors such as psychological distance, rumination, emotional content, self-criticism and cultural context may influence reflective outcomes. *Strategies such as mindfulness, self-distancing, positively focused journalling and structured reflection on successful coping may encourage more adaptive reflection. '''Concluding sentence''' - outcomes do not rely on whether an individual reflects or not, but whether their reflection generates clearer understanding and constructive action or maintains repetitive negative attention. ==See also== * [[w:Emotion regulation|Emotion regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Rumination (psychology)|Rumination]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Rumination|Rumination]] (Book chapter, 2013) * [[w:Self-awareness|Self-awareness]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ayduk, Ö., & Kross, E. (2008). Enhancing the pace of recovery: Self-distanced analysis of negative experiences reduces blood pressure reactivity. ''Psychological Science, 19''(3), 229–231. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02073.x Bucknell, K. J., Kangas, M., & Crane, M. F. (2022). Adaptive self-reflection and resilience: The moderating effects of rumination on insight as a mediator. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 185'', 111234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.111234 Bucknell, K. J., Kangas, M., Karin, E., & Crane, M. F. (2024). A randomized controlled trial comparing the effects of self‐reflective writing focused on successful and unsuccessful coping experiences on resilience. ''Stress and Health, 40''(2), e3311. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.3311 Dunn, N. A., & Luchner, A. F. (2022). The emotional impact of self‐criticism on self‐reflection and rumination. ''Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 95''(4), 1126–1139. https://doi.org/10.1111/papt.12422 Grant, A. M., Franklin, J., & Langford, P. (2002). The self-reflection and insight scale: A new measure of private self-consciousness. ''Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 30''(8), 821–836. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2002.30.8.821 Grossmann, I., & Kross, E. (2010). The impact of culture on adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection. ''Psychological Science, 21''(8), 1150–1157. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610376655 Jain, S., Shapiro, S. L., Swanick, S., Roesch, S. C., Mills, P. J., Bell, I., & Schwartz, G. E. (2007). A randomized controlled trial of mindfulness meditation versus relaxation training: Effects on distress, positive states of mind, rumination, and distraction. ''Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 33''(1), 11–21. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324796abm3301_2 Lyke, J. A. (2009). Insight, but not self-reflection, is related to subjective well-being. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 46''(1), 66–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2008.09.010 MacIsaac, A., Mushquash, A. R., & Wekerle, C. (2023). Writing yourself well: Dispositional self-reflection moderates the effect of a smartphone app-based journaling intervention on psychological wellbeing across time. ''Behaviour Change, 40''(4), 297–313. https://doi.org/10.1017/bec.2022.24 Mor, N., & Winquist, J. (2002). Self-focused attention and negative affect: A meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin, 128''(4), 638–662. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.638 Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3''(5), 400–424. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x Raes, F. (2010). Rumination and worry as mediators of the relationship between self-compassion and depression and anxiety. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 48''(6), 757–761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.023 Takano, K., & Tanno, Y. (2009). Self-rumination, self-reflection, and depression: Self-rumination counteracts the adaptive effect of self-reflection. ''Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47''(3), 260–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2008.12.008 Trapnell, P. D., & Campbell, J. D. (1999). Private self-consciousness and the five-factor model of personality: Distinguishing rumination from reflection. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76''(2), 284–304. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.76.2.284 Treynor, W., Gonzalez, R., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2003). Rumination reconsidered: A psychometric analysis. ''Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27''(3), 247–259. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023910315561 Watkins, E. (2004). Adaptive and maladaptive ruminative self-focus during emotional processing. ''Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42''(9), 1037–1052. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2004.01.009 Watkins, E. R. (2008). Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought. ''Psychological Bulletin, 134''(2), 163–206. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.163 }} ==External links== * [https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/break-the-cycle Breaking the cycle of rumination] (Harvard Health Publishing) * [https://www.smilingmind.com.au/ Smiling Mind] (Smiling Mind) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Cognition]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] 6rwvutbesu3tktuvykfpbn71qpi30rr 2840809 2840808 2026-10-17T02:15:19Z U3211150 3106672 /* Understanding adaptive and maladaptive self-reflection */ change box colour 2840809 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection:<br>When does self-reflection promote wellbeing and when does it contribute to psychological distress?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} [[File:Le Penseur in the Jardin du Musée Rodin, Paris 14 June 2015.jpg|Le_Penseur_in_the_Jardin_du_Musée_Rodin,_Paris_14_June_2015]|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Reflection may produce insight, but repeated self-focused thought may contribute to distress.]] '''Scenario: An embarrassing encounter''' Trevor's day at university was fairly ordinary. While walking to get his second coffee, he exchanged a brief smile with another student. Distracted, he failed to notice the uneven ground and tripped in front of her. He quickly walked away, flushed and deeply embarrassed. Trevor repeatedly replayed the incident in his mind, becoming absorbed in self-focused thought (see Figure 1). He decided that if he saw her again, he would avoid her to prevent further embarrassment. When Trevor told his friend Alucard what had happened, Alucard suggested that she might not have noticed. This prompted Trevor to consider whether his prediction of rejection was supported by what had actually occurred. Soon afterwards, Trevor saw the same student approaching. Although he still felt embarrassed, he reconsidered his interpretation and introduced himself. He discovered that she was happy to speak with him. Trevor's response illustrates how reflecting on the same experience may be associated with different emotional and behavioural outcomes. Why might repeatedly replaying the event have prolonged his embarrassment, while reconsidering his interpretation helped him respond more constructively? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Self-reflection|Self-reflection]] involves examining one’s thoughts, emotions and behaviour, but this process does not necessarily produce insight or psychological wellbeing. Self-reflection and insight are related but distinguishable: reflection describes the process of self-examination, whereas insight involves developing clearer self-understanding (Grant et al., 2002). This distinction is practically important because deliberate self-analysis may appear constructive even when it maintains embarrassment, avoidance or distress. The effects of self-focused thought may depend on how it is performed. Trapnell and Campbell (1999) distinguished curiosity-driven reflection from recurrent [[w:Rumination (psychology)|rumination]] prompted by perceived threats, losses or injustices involving the self. More broadly, repetitive thought may be relatively constructive or unconstructive depending on its content, context and level of processing (Watkins, 2008). Psychological perspective may also matter, as analysing a negative experience from a self-distanced perspective may reduce immediate emotional reactivity compared with self-immersed analysis (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). Understanding these processes may help explain why reflection sometimes supports insight and constructive action but, in other circumstances, contributes to continuing distress.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What distinguishes adaptive self-reflection from maladaptive self-focused thought? * Under what conditions may self-reflection support psychological wellbeing? * Under what conditions may self-focused thought contribute to psychological distress? * What psychological processes influence the outcomes of self-reflection? * How might people engage in more adaptive self-reflection? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding adaptive and maladaptive self-reflection == Self-focused thought is not explicitly helpful or harmful. It may involve distinguishable processes which influence the overall wellbeing outcomes. Whether adaptive or maladaptive behaviours are executed may rely on motivation, processing style, capacity to generate insight and the relationship with repetitive negative thinking. Self-reflection can be defined as the inspection and evaluation of one's thoughts, emotions and behaviour, along with the act of directed attention towards internal experiences and processes. However, engaging in the act of self-reflection is not the same as gaining clarity and understanding of what these internal experiences mean (Grant et al., 2002). Adaptive and maladaptive describe the likely outcomes of self-focused thought compared to specific fixed good/bad distinctions. Adaptive self-reflection may involve the flexible, purposeful processing that supports insight, problem-solving or movement towards personally relevant goals (Watkins, 2008). On the other hand, maladaptive self-reflection involves a more self-focused thought process that refers to repetitive attention to distress and its causes or consequences. Rumination is a central example of maladaptive processes, but not every emotionally difficult reflective episode is necessarily maladaptive. Therefore, engaging in these behaviour may potentially interfere with problem-solving and supportive behaviours that can lead to positive outcomes and reaching insight. (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008). {{cmbox | type = style | image = [[File:Emblem-question-yellow.svg|40px]] | style = width: 400px; | textstyle = color: black; font-weight: bold; font-style: italic; | text = Does self-reflection differ from insight? }} While self-reflection and insight are related, they are both distinguishable factors. Reflection involves the process of self-examination, whereas insight describes the possible outcome. Suggesting that higher levels of self-examination do not with certainty produce clear self-understanding. Moreover, insight is defined as the clarity to understanding of one's thoughts, emotions and behaviours compared to the evaluative process of self-reflection (Grant et al,. 2002). Grant et al.'s (2002) results found that self-reflection associated positively with anxiety and stress. Whereas, insight was negatively associated with depression, anxiety and stress, while positively associated with cognitive flexibility and self-regulation. These findings were primarily correlational and participants included a sample of undergraduate psychology students which may limit the generalisability. Therefore, these findings demonstrate association among self-reflection insight and psychological outcomes, but they do not establish causal relationships. Trapnell and Campbell (1999) identified two motivationally distinct forms of private self-attention. They distinguish between curiosity-driven reflection or intellectual interest in the self compared to recurrent self-rumination likely to be prompted by threats, losses or injustices regarding the self. Additionally they introduced the "self-absorption paradox", which highlights how self-focused attention can be associated with both self-understanding and psychological distress. This suggests that the motivation and quality of self-focused attention may be more informative than the amount of reflection alone. Trapnell and Campbell's (1999) model provides a key theoretical differentiation for dispositional reflection and rumination. While their research support the distinction between the different processes of reflection. However, it does not establish causation between reflection supporting adaptive outcomes and repetitive thought causing harmful outcomes. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} '''Now lets apply these theories to Trevors scenario''' He replays the incident with self-focused attention, but it does not initially provide him with easing distress or more accurate understanding. Furthermore, the act of repeated replaying the embarrassment and anticipated rejection resembles the threat-focused rumination, whereas questioning his initial assumptions illustrates curiosity-driven reflection. {{RoundBoxBottom}} According to Treynor et al. (2003), rumination may contain at least two distinguishable components: brooding and reflective pondering. Brooding can be defined as the passive comparison between one's current circumstance and an unattained standard, while reflective pondering can be defined as purposeful attention intended to understand or address distress. however, reflection and reflective pondering are from two different measures and should not be treated as identical constructs,It important to highlight these as differing constructs as they both associate differently when measured alongside depressive symptoms. Reflective pondering showed a different and less consistently maladaptive pattern than brooding, although, it is also measured alongside depressive rumination and should not automatically be equated to adaptive self-reflection. This highlighted how different processes of rumination have different relationships with depressive symptoms. (Treynor et al., 2003). Takano and Tanno (2009), proposed that self-reflection and self-rumination are distinguishable but may not be entirely independent. In a two-wave study, self-reflection predicted subsequent self-rumination within the authors' statistical model, suggesting that the two processes may co exist. Self-reflection was associated with lower depression, whereas self-rumination was associated with higher depression Important to note that the estimated total effect of reflection on depression was close to zero, as reflection and rumination occurred together. This suggests that adaptive reflection processes may coexist with maladaptive processes that counteract positive outcomes. The small, predominantly male undergraduate sample and brief follow-up period limit generalisability, while the observational design prevents firm causal conclusions. Ultimately research suggests that adaptive self-reflection appears more likely to involve curiosity, flexibility and movement towards insight or constructive action, whereas maladaptive self-focused thought more commonly involves threat-focused repetitions, passive brooding and difficulty disengaging. However, these processes may overlap, and deliberate reflection should be assumed to be beneficial. == Adaptive self-reflection and wellbeing == Self reflection is more likely to support wellbeing when insight is gained to facilitate constructive meaningInsight was positively associated with happiness and life satisfaction, whereas self-reflection alone did not show the same relationship with subjective wellbeing (Lyke, 2009). * Adaptive self-reflection was indirectly associated with greater resilience and wellbeing through insight when rumination was low. When rumination was high, the pattern was less favourable (Bucknell et al., 2022). * A randomised control trial, found that self reflective writing was more effective than descriptive writing in reinforced perceived resilience. Additionally, reflection on successful coping demonstrates better maintenance of benefits than reflecting on unsuccessful coping (Bucknell et al., 2024). * An app-based journal that targeted positive processes was associated with increased psychological wellbeing among participants with average or higher baseline dispositional self-reflection, after statistically controlling for rumination (MacIsaac et al., 2023) '''Concluding sentence''' - the evidence highlighted that the possible benefits of reflection depend on whether the action produces greater insight, constructing meaning and recognising effective coping. Find research potential locus of control x self-reflection as a point '''Limitations''' * Lyke (2009) is correlational and does not prove insight causes wellbeing * Bucknell et al. (2022) is a cross-sectional moderated mediation analysis, proposed indirect statistical pathway does not infer causation * Bucknell et al. (2024) experimental outcomes were targeted to perceived resilience rather than self reflection. Participants also consisted of Australian ministry workers limiting generalisability * MacIsaac et al. (2023), study was longitudinal but lacked experimental assignment and a control group. Participants chose how much they used the journal, and the app contained other features. Additionally, the nature of the quasi-experiment makes it difficult to confirm whether outcomes are influenced by individuals pre existing reflection intentions and behaviours. == Maladaptive self-reflection and psychological distress == [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]'''Focus questions -''' Under what conditions may self-focused thought contribute to psychological distress? '''Topic sentence/introductory message -''' Self-focused thought may contribute to psychological distress when it becomes repetitive, negative and difficult to detach from, especially when interfering with constructive behaviour and problem solving. '''Key points''' *Response style theory proposes that repetitive focus on distress and its causes and consequences may reinforce negative thinking, impair problem solving and interfere with constructive understanding and behaviours (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008) *A meta-analysis of effect sizes highlighted an association between self-focused attention and negative affect. The strength of this association differed by the form of self-focus, distress and samples (Mor & Winquist, 2002) *Cross-sectional mediation models indicated that brooding statistically accounted for part of the relationship between lower self-compassion and depressive symptoms, while brooding and worry correlated with anxiety (Raes, 2010). *Dunn & Luchner (2022) researched reflection on personal mistakes and how rumination conditions effected negative affect. Results found that no significant improvement in negative emotion, which indicates that rumination may maintain psychological distress. '''Concluding sentence''' - self-focused thought may involve distress when it maintains attention toward negative content without facilitating insight or effective problem-solving. '''Limitations''' * Identifies overall association, not the causality of self-focus and distress. Additionally this meta-analysis is quite dated , social norms and stressors have changed so a more recent meta-analysis may be more useful. (Mor & Winquist, 2002) * Nolen-Hoeksema et al. (2008) concluded that rumination predicted the onset of depression more consistently than the duration of the depressive episode, findings concerning duration were mixed. * Raes (2010) cross-sectional design may limit generalisability and causality. * Dunn and Luchner (2022) did not find a strong implication that rumination significantly caused a decreased mood. Additionally, the study focuses on reflection of personal mistakes and not self-reflection in general. == Factors influencing the outcomes of self-reflection == '''Focus question -''' What psychological processes influence the outcomes of self-reflection? '''Topic sentence -''' The outcomes of self-reflection may be influenced by the interaction of cognitive, emotional, personal and cultural factors rather than on the amount of maladaptive process alone. '''Key points''' *A theoretical review proposed that repetitive thought may be constructive or unconstructive depending on its emotional content, situational context and level of construal, including whether processing is relatively abstract or concrete (Watkins, 2008). *Experimental evidence suggests that analysing a negative experience from a psychologically distanced perspective may support faster cardiovascular recovery than analysing it from a self-immersed perspective (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). *Cross-cultural studies found that Russian participants reported greater spontaneous self-distancing and less distress while reflecting on negative experiences than American participants, indicating that cultural context may influence how reflection is performed and experienced (Grossmann & Kross, 2010). *The relationship between adaptive reflection, insight and wellbeing differed according to participants’ levels of rumination, suggesting that rumination may interfere with otherwise constructive reflective processing (Bucknell et al., 2022). *An experiment involving reflection on a significant mistake suggested that self-criticism may also influence outcomes, as reflection was associated with reduced negative emotion among participants high in the “hated self” form of self-criticism (Dunn & Luchner, 2022). '''Concluding sentence''' - important influences may include processing style, psychological distance, emotional content, rumination, self-criticism, culture and the extent to which reflection generates insight or action. '''Limitations''' == Developing more adaptive self-reflection == '''Focus question''' - How might people engage in more adaptive self-reflection? *Adaptive self-reflection may be encouraged by giving reflection a clear structure, directing attention towards specific experiences and supporting perspective, insight and constructive action. *Analysing a negative experience from a self-distanced perspective may reduce immediate physiological reactivity compared with analysing the experience from a self-immersed perspective (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). *In a one-month randomised trial with distressed students, both [[w:Mindfulness|mindfulness meditation]] and relaxation training reduced distress and increased positive states of mind relative to a control condition; mindfulness meditation also reduced rumination relative to the control condition (Jain et al., 2007). *Positively focused journalling prompts concerning growth, mastery, goals and the future were associated with improved psychological wellbeing among participants with average or higher dispositional self-reflection (MacIsaac et al., 2023). *Structured reflection on successful coping experiences may be particularly useful, as its effects on perceived resilience were maintained more effectively than reflection focused on unsuccessful coping experiences (Bucknell et al., 2024). *in relation to recalling a significant personal mistake, reflection was associated with reduced negative emotion among participants high in hated-self criticism, whereas rumination produced no significant emotional change. (Dunn & Luchner, 2022). '''Concluding sentence''' - promising strategies include psychological distancing, mindfulness, positively focused journalling and structured reflection on successful coping; however, these approaches should not be presented as universally effective. '''Limitations''' *Ayduk and Kross (2008), dated source and supports immediate self-distancing over a more universal and long term intervention. *Jain et al. (2007), Sample included 83 distressed students limiting generalisability. Additionally, mindfulness was not significantly stronger for relaxation for distress or positive states of mind. *Bucknell et al. (2024), study targeted perceived resilience and was a specific occupational sample. ;Quiz Time to quiz your knowledge! Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Self-reflection involves examining one's thoughts, emotions and behaviour: |type="()"} + True - False {Self-reflection is always adaptive when it is deliberate and purposeful: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== *Self-reflection does not appear to be definitively adaptive or maladaptive; its outcomes may depend on how reflection is processed and the context. *Adaptive self-reflection may involve curiosity, flexible thinking and movement towards insight, problem-solving or constructive action. *Maladaptive self-focused thought may involve threat-focused repetition, passive brooding and difficulty disengaging from distress. *Reflection alone does not necessarily produce insight or psychological wellbeing. *Factors such as psychological distance, rumination, emotional content, self-criticism and cultural context may influence reflective outcomes. *Strategies such as mindfulness, self-distancing, positively focused journalling and structured reflection on successful coping may encourage more adaptive reflection. '''Concluding sentence''' - outcomes do not rely on whether an individual reflects or not, but whether their reflection generates clearer understanding and constructive action or maintains repetitive negative attention. ==See also== * [[w:Emotion regulation|Emotion regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Rumination (psychology)|Rumination]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Rumination|Rumination]] (Book chapter, 2013) * [[w:Self-awareness|Self-awareness]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ayduk, Ö., & Kross, E. (2008). Enhancing the pace of recovery: Self-distanced analysis of negative experiences reduces blood pressure reactivity. ''Psychological Science, 19''(3), 229–231. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02073.x Bucknell, K. J., Kangas, M., & Crane, M. F. (2022). Adaptive self-reflection and resilience: The moderating effects of rumination on insight as a mediator. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 185'', 111234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.111234 Bucknell, K. J., Kangas, M., Karin, E., & Crane, M. F. (2024). A randomized controlled trial comparing the effects of self‐reflective writing focused on successful and unsuccessful coping experiences on resilience. ''Stress and Health, 40''(2), e3311. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.3311 Dunn, N. A., & Luchner, A. F. (2022). The emotional impact of self‐criticism on self‐reflection and rumination. ''Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 95''(4), 1126–1139. https://doi.org/10.1111/papt.12422 Grant, A. M., Franklin, J., & Langford, P. (2002). The self-reflection and insight scale: A new measure of private self-consciousness. ''Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 30''(8), 821–836. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2002.30.8.821 Grossmann, I., & Kross, E. (2010). The impact of culture on adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection. ''Psychological Science, 21''(8), 1150–1157. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610376655 Jain, S., Shapiro, S. L., Swanick, S., Roesch, S. C., Mills, P. J., Bell, I., & Schwartz, G. E. (2007). A randomized controlled trial of mindfulness meditation versus relaxation training: Effects on distress, positive states of mind, rumination, and distraction. ''Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 33''(1), 11–21. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324796abm3301_2 Lyke, J. A. (2009). Insight, but not self-reflection, is related to subjective well-being. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 46''(1), 66–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2008.09.010 MacIsaac, A., Mushquash, A. R., & Wekerle, C. (2023). Writing yourself well: Dispositional self-reflection moderates the effect of a smartphone app-based journaling intervention on psychological wellbeing across time. ''Behaviour Change, 40''(4), 297–313. https://doi.org/10.1017/bec.2022.24 Mor, N., & Winquist, J. (2002). Self-focused attention and negative affect: A meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin, 128''(4), 638–662. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.638 Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3''(5), 400–424. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x Raes, F. (2010). Rumination and worry as mediators of the relationship between self-compassion and depression and anxiety. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 48''(6), 757–761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.023 Takano, K., & Tanno, Y. (2009). Self-rumination, self-reflection, and depression: Self-rumination counteracts the adaptive effect of self-reflection. ''Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47''(3), 260–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2008.12.008 Trapnell, P. D., & Campbell, J. D. (1999). Private self-consciousness and the five-factor model of personality: Distinguishing rumination from reflection. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76''(2), 284–304. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.76.2.284 Treynor, W., Gonzalez, R., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2003). Rumination reconsidered: A psychometric analysis. ''Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27''(3), 247–259. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023910315561 Watkins, E. (2004). Adaptive and maladaptive ruminative self-focus during emotional processing. ''Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42''(9), 1037–1052. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2004.01.009 Watkins, E. R. (2008). Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought. ''Psychological Bulletin, 134''(2), 163–206. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.163 }} ==External links== * [https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/break-the-cycle Breaking the cycle of rumination] (Harvard Health Publishing) * [https://www.smilingmind.com.au/ Smiling Mind] (Smiling Mind) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Cognition]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] mgu9wwgd9jjpoufxq6z3peajybvih0s 2840811 2840809 2026-10-17T02:25:49Z U3211150 3106672 /* Adaptive self-reflection and wellbeing */ added a new ref 2840811 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection:<br>When does self-reflection promote wellbeing and when does it contribute to psychological distress?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} [[File:Le Penseur in the Jardin du Musée Rodin, Paris 14 June 2015.jpg|Le_Penseur_in_the_Jardin_du_Musée_Rodin,_Paris_14_June_2015]|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Reflection may produce insight, but repeated self-focused thought may contribute to distress.]] '''Scenario: An embarrassing encounter''' Trevor's day at university was fairly ordinary. While walking to get his second coffee, he exchanged a brief smile with another student. Distracted, he failed to notice the uneven ground and tripped in front of her. He quickly walked away, flushed and deeply embarrassed. Trevor repeatedly replayed the incident in his mind, becoming absorbed in self-focused thought (see Figure 1). He decided that if he saw her again, he would avoid her to prevent further embarrassment. When Trevor told his friend Alucard what had happened, Alucard suggested that she might not have noticed. This prompted Trevor to consider whether his prediction of rejection was supported by what had actually occurred. Soon afterwards, Trevor saw the same student approaching. Although he still felt embarrassed, he reconsidered his interpretation and introduced himself. He discovered that she was happy to speak with him. Trevor's response illustrates how reflecting on the same experience may be associated with different emotional and behavioural outcomes. Why might repeatedly replaying the event have prolonged his embarrassment, while reconsidering his interpretation helped him respond more constructively? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Self-reflection|Self-reflection]] involves examining one’s thoughts, emotions and behaviour, but this process does not necessarily produce insight or psychological wellbeing. Self-reflection and insight are related but distinguishable: reflection describes the process of self-examination, whereas insight involves developing clearer self-understanding (Grant et al., 2002). This distinction is practically important because deliberate self-analysis may appear constructive even when it maintains embarrassment, avoidance or distress. The effects of self-focused thought may depend on how it is performed. Trapnell and Campbell (1999) distinguished curiosity-driven reflection from recurrent [[w:Rumination (psychology)|rumination]] prompted by perceived threats, losses or injustices involving the self. More broadly, repetitive thought may be relatively constructive or unconstructive depending on its content, context and level of processing (Watkins, 2008). Psychological perspective may also matter, as analysing a negative experience from a self-distanced perspective may reduce immediate emotional reactivity compared with self-immersed analysis (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). Understanding these processes may help explain why reflection sometimes supports insight and constructive action but, in other circumstances, contributes to continuing distress.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What distinguishes adaptive self-reflection from maladaptive self-focused thought? * Under what conditions may self-reflection support psychological wellbeing? * Under what conditions may self-focused thought contribute to psychological distress? * What psychological processes influence the outcomes of self-reflection? * How might people engage in more adaptive self-reflection? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding adaptive and maladaptive self-reflection == Self-focused thought is not explicitly helpful or harmful. It may involve distinguishable processes which influence the overall wellbeing outcomes. Whether adaptive or maladaptive behaviours are executed may rely on motivation, processing style, capacity to generate insight and the relationship with repetitive negative thinking. Self-reflection can be defined as the inspection and evaluation of one's thoughts, emotions and behaviour, along with the act of directed attention towards internal experiences and processes. However, engaging in the act of self-reflection is not the same as gaining clarity and understanding of what these internal experiences mean (Grant et al., 2002). Adaptive and maladaptive describe the likely outcomes of self-focused thought compared to specific fixed good/bad distinctions. Adaptive self-reflection may involve the flexible, purposeful processing that supports insight, problem-solving or movement towards personally relevant goals (Watkins, 2008). On the other hand, maladaptive self-reflection involves a more self-focused thought process that refers to repetitive attention to distress and its causes or consequences. Rumination is a central example of maladaptive processes, but not every emotionally difficult reflective episode is necessarily maladaptive. Therefore, engaging in these behaviour may potentially interfere with problem-solving and supportive behaviours that can lead to positive outcomes and reaching insight. (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008). {{cmbox | type = style | image = [[File:Emblem-question-yellow.svg|40px]] | style = width: 400px; | textstyle = color: black; font-weight: bold; font-style: italic; | text = Does self-reflection differ from insight? }} While self-reflection and insight are related, they are both distinguishable factors. Reflection involves the process of self-examination, whereas insight describes the possible outcome. Suggesting that higher levels of self-examination do not with certainty produce clear self-understanding. Moreover, insight is defined as the clarity to understanding of one's thoughts, emotions and behaviours compared to the evaluative process of self-reflection (Grant et al,. 2002). Grant et al.'s (2002) results found that self-reflection associated positively with anxiety and stress. Whereas, insight was negatively associated with depression, anxiety and stress, while positively associated with cognitive flexibility and self-regulation. These findings were primarily correlational and participants included a sample of undergraduate psychology students which may limit the generalisability. Therefore, these findings demonstrate association among self-reflection insight and psychological outcomes, but they do not establish causal relationships. Trapnell and Campbell (1999) identified two motivationally distinct forms of private self-attention. They distinguish between curiosity-driven reflection or intellectual interest in the self compared to recurrent self-rumination likely to be prompted by threats, losses or injustices regarding the self. Additionally they introduced the "self-absorption paradox", which highlights how self-focused attention can be associated with both self-understanding and psychological distress. This suggests that the motivation and quality of self-focused attention may be more informative than the amount of reflection alone. Trapnell and Campbell's (1999) model provides a key theoretical differentiation for dispositional reflection and rumination. While their research support the distinction between the different processes of reflection. However, it does not establish causation between reflection supporting adaptive outcomes and repetitive thought causing harmful outcomes. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} '''Now lets apply these theories to Trevors scenario''' He replays the incident with self-focused attention, but it does not initially provide him with easing distress or more accurate understanding. Furthermore, the act of repeated replaying the embarrassment and anticipated rejection resembles the threat-focused rumination, whereas questioning his initial assumptions illustrates curiosity-driven reflection. {{RoundBoxBottom}} According to Treynor et al. (2003), rumination may contain at least two distinguishable components: brooding and reflective pondering. Brooding can be defined as the passive comparison between one's current circumstance and an unattained standard, while reflective pondering can be defined as purposeful attention intended to understand or address distress. however, reflection and reflective pondering are from two different measures and should not be treated as identical constructs,It important to highlight these as differing constructs as they both associate differently when measured alongside depressive symptoms. Reflective pondering showed a different and less consistently maladaptive pattern than brooding, although, it is also measured alongside depressive rumination and should not automatically be equated to adaptive self-reflection. This highlighted how different processes of rumination have different relationships with depressive symptoms. (Treynor et al., 2003). Takano and Tanno (2009), proposed that self-reflection and self-rumination are distinguishable but may not be entirely independent. In a two-wave study, self-reflection predicted subsequent self-rumination within the authors' statistical model, suggesting that the two processes may co exist. Self-reflection was associated with lower depression, whereas self-rumination was associated with higher depression Important to note that the estimated total effect of reflection on depression was close to zero, as reflection and rumination occurred together. This suggests that adaptive reflection processes may coexist with maladaptive processes that counteract positive outcomes. The small, predominantly male undergraduate sample and brief follow-up period limit generalisability, while the observational design prevents firm causal conclusions. Ultimately research suggests that adaptive self-reflection appears more likely to involve curiosity, flexibility and movement towards insight or constructive action, whereas maladaptive self-focused thought more commonly involves threat-focused repetitions, passive brooding and difficulty disengaging. However, these processes may overlap, and deliberate reflection should be assumed to be beneficial. == Adaptive self-reflection and wellbeing == Self reflection is more likely to support wellbeing when insight is gained to facilitate constructive meaningInsight was positively associated with happiness and life satisfaction, whereas self-reflection alone did not show the same relationship with subjective wellbeing (Lyke, 2009). * Adaptive self-reflection was indirectly associated with greater resilience and wellbeing through insight when rumination was low. When rumination was high, the pattern was less favourable (Bucknell et al., 2022). * A randomised control trial, found that self reflective writing was more effective than descriptive writing in reinforced perceived resilience. Additionally, reflection on successful coping demonstrates better maintenance of benefits than reflecting on unsuccessful coping (Bucknell et al., 2024). * An app-based journal that targeted positive processes was associated with increased psychological wellbeing among participants with average or higher baseline dispositional self-reflection, after statistically controlling for rumination (MacIsaac et al., 2023) '''Concluding sentence''' - the evidence highlighted that the possible benefits of reflection depend on whether the action produces greater insight, constructing meaning and recognising effective coping. Find research potential locus of control x self-reflection as a point '''Limitations''' * Lyke (2009) is correlational and does not prove insight causes wellbeing * Bucknell et al. (2022) is a cross-sectional moderated mediation analysis, proposed indirect statistical pathway does not infer causation * Bucknell et al. (2024) experimental outcomes were targeted to perceived resilience rather than self reflection. Participants also consisted of Australian ministry workers limiting generalisability * MacIsaac et al. (2023), study was longitudinal but lacked experimental assignment and a control group. Participants chose how much they used the journal, and the app contained other features. Additionally, the nature of the quasi-experiment makes it difficult to confirm whether outcomes are influenced by individuals pre existing reflection intentions and behaviours. == Maladaptive self-reflection and psychological distress == [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]'''Focus questions -''' Under what conditions may self-focused thought contribute to psychological distress? '''Topic sentence/introductory message -''' Self-focused thought may contribute to psychological distress when it becomes repetitive, negative and difficult to detach from, especially when interfering with constructive behaviour and problem solving. '''Key points''' *Response style theory proposes that repetitive focus on distress and its causes and consequences may reinforce negative thinking, impair problem solving and interfere with constructive understanding and behaviours (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008) *A meta-analysis of effect sizes highlighted an association between self-focused attention and negative affect. The strength of this association differed by the form of self-focus, distress and samples (Mor & Winquist, 2002) *Cross-sectional mediation models indicated that brooding statistically accounted for part of the relationship between lower self-compassion and depressive symptoms, while brooding and worry correlated with anxiety (Raes, 2010). *Dunn & Luchner (2022) researched reflection on personal mistakes and how rumination conditions effected negative affect. Results found that no significant improvement in negative emotion, which indicates that rumination may maintain psychological distress. '''Concluding sentence''' - self-focused thought may involve distress when it maintains attention toward negative content without facilitating insight or effective problem-solving. '''Limitations''' * Identifies overall association, not the causality of self-focus and distress. Additionally this meta-analysis is quite dated , social norms and stressors have changed so a more recent meta-analysis may be more useful. (Mor & Winquist, 2002) * Nolen-Hoeksema et al. (2008) concluded that rumination predicted the onset of depression more consistently than the duration of the depressive episode, findings concerning duration were mixed. * Raes (2010) cross-sectional design may limit generalisability and causality. * Dunn and Luchner (2022) did not find a strong implication that rumination significantly caused a decreased mood. Additionally, the study focuses on reflection of personal mistakes and not self-reflection in general. == Factors influencing the outcomes of self-reflection == '''Focus question -''' What psychological processes influence the outcomes of self-reflection? '''Topic sentence -''' The outcomes of self-reflection may be influenced by the interaction of cognitive, emotional, personal and cultural factors rather than on the amount of maladaptive process alone. '''Key points''' *A theoretical review proposed that repetitive thought may be constructive or unconstructive depending on its emotional content, situational context and level of construal, including whether processing is relatively abstract or concrete (Watkins, 2008). *Experimental evidence suggests that analysing a negative experience from a psychologically distanced perspective may support faster cardiovascular recovery than analysing it from a self-immersed perspective (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). *Cross-cultural studies found that Russian participants reported greater spontaneous self-distancing and less distress while reflecting on negative experiences than American participants, indicating that cultural context may influence how reflection is performed and experienced (Grossmann & Kross, 2010). *The relationship between adaptive reflection, insight and wellbeing differed according to participants’ levels of rumination, suggesting that rumination may interfere with otherwise constructive reflective processing (Bucknell et al., 2022). *An experiment involving reflection on a significant mistake suggested that self-criticism may also influence outcomes, as reflection was associated with reduced negative emotion among participants high in the “hated self” form of self-criticism (Dunn & Luchner, 2022). '''Concluding sentence''' - important influences may include processing style, psychological distance, emotional content, rumination, self-criticism, culture and the extent to which reflection generates insight or action. '''Limitations''' == Developing more adaptive self-reflection == '''Focus question''' - How might people engage in more adaptive self-reflection? *Adaptive self-reflection may be encouraged by giving reflection a clear structure, directing attention towards specific experiences and supporting perspective, insight and constructive action. *Analysing a negative experience from a self-distanced perspective may reduce immediate physiological reactivity compared with analysing the experience from a self-immersed perspective (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). *In a one-month randomised trial with distressed students, both [[w:Mindfulness|mindfulness meditation]] and relaxation training reduced distress and increased positive states of mind relative to a control condition; mindfulness meditation also reduced rumination relative to the control condition (Jain et al., 2007). *Positively focused journalling prompts concerning growth, mastery, goals and the future were associated with improved psychological wellbeing among participants with average or higher dispositional self-reflection (MacIsaac et al., 2023). *Structured reflection on successful coping experiences may be particularly useful, as its effects on perceived resilience were maintained more effectively than reflection focused on unsuccessful coping experiences (Bucknell et al., 2024). *in relation to recalling a significant personal mistake, reflection was associated with reduced negative emotion among participants high in hated-self criticism, whereas rumination produced no significant emotional change. (Dunn & Luchner, 2022). '''Concluding sentence''' - promising strategies include psychological distancing, mindfulness, positively focused journalling and structured reflection on successful coping; however, these approaches should not be presented as universally effective. '''Limitations''' *Ayduk and Kross (2008), dated source and supports immediate self-distancing over a more universal and long term intervention. *Jain et al. (2007), Sample included 83 distressed students limiting generalisability. Additionally, mindfulness was not significantly stronger for relaxation for distress or positive states of mind. *Bucknell et al. (2024), study targeted perceived resilience and was a specific occupational sample. ;Quiz Time to quiz your knowledge! Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Self-reflection involves examining one's thoughts, emotions and behaviour: |type="()"} + True - False {Self-reflection is always adaptive when it is deliberate and purposeful: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== *Self-reflection does not appear to be definitively adaptive or maladaptive; its outcomes may depend on how reflection is processed and the context. *Adaptive self-reflection may involve curiosity, flexible thinking and movement towards insight, problem-solving or constructive action. *Maladaptive self-focused thought may involve threat-focused repetition, passive brooding and difficulty disengaging from distress. *Reflection alone does not necessarily produce insight or psychological wellbeing. *Factors such as psychological distance, rumination, emotional content, self-criticism and cultural context may influence reflective outcomes. *Strategies such as mindfulness, self-distancing, positively focused journalling and structured reflection on successful coping may encourage more adaptive reflection. '''Concluding sentence''' - outcomes do not rely on whether an individual reflects or not, but whether their reflection generates clearer understanding and constructive action or maintains repetitive negative attention. ==See also== * [[w:Emotion regulation|Emotion regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Rumination (psychology)|Rumination]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Rumination|Rumination]] (Book chapter, 2013) * [[w:Self-awareness|Self-awareness]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ayduk, Ö., & Kross, E. (2008). Enhancing the pace of recovery: Self-distanced analysis of negative experiences reduces blood pressure reactivity. ''Psychological Science, 19''(3), 229–231. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02073.x Bucknell, K. J., Kangas, M., & Crane, M. F. (2022). Adaptive self-reflection and resilience: The moderating effects of rumination on insight as a mediator. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 185'', 111234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.111234 Bucknell, K. J., Kangas, M., Karin, E., & Crane, M. F. (2024). A randomized controlled trial comparing the effects of self‐reflective writing focused on successful and unsuccessful coping experiences on resilience. ''Stress and Health, 40''(2), e3311. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.3311 Crane, M. F., Searle, B. J., Kangas, M., & Nwiran, Y. (2019). How resilience is strengthened by exposure to stressors: The systematic self-reflection model of resilience strengthening. ''Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 32''(1), 1-17. DOI:10.1080/10615806.2018.1506640 Dunn, N. A., & Luchner, A. F. (2022). The emotional impact of self‐criticism on self‐reflection and rumination. ''Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 95''(4), 1126–1139. https://doi.org/10.1111/papt.12422 Grant, A. M., Franklin, J., & Langford, P. (2002). The self-reflection and insight scale: A new measure of private self-consciousness. ''Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 30''(8), 821–836. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2002.30.8.821 Grossmann, I., & Kross, E. (2010). The impact of culture on adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection. ''Psychological Science, 21''(8), 1150–1157. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610376655 Jain, S., Shapiro, S. L., Swanick, S., Roesch, S. C., Mills, P. J., Bell, I., & Schwartz, G. E. (2007). A randomized controlled trial of mindfulness meditation versus relaxation training: Effects on distress, positive states of mind, rumination, and distraction. ''Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 33''(1), 11–21. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324796abm3301_2 Lyke, J. A. (2009). Insight, but not self-reflection, is related to subjective well-being. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 46''(1), 66–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2008.09.010 MacIsaac, A., Mushquash, A. R., & Wekerle, C. (2023). Writing yourself well: Dispositional self-reflection moderates the effect of a smartphone app-based journaling intervention on psychological wellbeing across time. ''Behaviour Change, 40''(4), 297–313. https://doi.org/10.1017/bec.2022.24 Mor, N., & Winquist, J. (2002). Self-focused attention and negative affect: A meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin, 128''(4), 638–662. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.638 Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3''(5), 400–424. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x Raes, F. (2010). Rumination and worry as mediators of the relationship between self-compassion and depression and anxiety. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 48''(6), 757–761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.023 Takano, K., & Tanno, Y. (2009). Self-rumination, self-reflection, and depression: Self-rumination counteracts the adaptive effect of self-reflection. ''Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47''(3), 260–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2008.12.008 Trapnell, P. D., & Campbell, J. D. (1999). Private self-consciousness and the five-factor model of personality: Distinguishing rumination from reflection. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76''(2), 284–304. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.76.2.284 Treynor, W., Gonzalez, R., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2003). Rumination reconsidered: A psychometric analysis. ''Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27''(3), 247–259. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023910315561 Watkins, E. (2004). Adaptive and maladaptive ruminative self-focus during emotional processing. ''Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42''(9), 1037–1052. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2004.01.009 Watkins, E. R. (2008). Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought. ''Psychological Bulletin, 134''(2), 163–206. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.163 }} ==External links== * [https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/break-the-cycle Breaking the cycle of rumination] (Harvard Health Publishing) * [https://www.smilingmind.com.au/ Smiling Mind] (Smiling Mind) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Cognition]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] fk8vvhephcneur1dqqf9xqwcvcy7zn9 2840812 2840811 2026-10-17T02:34:57Z U3211150 3106672 /* Adaptive self-reflection and wellbeing */ form paragraph /integrate new source/theory/ round box editing for design 2840812 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection:<br>When does self-reflection promote wellbeing and when does it contribute to psychological distress?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} [[File:Le Penseur in the Jardin du Musée Rodin, Paris 14 June 2015.jpg|Le_Penseur_in_the_Jardin_du_Musée_Rodin,_Paris_14_June_2015]|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Reflection may produce insight, but repeated self-focused thought may contribute to distress.]] '''Scenario: An embarrassing encounter''' Trevor's day at university was fairly ordinary. While walking to get his second coffee, he exchanged a brief smile with another student. Distracted, he failed to notice the uneven ground and tripped in front of her. He quickly walked away, flushed and deeply embarrassed. Trevor repeatedly replayed the incident in his mind, becoming absorbed in self-focused thought (see Figure 1). He decided that if he saw her again, he would avoid her to prevent further embarrassment. When Trevor told his friend Alucard what had happened, Alucard suggested that she might not have noticed. This prompted Trevor to consider whether his prediction of rejection was supported by what had actually occurred. Soon afterwards, Trevor saw the same student approaching. Although he still felt embarrassed, he reconsidered his interpretation and introduced himself. He discovered that she was happy to speak with him. Trevor's response illustrates how reflecting on the same experience may be associated with different emotional and behavioural outcomes. Why might repeatedly replaying the event have prolonged his embarrassment, while reconsidering his interpretation helped him respond more constructively? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Self-reflection|Self-reflection]] involves examining one’s thoughts, emotions and behaviour, but this process does not necessarily produce insight or psychological wellbeing. Self-reflection and insight are related but distinguishable: reflection describes the process of self-examination, whereas insight involves developing clearer self-understanding (Grant et al., 2002). This distinction is practically important because deliberate self-analysis may appear constructive even when it maintains embarrassment, avoidance or distress. The effects of self-focused thought may depend on how it is performed. Trapnell and Campbell (1999) distinguished curiosity-driven reflection from recurrent [[w:Rumination (psychology)|rumination]] prompted by perceived threats, losses or injustices involving the self. More broadly, repetitive thought may be relatively constructive or unconstructive depending on its content, context and level of processing (Watkins, 2008). Psychological perspective may also matter, as analysing a negative experience from a self-distanced perspective may reduce immediate emotional reactivity compared with self-immersed analysis (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). Understanding these processes may help explain why reflection sometimes supports insight and constructive action but, in other circumstances, contributes to continuing distress.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What distinguishes adaptive self-reflection from maladaptive self-focused thought? * Under what conditions may self-reflection support psychological wellbeing? * Under what conditions may self-focused thought contribute to psychological distress? * What psychological processes influence the outcomes of self-reflection? * How might people engage in more adaptive self-reflection? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding adaptive and maladaptive self-reflection == Self-focused thought is not explicitly helpful or harmful. It may involve distinguishable processes which influence the overall wellbeing outcomes. Whether adaptive or maladaptive behaviours are executed may rely on motivation, processing style, capacity to generate insight and the relationship with repetitive negative thinking. Self-reflection can be defined as the inspection and evaluation of one's thoughts, emotions and behaviour, along with the act of directed attention towards internal experiences and processes. However, engaging in the act of self-reflection is not the same as gaining clarity and understanding of what these internal experiences mean (Grant et al., 2002). Adaptive and maladaptive describe the likely outcomes of self-focused thought compared to specific fixed good/bad distinctions. Adaptive self-reflection may involve the flexible, purposeful processing that supports insight, problem-solving or movement towards personally relevant goals (Watkins, 2008). On the other hand, maladaptive self-reflection involves a more self-focused thought process that refers to repetitive attention to distress and its causes or consequences. Rumination is a central example of maladaptive processes, but not every emotionally difficult reflective episode is necessarily maladaptive. Therefore, engaging in these behaviour may potentially interfere with problem-solving and supportive behaviours that can lead to positive outcomes and reaching insight. (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008). {{cmbox | type = style | image = [[File:Emblem-question-yellow.svg|40px]] | style = width: 400px; | textstyle = color: black; font-weight: bold; font-style: italic; | text = Does self-reflection differ from insight? }} While self-reflection and insight are related, they are both distinguishable factors. Reflection involves the process of self-examination, whereas insight describes the possible outcome. Suggesting that higher levels of self-examination do not with certainty produce clear self-understanding. Moreover, insight is defined as the clarity to understanding of one's thoughts, emotions and behaviours compared to the evaluative process of self-reflection (Grant et al,. 2002). Grant et al.'s (2002) results found that self-reflection associated positively with anxiety and stress. Whereas, insight was negatively associated with depression, anxiety and stress, while positively associated with cognitive flexibility and self-regulation. These findings were primarily correlational and participants included a sample of undergraduate psychology students which may limit the generalisability. Therefore, these findings demonstrate association among self-reflection insight and psychological outcomes, but they do not establish causal relationships. Trapnell and Campbell (1999) identified two motivationally distinct forms of private self-attention. They distinguish between curiosity-driven reflection or intellectual interest in the self compared to recurrent self-rumination likely to be prompted by threats, losses or injustices regarding the self. Additionally they introduced the "self-absorption paradox", which highlights how self-focused attention can be associated with both self-understanding and psychological distress. This suggests that the motivation and quality of self-focused attention may be more informative than the amount of reflection alone. Trapnell and Campbell's (1999) model provides a key theoretical differentiation for dispositional reflection and rumination. While their research support the distinction between the different processes of reflection. However, it does not establish causation between reflection supporting adaptive outcomes and repetitive thought causing harmful outcomes. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} '''Now lets apply these theories to Trevors scenario''' He replays the incident with self-focused attention, but it does not initially provide him with easing distress or more accurate understanding. Furthermore, the act of repeated replaying the embarrassment and anticipated rejection resembles the threat-focused rumination, whereas questioning his initial assumptions illustrates curiosity-driven reflection. {{RoundBoxBottom}} According to Treynor et al. (2003), rumination may contain at least two distinguishable components: brooding and reflective pondering. Brooding can be defined as the passive comparison between one's current circumstance and an unattained standard, while reflective pondering can be defined as purposeful attention intended to understand or address distress. however, reflection and reflective pondering are from two different measures and should not be treated as identical constructs,It important to highlight these as differing constructs as they both associate differently when measured alongside depressive symptoms. Reflective pondering showed a different and less consistently maladaptive pattern than brooding, although, it is also measured alongside depressive rumination and should not automatically be equated to adaptive self-reflection. This highlighted how different processes of rumination have different relationships with depressive symptoms. (Treynor et al., 2003). Takano and Tanno (2009), proposed that self-reflection and self-rumination are distinguishable but may not be entirely independent. In a two-wave study, self-reflection predicted subsequent self-rumination within the authors' statistical model, suggesting that the two processes may co exist. Self-reflection was associated with lower depression, whereas self-rumination was associated with higher depression Important to note that the estimated total effect of reflection on depression was close to zero, as reflection and rumination occurred together. This suggests that adaptive reflection processes may coexist with maladaptive processes that counteract positive outcomes. The small, predominantly male undergraduate sample and brief follow-up period limit generalisability, while the observational design prevents firm causal conclusions. Ultimately research suggests that adaptive self-reflection appears more likely to involve curiosity, flexibility and movement towards insight or constructive action, whereas maladaptive self-focused thought more commonly involves threat-focused repetitions, passive brooding and difficulty disengaging. However, these processes may overlap, and deliberate reflection should be assumed to be beneficial. == Adaptive self-reflection and wellbeing == Self reflection is more likely to support wellbeing when insight is gained to facilitate constructive meaning. The Systematic Self-Reflection Model of resilience Strengthening is a proposed theoretical pathway underlines how insight on coping mechanisms may strengthen resilience (Crane, Searle, et al., 2019). This framework models adaptive self-reflections as a sequence; {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} Reflection on coping {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} Insight gained {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} Refinement of resilient beliefs, strategies and resources {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} Greater capacity to respond to future stressors {{RoundBoxBottom}} Insight was positively associated with happiness and life satisfaction, whereas self-reflection alone did not show the same relationship with subjective wellbeing (Lyke, 2009). * Adaptive self-reflection was indirectly associated with greater resilience and wellbeing through insight when rumination was low. When rumination was high, the pattern was less favourable (Bucknell et al., 2022). * A randomised control trial, found that self reflective writing was more effective than descriptive writing in reinforced perceived resilience. Additionally, reflection on successful coping demonstrates better maintenance of benefits than reflecting on unsuccessful coping (Bucknell et al., 2024). * An app-based journal that targeted positive processes was associated with increased psychological wellbeing among participants with average or higher baseline dispositional self-reflection, after statistically controlling for rumination (MacIsaac et al., 2023) '''Concluding sentence''' - the evidence highlighted that the possible benefits of reflection depend on whether the action produces greater insight, constructing meaning and recognising effective coping. Find research potential locus of control x self-reflection as a point '''Limitations''' * Lyke (2009) is correlational and does not prove insight causes wellbeing * Bucknell et al. (2022) is a cross-sectional moderated mediation analysis, proposed indirect statistical pathway does not infer causation * Bucknell et al. (2024) experimental outcomes were targeted to perceived resilience rather than self reflection. Participants also consisted of Australian ministry workers limiting generalisability * MacIsaac et al. (2023), study was longitudinal but lacked experimental assignment and a control group. Participants chose how much they used the journal, and the app contained other features. Additionally, the nature of the quasi-experiment makes it difficult to confirm whether outcomes are influenced by individuals pre existing reflection intentions and behaviours. == Maladaptive self-reflection and psychological distress == [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]'''Focus questions -''' Under what conditions may self-focused thought contribute to psychological distress? '''Topic sentence/introductory message -''' Self-focused thought may contribute to psychological distress when it becomes repetitive, negative and difficult to detach from, especially when interfering with constructive behaviour and problem solving. '''Key points''' *Response style theory proposes that repetitive focus on distress and its causes and consequences may reinforce negative thinking, impair problem solving and interfere with constructive understanding and behaviours (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008) *A meta-analysis of effect sizes highlighted an association between self-focused attention and negative affect. The strength of this association differed by the form of self-focus, distress and samples (Mor & Winquist, 2002) *Cross-sectional mediation models indicated that brooding statistically accounted for part of the relationship between lower self-compassion and depressive symptoms, while brooding and worry correlated with anxiety (Raes, 2010). *Dunn & Luchner (2022) researched reflection on personal mistakes and how rumination conditions effected negative affect. Results found that no significant improvement in negative emotion, which indicates that rumination may maintain psychological distress. '''Concluding sentence''' - self-focused thought may involve distress when it maintains attention toward negative content without facilitating insight or effective problem-solving. '''Limitations''' * Identifies overall association, not the causality of self-focus and distress. Additionally this meta-analysis is quite dated , social norms and stressors have changed so a more recent meta-analysis may be more useful. (Mor & Winquist, 2002) * Nolen-Hoeksema et al. (2008) concluded that rumination predicted the onset of depression more consistently than the duration of the depressive episode, findings concerning duration were mixed. * Raes (2010) cross-sectional design may limit generalisability and causality. * Dunn and Luchner (2022) did not find a strong implication that rumination significantly caused a decreased mood. Additionally, the study focuses on reflection of personal mistakes and not self-reflection in general. == Factors influencing the outcomes of self-reflection == '''Focus question -''' What psychological processes influence the outcomes of self-reflection? '''Topic sentence -''' The outcomes of self-reflection may be influenced by the interaction of cognitive, emotional, personal and cultural factors rather than on the amount of maladaptive process alone. '''Key points''' *A theoretical review proposed that repetitive thought may be constructive or unconstructive depending on its emotional content, situational context and level of construal, including whether processing is relatively abstract or concrete (Watkins, 2008). *Experimental evidence suggests that analysing a negative experience from a psychologically distanced perspective may support faster cardiovascular recovery than analysing it from a self-immersed perspective (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). *Cross-cultural studies found that Russian participants reported greater spontaneous self-distancing and less distress while reflecting on negative experiences than American participants, indicating that cultural context may influence how reflection is performed and experienced (Grossmann & Kross, 2010). *The relationship between adaptive reflection, insight and wellbeing differed according to participants’ levels of rumination, suggesting that rumination may interfere with otherwise constructive reflective processing (Bucknell et al., 2022). *An experiment involving reflection on a significant mistake suggested that self-criticism may also influence outcomes, as reflection was associated with reduced negative emotion among participants high in the “hated self” form of self-criticism (Dunn & Luchner, 2022). '''Concluding sentence''' - important influences may include processing style, psychological distance, emotional content, rumination, self-criticism, culture and the extent to which reflection generates insight or action. '''Limitations''' == Developing more adaptive self-reflection == '''Focus question''' - How might people engage in more adaptive self-reflection? *Adaptive self-reflection may be encouraged by giving reflection a clear structure, directing attention towards specific experiences and supporting perspective, insight and constructive action. *Analysing a negative experience from a self-distanced perspective may reduce immediate physiological reactivity compared with analysing the experience from a self-immersed perspective (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). *In a one-month randomised trial with distressed students, both [[w:Mindfulness|mindfulness meditation]] and relaxation training reduced distress and increased positive states of mind relative to a control condition; mindfulness meditation also reduced rumination relative to the control condition (Jain et al., 2007). *Positively focused journalling prompts concerning growth, mastery, goals and the future were associated with improved psychological wellbeing among participants with average or higher dispositional self-reflection (MacIsaac et al., 2023). *Structured reflection on successful coping experiences may be particularly useful, as its effects on perceived resilience were maintained more effectively than reflection focused on unsuccessful coping experiences (Bucknell et al., 2024). *in relation to recalling a significant personal mistake, reflection was associated with reduced negative emotion among participants high in hated-self criticism, whereas rumination produced no significant emotional change. (Dunn & Luchner, 2022). '''Concluding sentence''' - promising strategies include psychological distancing, mindfulness, positively focused journalling and structured reflection on successful coping; however, these approaches should not be presented as universally effective. '''Limitations''' *Ayduk and Kross (2008), dated source and supports immediate self-distancing over a more universal and long term intervention. *Jain et al. (2007), Sample included 83 distressed students limiting generalisability. Additionally, mindfulness was not significantly stronger for relaxation for distress or positive states of mind. *Bucknell et al. (2024), study targeted perceived resilience and was a specific occupational sample. ;Quiz Time to quiz your knowledge! Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Self-reflection involves examining one's thoughts, emotions and behaviour: |type="()"} + True - False {Self-reflection is always adaptive when it is deliberate and purposeful: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== *Self-reflection does not appear to be definitively adaptive or maladaptive; its outcomes may depend on how reflection is processed and the context. *Adaptive self-reflection may involve curiosity, flexible thinking and movement towards insight, problem-solving or constructive action. *Maladaptive self-focused thought may involve threat-focused repetition, passive brooding and difficulty disengaging from distress. *Reflection alone does not necessarily produce insight or psychological wellbeing. *Factors such as psychological distance, rumination, emotional content, self-criticism and cultural context may influence reflective outcomes. *Strategies such as mindfulness, self-distancing, positively focused journalling and structured reflection on successful coping may encourage more adaptive reflection. '''Concluding sentence''' - outcomes do not rely on whether an individual reflects or not, but whether their reflection generates clearer understanding and constructive action or maintains repetitive negative attention. ==See also== * [[w:Emotion regulation|Emotion regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Rumination (psychology)|Rumination]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Rumination|Rumination]] (Book chapter, 2013) * [[w:Self-awareness|Self-awareness]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ayduk, Ö., & Kross, E. (2008). Enhancing the pace of recovery: Self-distanced analysis of negative experiences reduces blood pressure reactivity. ''Psychological Science, 19''(3), 229–231. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02073.x Bucknell, K. J., Kangas, M., & Crane, M. F. (2022). Adaptive self-reflection and resilience: The moderating effects of rumination on insight as a mediator. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 185'', 111234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.111234 Bucknell, K. J., Kangas, M., Karin, E., & Crane, M. F. (2024). A randomized controlled trial comparing the effects of self‐reflective writing focused on successful and unsuccessful coping experiences on resilience. ''Stress and Health, 40''(2), e3311. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.3311 Crane, M. F., Searle, B. J., Kangas, M., & Nwiran, Y. (2019). How resilience is strengthened by exposure to stressors: The systematic self-reflection model of resilience strengthening. ''Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 32''(1), 1-17. DOI:10.1080/10615806.2018.1506640 Dunn, N. A., & Luchner, A. F. (2022). The emotional impact of self‐criticism on self‐reflection and rumination. ''Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 95''(4), 1126–1139. https://doi.org/10.1111/papt.12422 Grant, A. M., Franklin, J., & Langford, P. (2002). The self-reflection and insight scale: A new measure of private self-consciousness. ''Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 30''(8), 821–836. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2002.30.8.821 Grossmann, I., & Kross, E. (2010). The impact of culture on adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection. ''Psychological Science, 21''(8), 1150–1157. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610376655 Jain, S., Shapiro, S. L., Swanick, S., Roesch, S. C., Mills, P. J., Bell, I., & Schwartz, G. E. (2007). A randomized controlled trial of mindfulness meditation versus relaxation training: Effects on distress, positive states of mind, rumination, and distraction. ''Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 33''(1), 11–21. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324796abm3301_2 Lyke, J. A. (2009). Insight, but not self-reflection, is related to subjective well-being. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 46''(1), 66–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2008.09.010 MacIsaac, A., Mushquash, A. R., & Wekerle, C. (2023). Writing yourself well: Dispositional self-reflection moderates the effect of a smartphone app-based journaling intervention on psychological wellbeing across time. ''Behaviour Change, 40''(4), 297–313. https://doi.org/10.1017/bec.2022.24 Mor, N., & Winquist, J. (2002). Self-focused attention and negative affect: A meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin, 128''(4), 638–662. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.638 Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3''(5), 400–424. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x Raes, F. (2010). Rumination and worry as mediators of the relationship between self-compassion and depression and anxiety. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 48''(6), 757–761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.023 Takano, K., & Tanno, Y. (2009). Self-rumination, self-reflection, and depression: Self-rumination counteracts the adaptive effect of self-reflection. ''Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47''(3), 260–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2008.12.008 Trapnell, P. D., & Campbell, J. D. (1999). Private self-consciousness and the five-factor model of personality: Distinguishing rumination from reflection. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76''(2), 284–304. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.76.2.284 Treynor, W., Gonzalez, R., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2003). Rumination reconsidered: A psychometric analysis. ''Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27''(3), 247–259. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023910315561 Watkins, E. (2004). Adaptive and maladaptive ruminative self-focus during emotional processing. ''Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42''(9), 1037–1052. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2004.01.009 Watkins, E. R. (2008). Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought. ''Psychological Bulletin, 134''(2), 163–206. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.163 }} ==External links== * [https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/break-the-cycle Breaking the cycle of rumination] (Harvard Health Publishing) * [https://www.smilingmind.com.au/ Smiling Mind] (Smiling Mind) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Cognition]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] i9c725jhs64uy2eam58u7ftraweejlw 2840818 2840812 2026-10-17T03:43:25Z U3211150 3106672 /* Adaptive self-reflection and wellbeing */ form focus q 2 2840818 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection:<br>When does self-reflection promote wellbeing and when does it contribute to psychological distress?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} [[File:Le Penseur in the Jardin du Musée Rodin, Paris 14 June 2015.jpg|Le_Penseur_in_the_Jardin_du_Musée_Rodin,_Paris_14_June_2015]|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Reflection may produce insight, but repeated self-focused thought may contribute to distress.]] '''Scenario: An embarrassing encounter''' Trevor's day at university was fairly ordinary. While walking to get his second coffee, he exchanged a brief smile with another student. Distracted, he failed to notice the uneven ground and tripped in front of her. He quickly walked away, flushed and deeply embarrassed. Trevor repeatedly replayed the incident in his mind, becoming absorbed in self-focused thought (see Figure 1). He decided that if he saw her again, he would avoid her to prevent further embarrassment. When Trevor told his friend Alucard what had happened, Alucard suggested that she might not have noticed. This prompted Trevor to consider whether his prediction of rejection was supported by what had actually occurred. Soon afterwards, Trevor saw the same student approaching. Although he still felt embarrassed, he reconsidered his interpretation and introduced himself. He discovered that she was happy to speak with him. Trevor's response illustrates how reflecting on the same experience may be associated with different emotional and behavioural outcomes. Why might repeatedly replaying the event have prolonged his embarrassment, while reconsidering his interpretation helped him respond more constructively? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Self-reflection|Self-reflection]] involves examining one’s thoughts, emotions and behaviour, but this process does not necessarily produce insight or psychological wellbeing. Self-reflection and insight are related but distinguishable: reflection describes the process of self-examination, whereas insight involves developing clearer self-understanding (Grant et al., 2002). This distinction is practically important because deliberate self-analysis may appear constructive even when it maintains embarrassment, avoidance or distress. The effects of self-focused thought may depend on how it is performed. Trapnell and Campbell (1999) distinguished curiosity-driven reflection from recurrent [[w:Rumination (psychology)|rumination]] prompted by perceived threats, losses or injustices involving the self. More broadly, repetitive thought may be relatively constructive or unconstructive depending on its content, context and level of processing (Watkins, 2008). Psychological perspective may also matter, as analysing a negative experience from a self-distanced perspective may reduce immediate emotional reactivity compared with self-immersed analysis (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). Understanding these processes may help explain why reflection sometimes supports insight and constructive action but, in other circumstances, contributes to continuing distress.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What distinguishes adaptive self-reflection from maladaptive self-focused thought? * Under what conditions may self-reflection support psychological wellbeing? * Under what conditions may self-focused thought contribute to psychological distress? * What psychological processes influence the outcomes of self-reflection? * How might people engage in more adaptive self-reflection? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding adaptive and maladaptive self-reflection == Self-focused thought is not explicitly helpful or harmful. It may involve distinguishable processes which influence the overall wellbeing outcomes. Whether adaptive or maladaptive behaviours are executed may rely on motivation, processing style, capacity to generate insight and the relationship with repetitive negative thinking. Self-reflection can be defined as the inspection and evaluation of one's thoughts, emotions and behaviour, along with the act of directed attention towards internal experiences and processes. However, engaging in the act of self-reflection is not the same as gaining clarity and understanding of what these internal experiences mean (Grant et al., 2002). Adaptive and maladaptive describe the likely outcomes of self-focused thought compared to specific fixed good/bad distinctions. Adaptive self-reflection may involve the flexible, purposeful processing that supports insight, problem-solving or movement towards personally relevant goals (Watkins, 2008). On the other hand, maladaptive self-reflection involves a more self-focused thought process that refers to repetitive attention to distress and its causes or consequences. Rumination is a central example of maladaptive processes, but not every emotionally difficult reflective episode is necessarily maladaptive. Therefore, engaging in these behaviour may potentially interfere with problem-solving and supportive behaviours that can lead to positive outcomes and reaching insight. (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008). {{cmbox | type = style | image = [[File:Emblem-question-yellow.svg|40px]] | style = width: 400px; | textstyle = color: black; font-weight: bold; font-style: italic; | text = Does self-reflection differ from insight? }} While self-reflection and insight are related, they are both distinguishable factors. Reflection involves the process of self-examination, whereas insight describes the possible outcome. Suggesting that higher levels of self-examination do not with certainty produce clear self-understanding. Moreover, insight is defined as the clarity to understanding of one's thoughts, emotions and behaviours compared to the evaluative process of self-reflection (Grant et al,. 2002). Grant et al.'s (2002) results found that self-reflection associated positively with anxiety and stress. Whereas, insight was negatively associated with depression, anxiety and stress, while positively associated with cognitive flexibility and self-regulation. These findings were primarily correlational and participants included a sample of undergraduate psychology students which may limit the generalisability. Therefore, these findings demonstrate association among self-reflection insight and psychological outcomes, but they do not establish causal relationships. Trapnell and Campbell (1999) identified two motivationally distinct forms of private self-attention. They distinguish between curiosity-driven reflection or intellectual interest in the self compared to recurrent self-rumination likely to be prompted by threats, losses or injustices regarding the self. Additionally they introduced the "self-absorption paradox", which highlights how self-focused attention can be associated with both self-understanding and psychological distress. This suggests that the motivation and quality of self-focused attention may be more informative than the amount of reflection alone. Trapnell and Campbell's (1999) model provides a key theoretical differentiation for dispositional reflection and rumination. While their research support the distinction between the different processes of reflection. However, it does not establish causation between reflection supporting adaptive outcomes and repetitive thought causing harmful outcomes. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} '''Now lets apply these theories to Trevors scenario''' He replays the incident with self-focused attention, but it does not initially provide him with easing distress or more accurate understanding. Furthermore, the act of repeated replaying the embarrassment and anticipated rejection resembles the threat-focused rumination, whereas questioning his initial assumptions illustrates curiosity-driven reflection. {{RoundBoxBottom}} According to Treynor et al. (2003), rumination may contain at least two distinguishable components: brooding and reflective pondering. Brooding can be defined as the passive comparison between one's current circumstance and an unattained standard, while reflective pondering can be defined as purposeful attention intended to understand or address distress. however, reflection and reflective pondering are from two different measures and should not be treated as identical constructs,It important to highlight these as differing constructs as they both associate differently when measured alongside depressive symptoms. Reflective pondering showed a different and less consistently maladaptive pattern than brooding, although, it is also measured alongside depressive rumination and should not automatically be equated to adaptive self-reflection. This highlighted how different processes of rumination have different relationships with depressive symptoms. (Treynor et al., 2003). Takano and Tanno (2009), proposed that self-reflection and self-rumination are distinguishable but may not be entirely independent. In a two-wave study, self-reflection predicted subsequent self-rumination within the authors' statistical model, suggesting that the two processes may co exist. Self-reflection was associated with lower depression, whereas self-rumination was associated with higher depression Important to note that the estimated total effect of reflection on depression was close to zero, as reflection and rumination occurred together. This suggests that adaptive reflection processes may coexist with maladaptive processes that counteract positive outcomes. The small, predominantly male undergraduate sample and brief follow-up period limit generalisability, while the observational design prevents firm causal conclusions. Ultimately research suggests that adaptive self-reflection appears more likely to involve curiosity, flexibility and movement towards insight or constructive action, whereas maladaptive self-focused thought more commonly involves threat-focused repetitions, passive brooding and difficulty disengaging. However, these processes may overlap, and deliberate reflection should be assumed to be beneficial. == Adaptive self-reflection and wellbeing == Self reflection is more likely to support wellbeing when insight is gained to facilitate constructive meaning. The Systematic Self-Reflection Model of resilience Strengthening is a proposed theoretical pathway underlines how insight on coping mechanisms may strengthen resilience (Crane et al., 2019). While this study targeted strengthening resilience in response to stress, these concepts can help understand adaptive self-reflection. Crane et al (2019) proposed as a sequence; {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} Reflection on coping {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} Insight gained {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} Refinement of resilient beliefs, strategies and resources {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} Greater capacity to respond to future stressors {{RoundBoxBottom}} While this framework does not establish causation, it suggests that adaptive self-reflection can generate insight by better understanding thre responses to stress, evaluate coping effectiveness, reframe experiences, and apply lessons to future challenges. Insight is identified in this research as a mechanism which stressful experiences become opportunites for resilience development, rather than solely a source of distress. Insight was positively associated with happiness and life satisfaction, whereas self-reflection alone did not show the same relationship with subjective wellbeing (Lyke, 2009). * Insight statistically mediated the association between adaptive self-reflection and resilience and wellbeing, but the direction of this indirect association depended on rumination: it was positive at lower rumination and negative at higher rumination (Bucknell et al., 2022). * A randomised controlled trial, found that Self-reflective writing produced greater improvements in perceived resilience than attention-matched descriptive writing, while reflection on successful coping showed better maintenance of benefits than reflection on unsuccessful coping. Additionally, reflection on successful coping demonstrates better maintenance of benefits than reflecting on unsuccessful coping (Bucknell et al., 2024). * An app-based journal that targeted positive processes was associated with increased psychological wellbeing among participants with average or higher baseline dispositional self-reflection, after statistically controlling for rumination (MacIsaac et al., 2023) Overall, reflection may be more likely to support wellbeing when it generates insight, identifies effective coping responses and informs constructive future action without becoming dominated by rumination. '''Limitations''' * Lyke (2009) is correlational and does not prove insight causes wellbeing * Bucknell et al. (2022) is a cross-sectional moderated mediation analysis, proposed indirect statistical pathway does not infer causation * Bucknell et al. (2024) experimental outcomes were targeted to perceived resilience rather than self reflection. Participants also consisted of Australian ministry workers limiting generalisability * MacIsaac et al. (2023), study was longitudinal but lacked experimental assignment and a control group. Participants chose how much they used the journal, and the app contained other features. Additionally, the nature of the quasi-experiment makes it difficult to confirm whether outcomes are influenced by individuals pre existing reflection intentions and behaviours. == Maladaptive self-reflection and psychological distress == [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]'''Focus questions -''' Under what conditions may self-focused thought contribute to psychological distress? '''Topic sentence/introductory message -''' Self-focused thought may contribute to psychological distress when it becomes repetitive, negative and difficult to detach from, especially when interfering with constructive behaviour and problem solving. '''Key points''' *Response style theory proposes that repetitive focus on distress and its causes and consequences may reinforce negative thinking, impair problem solving and interfere with constructive understanding and behaviours (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008) *A meta-analysis of effect sizes highlighted an association between self-focused attention and negative affect. The strength of this association differed by the form of self-focus, distress and samples (Mor & Winquist, 2002) *Cross-sectional mediation models indicated that brooding statistically accounted for part of the relationship between lower self-compassion and depressive symptoms, while brooding and worry correlated with anxiety (Raes, 2010). *Dunn & Luchner (2022) researched reflection on personal mistakes and how rumination conditions effected negative affect. Results found that no significant improvement in negative emotion, which indicates that rumination may maintain psychological distress. '''Concluding sentence''' - self-focused thought may involve distress when it maintains attention toward negative content without facilitating insight or effective problem-solving. '''Limitations''' * Identifies overall association, not the causality of self-focus and distress. Additionally this meta-analysis is quite dated , social norms and stressors have changed so a more recent meta-analysis may be more useful. (Mor & Winquist, 2002) * Nolen-Hoeksema et al. (2008) concluded that rumination predicted the onset of depression more consistently than the duration of the depressive episode, findings concerning duration were mixed. * Raes (2010) cross-sectional design may limit generalisability and causality. * Dunn and Luchner (2022) did not find a strong implication that rumination significantly caused a decreased mood. Additionally, the study focuses on reflection of personal mistakes and not self-reflection in general. == Factors influencing the outcomes of self-reflection == '''Focus question -''' What psychological processes influence the outcomes of self-reflection? '''Topic sentence -''' The outcomes of self-reflection may be influenced by the interaction of cognitive, emotional, personal and cultural factors rather than on the amount of maladaptive process alone. '''Key points''' *A theoretical review proposed that repetitive thought may be constructive or unconstructive depending on its emotional content, situational context and level of construal, including whether processing is relatively abstract or concrete (Watkins, 2008). *Experimental evidence suggests that analysing a negative experience from a psychologically distanced perspective may support faster cardiovascular recovery than analysing it from a self-immersed perspective (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). *Cross-cultural studies found that Russian participants reported greater spontaneous self-distancing and less distress while reflecting on negative experiences than American participants, indicating that cultural context may influence how reflection is performed and experienced (Grossmann & Kross, 2010). *The relationship between adaptive reflection, insight and wellbeing differed according to participants’ levels of rumination, suggesting that rumination may interfere with otherwise constructive reflective processing (Bucknell et al., 2022). *An experiment involving reflection on a significant mistake suggested that self-criticism may also influence outcomes, as reflection was associated with reduced negative emotion among participants high in the “hated self” form of self-criticism (Dunn & Luchner, 2022). '''Concluding sentence''' - important influences may include processing style, psychological distance, emotional content, rumination, self-criticism, culture and the extent to which reflection generates insight or action. '''Limitations''' == Developing more adaptive self-reflection == '''Focus question''' - How might people engage in more adaptive self-reflection? *Adaptive self-reflection may be encouraged by giving reflection a clear structure, directing attention towards specific experiences and supporting perspective, insight and constructive action. *Analysing a negative experience from a self-distanced perspective may reduce immediate physiological reactivity compared with analysing the experience from a self-immersed perspective (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). *In a one-month randomised trial with distressed students, both [[w:Mindfulness|mindfulness meditation]] and relaxation training reduced distress and increased positive states of mind relative to a control condition; mindfulness meditation also reduced rumination relative to the control condition (Jain et al., 2007). *Positively focused journalling prompts concerning growth, mastery, goals and the future were associated with improved psychological wellbeing among participants with average or higher dispositional self-reflection (MacIsaac et al., 2023). *Structured reflection on successful coping experiences may be particularly useful, as its effects on perceived resilience were maintained more effectively than reflection focused on unsuccessful coping experiences (Bucknell et al., 2024). *in relation to recalling a significant personal mistake, reflection was associated with reduced negative emotion among participants high in hated-self criticism, whereas rumination produced no significant emotional change. (Dunn & Luchner, 2022). What happened, what helped me cope, why might it have helped, and what could I use again? '''Concluding sentence''' - promising strategies include psychological distancing, mindfulness, positively focused journalling and structured reflection on successful coping; however, these approaches should not be presented as universally effective. '''Limitations''' *Ayduk and Kross (2008), dated source and supports immediate self-distancing over a more universal and long term intervention. *Jain et al. (2007), Sample included 83 distressed students limiting generalisability. Additionally, mindfulness was not significantly stronger for relaxation for distress or positive states of mind. *Bucknell et al. (2024), study targeted perceived resilience and was a specific occupational sample. ;Quiz Time to quiz your knowledge! Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Self-reflection involves examining one's thoughts, emotions and behaviour: |type="()"} + True - False {Self-reflection is always adaptive when it is deliberate and purposeful: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== *Self-reflection does not appear to be definitively adaptive or maladaptive; its outcomes may depend on how reflection is processed and the context. *Adaptive self-reflection may involve curiosity, flexible thinking and movement towards insight, problem-solving or constructive action. *Maladaptive self-focused thought may involve threat-focused repetition, passive brooding and difficulty disengaging from distress. *Reflection alone does not necessarily produce insight or psychological wellbeing. *Factors such as psychological distance, rumination, emotional content, self-criticism and cultural context may influence reflective outcomes. *Strategies such as mindfulness, self-distancing, positively focused journalling and structured reflection on successful coping may encourage more adaptive reflection. '''Concluding sentence''' - outcomes do not rely on whether an individual reflects or not, but whether their reflection generates clearer understanding and constructive action or maintains repetitive negative attention. ==See also== * [[w:Emotion regulation|Emotion regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Rumination (psychology)|Rumination]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Rumination|Rumination]] (Book chapter, 2013) * [[w:Self-awareness|Self-awareness]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ayduk, Ö., & Kross, E. (2008). Enhancing the pace of recovery: Self-distanced analysis of negative experiences reduces blood pressure reactivity. ''Psychological Science, 19''(3), 229–231. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02073.x Bucknell, K. J., Kangas, M., & Crane, M. F. (2022). Adaptive self-reflection and resilience: The moderating effects of rumination on insight as a mediator. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 185'', 111234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.111234 Bucknell, K. J., Kangas, M., Karin, E., & Crane, M. F. (2024). A randomized controlled trial comparing the effects of self‐reflective writing focused on successful and unsuccessful coping experiences on resilience. ''Stress and Health, 40''(2), e3311. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.3311 Crane, M. F., Searle, B. J., Kangas, M., & Nwiran, Y. (2019). How resilience is strengthened by exposure to stressors: The systematic self-reflection model of resilience strengthening. ''Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 32''(1), 1-17. DOI:10.1080/10615806.2018.1506640 Dunn, N. A., & Luchner, A. F. (2022). The emotional impact of self‐criticism on self‐reflection and rumination. ''Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 95''(4), 1126–1139. https://doi.org/10.1111/papt.12422 Grant, A. M., Franklin, J., & Langford, P. (2002). The self-reflection and insight scale: A new measure of private self-consciousness. ''Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 30''(8), 821–836. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2002.30.8.821 Grossmann, I., & Kross, E. (2010). The impact of culture on adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection. ''Psychological Science, 21''(8), 1150–1157. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610376655 Jain, S., Shapiro, S. L., Swanick, S., Roesch, S. C., Mills, P. J., Bell, I., & Schwartz, G. E. (2007). A randomized controlled trial of mindfulness meditation versus relaxation training: Effects on distress, positive states of mind, rumination, and distraction. ''Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 33''(1), 11–21. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324796abm3301_2 Lyke, J. A. (2009). Insight, but not self-reflection, is related to subjective well-being. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 46''(1), 66–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2008.09.010 MacIsaac, A., Mushquash, A. R., & Wekerle, C. (2023). Writing yourself well: Dispositional self-reflection moderates the effect of a smartphone app-based journaling intervention on psychological wellbeing across time. ''Behaviour Change, 40''(4), 297–313. https://doi.org/10.1017/bec.2022.24 Mor, N., & Winquist, J. (2002). Self-focused attention and negative affect: A meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin, 128''(4), 638–662. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.638 Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3''(5), 400–424. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x Raes, F. (2010). Rumination and worry as mediators of the relationship between self-compassion and depression and anxiety. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 48''(6), 757–761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.023 Takano, K., & Tanno, Y. (2009). Self-rumination, self-reflection, and depression: Self-rumination counteracts the adaptive effect of self-reflection. ''Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47''(3), 260–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2008.12.008 Trapnell, P. D., & Campbell, J. D. (1999). Private self-consciousness and the five-factor model of personality: Distinguishing rumination from reflection. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76''(2), 284–304. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.76.2.284 Treynor, W., Gonzalez, R., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2003). Rumination reconsidered: A psychometric analysis. ''Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27''(3), 247–259. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023910315561 Watkins, E. (2004). Adaptive and maladaptive ruminative self-focus during emotional processing. ''Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42''(9), 1037–1052. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2004.01.009 Watkins, E. R. (2008). Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought. ''Psychological Bulletin, 134''(2), 163–206. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.163 }} ==External links== * [https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/break-the-cycle Breaking the cycle of rumination] (Harvard Health Publishing) * [https://www.smilingmind.com.au/ Smiling Mind] (Smiling Mind) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Cognition]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] l4yflw5j3ciihdowq8gne7w3xg3p1vr 2840826 2840818 2026-10-17T04:00:56Z U3211150 3106672 /* Adaptive self-reflection and wellbeing */ edit paragraphs 2840826 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection:<br>When does self-reflection promote wellbeing and when does it contribute to psychological distress?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} [[File:Le Penseur in the Jardin du Musée Rodin, Paris 14 June 2015.jpg|Le_Penseur_in_the_Jardin_du_Musée_Rodin,_Paris_14_June_2015]|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Reflection may produce insight, but repeated self-focused thought may contribute to distress.]] '''Scenario: An embarrassing encounter''' Trevor's day at university was fairly ordinary. While walking to get his second coffee, he exchanged a brief smile with another student. Distracted, he failed to notice the uneven ground and tripped in front of her. He quickly walked away, flushed and deeply embarrassed. Trevor repeatedly replayed the incident in his mind, becoming absorbed in self-focused thought (see Figure 1). He decided that if he saw her again, he would avoid her to prevent further embarrassment. When Trevor told his friend Alucard what had happened, Alucard suggested that she might not have noticed. This prompted Trevor to consider whether his prediction of rejection was supported by what had actually occurred. Soon afterwards, Trevor saw the same student approaching. Although he still felt embarrassed, he reconsidered his interpretation and introduced himself. He discovered that she was happy to speak with him. Trevor's response illustrates how reflecting on the same experience may be associated with different emotional and behavioural outcomes. Why might repeatedly replaying the event have prolonged his embarrassment, while reconsidering his interpretation helped him respond more constructively? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Self-reflection|Self-reflection]] involves examining one’s thoughts, emotions and behaviour, but this process does not necessarily produce insight or psychological wellbeing. Self-reflection and insight are related but distinguishable: reflection describes the process of self-examination, whereas insight involves developing clearer self-understanding (Grant et al., 2002). This distinction is practically important because deliberate self-analysis may appear constructive even when it maintains embarrassment, avoidance or distress. The effects of self-focused thought may depend on how it is performed. Trapnell and Campbell (1999) distinguished curiosity-driven reflection from recurrent [[w:Rumination (psychology)|rumination]] prompted by perceived threats, losses or injustices involving the self. More broadly, repetitive thought may be relatively constructive or unconstructive depending on its content, context and level of processing (Watkins, 2008). Psychological perspective may also matter, as analysing a negative experience from a self-distanced perspective may reduce immediate emotional reactivity compared with self-immersed analysis (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). Understanding these processes may help explain why reflection sometimes supports insight and constructive action but, in other circumstances, contributes to continuing distress.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What distinguishes adaptive self-reflection from maladaptive self-focused thought? * Under what conditions may self-reflection support psychological wellbeing? * Under what conditions may self-focused thought contribute to psychological distress? * What psychological processes influence the outcomes of self-reflection? * How might people engage in more adaptive self-reflection? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding adaptive and maladaptive self-reflection == Self-focused thought is not explicitly helpful or harmful. It may involve distinguishable processes which influence the overall wellbeing outcomes. Whether adaptive or maladaptive behaviours are executed may rely on motivation, processing style, capacity to generate insight and the relationship with repetitive negative thinking. Self-reflection can be defined as the inspection and evaluation of one's thoughts, emotions and behaviour, along with the act of directed attention towards internal experiences and processes. However, engaging in the act of self-reflection is not the same as gaining clarity and understanding of what these internal experiences mean (Grant et al., 2002). Adaptive and maladaptive describe the likely outcomes of self-focused thought compared to specific fixed good/bad distinctions. Adaptive self-reflection may involve the flexible, purposeful processing that supports insight, problem-solving or movement towards personally relevant goals (Watkins, 2008). On the other hand, maladaptive self-reflection involves a more self-focused thought process that refers to repetitive attention to distress and its causes or consequences. Rumination is a central example of maladaptive processes, but not every emotionally difficult reflective episode is necessarily maladaptive. Therefore, engaging in these behaviour may potentially interfere with problem-solving and supportive behaviours that can lead to positive outcomes and reaching insight. (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008). {{cmbox | type = style | image = [[File:Emblem-question-yellow.svg|40px]] | style = width: 400px; | textstyle = color: black; font-weight: bold; font-style: italic; | text = Does self-reflection differ from insight? }} While self-reflection and insight are related, they are both distinguishable factors. Reflection involves the process of self-examination, whereas insight describes the possible outcome. Suggesting that higher levels of self-examination do not with certainty produce clear self-understanding. Moreover, insight is defined as the clarity to understanding of one's thoughts, emotions and behaviours compared to the evaluative process of self-reflection (Grant et al,. 2002). Grant et al.'s (2002) results found that self-reflection associated positively with anxiety and stress. Whereas, insight was negatively associated with depression, anxiety and stress, while positively associated with cognitive flexibility and self-regulation. These findings were primarily correlational and participants included a sample of undergraduate psychology students which may limit the generalisability. Therefore, these findings demonstrate association among self-reflection insight and psychological outcomes, but they do not establish causal relationships. Trapnell and Campbell (1999) identified two motivationally distinct forms of private self-attention. They distinguish between curiosity-driven reflection or intellectual interest in the self compared to recurrent self-rumination likely to be prompted by threats, losses or injustices regarding the self. Additionally they introduced the "self-absorption paradox", which highlights how self-focused attention can be associated with both self-understanding and psychological distress. This suggests that the motivation and quality of self-focused attention may be more informative than the amount of reflection alone. Trapnell and Campbell's (1999) model provides a key theoretical differentiation for dispositional reflection and rumination. While their research support the distinction between the different processes of reflection. However, it does not establish causation between reflection supporting adaptive outcomes and repetitive thought causing harmful outcomes. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} '''Now lets apply these theories to Trevors scenario''' He replays the incident with self-focused attention, but it does not initially provide him with easing distress or more accurate understanding. Furthermore, the act of repeated replaying the embarrassment and anticipated rejection resembles the threat-focused rumination, whereas questioning his initial assumptions illustrates curiosity-driven reflection. {{RoundBoxBottom}} According to Treynor et al. (2003), rumination may contain at least two distinguishable components: brooding and reflective pondering. Brooding can be defined as the passive comparison between one's current circumstance and an unattained standard, while reflective pondering can be defined as purposeful attention intended to understand or address distress. however, reflection and reflective pondering are from two different measures and should not be treated as identical constructs,It important to highlight these as differing constructs as they both associate differently when measured alongside depressive symptoms. Reflective pondering showed a different and less consistently maladaptive pattern than brooding, although, it is also measured alongside depressive rumination and should not automatically be equated to adaptive self-reflection. This highlighted how different processes of rumination have different relationships with depressive symptoms. (Treynor et al., 2003). Takano and Tanno (2009), proposed that self-reflection and self-rumination are distinguishable but may not be entirely independent. In a two-wave study, self-reflection predicted subsequent self-rumination within the authors' statistical model, suggesting that the two processes may co exist. Self-reflection was associated with lower depression, whereas self-rumination was associated with higher depression Important to note that the estimated total effect of reflection on depression was close to zero, as reflection and rumination occurred together. This suggests that adaptive reflection processes may coexist with maladaptive processes that counteract positive outcomes. The small, predominantly male undergraduate sample and brief follow-up period limit generalisability, while the observational design prevents firm causal conclusions. Ultimately research suggests that adaptive self-reflection appears more likely to involve curiosity, flexibility and movement towards insight or constructive action, whereas maladaptive self-focused thought more commonly involves threat-focused repetitions, passive brooding and difficulty disengaging. However, these processes may overlap, and deliberate reflection should be assumed to be beneficial. == Adaptive self-reflection and wellbeing == Self reflection is more likely to support wellbeing when insight is gained to facilitate constructive meaning. The Systematic Self-Reflection Model of Resilience Strengthening is a proposed theoretical pathway underlining how insight on coping mechanisms may strengthen resilience (Crane et al., 2019). While this study targeted strengthening resilience in response to stress, these concepts can help understand adaptive self-reflection. Crane et al (2019) proposed as a sequence; {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} Reflection on coping {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} Insight gained {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} Refinement of resilient beliefs, strategies and resources {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} Greater capacity to respond to future stressors {{RoundBoxBottom}} This framework suggests that adaptive self-reflection can generate insight by better understanding the responses to stress, evaluate coping effectiveness, reframing experiences, and applying lessons to future challenges. Insight is identified in this research as a mechanism which stressful experiences become opportunities for resilience development, rather than solely a source of distress. However, this theory requires more empirical testing and is not universally established to verify a casual relationship. Insight was positively associated with happiness and life satisfaction, whereas self-reflection alone did not show the same relationship with subjective wellbeing (Lyke, 2009). * Insight statistically mediated the association between adaptive self-reflection and resilience and wellbeing, but the direction of this indirect association depended on rumination: it was positive at lower rumination and negative at higher rumination (Bucknell et al., 2022). * A randomised controlled trial, found that Self-reflective writing produced greater improvements in perceived resilience than attention-matched descriptive writing, while reflection on successful coping showed better maintenance of benefits than reflection on unsuccessful coping. Additionally, reflection on successful coping demonstrates better maintenance of benefits than reflecting on unsuccessful coping (Bucknell et al., 2024). * An app-based journal that targeted positive processes was associated with increased psychological wellbeing among participants with average or higher baseline dispositional self-reflection, after statistically controlling for rumination (MacIsaac et al., 2023) Overall, reflection may be more likely to support wellbeing when it generates insight, identifies effective coping responses and informs constructive future action without becoming dominated by rumination. '''Limitations''' * Lyke (2009) is correlational and does not prove insight causes wellbeing * Bucknell et al. (2022) is a cross-sectional moderated mediation analysis, proposed indirect statistical pathway does not infer causation * Bucknell et al. (2024) experimental outcomes were targeted to perceived resilience rather than self reflection. Participants also consisted of Australian ministry workers limiting generalisability * MacIsaac et al. (2023), study was longitudinal but lacked experimental assignment and a control group. Participants chose how much they used the journal, and the app contained other features. Additionally, the nature of the quasi-experiment makes it difficult to confirm whether outcomes are influenced by individuals pre existing reflection intentions and behaviours. == Maladaptive self-reflection and psychological distress == [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]'''Focus questions -''' Under what conditions may self-focused thought contribute to psychological distress? '''Topic sentence/introductory message -''' Self-focused thought may contribute to psychological distress when it becomes repetitive, negative and difficult to detach from, especially when interfering with constructive behaviour and problem solving. '''Key points''' *Response style theory proposes that repetitive focus on distress and its causes and consequences may reinforce negative thinking, impair problem solving and interfere with constructive understanding and behaviours (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008) *A meta-analysis of effect sizes highlighted an association between self-focused attention and negative affect. The strength of this association differed by the form of self-focus, distress and samples (Mor & Winquist, 2002) *Cross-sectional mediation models indicated that brooding statistically accounted for part of the relationship between lower self-compassion and depressive symptoms, while brooding and worry correlated with anxiety (Raes, 2010). *Dunn & Luchner (2022) researched reflection on personal mistakes and how rumination conditions effected negative affect. Results found that no significant improvement in negative emotion, which indicates that rumination may maintain psychological distress. '''Concluding sentence''' - self-focused thought may involve distress when it maintains attention toward negative content without facilitating insight or effective problem-solving. '''Limitations''' * Identifies overall association, not the causality of self-focus and distress. Additionally this meta-analysis is quite dated , social norms and stressors have changed so a more recent meta-analysis may be more useful. (Mor & Winquist, 2002) * Nolen-Hoeksema et al. (2008) concluded that rumination predicted the onset of depression more consistently than the duration of the depressive episode, findings concerning duration were mixed. * Raes (2010) cross-sectional design may limit generalisability and causality. * Dunn and Luchner (2022) did not find a strong implication that rumination significantly caused a decreased mood. Additionally, the study focuses on reflection of personal mistakes and not self-reflection in general. == Factors influencing the outcomes of self-reflection == '''Focus question -''' What psychological processes influence the outcomes of self-reflection? '''Topic sentence -''' The outcomes of self-reflection may be influenced by the interaction of cognitive, emotional, personal and cultural factors rather than on the amount of maladaptive process alone. '''Key points''' *A theoretical review proposed that repetitive thought may be constructive or unconstructive depending on its emotional content, situational context and level of construal, including whether processing is relatively abstract or concrete (Watkins, 2008). *Experimental evidence suggests that analysing a negative experience from a psychologically distanced perspective may support faster cardiovascular recovery than analysing it from a self-immersed perspective (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). *Cross-cultural studies found that Russian participants reported greater spontaneous self-distancing and less distress while reflecting on negative experiences than American participants, indicating that cultural context may influence how reflection is performed and experienced (Grossmann & Kross, 2010). *The relationship between adaptive reflection, insight and wellbeing differed according to participants’ levels of rumination, suggesting that rumination may interfere with otherwise constructive reflective processing (Bucknell et al., 2022). *An experiment involving reflection on a significant mistake suggested that self-criticism may also influence outcomes, as reflection was associated with reduced negative emotion among participants high in the “hated self” form of self-criticism (Dunn & Luchner, 2022). '''Concluding sentence''' - important influences may include processing style, psychological distance, emotional content, rumination, self-criticism, culture and the extent to which reflection generates insight or action. '''Limitations''' == Developing more adaptive self-reflection == '''Focus question''' - How might people engage in more adaptive self-reflection? *Adaptive self-reflection may be encouraged by giving reflection a clear structure, directing attention towards specific experiences and supporting perspective, insight and constructive action. *Analysing a negative experience from a self-distanced perspective may reduce immediate physiological reactivity compared with analysing the experience from a self-immersed perspective (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). *In a one-month randomised trial with distressed students, both [[w:Mindfulness|mindfulness meditation]] and relaxation training reduced distress and increased positive states of mind relative to a control condition; mindfulness meditation also reduced rumination relative to the control condition (Jain et al., 2007). *Positively focused journalling prompts concerning growth, mastery, goals and the future were associated with improved psychological wellbeing among participants with average or higher dispositional self-reflection (MacIsaac et al., 2023). *Structured reflection on successful coping experiences may be particularly useful, as its effects on perceived resilience were maintained more effectively than reflection focused on unsuccessful coping experiences (Bucknell et al., 2024). *in relation to recalling a significant personal mistake, reflection was associated with reduced negative emotion among participants high in hated-self criticism, whereas rumination produced no significant emotional change. (Dunn & Luchner, 2022). What happened, what helped me cope, why might it have helped, and what could I use again? '''Concluding sentence''' - promising strategies include psychological distancing, mindfulness, positively focused journalling and structured reflection on successful coping; however, these approaches should not be presented as universally effective. '''Limitations''' *Ayduk and Kross (2008), dated source and supports immediate self-distancing over a more universal and long term intervention. *Jain et al. (2007), Sample included 83 distressed students limiting generalisability. Additionally, mindfulness was not significantly stronger for relaxation for distress or positive states of mind. *Bucknell et al. (2024), study targeted perceived resilience and was a specific occupational sample. ;Quiz Time to quiz your knowledge! Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Self-reflection involves examining one's thoughts, emotions and behaviour: |type="()"} + True - False {Self-reflection is always adaptive when it is deliberate and purposeful: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== *Self-reflection does not appear to be definitively adaptive or maladaptive; its outcomes may depend on how reflection is processed and the context. *Adaptive self-reflection may involve curiosity, flexible thinking and movement towards insight, problem-solving or constructive action. *Maladaptive self-focused thought may involve threat-focused repetition, passive brooding and difficulty disengaging from distress. *Reflection alone does not necessarily produce insight or psychological wellbeing. *Factors such as psychological distance, rumination, emotional content, self-criticism and cultural context may influence reflective outcomes. *Strategies such as mindfulness, self-distancing, positively focused journalling and structured reflection on successful coping may encourage more adaptive reflection. '''Concluding sentence''' - outcomes do not rely on whether an individual reflects or not, but whether their reflection generates clearer understanding and constructive action or maintains repetitive negative attention. ==See also== * [[w:Emotion regulation|Emotion regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Rumination (psychology)|Rumination]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Rumination|Rumination]] (Book chapter, 2013) * [[w:Self-awareness|Self-awareness]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ayduk, Ö., & Kross, E. (2008). Enhancing the pace of recovery: Self-distanced analysis of negative experiences reduces blood pressure reactivity. ''Psychological Science, 19''(3), 229–231. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02073.x Bucknell, K. J., Kangas, M., & Crane, M. F. (2022). Adaptive self-reflection and resilience: The moderating effects of rumination on insight as a mediator. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 185'', 111234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.111234 Bucknell, K. J., Kangas, M., Karin, E., & Crane, M. F. (2024). A randomized controlled trial comparing the effects of self‐reflective writing focused on successful and unsuccessful coping experiences on resilience. ''Stress and Health, 40''(2), e3311. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.3311 Crane, M. F., Searle, B. J., Kangas, M., & Nwiran, Y. (2019). How resilience is strengthened by exposure to stressors: The systematic self-reflection model of resilience strengthening. ''Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 32''(1), 1-17. DOI:10.1080/10615806.2018.1506640 Dunn, N. A., & Luchner, A. F. (2022). The emotional impact of self‐criticism on self‐reflection and rumination. ''Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 95''(4), 1126–1139. https://doi.org/10.1111/papt.12422 Grant, A. M., Franklin, J., & Langford, P. (2002). The self-reflection and insight scale: A new measure of private self-consciousness. ''Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 30''(8), 821–836. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2002.30.8.821 Grossmann, I., & Kross, E. (2010). The impact of culture on adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection. ''Psychological Science, 21''(8), 1150–1157. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610376655 Jain, S., Shapiro, S. L., Swanick, S., Roesch, S. C., Mills, P. J., Bell, I., & Schwartz, G. E. (2007). A randomized controlled trial of mindfulness meditation versus relaxation training: Effects on distress, positive states of mind, rumination, and distraction. ''Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 33''(1), 11–21. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324796abm3301_2 Lyke, J. A. (2009). Insight, but not self-reflection, is related to subjective well-being. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 46''(1), 66–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2008.09.010 MacIsaac, A., Mushquash, A. R., & Wekerle, C. (2023). Writing yourself well: Dispositional self-reflection moderates the effect of a smartphone app-based journaling intervention on psychological wellbeing across time. ''Behaviour Change, 40''(4), 297–313. https://doi.org/10.1017/bec.2022.24 Mor, N., & Winquist, J. (2002). Self-focused attention and negative affect: A meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin, 128''(4), 638–662. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.638 Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3''(5), 400–424. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x Raes, F. (2010). Rumination and worry as mediators of the relationship between self-compassion and depression and anxiety. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 48''(6), 757–761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.023 Takano, K., & Tanno, Y. (2009). Self-rumination, self-reflection, and depression: Self-rumination counteracts the adaptive effect of self-reflection. ''Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47''(3), 260–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2008.12.008 Trapnell, P. D., & Campbell, J. D. (1999). Private self-consciousness and the five-factor model of personality: Distinguishing rumination from reflection. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76''(2), 284–304. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.76.2.284 Treynor, W., Gonzalez, R., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2003). Rumination reconsidered: A psychometric analysis. ''Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27''(3), 247–259. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023910315561 Watkins, E. (2004). Adaptive and maladaptive ruminative self-focus during emotional processing. ''Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42''(9), 1037–1052. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2004.01.009 Watkins, E. R. (2008). Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought. ''Psychological Bulletin, 134''(2), 163–206. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.163 }} ==External links== * [https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/break-the-cycle Breaking the cycle of rumination] (Harvard Health Publishing) * [https://www.smilingmind.com.au/ Smiling Mind] (Smiling Mind) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Cognition]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] tvw7ojk59lews05wpstasrmqbxgkt94 2840830 2840826 2026-10-17T04:24:58Z U3211150 3106672 /* Adaptive self-reflection and wellbeing */ 2840830 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection:<br>When does self-reflection promote wellbeing and when does it contribute to psychological distress?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} [[File:Le Penseur in the Jardin du Musée Rodin, Paris 14 June 2015.jpg|Le_Penseur_in_the_Jardin_du_Musée_Rodin,_Paris_14_June_2015]|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Reflection may produce insight, but repeated self-focused thought may contribute to distress.]] '''Scenario: An embarrassing encounter''' Trevor's day at university was fairly ordinary. While walking to get his second coffee, he exchanged a brief smile with another student. Distracted, he failed to notice the uneven ground and tripped in front of her. He quickly walked away, flushed and deeply embarrassed. Trevor repeatedly replayed the incident in his mind, becoming absorbed in self-focused thought (see Figure 1). He decided that if he saw her again, he would avoid her to prevent further embarrassment. When Trevor told his friend Alucard what had happened, Alucard suggested that she might not have noticed. This prompted Trevor to consider whether his prediction of rejection was supported by what had actually occurred. Soon afterwards, Trevor saw the same student approaching. Although he still felt embarrassed, he reconsidered his interpretation and introduced himself. He discovered that she was happy to speak with him. Trevor's response illustrates how reflecting on the same experience may be associated with different emotional and behavioural outcomes. Why might repeatedly replaying the event have prolonged his embarrassment, while reconsidering his interpretation helped him respond more constructively? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Self-reflection|Self-reflection]] involves examining one’s thoughts, emotions and behaviour, but this process does not necessarily produce insight or psychological wellbeing. Self-reflection and insight are related but distinguishable: reflection describes the process of self-examination, whereas insight involves developing clearer self-understanding (Grant et al., 2002). This distinction is practically important because deliberate self-analysis may appear constructive even when it maintains embarrassment, avoidance or distress. The effects of self-focused thought may depend on how it is performed. Trapnell and Campbell (1999) distinguished curiosity-driven reflection from recurrent [[w:Rumination (psychology)|rumination]] prompted by perceived threats, losses or injustices involving the self. More broadly, repetitive thought may be relatively constructive or unconstructive depending on its content, context and level of processing (Watkins, 2008). Psychological perspective may also matter, as analysing a negative experience from a self-distanced perspective may reduce immediate emotional reactivity compared with self-immersed analysis (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). Understanding these processes may help explain why reflection sometimes supports insight and constructive action but, in other circumstances, contributes to continuing distress.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What distinguishes adaptive self-reflection from maladaptive self-focused thought? * Under what conditions may self-reflection support psychological wellbeing? * Under what conditions may self-focused thought contribute to psychological distress? * What psychological processes influence the outcomes of self-reflection? * How might people engage in more adaptive self-reflection? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding adaptive and maladaptive self-reflection == Self-focused thought is not explicitly helpful or harmful. It may involve distinguishable processes which influence the overall wellbeing outcomes. Whether adaptive or maladaptive behaviours are executed may rely on motivation, processing style, capacity to generate insight and the relationship with repetitive negative thinking. Self-reflection can be defined as the inspection and evaluation of one's thoughts, emotions and behaviour, along with the act of directed attention towards internal experiences and processes. However, engaging in the act of self-reflection is not the same as gaining clarity and understanding of what these internal experiences mean (Grant et al., 2002). Adaptive and maladaptive describe the likely outcomes of self-focused thought compared to specific fixed good/bad distinctions. Adaptive self-reflection may involve the flexible, purposeful processing that supports insight, problem-solving or movement towards personally relevant goals (Watkins, 2008). On the other hand, maladaptive self-reflection involves a more self-focused thought process that refers to repetitive attention to distress and its causes or consequences. Rumination is a central example of maladaptive processes, but not every emotionally difficult reflective episode is necessarily maladaptive. Therefore, engaging in these behaviour may potentially interfere with problem-solving and supportive behaviours that can lead to positive outcomes and reaching insight. (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008). {{cmbox | type = style | image = [[File:Emblem-question-yellow.svg|40px]] | style = width: 400px; | textstyle = color: black; font-weight: bold; font-style: italic; | text = Does self-reflection differ from insight? }} While self-reflection and insight are related, they are both distinguishable factors. Reflection involves the process of self-examination, whereas insight describes the possible outcome. Suggesting that higher levels of self-examination do not with certainty produce clear self-understanding. Moreover, insight is defined as the clarity to understanding of one's thoughts, emotions and behaviours compared to the evaluative process of self-reflection (Grant et al,. 2002). Grant et al.'s (2002) results found that self-reflection associated positively with anxiety and stress. Whereas, insight was negatively associated with depression, anxiety and stress, while positively associated with cognitive flexibility and self-regulation. These findings were primarily correlational and participants included a sample of undergraduate psychology students which may limit the generalisability. Therefore, these findings demonstrate association among self-reflection insight and psychological outcomes, but they do not establish causal relationships. Trapnell and Campbell (1999) identified two motivationally distinct forms of private self-attention. They distinguish between curiosity-driven reflection or intellectual interest in the self compared to recurrent self-rumination likely to be prompted by threats, losses or injustices regarding the self. Additionally they introduced the "self-absorption paradox", which highlights how self-focused attention can be associated with both self-understanding and psychological distress. This suggests that the motivation and quality of self-focused attention may be more informative than the amount of reflection alone. Trapnell and Campbell's (1999) model provides a key theoretical differentiation for dispositional reflection and rumination. While their research support the distinction between the different processes of reflection. However, it does not establish causation between reflection supporting adaptive outcomes and repetitive thought causing harmful outcomes. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} '''Now lets apply these theories to Trevors scenario''' He replays the incident with self-focused attention, but it does not initially provide him with easing distress or more accurate understanding. Furthermore, the act of repeated replaying the embarrassment and anticipated rejection resembles the threat-focused rumination, whereas questioning his initial assumptions illustrates curiosity-driven reflection. {{RoundBoxBottom}} According to Treynor et al. (2003), rumination may contain at least two distinguishable components: brooding and reflective pondering. Brooding can be defined as the passive comparison between one's current circumstance and an unattained standard, while reflective pondering can be defined as purposeful attention intended to understand or address distress. however, reflection and reflective pondering are from two different measures and should not be treated as identical constructs,It important to highlight these as differing constructs as they both associate differently when measured alongside depressive symptoms. Reflective pondering showed a different and less consistently maladaptive pattern than brooding, although, it is also measured alongside depressive rumination and should not automatically be equated to adaptive self-reflection. This highlighted how different processes of rumination have different relationships with depressive symptoms. (Treynor et al., 2003). Takano and Tanno (2009), proposed that self-reflection and self-rumination are distinguishable but may not be entirely independent. In a two-wave study, self-reflection predicted subsequent self-rumination within the authors' statistical model, suggesting that the two processes may co exist. Self-reflection was associated with lower depression, whereas self-rumination was associated with higher depression Important to note that the estimated total effect of reflection on depression was close to zero, as reflection and rumination occurred together. This suggests that adaptive reflection processes may coexist with maladaptive processes that counteract positive outcomes. The small, predominantly male undergraduate sample and brief follow-up period limit generalisability, while the observational design prevents firm causal conclusions. Ultimately research suggests that adaptive self-reflection appears more likely to involve curiosity, flexibility and movement towards insight or constructive action, whereas maladaptive self-focused thought more commonly involves threat-focused repetitions, passive brooding and difficulty disengaging. However, these processes may overlap, and deliberate reflection should be assumed to be beneficial. == Adaptive self-reflection and wellbeing == Self reflection is more likely to support wellbeing when insight is gained to facilitate constructive meaning. The Systematic Self-Reflection Model of Resilience Strengthening is a proposed theoretical pathway underlining how insight on coping mechanisms may strengthen resilience (Crane et al., 2019). While this study targeted strengthening resilience in response to stress, these concepts can help understand adaptive self-reflection. Crane et al (2019) proposed as a sequence; {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} Reflection on coping {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} Insight gained {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} Refinement of resilient beliefs, strategies and resources {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} Greater capacity to respond to future stressors {{RoundBoxBottom}} This framework suggests that adaptive self-reflection can generate insight by better understanding the responses to stress, evaluate coping effectiveness, reframing experiences, and applying lessons to future challenges. Insight is identified in this research as a mechanism which stressful experiences become opportunities for resilience development, rather than solely a source of distress. However, this theory requires more empirical testing and is not universally established to verify a casual relationship. Insight is a key indicator of adaptive self-reflection. More favourable outcomes are associated when insight is achieved rather than self-examination actioned alone and rumination is relatively low. This indicates insight as a potential mechanism while rumination as a potential moderator in the self-reflection process. Lyke, 2009 found that Insight was positively associated with happiness and life satisfaction, whereas self-reflection alone did not show the same relationship with subjective wellbeing. * Insight statistically mediated the association between adaptive self-reflection and resilience and wellbeing, but the direction of this indirect association depended on rumination: it was positive at lower rumination and negative at higher rumination (Bucknell et al., 2022). * A randomised controlled trial, found that Self-reflective writing produced greater improvements in perceived resilience than attention-matched descriptive writing, while reflection on successful coping showed better maintenance of benefits than reflection on unsuccessful coping. Additionally, reflection on successful coping demonstrates better maintenance of benefits than reflecting on unsuccessful coping (Bucknell et al., 2024). * An app-based journal that targeted positive processes was associated with increased psychological wellbeing among participants with average or higher baseline dispositional self-reflection, after statistically controlling for rumination (MacIsaac et al., 2023) Overall, reflection may be more likely to support wellbeing when it generates insight, identifies effective coping responses and informs constructive future action without becoming dominated by rumination. '''Limitations''' * Lyke (2009) is correlational and does not prove insight causes wellbeing * Bucknell et al. (2022) is a cross-sectional moderated mediation analysis, proposed indirect statistical pathway does not infer causation * Bucknell et al. (2024) experimental outcomes were targeted to perceived resilience rather than self reflection. Participants also consisted of Australian ministry workers limiting generalisability * MacIsaac et al. (2023), study was longitudinal but lacked experimental assignment and a control group. Participants chose how much they used the journal, and the app contained other features. Additionally, the nature of the quasi-experiment makes it difficult to confirm whether outcomes are influenced by individuals pre existing reflection intentions and behaviours. == Maladaptive self-reflection and psychological distress == [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]'''Focus questions -''' Under what conditions may self-focused thought contribute to psychological distress? '''Topic sentence/introductory message -''' Self-focused thought may contribute to psychological distress when it becomes repetitive, negative and difficult to detach from, especially when interfering with constructive behaviour and problem solving. '''Key points''' *Response style theory proposes that repetitive focus on distress and its causes and consequences may reinforce negative thinking, impair problem solving and interfere with constructive understanding and behaviours (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008) *A meta-analysis of effect sizes highlighted an association between self-focused attention and negative affect. The strength of this association differed by the form of self-focus, distress and samples (Mor & Winquist, 2002) *Cross-sectional mediation models indicated that brooding statistically accounted for part of the relationship between lower self-compassion and depressive symptoms, while brooding and worry correlated with anxiety (Raes, 2010). *Dunn & Luchner (2022) researched reflection on personal mistakes and how rumination conditions effected negative affect. Results found that no significant improvement in negative emotion, which indicates that rumination may maintain psychological distress. '''Concluding sentence''' - self-focused thought may involve distress when it maintains attention toward negative content without facilitating insight or effective problem-solving. '''Limitations''' * Identifies overall association, not the causality of self-focus and distress. Additionally this meta-analysis is quite dated , social norms and stressors have changed so a more recent meta-analysis may be more useful. (Mor & Winquist, 2002) * Nolen-Hoeksema et al. (2008) concluded that rumination predicted the onset of depression more consistently than the duration of the depressive episode, findings concerning duration were mixed. * Raes (2010) cross-sectional design may limit generalisability and causality. * Dunn and Luchner (2022) did not find a strong implication that rumination significantly caused a decreased mood. Additionally, the study focuses on reflection of personal mistakes and not self-reflection in general. == Factors influencing the outcomes of self-reflection == '''Focus question -''' What psychological processes influence the outcomes of self-reflection? '''Topic sentence -''' The outcomes of self-reflection may be influenced by the interaction of cognitive, emotional, personal and cultural factors rather than on the amount of maladaptive process alone. '''Key points''' *A theoretical review proposed that repetitive thought may be constructive or unconstructive depending on its emotional content, situational context and level of construal, including whether processing is relatively abstract or concrete (Watkins, 2008). *Experimental evidence suggests that analysing a negative experience from a psychologically distanced perspective may support faster cardiovascular recovery than analysing it from a self-immersed perspective (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). *Cross-cultural studies found that Russian participants reported greater spontaneous self-distancing and less distress while reflecting on negative experiences than American participants, indicating that cultural context may influence how reflection is performed and experienced (Grossmann & Kross, 2010). *The relationship between adaptive reflection, insight and wellbeing differed according to participants’ levels of rumination, suggesting that rumination may interfere with otherwise constructive reflective processing (Bucknell et al., 2022). *An experiment involving reflection on a significant mistake suggested that self-criticism may also influence outcomes, as reflection was associated with reduced negative emotion among participants high in the “hated self” form of self-criticism (Dunn & Luchner, 2022). '''Concluding sentence''' - important influences may include processing style, psychological distance, emotional content, rumination, self-criticism, culture and the extent to which reflection generates insight or action. '''Limitations''' == Developing more adaptive self-reflection == '''Focus question''' - How might people engage in more adaptive self-reflection? *Adaptive self-reflection may be encouraged by giving reflection a clear structure, directing attention towards specific experiences and supporting perspective, insight and constructive action. *Analysing a negative experience from a self-distanced perspective may reduce immediate physiological reactivity compared with analysing the experience from a self-immersed perspective (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). *In a one-month randomised trial with distressed students, both [[w:Mindfulness|mindfulness meditation]] and relaxation training reduced distress and increased positive states of mind relative to a control condition; mindfulness meditation also reduced rumination relative to the control condition (Jain et al., 2007). *Positively focused journalling prompts concerning growth, mastery, goals and the future were associated with improved psychological wellbeing among participants with average or higher dispositional self-reflection (MacIsaac et al., 2023). *Structured reflection on successful coping experiences may be particularly useful, as its effects on perceived resilience were maintained more effectively than reflection focused on unsuccessful coping experiences (Bucknell et al., 2024). *in relation to recalling a significant personal mistake, reflection was associated with reduced negative emotion among participants high in hated-self criticism, whereas rumination produced no significant emotional change. (Dunn & Luchner, 2022). What happened, what helped me cope, why might it have helped, and what could I use again? '''Concluding sentence''' - promising strategies include psychological distancing, mindfulness, positively focused journalling and structured reflection on successful coping; however, these approaches should not be presented as universally effective. '''Limitations''' *Ayduk and Kross (2008), dated source and supports immediate self-distancing over a more universal and long term intervention. *Jain et al. (2007), Sample included 83 distressed students limiting generalisability. Additionally, mindfulness was not significantly stronger for relaxation for distress or positive states of mind. *Bucknell et al. (2024), study targeted perceived resilience and was a specific occupational sample. ;Quiz Time to quiz your knowledge! Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Self-reflection involves examining one's thoughts, emotions and behaviour: |type="()"} + True - False {Self-reflection is always adaptive when it is deliberate and purposeful: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== *Self-reflection does not appear to be definitively adaptive or maladaptive; its outcomes may depend on how reflection is processed and the context. *Adaptive self-reflection may involve curiosity, flexible thinking and movement towards insight, problem-solving or constructive action. *Maladaptive self-focused thought may involve threat-focused repetition, passive brooding and difficulty disengaging from distress. *Reflection alone does not necessarily produce insight or psychological wellbeing. *Factors such as psychological distance, rumination, emotional content, self-criticism and cultural context may influence reflective outcomes. *Strategies such as mindfulness, self-distancing, positively focused journalling and structured reflection on successful coping may encourage more adaptive reflection. '''Concluding sentence''' - outcomes do not rely on whether an individual reflects or not, but whether their reflection generates clearer understanding and constructive action or maintains repetitive negative attention. ==See also== * [[w:Emotion regulation|Emotion regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Rumination (psychology)|Rumination]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Rumination|Rumination]] (Book chapter, 2013) * [[w:Self-awareness|Self-awareness]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ayduk, Ö., & Kross, E. (2008). Enhancing the pace of recovery: Self-distanced analysis of negative experiences reduces blood pressure reactivity. ''Psychological Science, 19''(3), 229–231. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02073.x Bucknell, K. J., Kangas, M., & Crane, M. F. (2022). Adaptive self-reflection and resilience: The moderating effects of rumination on insight as a mediator. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 185'', 111234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.111234 Bucknell, K. J., Kangas, M., Karin, E., & Crane, M. F. (2024). A randomized controlled trial comparing the effects of self‐reflective writing focused on successful and unsuccessful coping experiences on resilience. ''Stress and Health, 40''(2), e3311. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.3311 Crane, M. F., Searle, B. J., Kangas, M., & Nwiran, Y. (2019). How resilience is strengthened by exposure to stressors: The systematic self-reflection model of resilience strengthening. ''Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 32''(1), 1-17. DOI:10.1080/10615806.2018.1506640 Dunn, N. A., & Luchner, A. F. (2022). The emotional impact of self‐criticism on self‐reflection and rumination. ''Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 95''(4), 1126–1139. https://doi.org/10.1111/papt.12422 Grant, A. M., Franklin, J., & Langford, P. (2002). The self-reflection and insight scale: A new measure of private self-consciousness. ''Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 30''(8), 821–836. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2002.30.8.821 Grossmann, I., & Kross, E. (2010). The impact of culture on adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection. ''Psychological Science, 21''(8), 1150–1157. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610376655 Jain, S., Shapiro, S. L., Swanick, S., Roesch, S. C., Mills, P. J., Bell, I., & Schwartz, G. E. (2007). A randomized controlled trial of mindfulness meditation versus relaxation training: Effects on distress, positive states of mind, rumination, and distraction. ''Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 33''(1), 11–21. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324796abm3301_2 Lyke, J. A. (2009). Insight, but not self-reflection, is related to subjective well-being. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 46''(1), 66–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2008.09.010 MacIsaac, A., Mushquash, A. R., & Wekerle, C. (2023). Writing yourself well: Dispositional self-reflection moderates the effect of a smartphone app-based journaling intervention on psychological wellbeing across time. ''Behaviour Change, 40''(4), 297–313. https://doi.org/10.1017/bec.2022.24 Mor, N., & Winquist, J. (2002). Self-focused attention and negative affect: A meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin, 128''(4), 638–662. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.638 Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3''(5), 400–424. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x Raes, F. (2010). Rumination and worry as mediators of the relationship between self-compassion and depression and anxiety. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 48''(6), 757–761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.023 Takano, K., & Tanno, Y. (2009). Self-rumination, self-reflection, and depression: Self-rumination counteracts the adaptive effect of self-reflection. ''Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47''(3), 260–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2008.12.008 Trapnell, P. D., & Campbell, J. D. (1999). Private self-consciousness and the five-factor model of personality: Distinguishing rumination from reflection. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76''(2), 284–304. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.76.2.284 Treynor, W., Gonzalez, R., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2003). Rumination reconsidered: A psychometric analysis. ''Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27''(3), 247–259. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023910315561 Watkins, E. (2004). Adaptive and maladaptive ruminative self-focus during emotional processing. ''Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42''(9), 1037–1052. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2004.01.009 Watkins, E. R. (2008). Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought. ''Psychological Bulletin, 134''(2), 163–206. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.163 }} ==External links== * [https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/break-the-cycle Breaking the cycle of rumination] (Harvard Health Publishing) * [https://www.smilingmind.com.au/ Smiling Mind] (Smiling Mind) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Cognition]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] c4lbl6vm427mhk0lius4qydf10gxkek 2840899 2840830 2026-10-17T11:45:12Z U3211150 3106672 /* Adaptive self-reflection and wellbeing */ 2840899 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection:<br>When does self-reflection promote wellbeing and when does it contribute to psychological distress?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} [[File:Le Penseur in the Jardin du Musée Rodin, Paris 14 June 2015.jpg|Le_Penseur_in_the_Jardin_du_Musée_Rodin,_Paris_14_June_2015]|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Reflection may produce insight, but repeated self-focused thought may contribute to distress.]] '''Scenario: An embarrassing encounter''' Trevor's day at university was fairly ordinary. While walking to get his second coffee, he exchanged a brief smile with another student. Distracted, he failed to notice the uneven ground and tripped in front of her. He quickly walked away, flushed and deeply embarrassed. Trevor repeatedly replayed the incident in his mind, becoming absorbed in self-focused thought (see Figure 1). He decided that if he saw her again, he would avoid her to prevent further embarrassment. When Trevor told his friend Alucard what had happened, Alucard suggested that she might not have noticed. This prompted Trevor to consider whether his prediction of rejection was supported by what had actually occurred. Soon afterwards, Trevor saw the same student approaching. Although he still felt embarrassed, he reconsidered his interpretation and introduced himself. He discovered that she was happy to speak with him. Trevor's response illustrates how reflecting on the same experience may be associated with different emotional and behavioural outcomes. Why might repeatedly replaying the event have prolonged his embarrassment, while reconsidering his interpretation helped him respond more constructively? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Self-reflection|Self-reflection]] involves examining one’s thoughts, emotions and behaviour, but this process does not necessarily produce insight or psychological wellbeing. Self-reflection and insight are related but distinguishable: reflection describes the process of self-examination, whereas insight involves developing clearer self-understanding (Grant et al., 2002). This distinction is practically important because deliberate self-analysis may appear constructive even when it maintains embarrassment, avoidance or distress. The effects of self-focused thought may depend on how it is performed. Trapnell and Campbell (1999) distinguished curiosity-driven reflection from recurrent [[w:Rumination (psychology)|rumination]] prompted by perceived threats, losses or injustices involving the self. More broadly, repetitive thought may be relatively constructive or unconstructive depending on its content, context and level of processing (Watkins, 2008). Psychological perspective may also matter, as analysing a negative experience from a self-distanced perspective may reduce immediate emotional reactivity compared with self-immersed analysis (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). Understanding these processes may help explain why reflection sometimes supports insight and constructive action but, in other circumstances, contributes to continuing distress.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What distinguishes adaptive self-reflection from maladaptive self-focused thought? * Under what conditions may self-reflection support psychological wellbeing? * Under what conditions may self-focused thought contribute to psychological distress? * What psychological processes influence the outcomes of self-reflection? * How might people engage in more adaptive self-reflection? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding adaptive and maladaptive self-reflection == Self-focused thought is not explicitly helpful or harmful. It may involve distinguishable processes which influence the overall wellbeing outcomes. Whether adaptive or maladaptive behaviours are executed may rely on motivation, processing style, capacity to generate insight and the relationship with repetitive negative thinking. Self-reflection can be defined as the inspection and evaluation of one's thoughts, emotions and behaviour, along with the act of directed attention towards internal experiences and processes. However, engaging in the act of self-reflection is not the same as gaining clarity and understanding of what these internal experiences mean (Grant et al., 2002). Adaptive and maladaptive describe the likely outcomes of self-focused thought compared to specific fixed good/bad distinctions. Adaptive self-reflection may involve the flexible, purposeful processing that supports insight, problem-solving or movement towards personally relevant goals (Watkins, 2008). On the other hand, maladaptive self-reflection involves a more self-focused thought process that refers to repetitive attention to distress and its causes or consequences. Rumination is a central example of maladaptive processes, but not every emotionally difficult reflective episode is necessarily maladaptive. Therefore, engaging in these behaviour may potentially interfere with problem-solving and supportive behaviours that can lead to positive outcomes and reaching insight. (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008). {{cmbox | type = style | image = [[File:Emblem-question-yellow.svg|40px]] | style = width: 400px; | textstyle = color: black; font-weight: bold; font-style: italic; | text = Does self-reflection differ from insight? }} While self-reflection and insight are related, they are both distinguishable factors. Reflection involves the process of self-examination, whereas insight describes the possible outcome. Suggesting that higher levels of self-examination do not with certainty produce clear self-understanding. Moreover, insight is defined as the clarity to understanding of one's thoughts, emotions and behaviours compared to the evaluative process of self-reflection (Grant et al,. 2002). Grant et al.'s (2002) results found that self-reflection associated positively with anxiety and stress. Whereas, insight was negatively associated with depression, anxiety and stress, while positively associated with cognitive flexibility and self-regulation. These findings were primarily correlational and participants included a sample of undergraduate psychology students which may limit the generalisability. Therefore, these findings demonstrate association among self-reflection insight and psychological outcomes, but they do not establish causal relationships. Trapnell and Campbell (1999) identified two motivationally distinct forms of private self-attention. They distinguish between curiosity-driven reflection or intellectual interest in the self compared to recurrent self-rumination likely to be prompted by threats, losses or injustices regarding the self. Additionally they introduced the "self-absorption paradox", which highlights how self-focused attention can be associated with both self-understanding and psychological distress. This suggests that the motivation and quality of self-focused attention may be more informative than the amount of reflection alone. Trapnell and Campbell's (1999) model provides a key theoretical differentiation for dispositional reflection and rumination. While their research support the distinction between the different processes of reflection. However, it does not establish causation between reflection supporting adaptive outcomes and repetitive thought causing harmful outcomes. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} '''Now lets apply these theories to Trevors scenario''' He replays the incident with self-focused attention, but it does not initially provide him with easing distress or more accurate understanding. Furthermore, the act of repeated replaying the embarrassment and anticipated rejection resembles the threat-focused rumination, whereas questioning his initial assumptions illustrates curiosity-driven reflection. {{RoundBoxBottom}} According to Treynor et al. (2003), rumination may contain at least two distinguishable components: brooding and reflective pondering. Brooding can be defined as the passive comparison between one's current circumstance and an unattained standard, while reflective pondering can be defined as purposeful attention intended to understand or address distress. however, reflection and reflective pondering are from two different measures and should not be treated as identical constructs,It important to highlight these as differing constructs as they both associate differently when measured alongside depressive symptoms. Reflective pondering showed a different and less consistently maladaptive pattern than brooding, although, it is also measured alongside depressive rumination and should not automatically be equated to adaptive self-reflection. This highlighted how different processes of rumination have different relationships with depressive symptoms. (Treynor et al., 2003). Takano and Tanno (2009), proposed that self-reflection and self-rumination are distinguishable but may not be entirely independent. In a two-wave study, self-reflection predicted subsequent self-rumination within the authors' statistical model, suggesting that the two processes may co exist. Self-reflection was associated with lower depression, whereas self-rumination was associated with higher depression Important to note that the estimated total effect of reflection on depression was close to zero, as reflection and rumination occurred together. This suggests that adaptive reflection processes may coexist with maladaptive processes that counteract positive outcomes. The small, predominantly male undergraduate sample and brief follow-up period limit generalisability, while the observational design prevents firm causal conclusions. Ultimately research suggests that adaptive self-reflection appears more likely to involve curiosity, flexibility and movement towards insight or constructive action, whereas maladaptive self-focused thought more commonly involves threat-focused repetitions, passive brooding and difficulty disengaging. However, these processes may overlap, and deliberate reflection should be assumed to be beneficial. == Adaptive self-reflection and wellbeing == Self reflection is more likely to support wellbeing when insight is gained to facilitate constructive meaning. The Systematic Self-Reflection Model of Resilience Strengthening is a proposed theoretical pathway underlining how insight on coping mechanisms may strengthen resilience (Crane et al., 2019). While this study targeted strengthening resilience in response to stress, these concepts can help understand adaptive self-reflection. Crane et al (2019) proposed as a sequence; {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} Reflect on coping {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} Insight gained {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} Refinement of resilient beliefs, strategies and resources {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} Greater capacity to respond to future stressors {{RoundBoxBottom}} This framework suggests that adaptive self-reflection can generate insight by better understanding the responses to stress, evaluate coping effectiveness, reframing experiences, and applying lessons to future challenges. Insight is identified in this research as a mechanism which stressful experiences become opportunities for resilience development, rather than solely a source of distress. However, this theory requires more empirical testing and is not universally established to verify a casual relationship. Insight is a key indicator of adaptive self-reflection. More favourable outcomes are associated when insight is achieved rather than self-examination actioned alone and rumination is relatively low. This indicates insight as a potential mechanism while rumination as a potential moderator in the self-reflection process. Lyke, 2009 found that Insight was positively associated with happiness and life satisfaction, whereas self-reflection alone did not show the same relationship with subjective wellbeing. * Insight statistically mediated the association between adaptive self-reflection and resilience and wellbeing, but the direction of this indirect association depended on rumination: it was positive at lower rumination and negative at higher rumination (Bucknell et al., 2022). * A randomised controlled trial, found that Self-reflective writing produced greater improvements in perceived resilience than attention-matched descriptive writing, while reflection on successful coping showed better maintenance of benefits than reflection on unsuccessful coping. Additionally, reflection on successful coping demonstrates better maintenance of benefits than reflecting on unsuccessful coping (Bucknell et al., 2024). * An app-based journal that targeted positive processes was associated with increased psychological wellbeing among participants with average or higher baseline dispositional self-reflection, after statistically controlling for rumination (MacIsaac et al., 2023) Overall, reflection may be more likely to support wellbeing when it generates insight, identifies effective coping responses and informs constructive future action without becoming dominated by rumination. '''Limitations''' * Lyke (2009) is correlational and does not prove insight causes wellbeing * Bucknell et al. (2022) is a cross-sectional moderated mediation analysis, proposed indirect statistical pathway does not infer causation * Bucknell et al. (2024) experimental outcomes were targeted to perceived resilience rather than self reflection. Participants also consisted of Australian ministry workers limiting generalisability * MacIsaac et al. (2023), study was longitudinal but lacked experimental assignment and a control group. Participants chose how much they used the journal, and the app contained other features. Additionally, the nature of the quasi-experiment makes it difficult to confirm whether outcomes are influenced by individuals pre existing reflection intentions and behaviours. == Maladaptive self-reflection and psychological distress == [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]'''Focus questions -''' Under what conditions may self-focused thought contribute to psychological distress? '''Topic sentence/introductory message -''' Self-focused thought may contribute to psychological distress when it becomes repetitive, negative and difficult to detach from, especially when interfering with constructive behaviour and problem solving. '''Key points''' *Response style theory proposes that repetitive focus on distress and its causes and consequences may reinforce negative thinking, impair problem solving and interfere with constructive understanding and behaviours (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008) *A meta-analysis of effect sizes highlighted an association between self-focused attention and negative affect. The strength of this association differed by the form of self-focus, distress and samples (Mor & Winquist, 2002) *Cross-sectional mediation models indicated that brooding statistically accounted for part of the relationship between lower self-compassion and depressive symptoms, while brooding and worry correlated with anxiety (Raes, 2010). *Dunn & Luchner (2022) researched reflection on personal mistakes and how rumination conditions effected negative affect. Results found that no significant improvement in negative emotion, which indicates that rumination may maintain psychological distress. '''Concluding sentence''' - self-focused thought may involve distress when it maintains attention toward negative content without facilitating insight or effective problem-solving. '''Limitations''' * Identifies overall association, not the causality of self-focus and distress. Additionally this meta-analysis is quite dated , social norms and stressors have changed so a more recent meta-analysis may be more useful. (Mor & Winquist, 2002) * Nolen-Hoeksema et al. (2008) concluded that rumination predicted the onset of depression more consistently than the duration of the depressive episode, findings concerning duration were mixed. * Raes (2010) cross-sectional design may limit generalisability and causality. * Dunn and Luchner (2022) did not find a strong implication that rumination significantly caused a decreased mood. Additionally, the study focuses on reflection of personal mistakes and not self-reflection in general. == Factors influencing the outcomes of self-reflection == '''Focus question -''' What psychological processes influence the outcomes of self-reflection? '''Topic sentence -''' The outcomes of self-reflection may be influenced by the interaction of cognitive, emotional, personal and cultural factors rather than on the amount of maladaptive process alone. '''Key points''' *A theoretical review proposed that repetitive thought may be constructive or unconstructive depending on its emotional content, situational context and level of construal, including whether processing is relatively abstract or concrete (Watkins, 2008). *Experimental evidence suggests that analysing a negative experience from a psychologically distanced perspective may support faster cardiovascular recovery than analysing it from a self-immersed perspective (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). *Cross-cultural studies found that Russian participants reported greater spontaneous self-distancing and less distress while reflecting on negative experiences than American participants, indicating that cultural context may influence how reflection is performed and experienced (Grossmann & Kross, 2010). *The relationship between adaptive reflection, insight and wellbeing differed according to participants’ levels of rumination, suggesting that rumination may interfere with otherwise constructive reflective processing (Bucknell et al., 2022). *An experiment involving reflection on a significant mistake suggested that self-criticism may also influence outcomes, as reflection was associated with reduced negative emotion among participants high in the “hated self” form of self-criticism (Dunn & Luchner, 2022). '''Concluding sentence''' - important influences may include processing style, psychological distance, emotional content, rumination, self-criticism, culture and the extent to which reflection generates insight or action. '''Limitations''' == Developing more adaptive self-reflection == '''Focus question''' - How might people engage in more adaptive self-reflection? *Adaptive self-reflection may be encouraged by giving reflection a clear structure, directing attention towards specific experiences and supporting perspective, insight and constructive action. *Analysing a negative experience from a self-distanced perspective may reduce immediate physiological reactivity compared with analysing the experience from a self-immersed perspective (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). *In a one-month randomised trial with distressed students, both [[w:Mindfulness|mindfulness meditation]] and relaxation training reduced distress and increased positive states of mind relative to a control condition; mindfulness meditation also reduced rumination relative to the control condition (Jain et al., 2007). *Positively focused journalling prompts concerning growth, mastery, goals and the future were associated with improved psychological wellbeing among participants with average or higher dispositional self-reflection (MacIsaac et al., 2023). *Structured reflection on successful coping experiences may be particularly useful, as its effects on perceived resilience were maintained more effectively than reflection focused on unsuccessful coping experiences (Bucknell et al., 2024). *in relation to recalling a significant personal mistake, reflection was associated with reduced negative emotion among participants high in hated-self criticism, whereas rumination produced no significant emotional change. (Dunn & Luchner, 2022). What happened, what helped me cope, why might it have helped, and what could I use again? '''Concluding sentence''' - promising strategies include psychological distancing, mindfulness, positively focused journalling and structured reflection on successful coping; however, these approaches should not be presented as universally effective. '''Limitations''' *Ayduk and Kross (2008), dated source and supports immediate self-distancing over a more universal and long term intervention. *Jain et al. (2007), Sample included 83 distressed students limiting generalisability. Additionally, mindfulness was not significantly stronger for relaxation for distress or positive states of mind. *Bucknell et al. (2024), study targeted perceived resilience and was a specific occupational sample. ;Quiz Time to quiz your knowledge! Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Self-reflection involves examining one's thoughts, emotions and behaviour: |type="()"} + True - False {Self-reflection is always adaptive when it is deliberate and purposeful: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== *Self-reflection does not appear to be definitively adaptive or maladaptive; its outcomes may depend on how reflection is processed and the context. *Adaptive self-reflection may involve curiosity, flexible thinking and movement towards insight, problem-solving or constructive action. *Maladaptive self-focused thought may involve threat-focused repetition, passive brooding and difficulty disengaging from distress. *Reflection alone does not necessarily produce insight or psychological wellbeing. *Factors such as psychological distance, rumination, emotional content, self-criticism and cultural context may influence reflective outcomes. *Strategies such as mindfulness, self-distancing, positively focused journalling and structured reflection on successful coping may encourage more adaptive reflection. '''Concluding sentence''' - outcomes do not rely on whether an individual reflects or not, but whether their reflection generates clearer understanding and constructive action or maintains repetitive negative attention. ==See also== * [[w:Emotion regulation|Emotion regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Rumination (psychology)|Rumination]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Rumination|Rumination]] (Book chapter, 2013) * [[w:Self-awareness|Self-awareness]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ayduk, Ö., & Kross, E. (2008). Enhancing the pace of recovery: Self-distanced analysis of negative experiences reduces blood pressure reactivity. ''Psychological Science, 19''(3), 229–231. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02073.x Bucknell, K. J., Kangas, M., & Crane, M. F. (2022). Adaptive self-reflection and resilience: The moderating effects of rumination on insight as a mediator. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 185'', 111234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.111234 Bucknell, K. J., Kangas, M., Karin, E., & Crane, M. F. (2024). A randomized controlled trial comparing the effects of self‐reflective writing focused on successful and unsuccessful coping experiences on resilience. ''Stress and Health, 40''(2), e3311. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.3311 Crane, M. F., Searle, B. J., Kangas, M., & Nwiran, Y. (2019). How resilience is strengthened by exposure to stressors: The systematic self-reflection model of resilience strengthening. ''Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 32''(1), 1-17. DOI:10.1080/10615806.2018.1506640 Dunn, N. A., & Luchner, A. F. (2022). The emotional impact of self‐criticism on self‐reflection and rumination. ''Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 95''(4), 1126–1139. https://doi.org/10.1111/papt.12422 Grant, A. M., Franklin, J., & Langford, P. (2002). The self-reflection and insight scale: A new measure of private self-consciousness. ''Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 30''(8), 821–836. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2002.30.8.821 Grossmann, I., & Kross, E. (2010). The impact of culture on adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection. ''Psychological Science, 21''(8), 1150–1157. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610376655 Jain, S., Shapiro, S. L., Swanick, S., Roesch, S. C., Mills, P. J., Bell, I., & Schwartz, G. E. (2007). A randomized controlled trial of mindfulness meditation versus relaxation training: Effects on distress, positive states of mind, rumination, and distraction. ''Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 33''(1), 11–21. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324796abm3301_2 Lyke, J. A. (2009). Insight, but not self-reflection, is related to subjective well-being. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 46''(1), 66–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2008.09.010 MacIsaac, A., Mushquash, A. R., & Wekerle, C. (2023). Writing yourself well: Dispositional self-reflection moderates the effect of a smartphone app-based journaling intervention on psychological wellbeing across time. ''Behaviour Change, 40''(4), 297–313. https://doi.org/10.1017/bec.2022.24 Mor, N., & Winquist, J. (2002). Self-focused attention and negative affect: A meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin, 128''(4), 638–662. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.638 Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3''(5), 400–424. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x Raes, F. (2010). Rumination and worry as mediators of the relationship between self-compassion and depression and anxiety. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 48''(6), 757–761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.023 Takano, K., & Tanno, Y. (2009). Self-rumination, self-reflection, and depression: Self-rumination counteracts the adaptive effect of self-reflection. ''Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47''(3), 260–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2008.12.008 Trapnell, P. D., & Campbell, J. D. (1999). Private self-consciousness and the five-factor model of personality: Distinguishing rumination from reflection. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76''(2), 284–304. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.76.2.284 Treynor, W., Gonzalez, R., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2003). Rumination reconsidered: A psychometric analysis. ''Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27''(3), 247–259. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023910315561 Watkins, E. (2004). Adaptive and maladaptive ruminative self-focus during emotional processing. ''Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42''(9), 1037–1052. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2004.01.009 Watkins, E. R. (2008). Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought. ''Psychological Bulletin, 134''(2), 163–206. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.163 }} ==External links== * [https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/break-the-cycle Breaking the cycle of rumination] (Harvard Health Publishing) * [https://www.smilingmind.com.au/ Smiling Mind] (Smiling Mind) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Cognition]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] 12ja8lzgc0rt89drer593pjydmbbck2 0 331201 2840763 2840649 2026-10-17T00:06:39Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? */ Replaced dot point with an expanded paragraph on strengthening expectancy beliefs, including strategies for building competence and enhancing motivation - real world application of EVT 2840763 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin (see figure 1). After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} The scenario above shows how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|Figure 2. Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002,). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels. Together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why student respond differently to the same task. Expectancy refer’s to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost, (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is the about how important doing well in the task is to the student. Cost refer’s to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. Theses components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrach (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory which includes adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contempory work emphaises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Pajares and Schunk (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Social-cognitive models also highlight the importance of students’ beliefs about the value of academic tasks, with Eccles and Wigfield (2002) noting that motivation increases when learners view an activity as important, enjoyable, or useful for future goals. Together, these perspectives show that educational motivation is influenced by how students think about themselves and how they evaluate the learning activities they encounter. This perspective sets up a clear link to expectancy-value theory, which similarly emphasises how motivation is shaped by both personal beliefs and environmental influences. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. Self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom conditions and teacher support directly influence how confident students feel (Pajares & Schunk, 2009). EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and task values shift depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Pajares and Schunk (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Pajares and Schunk (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guide how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Task value describes how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that these evaluations play a major role in shaping motivation because they influence how worthwhile students believe a task is. When students see value in what they are learning, they are more likely to participate and invest effort. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) emphasise that task values are central to expectancy-value theory because they explain most of the variation in why students choose certain learning activities. Intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost together account for the majority of the model, showing that motivation is shaped not just by whether students think they can succeed, but by how worthwhile they believe the task is. These values influence decisions such as which subjects’ students pursue, how much effort they invest, and whether they persist when work becomes challenging. By highlighting the importance of enjoyment, usefulness, personal significance, and perceived cost, task values help explain why students engage differently even when their abilities are similar. Research supports the importance of task values by showing that students are more motivated when they find learning activities enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also plays a major role, with studies demonstrating that students invest more effort when they believe the task will help them achieve future goals (Harackiewicz & Hulleman 2009). These findings reinforce the central claim of expectancy-value theory: students engage more deeply with task they see as worthwhile, either because they enjoy the activity, believe it will help them in the future, or view it as personally important. More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, stress and anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are string (Flake et al., 2015). Cost captures the negative side of engaging in a task, and research demonstrates that these perceptions can undermine students’ willingness to participate even when they find the activity enjoyable or useful. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they see as enjoyable, important, or useful. When students believe a task is worthwhile, they are more willing to invest effort and persist through challenges. This perspective shows how socio-cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks. Intrinsic subjective task value refers to the enjoyment or interest students expect from a learning activity. In SEVT, this is understood as situated intrinsic value, meaning that enjoyment is shaped by the learner’s immediate context rather that being a stable personal trait. Eccles and Wigfield (2020) argue that these contextual influences are central to how task values form and change. This is why the “S” was added to EVT: to emphasise that value is always shaped by the learner’s developmental, cultural, and situational context. Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, making them difficult to distinguish clearly (Eccles, 2005; Flake et al., 2015). These critiques highlight the need for approaches that consider how students’ experiences and environments influenct the value they assign to learning tasks. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 2.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 2 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | What's happening in this space? |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | '''The renaissance of cost'''<br> While early EVT research focused heavily on confidence and utility, contemporary studies increasingly emphasise the cost component. Recent work shows that psychological strain, performance anxiety, and time investment, captured across multidimensional cost categories such as effort, emotional strain, and opportunity costs, can meaningfully undermine high task values in demanding subjects like mathematics (Flake et al., 2015; Perez et al., 2014; Gaspard et al., 2015).<br> '''Real-time and dynamic motivation'''<br> Motivation is now often viewed as a shifting, context-sensitive process rather than a static mindset. Recent studies show that students’ values and expectancies vary across lessons and classroom environments, influenced by factors such as perceived support, peer interactions, and task characteristics, which aligns with EVT’s emphasis on how beliefs and values develop within specific learning contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017; Dietrich et al., 2017).<br> '''Utility value interventions'''<br> Rather than a static mindset, academic motivation is increasingly understood as a dynamic, context-sensitive process. Grounded in contemporary situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), empirical evidence demonstrates that students’ expectancies for success and task values show meaningful micro-fluctuations across days, lessons, and distinct learning spaces (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Dietrich et al., 2017). These real-time shifts are shaped by immediate environmental inputs, including classroom climate, peer dynamics, and specific task designs (Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017).<br> '''The move towards situated expectancy-value theory'''<br> Early EVT (Eccles et al., 1983) focused on stable beliefs about competence and task value. Later refinements clarified how social influences (teachers, parents, and peers) shape these beliefs. SEVT (2020) reframes motivation as dynamic and situated, showing that expectancies and values shift in response to classroom context, feedback, identity, and social interactions. |} == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == * Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). * Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015). * A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). ===Strngthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectany beliefs is one way Evt can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succees, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback, in doing so will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Pajares & Schunk, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:50%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component {{ic|of what?}} reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== • Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). • Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). • Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). • Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). • Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Further take home messages to be added to this feature box as the book chapter develops |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) ==References insert italics where neccessary== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Dietrich, J., Viljaranta, J., Moeller, J., & Kracke, B. (2017). Situational expectancies and task values: Associations with students' effort. Learning and Instruction, 47, 53–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.10.009 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Gaspard, H., Dicke, A. L., Flunger, B., Schreier, B., Häfner, I., Trautwein, U., & Nagengast, B. (2015). More value through greater differentiation: Gender differences in value beliefs about math. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 663–677. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000003 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Perez, T., Cromley, J. G., & Kaplan, A. (2014). The role of identity development, values, and costs in college STEM retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(1), 315–329. Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Component !! Definition !! Example in education |- | '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || "This unit is required for my degree." |- | '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Conclusion == *Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] lm4hl14rva8r3ukh0tdj2lxjd3ve189 2840764 2840763 2026-10-17T00:16:51Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? */ Replaced dot point with expanded paragraph on enhancing task values in educational settings 2840764 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin (see figure 1). After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} The scenario above shows how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|Figure 2. Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002,). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels. Together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why student respond differently to the same task. Expectancy refer’s to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost, (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is the about how important doing well in the task is to the student. Cost refer’s to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. Theses components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrach (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory which includes adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contempory work emphaises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Pajares and Schunk (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Social-cognitive models also highlight the importance of students’ beliefs about the value of academic tasks, with Eccles and Wigfield (2002) noting that motivation increases when learners view an activity as important, enjoyable, or useful for future goals. Together, these perspectives show that educational motivation is influenced by how students think about themselves and how they evaluate the learning activities they encounter. This perspective sets up a clear link to expectancy-value theory, which similarly emphasises how motivation is shaped by both personal beliefs and environmental influences. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. Self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom conditions and teacher support directly influence how confident students feel (Pajares & Schunk, 2009). EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and task values shift depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Pajares and Schunk (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Pajares and Schunk (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guide how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Task value describes how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that these evaluations play a major role in shaping motivation because they influence how worthwhile students believe a task is. When students see value in what they are learning, they are more likely to participate and invest effort. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) emphasise that task values are central to expectancy-value theory because they explain most of the variation in why students choose certain learning activities. Intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost together account for the majority of the model, showing that motivation is shaped not just by whether students think they can succeed, but by how worthwhile they believe the task is. These values influence decisions such as which subjects’ students pursue, how much effort they invest, and whether they persist when work becomes challenging. By highlighting the importance of enjoyment, usefulness, personal significance, and perceived cost, task values help explain why students engage differently even when their abilities are similar. Research supports the importance of task values by showing that students are more motivated when they find learning activities enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also plays a major role, with studies demonstrating that students invest more effort when they believe the task will help them achieve future goals (Harackiewicz & Hulleman 2009). These findings reinforce the central claim of expectancy-value theory: students engage more deeply with task they see as worthwhile, either because they enjoy the activity, believe it will help them in the future, or view it as personally important. More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, stress and anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are string (Flake et al., 2015). Cost captures the negative side of engaging in a task, and research demonstrates that these perceptions can undermine students’ willingness to participate even when they find the activity enjoyable or useful. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they see as enjoyable, important, or useful. When students believe a task is worthwhile, they are more willing to invest effort and persist through challenges. This perspective shows how socio-cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks. Intrinsic subjective task value refers to the enjoyment or interest students expect from a learning activity. In SEVT, this is understood as situated intrinsic value, meaning that enjoyment is shaped by the learner’s immediate context rather that being a stable personal trait. Eccles and Wigfield (2020) argue that these contextual influences are central to how task values form and change. This is why the “S” was added to EVT: to emphasise that value is always shaped by the learner’s developmental, cultural, and situational context. Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, making them difficult to distinguish clearly (Eccles, 2005; Flake et al., 2015). These critiques highlight the need for approaches that consider how students’ experiences and environments influenct the value they assign to learning tasks. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 2.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 2 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | What's happening in this space? |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | '''The renaissance of cost'''<br> While early EVT research focused heavily on confidence and utility, contemporary studies increasingly emphasise the cost component. Recent work shows that psychological strain, performance anxiety, and time investment, captured across multidimensional cost categories such as effort, emotional strain, and opportunity costs, can meaningfully undermine high task values in demanding subjects like mathematics (Flake et al., 2015; Perez et al., 2014; Gaspard et al., 2015).<br> '''Real-time and dynamic motivation'''<br> Motivation is now often viewed as a shifting, context-sensitive process rather than a static mindset. Recent studies show that students’ values and expectancies vary across lessons and classroom environments, influenced by factors such as perceived support, peer interactions, and task characteristics, which aligns with EVT’s emphasis on how beliefs and values develop within specific learning contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017; Dietrich et al., 2017).<br> '''Utility value interventions'''<br> Rather than a static mindset, academic motivation is increasingly understood as a dynamic, context-sensitive process. Grounded in contemporary situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), empirical evidence demonstrates that students’ expectancies for success and task values show meaningful micro-fluctuations across days, lessons, and distinct learning spaces (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Dietrich et al., 2017). These real-time shifts are shaped by immediate environmental inputs, including classroom climate, peer dynamics, and specific task designs (Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017).<br> '''The move towards situated expectancy-value theory'''<br> Early EVT (Eccles et al., 1983) focused on stable beliefs about competence and task value. Later refinements clarified how social influences (teachers, parents, and peers) shape these beliefs. SEVT (2020) reframes motivation as dynamic and situated, showing that expectancies and values shift in response to classroom context, feedback, identity, and social interactions. |} == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == * Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). * Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015). * A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). ===Strngthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectany beliefs is one way Evt can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succees, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback, in doing so will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Pajares & Schunk, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, while providing eaxamples of how skills are used outside the classroom can increase perceived usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccled & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more eduring task values. == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:50%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component {{ic|of what?}} reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== • Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). • Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). • Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). • Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). • Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Further take home messages to be added to this feature box as the book chapter develops |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) ==References insert italics where neccessary== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Dietrich, J., Viljaranta, J., Moeller, J., & Kracke, B. (2017). Situational expectancies and task values: Associations with students' effort. Learning and Instruction, 47, 53–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.10.009 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Gaspard, H., Dicke, A. L., Flunger, B., Schreier, B., Häfner, I., Trautwein, U., & Nagengast, B. (2015). More value through greater differentiation: Gender differences in value beliefs about math. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 663–677. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000003 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Perez, T., Cromley, J. G., & Kaplan, A. (2014). The role of identity development, values, and costs in college STEM retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(1), 315–329. Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Component !! Definition !! Example in education |- | '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || "This unit is required for my degree." |- | '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Conclusion == *Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] hhqmm5kd91fpsopu6cnxmd3mkoohj5b 2840767 2840764 2026-10-17T00:35:01Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? */ Replaced dot point with an extended paragraph on reducing perceived cost 2840767 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin (see figure 1). After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} The scenario above shows how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|Figure 2. Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002,). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels. Together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why student respond differently to the same task. Expectancy refer’s to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost, (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is the about how important doing well in the task is to the student. Cost refer’s to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. Theses components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrach (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory which includes adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contempory work emphaises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Pajares and Schunk (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Social-cognitive models also highlight the importance of students’ beliefs about the value of academic tasks, with Eccles and Wigfield (2002) noting that motivation increases when learners view an activity as important, enjoyable, or useful for future goals. Together, these perspectives show that educational motivation is influenced by how students think about themselves and how they evaluate the learning activities they encounter. This perspective sets up a clear link to expectancy-value theory, which similarly emphasises how motivation is shaped by both personal beliefs and environmental influences. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. Self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom conditions and teacher support directly influence how confident students feel (Pajares & Schunk, 2009). EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and task values shift depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Pajares and Schunk (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Pajares and Schunk (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guide how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Task value describes how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that these evaluations play a major role in shaping motivation because they influence how worthwhile students believe a task is. When students see value in what they are learning, they are more likely to participate and invest effort. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) emphasise that task values are central to expectancy-value theory because they explain most of the variation in why students choose certain learning activities. Intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost together account for the majority of the model, showing that motivation is shaped not just by whether students think they can succeed, but by how worthwhile they believe the task is. These values influence decisions such as which subjects’ students pursue, how much effort they invest, and whether they persist when work becomes challenging. By highlighting the importance of enjoyment, usefulness, personal significance, and perceived cost, task values help explain why students engage differently even when their abilities are similar. Research supports the importance of task values by showing that students are more motivated when they find learning activities enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also plays a major role, with studies demonstrating that students invest more effort when they believe the task will help them achieve future goals (Harackiewicz & Hulleman 2009). These findings reinforce the central claim of expectancy-value theory: students engage more deeply with task they see as worthwhile, either because they enjoy the activity, believe it will help them in the future, or view it as personally important. More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, stress and anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are string (Flake et al., 2015). Cost captures the negative side of engaging in a task, and research demonstrates that these perceptions can undermine students’ willingness to participate even when they find the activity enjoyable or useful. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they see as enjoyable, important, or useful. When students believe a task is worthwhile, they are more willing to invest effort and persist through challenges. This perspective shows how socio-cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks. Intrinsic subjective task value refers to the enjoyment or interest students expect from a learning activity. In SEVT, this is understood as situated intrinsic value, meaning that enjoyment is shaped by the learner’s immediate context rather that being a stable personal trait. Eccles and Wigfield (2020) argue that these contextual influences are central to how task values form and change. This is why the “S” was added to EVT: to emphasise that value is always shaped by the learner’s developmental, cultural, and situational context. Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, making them difficult to distinguish clearly (Eccles, 2005; Flake et al., 2015). These critiques highlight the need for approaches that consider how students’ experiences and environments influenct the value they assign to learning tasks. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 2.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 2 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | What's happening in this space? |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | '''The renaissance of cost'''<br> While early EVT research focused heavily on confidence and utility, contemporary studies increasingly emphasise the cost component. Recent work shows that psychological strain, performance anxiety, and time investment, captured across multidimensional cost categories such as effort, emotional strain, and opportunity costs, can meaningfully undermine high task values in demanding subjects like mathematics (Flake et al., 2015; Perez et al., 2014; Gaspard et al., 2015).<br> '''Real-time and dynamic motivation'''<br> Motivation is now often viewed as a shifting, context-sensitive process rather than a static mindset. Recent studies show that students’ values and expectancies vary across lessons and classroom environments, influenced by factors such as perceived support, peer interactions, and task characteristics, which aligns with EVT’s emphasis on how beliefs and values develop within specific learning contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017; Dietrich et al., 2017).<br> '''Utility value interventions'''<br> Rather than a static mindset, academic motivation is increasingly understood as a dynamic, context-sensitive process. Grounded in contemporary situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), empirical evidence demonstrates that students’ expectancies for success and task values show meaningful micro-fluctuations across days, lessons, and distinct learning spaces (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Dietrich et al., 2017). These real-time shifts are shaped by immediate environmental inputs, including classroom climate, peer dynamics, and specific task designs (Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017).<br> '''The move towards situated expectancy-value theory'''<br> Early EVT (Eccles et al., 1983) focused on stable beliefs about competence and task value. Later refinements clarified how social influences (teachers, parents, and peers) shape these beliefs. SEVT (2020) reframes motivation as dynamic and situated, showing that expectancies and values shift in response to classroom context, feedback, identity, and social interactions. |} == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == * Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). * Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015). * A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). ===Strngthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectany beliefs is one way Evt can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succees, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback, in doing so will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Pajares & Schunk, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, while providing eaxamples of how skills are used outside the classroom can increase perceived usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccled & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more eduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise these pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utitility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:50%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component {{ic|of what?}} reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== • Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). • Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). • Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). • Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). • Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Further take home messages to be added to this feature box as the book chapter develops |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) ==References insert italics where neccessary== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Dietrich, J., Viljaranta, J., Moeller, J., & Kracke, B. (2017). Situational expectancies and task values: Associations with students' effort. Learning and Instruction, 47, 53–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.10.009 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Gaspard, H., Dicke, A. L., Flunger, B., Schreier, B., Häfner, I., Trautwein, U., & Nagengast, B. (2015). More value through greater differentiation: Gender differences in value beliefs about math. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 663–677. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000003 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Perez, T., Cromley, J. G., & Kaplan, A. (2014). The role of identity development, values, and costs in college STEM retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(1), 315–329. Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Component !! Definition !! Example in education |- | '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || "This unit is required for my degree." |- | '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Conclusion == *Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] p5hex4ily6zsgt05hlsbza8ff54awv4 2840771 2840767 2026-10-17T01:01:32Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? */ added paragraph outlining limitations of EVT 2840771 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin (see figure 1). After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} The scenario above shows how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|Figure 2. Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002,). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels. Together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why student respond differently to the same task. Expectancy refer’s to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost, (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is the about how important doing well in the task is to the student. Cost refer’s to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. Theses components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrach (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory which includes adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contempory work emphaises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Pajares and Schunk (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Social-cognitive models also highlight the importance of students’ beliefs about the value of academic tasks, with Eccles and Wigfield (2002) noting that motivation increases when learners view an activity as important, enjoyable, or useful for future goals. Together, these perspectives show that educational motivation is influenced by how students think about themselves and how they evaluate the learning activities they encounter. This perspective sets up a clear link to expectancy-value theory, which similarly emphasises how motivation is shaped by both personal beliefs and environmental influences. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. Self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom conditions and teacher support directly influence how confident students feel (Pajares & Schunk, 2009). EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and task values shift depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Pajares and Schunk (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Pajares and Schunk (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guide how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Task value describes how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that these evaluations play a major role in shaping motivation because they influence how worthwhile students believe a task is. When students see value in what they are learning, they are more likely to participate and invest effort. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) emphasise that task values are central to expectancy-value theory because they explain most of the variation in why students choose certain learning activities. Intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost together account for the majority of the model, showing that motivation is shaped not just by whether students think they can succeed, but by how worthwhile they believe the task is. These values influence decisions such as which subjects’ students pursue, how much effort they invest, and whether they persist when work becomes challenging. By highlighting the importance of enjoyment, usefulness, personal significance, and perceived cost, task values help explain why students engage differently even when their abilities are similar. Research supports the importance of task values by showing that students are more motivated when they find learning activities enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also plays a major role, with studies demonstrating that students invest more effort when they believe the task will help them achieve future goals (Harackiewicz & Hulleman 2009). These findings reinforce the central claim of expectancy-value theory: students engage more deeply with task they see as worthwhile, either because they enjoy the activity, believe it will help them in the future, or view it as personally important. More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, stress and anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are string (Flake et al., 2015). Cost captures the negative side of engaging in a task, and research demonstrates that these perceptions can undermine students’ willingness to participate even when they find the activity enjoyable or useful. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they see as enjoyable, important, or useful. When students believe a task is worthwhile, they are more willing to invest effort and persist through challenges. This perspective shows how socio-cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks. Intrinsic subjective task value refers to the enjoyment or interest students expect from a learning activity. In SEVT, this is understood as situated intrinsic value, meaning that enjoyment is shaped by the learner’s immediate context rather that being a stable personal trait. Eccles and Wigfield (2020) argue that these contextual influences are central to how task values form and change. This is why the “S” was added to EVT: to emphasise that value is always shaped by the learner’s developmental, cultural, and situational context. Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, making them difficult to distinguish clearly (Eccles, 2005; Flake et al., 2015). These critiques highlight the need for approaches that consider how students’ experiences and environments influenct the value they assign to learning tasks. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 2.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 2 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | What's happening in this space? |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | '''The renaissance of cost'''<br> While early EVT research focused heavily on confidence and utility, contemporary studies increasingly emphasise the cost component. Recent work shows that psychological strain, performance anxiety, and time investment, captured across multidimensional cost categories such as effort, emotional strain, and opportunity costs, can meaningfully undermine high task values in demanding subjects like mathematics (Flake et al., 2015; Perez et al., 2014; Gaspard et al., 2015).<br> '''Real-time and dynamic motivation'''<br> Motivation is now often viewed as a shifting, context-sensitive process rather than a static mindset. Recent studies show that students’ values and expectancies vary across lessons and classroom environments, influenced by factors such as perceived support, peer interactions, and task characteristics, which aligns with EVT’s emphasis on how beliefs and values develop within specific learning contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017; Dietrich et al., 2017).<br> '''Utility value interventions'''<br> Rather than a static mindset, academic motivation is increasingly understood as a dynamic, context-sensitive process. Grounded in contemporary situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), empirical evidence demonstrates that students’ expectancies for success and task values show meaningful micro-fluctuations across days, lessons, and distinct learning spaces (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Dietrich et al., 2017). These real-time shifts are shaped by immediate environmental inputs, including classroom climate, peer dynamics, and specific task designs (Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017).<br> '''The move towards situated expectancy-value theory'''<br> Early EVT (Eccles et al., 1983) focused on stable beliefs about competence and task value. Later refinements clarified how social influences (teachers, parents, and peers) shape these beliefs. SEVT (2020) reframes motivation as dynamic and situated, showing that expectancies and values shift in response to classroom context, feedback, identity, and social interactions. |} == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == * Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). * Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015). * A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). ===Strngthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectany beliefs is one way Evt can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succees, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback, in doing so will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Pajares & Schunk, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, while providing eaxamples of how skills are used outside the classroom can increase perceived usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccled & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more eduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise these pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utitility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefuleness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. Howerver, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. Half redundant in terms that it boosts motivation in those who may not particularly need it and reduce confidence in those that do. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have a limited impact when students face broader structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students’ opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed. EVT-based strategies also rely on ongoing support, and without consistent reinforcement they can be difficult to maintain over time (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:50%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component {{ic|of what?}} reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== • Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). • Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). • Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). • Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). • Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Further take home messages to be added to this feature box as the book chapter develops |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) ==References insert italics where neccessary== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. 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Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Gaspard, H., Dicke, A. L., Flunger, B., Schreier, B., Häfner, I., Trautwein, U., & Nagengast, B. (2015). More value through greater differentiation: Gender differences in value beliefs about math. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 663–677. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000003 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Perez, T., Cromley, J. G., & Kaplan, A. (2014). The role of identity development, values, and costs in college STEM retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(1), 315–329. Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Component !! Definition !! Example in education |- | '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || "This unit is required for my degree." |- | '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Conclusion == *Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] 4crx2uvnelltke1ql1rsrq4iuqeuv69 2840772 2840771 2026-10-17T01:03:16Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? */ removed dot points 2840772 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin (see figure 1). After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} The scenario above shows how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|Figure 2. Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002,). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels. Together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why student respond differently to the same task. Expectancy refer’s to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost, (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is the about how important doing well in the task is to the student. Cost refer’s to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. Theses components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrach (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory which includes adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contempory work emphaises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Pajares and Schunk (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Social-cognitive models also highlight the importance of students’ beliefs about the value of academic tasks, with Eccles and Wigfield (2002) noting that motivation increases when learners view an activity as important, enjoyable, or useful for future goals. Together, these perspectives show that educational motivation is influenced by how students think about themselves and how they evaluate the learning activities they encounter. This perspective sets up a clear link to expectancy-value theory, which similarly emphasises how motivation is shaped by both personal beliefs and environmental influences. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. Self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom conditions and teacher support directly influence how confident students feel (Pajares & Schunk, 2009). EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and task values shift depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Pajares and Schunk (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Pajares and Schunk (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guide how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Task value describes how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that these evaluations play a major role in shaping motivation because they influence how worthwhile students believe a task is. When students see value in what they are learning, they are more likely to participate and invest effort. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) emphasise that task values are central to expectancy-value theory because they explain most of the variation in why students choose certain learning activities. Intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost together account for the majority of the model, showing that motivation is shaped not just by whether students think they can succeed, but by how worthwhile they believe the task is. These values influence decisions such as which subjects’ students pursue, how much effort they invest, and whether they persist when work becomes challenging. By highlighting the importance of enjoyment, usefulness, personal significance, and perceived cost, task values help explain why students engage differently even when their abilities are similar. Research supports the importance of task values by showing that students are more motivated when they find learning activities enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also plays a major role, with studies demonstrating that students invest more effort when they believe the task will help them achieve future goals (Harackiewicz & Hulleman 2009). These findings reinforce the central claim of expectancy-value theory: students engage more deeply with task they see as worthwhile, either because they enjoy the activity, believe it will help them in the future, or view it as personally important. More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, stress and anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are string (Flake et al., 2015). Cost captures the negative side of engaging in a task, and research demonstrates that these perceptions can undermine students’ willingness to participate even when they find the activity enjoyable or useful. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they see as enjoyable, important, or useful. When students believe a task is worthwhile, they are more willing to invest effort and persist through challenges. This perspective shows how socio-cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks. Intrinsic subjective task value refers to the enjoyment or interest students expect from a learning activity. In SEVT, this is understood as situated intrinsic value, meaning that enjoyment is shaped by the learner’s immediate context rather that being a stable personal trait. Eccles and Wigfield (2020) argue that these contextual influences are central to how task values form and change. This is why the “S” was added to EVT: to emphasise that value is always shaped by the learner’s developmental, cultural, and situational context. Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, making them difficult to distinguish clearly (Eccles, 2005; Flake et al., 2015). These critiques highlight the need for approaches that consider how students’ experiences and environments influenct the value they assign to learning tasks. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 2.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 2 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | What's happening in this space? |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | '''The renaissance of cost'''<br> While early EVT research focused heavily on confidence and utility, contemporary studies increasingly emphasise the cost component. Recent work shows that psychological strain, performance anxiety, and time investment, captured across multidimensional cost categories such as effort, emotional strain, and opportunity costs, can meaningfully undermine high task values in demanding subjects like mathematics (Flake et al., 2015; Perez et al., 2014; Gaspard et al., 2015).<br> '''Real-time and dynamic motivation'''<br> Motivation is now often viewed as a shifting, context-sensitive process rather than a static mindset. Recent studies show that students’ values and expectancies vary across lessons and classroom environments, influenced by factors such as perceived support, peer interactions, and task characteristics, which aligns with EVT’s emphasis on how beliefs and values develop within specific learning contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017; Dietrich et al., 2017).<br> '''Utility value interventions'''<br> Rather than a static mindset, academic motivation is increasingly understood as a dynamic, context-sensitive process. Grounded in contemporary situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), empirical evidence demonstrates that students’ expectancies for success and task values show meaningful micro-fluctuations across days, lessons, and distinct learning spaces (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Dietrich et al., 2017). These real-time shifts are shaped by immediate environmental inputs, including classroom climate, peer dynamics, and specific task designs (Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017).<br> '''The move towards situated expectancy-value theory'''<br> Early EVT (Eccles et al., 1983) focused on stable beliefs about competence and task value. Later refinements clarified how social influences (teachers, parents, and peers) shape these beliefs. SEVT (2020) reframes motivation as dynamic and situated, showing that expectancies and values shift in response to classroom context, feedback, identity, and social interactions. |} == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == ===Strngthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectany beliefs is one way Evt can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succees, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback, in doing so will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Pajares & Schunk, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, while providing eaxamples of how skills are used outside the classroom can increase perceived usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccled & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more eduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise these pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utitility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefuleness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. Howerver, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. Half redundant in terms that it boosts motivation in those who may not particularly need it and reduce confidence in those that do. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have a limited impact when students face broader structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students’ opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed. EVT-based strategies also rely on ongoing support, and without consistent reinforcement they can be difficult to maintain over time (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:50%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component {{ic|of what?}} reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== • Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). • Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). • Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). • Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). • Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Further take home messages to be added to this feature box as the book chapter develops |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) ==References insert italics where neccessary== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Dietrich, J., Viljaranta, J., Moeller, J., & Kracke, B. (2017). Situational expectancies and task values: Associations with students' effort. Learning and Instruction, 47, 53–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.10.009 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Gaspard, H., Dicke, A. L., Flunger, B., Schreier, B., Häfner, I., Trautwein, U., & Nagengast, B. (2015). More value through greater differentiation: Gender differences in value beliefs about math. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 663–677. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000003 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Perez, T., Cromley, J. G., & Kaplan, A. (2014). The role of identity development, values, and costs in college STEM retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(1), 315–329. Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Component !! Definition !! Example in education |- | '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || "This unit is required for my degree." |- | '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Conclusion == *Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] m49oztraxaowcbcvrfsy6v5ndzboo7h 2840773 2840772 2026-10-17T01:04:57Z StudentUC2026 3105303 removed book chapter template 2840773 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin (see figure 1). After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} The scenario above shows how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|Figure 2. Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002,). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels. Together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why student respond differently to the same task. Expectancy refer’s to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost, (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is the about how important doing well in the task is to the student. Cost refer’s to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. Theses components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrach (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory which includes adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contempory work emphaises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Pajares and Schunk (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Social-cognitive models also highlight the importance of students’ beliefs about the value of academic tasks, with Eccles and Wigfield (2002) noting that motivation increases when learners view an activity as important, enjoyable, or useful for future goals. Together, these perspectives show that educational motivation is influenced by how students think about themselves and how they evaluate the learning activities they encounter. This perspective sets up a clear link to expectancy-value theory, which similarly emphasises how motivation is shaped by both personal beliefs and environmental influences. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. Self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom conditions and teacher support directly influence how confident students feel (Pajares & Schunk, 2009). EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and task values shift depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Pajares and Schunk (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Pajares and Schunk (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guide how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Task value describes how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that these evaluations play a major role in shaping motivation because they influence how worthwhile students believe a task is. When students see value in what they are learning, they are more likely to participate and invest effort. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) emphasise that task values are central to expectancy-value theory because they explain most of the variation in why students choose certain learning activities. Intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost together account for the majority of the model, showing that motivation is shaped not just by whether students think they can succeed, but by how worthwhile they believe the task is. These values influence decisions such as which subjects’ students pursue, how much effort they invest, and whether they persist when work becomes challenging. By highlighting the importance of enjoyment, usefulness, personal significance, and perceived cost, task values help explain why students engage differently even when their abilities are similar. Research supports the importance of task values by showing that students are more motivated when they find learning activities enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also plays a major role, with studies demonstrating that students invest more effort when they believe the task will help them achieve future goals (Harackiewicz & Hulleman 2009). These findings reinforce the central claim of expectancy-value theory: students engage more deeply with task they see as worthwhile, either because they enjoy the activity, believe it will help them in the future, or view it as personally important. More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, stress and anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are string (Flake et al., 2015). Cost captures the negative side of engaging in a task, and research demonstrates that these perceptions can undermine students’ willingness to participate even when they find the activity enjoyable or useful. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they see as enjoyable, important, or useful. When students believe a task is worthwhile, they are more willing to invest effort and persist through challenges. This perspective shows how socio-cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks. Intrinsic subjective task value refers to the enjoyment or interest students expect from a learning activity. In SEVT, this is understood as situated intrinsic value, meaning that enjoyment is shaped by the learner’s immediate context rather that being a stable personal trait. Eccles and Wigfield (2020) argue that these contextual influences are central to how task values form and change. This is why the “S” was added to EVT: to emphasise that value is always shaped by the learner’s developmental, cultural, and situational context. Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, making them difficult to distinguish clearly (Eccles, 2005; Flake et al., 2015). These critiques highlight the need for approaches that consider how students’ experiences and environments influenct the value they assign to learning tasks. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 2.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 2 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | What's happening in this space? |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | '''The renaissance of cost'''<br> While early EVT research focused heavily on confidence and utility, contemporary studies increasingly emphasise the cost component. Recent work shows that psychological strain, performance anxiety, and time investment, captured across multidimensional cost categories such as effort, emotional strain, and opportunity costs, can meaningfully undermine high task values in demanding subjects like mathematics (Flake et al., 2015; Perez et al., 2014; Gaspard et al., 2015).<br> '''Real-time and dynamic motivation'''<br> Motivation is now often viewed as a shifting, context-sensitive process rather than a static mindset. Recent studies show that students’ values and expectancies vary across lessons and classroom environments, influenced by factors such as perceived support, peer interactions, and task characteristics, which aligns with EVT’s emphasis on how beliefs and values develop within specific learning contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017; Dietrich et al., 2017).<br> '''Utility value interventions'''<br> Rather than a static mindset, academic motivation is increasingly understood as a dynamic, context-sensitive process. Grounded in contemporary situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), empirical evidence demonstrates that students’ expectancies for success and task values show meaningful micro-fluctuations across days, lessons, and distinct learning spaces (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Dietrich et al., 2017). These real-time shifts are shaped by immediate environmental inputs, including classroom climate, peer dynamics, and specific task designs (Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017).<br> '''The move towards situated expectancy-value theory'''<br> Early EVT (Eccles et al., 1983) focused on stable beliefs about competence and task value. Later refinements clarified how social influences (teachers, parents, and peers) shape these beliefs. SEVT (2020) reframes motivation as dynamic and situated, showing that expectancies and values shift in response to classroom context, feedback, identity, and social interactions. |} == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == ===Strngthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectany beliefs is one way Evt can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succees, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback, in doing so will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Pajares & Schunk, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, while providing eaxamples of how skills are used outside the classroom can increase perceived usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccled & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more eduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise these pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utitility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefuleness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. Howerver, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. Half redundant in terms that it boosts motivation in those who may not particularly need it and reduce confidence in those that do. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have a limited impact when students face broader structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students’ opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed. EVT-based strategies also rely on ongoing support, and without consistent reinforcement they can be difficult to maintain over time (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:50%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component {{ic|of what?}} reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== • Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). • Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). • Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). • Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). • Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Further take home messages to be added to this feature box as the book chapter develops |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) ==References insert italics where neccessary== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Dietrich, J., Viljaranta, J., Moeller, J., & Kracke, B. (2017). Situational expectancies and task values: Associations with students' effort. Learning and Instruction, 47, 53–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.10.009 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Gaspard, H., Dicke, A. L., Flunger, B., Schreier, B., Häfner, I., Trautwein, U., & Nagengast, B. (2015). More value through greater differentiation: Gender differences in value beliefs about math. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 663–677. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000003 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Perez, T., Cromley, J. G., & Kaplan, A. (2014). The role of identity development, values, and costs in college STEM retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(1), 315–329. Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} r91ektjhdz2l264uy4e5l2bwhsz7sey 2840778 2840773 2026-10-17T01:12:46Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? */ Added linking paragraph to the start of this section 2840778 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin (see figure 1). After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} The scenario above shows how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|Figure 2. Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002,). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels. Together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why student respond differently to the same task. Expectancy refer’s to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost, (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is the about how important doing well in the task is to the student. Cost refer’s to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. Theses components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrach (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory which includes adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contempory work emphaises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Pajares and Schunk (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Social-cognitive models also highlight the importance of students’ beliefs about the value of academic tasks, with Eccles and Wigfield (2002) noting that motivation increases when learners view an activity as important, enjoyable, or useful for future goals. Together, these perspectives show that educational motivation is influenced by how students think about themselves and how they evaluate the learning activities they encounter. This perspective sets up a clear link to expectancy-value theory, which similarly emphasises how motivation is shaped by both personal beliefs and environmental influences. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. Self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom conditions and teacher support directly influence how confident students feel (Pajares & Schunk, 2009). EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and task values shift depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Pajares and Schunk (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Pajares and Schunk (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guide how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Task value describes how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that these evaluations play a major role in shaping motivation because they influence how worthwhile students believe a task is. When students see value in what they are learning, they are more likely to participate and invest effort. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) emphasise that task values are central to expectancy-value theory because they explain most of the variation in why students choose certain learning activities. Intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost together account for the majority of the model, showing that motivation is shaped not just by whether students think they can succeed, but by how worthwhile they believe the task is. These values influence decisions such as which subjects’ students pursue, how much effort they invest, and whether they persist when work becomes challenging. By highlighting the importance of enjoyment, usefulness, personal significance, and perceived cost, task values help explain why students engage differently even when their abilities are similar. Research supports the importance of task values by showing that students are more motivated when they find learning activities enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also plays a major role, with studies demonstrating that students invest more effort when they believe the task will help them achieve future goals (Harackiewicz & Hulleman 2009). These findings reinforce the central claim of expectancy-value theory: students engage more deeply with task they see as worthwhile, either because they enjoy the activity, believe it will help them in the future, or view it as personally important. More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, stress and anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are string (Flake et al., 2015). Cost captures the negative side of engaging in a task, and research demonstrates that these perceptions can undermine students’ willingness to participate even when they find the activity enjoyable or useful. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they see as enjoyable, important, or useful. When students believe a task is worthwhile, they are more willing to invest effort and persist through challenges. This perspective shows how socio-cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks. Intrinsic subjective task value refers to the enjoyment or interest students expect from a learning activity. In SEVT, this is understood as situated intrinsic value, meaning that enjoyment is shaped by the learner’s immediate context rather that being a stable personal trait. Eccles and Wigfield (2020) argue that these contextual influences are central to how task values form and change. This is why the “S” was added to EVT: to emphasise that value is always shaped by the learner’s developmental, cultural, and situational context. Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, making them difficult to distinguish clearly (Eccles, 2005; Flake et al., 2015). These critiques highlight the need for approaches that consider how students’ experiences and environments influenct the value they assign to learning tasks. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 2.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 2 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | What's happening in this space? |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | '''The renaissance of cost'''<br> While early EVT research focused heavily on confidence and utility, contemporary studies increasingly emphasise the cost component. Recent work shows that psychological strain, performance anxiety, and time investment, captured across multidimensional cost categories such as effort, emotional strain, and opportunity costs, can meaningfully undermine high task values in demanding subjects like mathematics (Flake et al., 2015; Perez et al., 2014; Gaspard et al., 2015).<br> '''Real-time and dynamic motivation'''<br> Motivation is now often viewed as a shifting, context-sensitive process rather than a static mindset. Recent studies show that students’ values and expectancies vary across lessons and classroom environments, influenced by factors such as perceived support, peer interactions, and task characteristics, which aligns with EVT’s emphasis on how beliefs and values develop within specific learning contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017; Dietrich et al., 2017).<br> '''Utility value interventions'''<br> Rather than a static mindset, academic motivation is increasingly understood as a dynamic, context-sensitive process. Grounded in contemporary situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), empirical evidence demonstrates that students’ expectancies for success and task values show meaningful micro-fluctuations across days, lessons, and distinct learning spaces (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Dietrich et al., 2017). These real-time shifts are shaped by immediate environmental inputs, including classroom climate, peer dynamics, and specific task designs (Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017).<br> '''The move towards situated expectancy-value theory'''<br> Early EVT (Eccles et al., 1983) focused on stable beliefs about competence and task value. Later refinements clarified how social influences (teachers, parents, and peers) shape these beliefs. SEVT (2020) reframes motivation as dynamic and situated, showing that expectancies and values shift in response to classroom context, feedback, identity, and social interactions. |} == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilityies, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strngthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectany beliefs is one way Evt can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succees, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback, in doing so will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Pajares & Schunk, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, while providing eaxamples of how skills are used outside the classroom can increase perceived usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccled & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more eduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise these pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utitility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefuleness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. Howerver, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. Half redundant in terms that it boosts motivation in those who may not particularly need it and reduce confidence in those that do. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have a limited impact when students face broader structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students’ opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed. EVT-based strategies also rely on ongoing support, and without consistent reinforcement they can be difficult to maintain over time (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:50%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component {{ic|of what?}} reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== • Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). • Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). • Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). • Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). • Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Further take home messages to be added to this feature box as the book chapter develops |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) ==References insert italics where neccessary== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Dietrich, J., Viljaranta, J., Moeller, J., & Kracke, B. (2017). Situational expectancies and task values: Associations with students' effort. Learning and Instruction, 47, 53–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.10.009 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Gaspard, H., Dicke, A. L., Flunger, B., Schreier, B., Häfner, I., Trautwein, U., & Nagengast, B. (2015). More value through greater differentiation: Gender differences in value beliefs about math. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 663–677. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000003 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Perez, T., Cromley, J. G., & Kaplan, A. (2014). The role of identity development, values, and costs in college STEM retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(1), 315–329. Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} i7u5rlahgsfi3uxft8w3pglqudkohed 2840787 2840778 2026-10-17T01:34:37Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* Conclusion */ Added conclusion and removed dot points 2840787 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin (see figure 1). After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} The scenario above shows how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|Figure 2. Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002,). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels. Together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why student respond differently to the same task. Expectancy refer’s to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost, (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is the about how important doing well in the task is to the student. Cost refer’s to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. Theses components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrach (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory which includes adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contempory work emphaises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Pajares and Schunk (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Social-cognitive models also highlight the importance of students’ beliefs about the value of academic tasks, with Eccles and Wigfield (2002) noting that motivation increases when learners view an activity as important, enjoyable, or useful for future goals. Together, these perspectives show that educational motivation is influenced by how students think about themselves and how they evaluate the learning activities they encounter. This perspective sets up a clear link to expectancy-value theory, which similarly emphasises how motivation is shaped by both personal beliefs and environmental influences. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. Self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom conditions and teacher support directly influence how confident students feel (Pajares & Schunk, 2009). EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and task values shift depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Pajares and Schunk (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Pajares and Schunk (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guide how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Task value describes how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that these evaluations play a major role in shaping motivation because they influence how worthwhile students believe a task is. When students see value in what they are learning, they are more likely to participate and invest effort. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) emphasise that task values are central to expectancy-value theory because they explain most of the variation in why students choose certain learning activities. Intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost together account for the majority of the model, showing that motivation is shaped not just by whether students think they can succeed, but by how worthwhile they believe the task is. These values influence decisions such as which subjects’ students pursue, how much effort they invest, and whether they persist when work becomes challenging. By highlighting the importance of enjoyment, usefulness, personal significance, and perceived cost, task values help explain why students engage differently even when their abilities are similar. Research supports the importance of task values by showing that students are more motivated when they find learning activities enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also plays a major role, with studies demonstrating that students invest more effort when they believe the task will help them achieve future goals (Harackiewicz & Hulleman 2009). These findings reinforce the central claim of expectancy-value theory: students engage more deeply with task they see as worthwhile, either because they enjoy the activity, believe it will help them in the future, or view it as personally important. More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, stress and anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are string (Flake et al., 2015). Cost captures the negative side of engaging in a task, and research demonstrates that these perceptions can undermine students’ willingness to participate even when they find the activity enjoyable or useful. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they see as enjoyable, important, or useful. When students believe a task is worthwhile, they are more willing to invest effort and persist through challenges. This perspective shows how socio-cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks. Intrinsic subjective task value refers to the enjoyment or interest students expect from a learning activity. In SEVT, this is understood as situated intrinsic value, meaning that enjoyment is shaped by the learner’s immediate context rather that being a stable personal trait. Eccles and Wigfield (2020) argue that these contextual influences are central to how task values form and change. This is why the “S” was added to EVT: to emphasise that value is always shaped by the learner’s developmental, cultural, and situational context. Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, making them difficult to distinguish clearly (Eccles, 2005; Flake et al., 2015). These critiques highlight the need for approaches that consider how students’ experiences and environments influenct the value they assign to learning tasks. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 2.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 2 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | What's happening in this space? |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | '''The renaissance of cost'''<br> While early EVT research focused heavily on confidence and utility, contemporary studies increasingly emphasise the cost component. Recent work shows that psychological strain, performance anxiety, and time investment, captured across multidimensional cost categories such as effort, emotional strain, and opportunity costs, can meaningfully undermine high task values in demanding subjects like mathematics (Flake et al., 2015; Perez et al., 2014; Gaspard et al., 2015).<br> '''Real-time and dynamic motivation'''<br> Motivation is now often viewed as a shifting, context-sensitive process rather than a static mindset. Recent studies show that students’ values and expectancies vary across lessons and classroom environments, influenced by factors such as perceived support, peer interactions, and task characteristics, which aligns with EVT’s emphasis on how beliefs and values develop within specific learning contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017; Dietrich et al., 2017).<br> '''Utility value interventions'''<br> Rather than a static mindset, academic motivation is increasingly understood as a dynamic, context-sensitive process. Grounded in contemporary situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), empirical evidence demonstrates that students’ expectancies for success and task values show meaningful micro-fluctuations across days, lessons, and distinct learning spaces (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Dietrich et al., 2017). These real-time shifts are shaped by immediate environmental inputs, including classroom climate, peer dynamics, and specific task designs (Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017).<br> '''The move towards situated expectancy-value theory'''<br> Early EVT (Eccles et al., 1983) focused on stable beliefs about competence and task value. Later refinements clarified how social influences (teachers, parents, and peers) shape these beliefs. SEVT (2020) reframes motivation as dynamic and situated, showing that expectancies and values shift in response to classroom context, feedback, identity, and social interactions. |} == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilityies, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strngthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectany beliefs is one way Evt can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succees, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback, in doing so will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Pajares & Schunk, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, while providing eaxamples of how skills are used outside the classroom can increase perceived usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccled & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more eduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise these pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utitility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefuleness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. Howerver, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. Half redundant in terms that it boosts motivation in those who may not particularly need it and reduce confidence in those that do. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have a limited impact when students face broader structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students’ opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed. EVT-based strategies also rely on ongoing support, and without consistent reinforcement they can be difficult to maintain over time (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:50%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component {{ic|of what?}} reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task calues by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Overall, EVT provides educators with a practical, evidence-based approach for improving student motivations in everyday classroom contexts. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Further take home messages to be added to this feature box as the book chapter develops |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) ==References insert italics where neccessary== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Dietrich, J., Viljaranta, J., Moeller, J., & Kracke, B. (2017). Situational expectancies and task values: Associations with students' effort. Learning and Instruction, 47, 53–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.10.009 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Gaspard, H., Dicke, A. L., Flunger, B., Schreier, B., Häfner, I., Trautwein, U., & Nagengast, B. (2015). More value through greater differentiation: Gender differences in value beliefs about math. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 663–677. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000003 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Perez, T., Cromley, J. G., & Kaplan, A. (2014). The role of identity development, values, and costs in college STEM retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(1), 315–329. Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} 76pvqf2xwcqe8tivk6yivxai3872hls 2840790 2840787 2026-10-17T01:38:33Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* Conclusion */ Added take home messages 2840790 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin (see figure 1). After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} The scenario above shows how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|Figure 2. Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002,). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels. Together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why student respond differently to the same task. Expectancy refer’s to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost, (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is the about how important doing well in the task is to the student. Cost refer’s to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. Theses components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrach (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory which includes adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contempory work emphaises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Pajares and Schunk (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Social-cognitive models also highlight the importance of students’ beliefs about the value of academic tasks, with Eccles and Wigfield (2002) noting that motivation increases when learners view an activity as important, enjoyable, or useful for future goals. Together, these perspectives show that educational motivation is influenced by how students think about themselves and how they evaluate the learning activities they encounter. This perspective sets up a clear link to expectancy-value theory, which similarly emphasises how motivation is shaped by both personal beliefs and environmental influences. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. Self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom conditions and teacher support directly influence how confident students feel (Pajares & Schunk, 2009). EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and task values shift depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Pajares and Schunk (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Pajares and Schunk (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guide how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Task value describes how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that these evaluations play a major role in shaping motivation because they influence how worthwhile students believe a task is. When students see value in what they are learning, they are more likely to participate and invest effort. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) emphasise that task values are central to expectancy-value theory because they explain most of the variation in why students choose certain learning activities. Intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost together account for the majority of the model, showing that motivation is shaped not just by whether students think they can succeed, but by how worthwhile they believe the task is. These values influence decisions such as which subjects’ students pursue, how much effort they invest, and whether they persist when work becomes challenging. By highlighting the importance of enjoyment, usefulness, personal significance, and perceived cost, task values help explain why students engage differently even when their abilities are similar. Research supports the importance of task values by showing that students are more motivated when they find learning activities enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also plays a major role, with studies demonstrating that students invest more effort when they believe the task will help them achieve future goals (Harackiewicz & Hulleman 2009). These findings reinforce the central claim of expectancy-value theory: students engage more deeply with task they see as worthwhile, either because they enjoy the activity, believe it will help them in the future, or view it as personally important. More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, stress and anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are string (Flake et al., 2015). Cost captures the negative side of engaging in a task, and research demonstrates that these perceptions can undermine students’ willingness to participate even when they find the activity enjoyable or useful. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they see as enjoyable, important, or useful. When students believe a task is worthwhile, they are more willing to invest effort and persist through challenges. This perspective shows how socio-cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks. Intrinsic subjective task value refers to the enjoyment or interest students expect from a learning activity. In SEVT, this is understood as situated intrinsic value, meaning that enjoyment is shaped by the learner’s immediate context rather that being a stable personal trait. Eccles and Wigfield (2020) argue that these contextual influences are central to how task values form and change. This is why the “S” was added to EVT: to emphasise that value is always shaped by the learner’s developmental, cultural, and situational context. Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, making them difficult to distinguish clearly (Eccles, 2005; Flake et al., 2015). These critiques highlight the need for approaches that consider how students’ experiences and environments influenct the value they assign to learning tasks. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 2.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 2 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | What's happening in this space? |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | '''The renaissance of cost'''<br> While early EVT research focused heavily on confidence and utility, contemporary studies increasingly emphasise the cost component. Recent work shows that psychological strain, performance anxiety, and time investment, captured across multidimensional cost categories such as effort, emotional strain, and opportunity costs, can meaningfully undermine high task values in demanding subjects like mathematics (Flake et al., 2015; Perez et al., 2014; Gaspard et al., 2015).<br> '''Real-time and dynamic motivation'''<br> Motivation is now often viewed as a shifting, context-sensitive process rather than a static mindset. Recent studies show that students’ values and expectancies vary across lessons and classroom environments, influenced by factors such as perceived support, peer interactions, and task characteristics, which aligns with EVT’s emphasis on how beliefs and values develop within specific learning contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017; Dietrich et al., 2017).<br> '''Utility value interventions'''<br> Rather than a static mindset, academic motivation is increasingly understood as a dynamic, context-sensitive process. Grounded in contemporary situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), empirical evidence demonstrates that students’ expectancies for success and task values show meaningful micro-fluctuations across days, lessons, and distinct learning spaces (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Dietrich et al., 2017). These real-time shifts are shaped by immediate environmental inputs, including classroom climate, peer dynamics, and specific task designs (Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017).<br> '''The move towards situated expectancy-value theory'''<br> Early EVT (Eccles et al., 1983) focused on stable beliefs about competence and task value. Later refinements clarified how social influences (teachers, parents, and peers) shape these beliefs. SEVT (2020) reframes motivation as dynamic and situated, showing that expectancies and values shift in response to classroom context, feedback, identity, and social interactions. |} == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilityies, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strngthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectany beliefs is one way Evt can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succees, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback, in doing so will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Pajares & Schunk, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, while providing eaxamples of how skills are used outside the classroom can increase perceived usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccled & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more eduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise these pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utitility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefuleness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. Howerver, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. Half redundant in terms that it boosts motivation in those who may not particularly need it and reduce confidence in those that do. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have a limited impact when students face broader structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students’ opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed. EVT-based strategies also rely on ongoing support, and without consistent reinforcement they can be difficult to maintain over time (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:50%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component {{ic|of what?}} reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task calues by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Overall, EVT provides educators with a practical, evidence-based approach for improving student motivations in everyday classroom contexts. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) ==References insert italics where neccessary== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Dietrich, J., Viljaranta, J., Moeller, J., & Kracke, B. (2017). Situational expectancies and task values: Associations with students' effort. Learning and Instruction, 47, 53–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.10.009 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Gaspard, H., Dicke, A. L., Flunger, B., Schreier, B., Häfner, I., Trautwein, U., & Nagengast, B. (2015). More value through greater differentiation: Gender differences in value beliefs about math. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 663–677. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000003 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Perez, T., Cromley, J. G., & Kaplan, A. (2014). The role of identity development, values, and costs in college STEM retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(1), 315–329. Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} bmk2gvmbzdawqmuo4qchv5x6pzya88y 0 331262 2840842 2840469 2026-10-17T05:42:22Z U3228742 3005570 /* Overview */ grammar tweaks 2840842 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Dark empathy:<br>What is dark empathy, what are its consequences, and what can be done to address it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario In a workplace, a new colleague, Addison, joined a close-knit team. He is charming and empathises with each team member. Addison fits in the team very well and many of the colleagues to him for advice. The lead role for a project becomes available and several members of the team decide to apply. One member, Charlie, takes Addison’s offer to help them prepare for the promotion. Charlie shares her fears and her perceived weaknesses for the role. Before the interviews, Addison strategically reminds Charlie about her weaknesses with a supportive twist. ''“Good luck, Charlie. Take a breath and pause to avoid speaking too quickly. Despite your limited leadership experience, your skills speak for themselves. You got this!”'' Charlie felt very nervous and stumbled in the interview. She de-briefed with another colleague who said she never heard her speak quickly when nervous. She was known for keeping a calm front under pressure. After a few weeks, the promotion is given to Addison. No one knew Addison had applied and the team was shocked since they have limited skills in this area of the work. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Empathy can have a bright and dark side (Throop et al., 2020). The concern is when individuals with dark tetrad personality traits leverage their understanding of emotions and feelings to manipulate, control, or exploit to others. Dark empathy is a developed skill that uses the understanding of emotion and people's vulnerabilities against them to control and manipulate for their advantage (Throop et al., 2020). To consider the use of dark empathy, we need to understanding why and how people use it. Individuals with high dark tetrads usually struggle to understand body language and emotion. The ability to understand emotion and feelings allow these dark trait individuals to go undetected for longer and have better control of those around them. The ability to deceive and hide makes addressing the underlying behavioural problems harder. Their continued strategic and charming manipulation destroy the psychological safety of others around them. Research indicates understanding emotional intelligence, the dark tetrad, and theory of mind could assist with understanding the use of dark empathy (Vonk et al., 2015). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} ;Focus questions *How does dark empathy develop? *What drives an individual to use empathy to control and manipulate other people in their life? *How can psychological theory develop strategies to understand and assist individuals mitigate the negative effects of empathy? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The development of empathy == [[Empathy]] is the ability to share feelings and thoughts of others while remaining self-other distinction (Håkansson Eklund & Summer Meranius, 2021). This means a person can understand someone else’s experience while maintaining their identity. Empathy is not an innate but learned and developed. It can be cultivated through techniques to understand other's feelings and foster [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|pro-social behaviour]] (Abramson, 2021). Research found that teenagers learn empathy through their parent’s (Jiang et al., 2024), social groups (Decety, 2015), listening to music (Rabinowitch et al., 2013), and reading books particularly fiction (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013). Understanding how this foundational trait is normally developed provides a necessary baseline for examining how dark personalities can subvert empathy into a tool for manipulation. === The dark tetrad === [[File:Dark-triad-dark-tetrad-1.webp|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' The dark trait updated to include the fourth element of sadism. This created the dark tetrad of personality. ]] Dark personality traits were called the dark triad (Paulhus & Williams, 2002). An expansion on these traits were to include a fourth element, sadism (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015). There are four elements to the dark tetrad (see Figure 1): * Narcissism * Machiavellianism * Psychopathy * Sadism These traits demonstrate individuals have limited ability to comprehend other’s emotions and read their mental states (Vonk et al., 2015). Individuals are self-centred, emotionally unstable, and focused on anti-social behaviour which leads to few of them demonstrating empathy (Kaufman et al., 2019). See Table 1 for the breakdown of the personality traits. '''Table 1'''. Dark tetrad personality traits breakdown and behavioural signs {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Personality traits !! Definition !! Behavioural signs |- | '''Narcissism''' || Self-importance and constant need for admiration || Arrogance, entitlement, and bragging |- | '''Machiavellianism''' || Strategic manipulation, calculated world view and general distrust of motives and integrity || Deception, exploitation, and emotional detachment |- | '''Psychopathy''' || Lack of empathy, poor impulse control, and fearlessness || Reckless, charming, no remorse, and cruel |- | '''Sadism''' || Deriving pleasure or enjoyment from harming others || Bullying, shaming, and humiliating others |} === Theory of Mind (ToM) === Theory of Mind is the ability to understand the internal mental states of others, including their beliefs and intentions (Wellman & Liu, 2004). ToM plays an important role in understanding how dark understand internal mental states to successfully navigate social environments. ToM and empathy are both important influences on [[Prosocial behavior|pro-social behaviour]] (Qiu et al., 2024), which involves sharing, caring, helping, donating, comforting, and cooperating (Guo et al., 2023). While individuals with Dark trait do not demonstrate these behaviours (Hurezan et al., 2026), ToM explains how dark empathy assists to understand others and their own motives (Qiu et al., 2024). Dark trait individuals use this ability to read other's mental states and exploit for their personal gain (Gojković et al., 2022). Recognising other’s vulnerablitlities while monitoring their own mental state, makes strategically exploiting easier. Ultimately, dark empaths use ToM to understand their own mental state to maintain their charming, empathic mask while concealing their manipulation of their victims. === Types of empathy === Empathy has bright and dark sides as well two types (Throop et al., 2020): * Affective empathy is physical and emotional sharing of feelings **This involves experiencing with the other person which is found more commonly in bright empathy * Cognitive empathy is the intellectual understanding of another’s emotions and thoughts without feeling their pain. **This involves understanding, yet keeping that self-other determination which makes it easier for manipulating by utilising emotions against another Empathy relies on the individual to use it based on their morals and beliefs (Breithaupt & Hamilton, 2019). A study on parent's influence found that empathy was not increased in teens with narcissistic traits (Jiang et al., 2024). This shows that dark traits personalities are not affected by external influences. Therefore, understanding the specific type of empathy is key to understanding dark empathy. Cognitive empathy allows them to comprehend feelings and thoughts without experiencing the burden, it suits strategic manipulation tactics like Machiavellianism (Gojković et al., 2022). When the motivation is to deceive and control, cognitive empathy provides the tools to serve their interests. === Making of a dark empath === Dark empathy is understanding those feelings and harnessing them against others (Breithaupt & Hamilton, 2019). It often develops when children experience trauma that forces them to predict and understand others' emotions just to stay safe (Bloxsom et al., 2021). Later in life, dark traits (narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and sadism) use this skill to deceive and control (Gojković et al.,2022). Research assessing these personalities does not share common societal ethics and morality (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015). Because they are less likely to be honest and fair, they use dark empathy and their flexible morals to justify manipulating vulnerabilities for their own advantage (Throop et al., 2020). This helps to achieve their goals. Dark empath is not a formal medical diagnosis. Instead, it is a term that mixes dark personality traits with high cognitive empathy (Duradoni et al., 2023). Cognitive empathy allows people to understand others’ thoughts and feelings without feeling them. This helps people with dark traits hide behind superficial charm, chronic lying, and a lack of remorse (Hepper et al., 2014; Vonk et al., 2015). For example, narcissists can create a mask to hide their self-centred goals and better manipulate others (Hepper et al., 2014). Another sign is affective dissonance. This is a twisted emotional reaction, such as feeling happy when someone else suffers (Gojković et al., 2022). In the end, people with high dark traits may develop dark empathy to serve their goals. == Consequences of dark empathy == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario continued Charlie was assigned to report to Addison on the project and found herself becoming anxious at their one-on-one performance meetings. Charlie would spend over an hour preparing for the meetings despite keeping meticulous progress notes. She feels exhausted after each interaction and starts doubting her skills. Addison finds it hard to keep up with the workload. Other team members have complained that Addison has not been running the project well. Addison’s boss reviews the work and finds Addison has not been monitoring the project. Charlie’s work had been the only compliment the boss had for the update. Addison takes credit for Charlie's work and claims he has been managing Charlie's failing performance. Addison is to provide an update on the project and Charlie's performance. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Empathy can lead to depression (Yan et al., 2021) as well as severe emotional distress and burnout (Huang et al., 2025). An individual can use cognitive empathy to deceive, manipulate and exploit (Huang et al., 2025). Using dark traits like charm and chronic lying (Gojković et al., 2022), dark empaths manipulate others to reach their goals while pretending to be an ally. Both the person using dark empathy and their victims suffer harm to their wellbeing (Heym et al., 2021). Perceiving emotions, planning a response, and controlling reactions take considerable energy. There is a physical component in controlling their body language and expression to disarm others (Throop et al., 2020). While bright empathy brings people together. dark empathy isolates individuals from others and communities (Throop et al., 2020). === Effects on victims of dark empathy === The immediate impacts on their relationships are subtle and unlikely to be noticed. Dark empaths use their charming demeanour and their strategic understanding of other’s emotions and feelings to appear kind and empathic. After gaslighting an individual, they will develop chronic anxiety, depression, lower self-esteem, emotional dependency (Yan et al., 2021), shame, and humiliation (Throop et al., 2020). The dark traits are often linked to aggressive behaviours which increases the likelihood of intimate partner violence (Galán et al., 2026). === Outcome for dark empaths === An individual using dark empathy may find the indifference and emotional de-attachment to others useful for achieving their goals (Throop et al., 2020). The emotional distance can intervene serve as a protective factor or buffer to psychological distress for the dark empath (Heym et al., 2021). As empathy combined with self-judgement and/or over-thinking can cause emotional distress (Heym et al., 2021). Therefore, an individual who have dark traits and cognitive empathy (understanding but not sharing emotions) does not experience the same level of distress. The ability to not feel the emotions makes them better at utilising other’s vulnerabilities without the consequences. Though controlling others is effective at first, keeping up the mask leads to burnout (Throop et al., 2020). The thought of losing control can cause aggressive behaviour, driven by fear and shame (di Giacomo et al., 2023). While dark trait individuals are more self-centred and lack the pro-social behaviours, hiding their nature can lead to depression and a loss of identity (Qiu et al., 2024). == Addressing dark empathy == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario continued After talking to another colleague, Charlie notices her mental health is declining. She reaches out to the Employee Assistance Program (EAP) for support about her stress. The counsellor asks Charlie to consider when the anxiety and lower self-esteem started. She starts to realise it links back to Addison. Addison continues to blame Charlie for the project's failures. Addison fails to develop the deliverables in time for the boss’ deadline and a meeting is set up with him up with an EAP counsellor. Addison talks about Charlie's 'failures' and the counsellor asks Addison to consider his behaviour and input into the situation. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Dark empathy is not easily recognised as it can lower the appearance of aggressive behaviours in individuals with dark personalities traits (Heym et al., 2021). For example; a narcissist or sociopath may use understanding of ToM to influence others while a dark empath uses their cognitive empathy to control and most likely enjoy other's vulnerable emotions (Heym et al., 2021). The impacts of dark empathy can be found in the relationships of the dark empath. Person-centred approach assists in recognising patterns, identifying behaviours and setting boundaries (Galán et al., 2026). === Recovering from a dark empath === After dealing with a dark empath, an individual may find it hard to notice the patterns. Individual needs to set healthy emotional boundaries in this relationship which can be assisted by seeking therapy to identify patterns and how to address them. Person-centre framework (also known as client-centred approach) (Rogers, 1951) can assist in developing strategies and understanding the patterns they experienced (Galán et al., 2026). Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) would be effective for unlearning the patterns of abuse and understanding their trauma (Iverson et al., 2011) from the dark empath. === Unravelling from dark empathy === For a dark empath, the first step is recognizing their controlling behaviour and how it harms everyone's well-being. Carl Rogers' approach helps people understand who they are and who they want to be. This self-awareness lets them accept their dark traits and build stronger social skills (Galán et al., 2026). Some therapies that would be appropriate and effective for dark empaths are: *Dialectial behaviour therapy **This therapy allows people to talk through and accept their intense feelings (di Giacomo et al., 2023). *[[w:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive Behaviour Therapy]] (CBT) **This therapy assists in addressing anti-social behaviours and fosters pro-social behaviours (Shukla & Upadhyay, 2025) The steps to acknowledging the behaviours and traits are not easy process. Considering their dark traits shows a small desire to go to therapy for the sake of others (di Giacomo et al., 2023). Their dark traits cause anti-social behaviours and a disregard the impact of their actions. Their lack self-judgement prevents them seeing themselves as part of the problem. == Conclusion == Dark empathy is a demonstration of how learning can be adapted to suit one’s desires. While it can develop through parental influence (Jiang et al., 2024), social experience (Decety, 2015), listening to music (Rabinowitch et al., 2013), and reading fiction (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013). It depends on morality of the individual. Understanding dark empathy is crucial for identifying and treating people with dark personality traits. Rather than genuinely sharing feelings, dark empaths use cognitive empathy as a tool to trick, manipulate, and exploit others (Heym et al., 2021). While traits like psychopathy and sadism usually involve anti-social behaviour, a lack of empathy, and joy in others' pain (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015), dark empaths fake emotional awareness and pro-social behaviour (Hurezan et al., 2026). This makes them difficult to spot, leaving victims vulnerable to gaslighting and emotional abuse. Consequently, standard person-centred frameworks are limited in effectiveness because these individuals rarely self-identify or seek help. ==See also== *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Dark triad personality and emotion|Dark triad personality and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional intelligence and anti-social behaviour|Emotional intelligence and antisocial behaviour]] (Book chapter, 2019) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Emotional intelligence and the dark triad|Emotional intelligence and the dark triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) *[[wikipedia:Machiavellianism_(psychology)|Machiavellianism]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Narcissism|Narcissism]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Psychopathy|Psychopathy]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Dark_triad|The Dark Triad]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Abramson, A. (2021, November 1). Cultivating empathy. Monitor on Psychology, 52(8). https://www.apa.org/monitor/2021/11/feature-cultivating-empathy Bal, P. 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Front Psychiatry, 14, 1074558. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1074558 Duradoni, M., Gursesli, M. C., Fiorenza, M., Donati, A., & Guazzini, A. (2023). Cognitive Empathy and the Dark Triad: A Literature Review. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education (EJIHPE), 13(11), 2642-2680. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe13110184 Galán, M., Gerber, N., Valls, L., Molina, S., & Pineda, D. (2026). Dark Empaths and Intimate Partner Violence: A Latent Profile Analysis of Dark Tetrad Traits and Empathy Dimensions in Face-to-Face and Cyber Violence Perpetration. Behavioural sciences, 16(10), 1780. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16101780 Gojković, V., Dostanić, J. S., & Đurić, V. (2022). Structure of darkness: The Dark Triad, the ‘Dark’ Empathy and the ‘Dark’ Narcissism. Primenjena psihologija (Online), 15(2), 237-268. https://doi.org/10.19090/pp.v15i2.2380 Guo, Q., Li, S., Liang, J., Yu, X., & Lv, Y. (2023). Mindfulness may be associated with less prosocial engagement among high intelligence individuals. Scientific reports, 13(1), 4208. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31039-3 Hepper, E. G., Hart, C. M., & Sedikides, C. (2014). Moving Narcissus: Can Narcissists Be Empathic? Personality & social psychology bulletin, 40(9), 1079-1091. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167214535812 Heym, N., Firth, J., Kibowski, F., Sumich, A., Egan, V., & Bloxsom, C. A. (2019). Empathy at the heart of darkness: Empathy deficits that bind the dark triad and those that mediate indirect relational aggression. Frontiers in psychiatry, 10, 95. Heym, N., Kibowski, F., Bloxsom, C. A. J., Blanchard, A., Harper, A., Wallace, L., Firth, J., & Sumich, A. (2021). The Dark Empath: Characterising dark traits in the presence of empathy. Personality and Individual Differences, 169, 110172-110172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110172 Huang, C., Wu, Z., Sha, S., Liu, C., Yang, L., Jiang, P., Zhang, H., & Yang, C. (2025). The Dark Side of Empathy: The Role of Excessive Affective Empathy in Mental Health Disorders. Biological psychiatry (1969), 98(5), 404-415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2024.12.020 Hurezan, L., Miu, A. C., Costea, A., & Visu-Petra, L. (2026). Dark Personality, Empathy, and Prosocial Behaviour in Convicted Offenders. Scientific reports, 16(1), 4117-4177. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-34229-3 Iverson, K. M., Gradus, J. L., Resick, P. A., Suvak, M. K., Smith, K. F., & Monson, C. M. (2011). Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy for PTSD and Depression Symptoms Reduces Risk for Future Intimate Partner Violence Among Interpersonal Trauma Survivors. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 79(2), 193-202. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022512 Jiang, X., Liu, C., Xiao, X., & Zhan, Y. (2024). Role of narcissism and empathy in the relationship between parental attachment and moral response patterns. European journal of developmental psychology, 21(3), 365-387. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2024.2325173 Jonason, P. K., & Kroll, C. H. (2015). A Multidimensional View of the Relationship Between Empathy and the Dark Triad. Journal of individual differences, 36(3), 150-156. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000166 Kaufman, S. B., Yaden, D. B., Hyde, E., & Tsukayama, E. (2019). The Light vs. Dark Triad of Personality: Contrasting Two Very Different Profiles of Human Nature [Original Research]. Frontiers in psychology, Volume 10 - 2019. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00467 Mededovic, J., & Petrovic, B. (2015). The Dark Tetrad: Structural Properties and Location in the Personality Space. Journal of individual differences, 36(4), 228-236. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000179 Qiu, X., Gao, M., Zhu, H., Li, W., & Jiang, R. (2024). Theory of mind, empathy, and prosocial behaviour in children and adolescent: A meta-analysis. Current psychology (New Brunswick, N.J.), 43(22), 19690-19707. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-05762-7 Rabinowitch, T.-C., Cross, I., & Burnard, P. (2013). Long-term musical group interaction has a positive influence on empathy in children. Psychology of music, 41(4), 484-498. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735612440609 Rogers, C. R. (1951). Client-centered therapy; its current practice, implications, and theory. Houghton Mifflin. Shukla, M., & Upadhyay, N. (2025). Cold hearts and dark minds: A systematic review and meta-analysis of empathy across dark triad personalities. Frontiers in psychiatry, 16, 1546917. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1546917 Throop, C. J., Zahavi, D., de Lucas Freitas, J., Groark, K. P., Maibom, H., Satne, G. L., Stueber, K. R., & Trnka, S. (2020). Dark and Bright Empathy: Phenomenological and Anthropological Reflections. Current anthropology, 61(3), 283-303. https://doi.org/10.1086/708844 Vonk, J., Zeigler-Hill, V., Ewing, D., Mercer, S., & Noser, A. E. (2015). Mindreading in the dark: Dark personality features and theory of mind. Personality and Individual Differences, 87, 50-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.025 Wellman, H. M., & Liu, D. (2004). Scaling of Theory-of-Mind Tasks. Child development, 75(2), 523-541. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00691.x Yan, Z., Zeng, X., Su, J., & Zhang, X. (2021). The dark side of empathy: Meta‐analysis evidence of the relationship between empathy and depression. PsyCh journal (Victoria, Australia), 10(5), 794-804. https://doi.org/10.1002/pchj.482 }} ==External links== * [https://www.sciencefocus.com/wellbeing/dark-empaths Dark Empaths] (Science Focus) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/dark-tetrad Dark Tetrad] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.theguardian.com/science/2024/nov/10/narcissists-only-more-devious-the-truth-about-dark-empaths 'Narcissists - only more devious': the truth about dark empaths] (the Guardian) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] gl7qqcokqlkjdg09j96ut1xsphb9x6p 2840845 2840842 2026-10-17T05:44:54Z U3228742 3005570 /* The development of empathy */ grammar updates 2840845 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Dark empathy:<br>What is dark empathy, what are its consequences, and what can be done to address it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario In a workplace, a new colleague, Addison, joined a close-knit team. He is charming and empathises with each team member. Addison fits in the team very well and many of the colleagues to him for advice. The lead role for a project becomes available and several members of the team decide to apply. One member, Charlie, takes Addison’s offer to help them prepare for the promotion. Charlie shares her fears and her perceived weaknesses for the role. Before the interviews, Addison strategically reminds Charlie about her weaknesses with a supportive twist. ''“Good luck, Charlie. Take a breath and pause to avoid speaking too quickly. Despite your limited leadership experience, your skills speak for themselves. You got this!”'' Charlie felt very nervous and stumbled in the interview. She de-briefed with another colleague who said she never heard her speak quickly when nervous. She was known for keeping a calm front under pressure. After a few weeks, the promotion is given to Addison. No one knew Addison had applied and the team was shocked since they have limited skills in this area of the work. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Empathy can have a bright and dark side (Throop et al., 2020). The concern is when individuals with dark tetrad personality traits leverage their understanding of emotions and feelings to manipulate, control, or exploit to others. Dark empathy is a developed skill that uses the understanding of emotion and people's vulnerabilities against them to control and manipulate for their advantage (Throop et al., 2020). To consider the use of dark empathy, we need to understanding why and how people use it. Individuals with high dark tetrads usually struggle to understand body language and emotion. The ability to understand emotion and feelings allow these dark trait individuals to go undetected for longer and have better control of those around them. The ability to deceive and hide makes addressing the underlying behavioural problems harder. Their continued strategic and charming manipulation destroy the psychological safety of others around them. Research indicates understanding emotional intelligence, the dark tetrad, and theory of mind could assist with understanding the use of dark empathy (Vonk et al., 2015). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} ;Focus questions *How does dark empathy develop? *What drives an individual to use empathy to control and manipulate other people in their life? *How can psychological theory develop strategies to understand and assist individuals mitigate the negative effects of empathy? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The development of empathy == [[Empathy]] is the ability to share feelings and thoughts of others while remaining self-other distinction (Håkansson Eklund & Summer Meranius, 2021). This means a person can understand someone else’s experience while maintaining their identity. Empathy is not an innate but learned and developed. It can be cultivated through techniques to understand other's feelings and foster [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|pro-social behaviour]] (Abramson, 2021). Research found that teenagers learn empathy through their parent’s (Jiang et al., 2024), social groups (Decety, 2015), listening to music (Rabinowitch et al., 2013), and reading books particularly fiction (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013). Understanding how this foundational trait is normally developed provides a necessary baseline for examining how dark personalities can subvert empathy into a tool for manipulation. === The dark tetrad === [[File:Dark-triad-dark-tetrad-1.webp|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' The dark traits updated to include the fourth element of sadism. This created the dark tetrad of personality traits. ]] Dark personality traits were called the dark triad (Paulhus & Williams, 2002). An expansion on these traits were to include a fourth element, sadism (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015). There are four elements to the dark tetrad (see Figure 1): * Narcissism * Machiavellianism * Psychopathy * Sadism These traits demonstrate dark individuals have limited ability to comprehend other’s emotions and read their mental states (Vonk et al., 2015). Individuals are self-centred, emotionally unstable, and focused on anti-social behaviour which leads to few of them demonstrating empathy (Kaufman et al., 2019). See Table 1 for the breakdown of the personality traits. '''Table 1'''. Dark tetrad personality traits breakdown and behavioural signs {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Personality traits !! Definition !! Behavioural signs |- | '''Narcissism''' || Self-importance and constant need for admiration || Arrogance, entitlement, and bragging |- | '''Machiavellianism''' || Strategic manipulation, calculated world view and general distrust of motives and integrity || Deception, exploitation, and emotional detachment |- | '''Psychopathy''' || Lack of empathy, poor impulse control, and fearlessness || Reckless, charming, no remorse, and cruel |- | '''Sadism''' || Deriving pleasure or enjoyment from harming others || Bullying, shaming, and humiliating others |} === Theory of Mind (ToM) === Theory of Mind is the ability to understand the internal mental states of others, including their beliefs and intentions (Wellman & Liu, 2004). ToM plays an important role in understanding how dark understand internal mental states to successfully navigate social environments. ToM and empathy are both important influences on [[Prosocial behavior|pro-social behaviour]] (Qiu et al., 2024), which involves sharing, caring, helping, donating, comforting, and cooperating (Guo et al., 2023). While individuals with Dark trait do not demonstrate these behaviours (Hurezan et al., 2026), ToM explains how dark empathy assists to understand others and their own motives (Qiu et al., 2024). Dark trait individuals use this ability to read other's mental states and exploit for their personal gain (Gojković et al., 2022). Recognising other’s vulnerablitlities while monitoring their own mental state, makes strategically exploiting easier. Ultimately, dark empaths use ToM to understand their own mental state to maintain their charming, empathic mask while concealing their manipulation of their victims. === Types of empathy === Empathy has bright and dark sides as well two types (Throop et al., 2020): * Affective empathy is physical and emotional sharing of feelings **This involves experiencing with the other person which is found more commonly in bright empathy * Cognitive empathy is the intellectual understanding of another’s emotions and thoughts without feeling their pain. **This involves understanding, yet keeping that self-other determination which makes it easier for manipulating by utilising emotions against another Empathy relies on the individual to use it based on their morals and beliefs (Breithaupt & Hamilton, 2019). A study on parent's influence found that empathy was not increased in teens with narcissistic traits (Jiang et al., 2024). This shows that dark traits personalities are not affected by external influences. Therefore, understanding the specific type of empathy is key to understanding dark empathy. Cognitive empathy allows them to comprehend feelings and thoughts without experiencing the burden, it suits strategic manipulation tactics like Machiavellianism (Gojković et al., 2022). When the motivation is to deceive and control, cognitive empathy provides the tools to serve their interests. === Making of a dark empath === Dark empathy is understanding those feelings and harnessing them against others (Breithaupt & Hamilton, 2019). It often develops when children experience trauma that forces them to predict and understand others' emotions just to stay safe (Bloxsom et al., 2021). Later in life, dark traits (narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and sadism) use this skill to deceive and control (Gojković et al.,2022). Research assessing these personalities does not share common societal ethics and morality (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015). Because they are less likely to be honest and fair, they use dark empathy and their flexible morals to justify manipulating vulnerabilities for their own advantage (Throop et al., 2020). This helps to achieve their goals. Dark empath is not a formal medical diagnosis. Instead, it is a term that mixes dark personality traits with high cognitive empathy (Duradoni et al., 2023). Cognitive empathy allows people to understand others’ thoughts and feelings without feeling them. This helps people with dark traits hide behind superficial charm, chronic lying, and a lack of remorse (Hepper et al., 2014; Vonk et al., 2015). For example, narcissists can create a mask to hide their self-centred goals and better manipulate others (Hepper et al., 2014). Another sign is affective dissonance. This is a twisted emotional reaction, such as feeling happy when someone else suffers (Gojković et al., 2022). In the end, people with high dark traits may develop dark empathy to serve their goals. == Consequences of dark empathy == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario continued Charlie was assigned to report to Addison on the project and found herself becoming anxious at their one-on-one performance meetings. Charlie would spend over an hour preparing for the meetings despite keeping meticulous progress notes. She feels exhausted after each interaction and starts doubting her skills. Addison finds it hard to keep up with the workload. Other team members have complained that Addison has not been running the project well. Addison’s boss reviews the work and finds Addison has not been monitoring the project. Charlie’s work had been the only compliment the boss had for the update. Addison takes credit for Charlie's work and claims he has been managing Charlie's failing performance. Addison is to provide an update on the project and Charlie's performance. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Empathy can lead to depression (Yan et al., 2021) as well as severe emotional distress and burnout (Huang et al., 2025). An individual can use cognitive empathy to deceive, manipulate and exploit (Huang et al., 2025). Using dark traits like charm and chronic lying (Gojković et al., 2022), dark empaths manipulate others to reach their goals while pretending to be an ally. Both the person using dark empathy and their victims suffer harm to their wellbeing (Heym et al., 2021). Perceiving emotions, planning a response, and controlling reactions take considerable energy. There is a physical component in controlling their body language and expression to disarm others (Throop et al., 2020). While bright empathy brings people together. dark empathy isolates individuals from others and communities (Throop et al., 2020). === Effects on victims of dark empathy === The immediate impacts on their relationships are subtle and unlikely to be noticed. Dark empaths use their charming demeanour and their strategic understanding of other’s emotions and feelings to appear kind and empathic. After gaslighting an individual, they will develop chronic anxiety, depression, lower self-esteem, emotional dependency (Yan et al., 2021), shame, and humiliation (Throop et al., 2020). The dark traits are often linked to aggressive behaviours which increases the likelihood of intimate partner violence (Galán et al., 2026). === Outcome for dark empaths === An individual using dark empathy may find the indifference and emotional de-attachment to others useful for achieving their goals (Throop et al., 2020). The emotional distance can intervene serve as a protective factor or buffer to psychological distress for the dark empath (Heym et al., 2021). As empathy combined with self-judgement and/or over-thinking can cause emotional distress (Heym et al., 2021). Therefore, an individual who have dark traits and cognitive empathy (understanding but not sharing emotions) does not experience the same level of distress. The ability to not feel the emotions makes them better at utilising other’s vulnerabilities without the consequences. Though controlling others is effective at first, keeping up the mask leads to burnout (Throop et al., 2020). The thought of losing control can cause aggressive behaviour, driven by fear and shame (di Giacomo et al., 2023). While dark trait individuals are more self-centred and lack the pro-social behaviours, hiding their nature can lead to depression and a loss of identity (Qiu et al., 2024). == Addressing dark empathy == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario continued After talking to another colleague, Charlie notices her mental health is declining. She reaches out to the Employee Assistance Program (EAP) for support about her stress. The counsellor asks Charlie to consider when the anxiety and lower self-esteem started. She starts to realise it links back to Addison. Addison continues to blame Charlie for the project's failures. Addison fails to develop the deliverables in time for the boss’ deadline and a meeting is set up with him up with an EAP counsellor. Addison talks about Charlie's 'failures' and the counsellor asks Addison to consider his behaviour and input into the situation. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Dark empathy is not easily recognised as it can lower the appearance of aggressive behaviours in individuals with dark personalities traits (Heym et al., 2021). For example; a narcissist or sociopath may use understanding of ToM to influence others while a dark empath uses their cognitive empathy to control and most likely enjoy other's vulnerable emotions (Heym et al., 2021). The impacts of dark empathy can be found in the relationships of the dark empath. Person-centred approach assists in recognising patterns, identifying behaviours and setting boundaries (Galán et al., 2026). === Recovering from a dark empath === After dealing with a dark empath, an individual may find it hard to notice the patterns. Individual needs to set healthy emotional boundaries in this relationship which can be assisted by seeking therapy to identify patterns and how to address them. Person-centre framework (also known as client-centred approach) (Rogers, 1951) can assist in developing strategies and understanding the patterns they experienced (Galán et al., 2026). Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) would be effective for unlearning the patterns of abuse and understanding their trauma (Iverson et al., 2011) from the dark empath. === Unravelling from dark empathy === For a dark empath, the first step is recognizing their controlling behaviour and how it harms everyone's well-being. Carl Rogers' approach helps people understand who they are and who they want to be. This self-awareness lets them accept their dark traits and build stronger social skills (Galán et al., 2026). Some therapies that would be appropriate and effective for dark empaths are: *Dialectial behaviour therapy **This therapy allows people to talk through and accept their intense feelings (di Giacomo et al., 2023). *[[w:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive Behaviour Therapy]] (CBT) **This therapy assists in addressing anti-social behaviours and fosters pro-social behaviours (Shukla & Upadhyay, 2025) The steps to acknowledging the behaviours and traits are not easy process. Considering their dark traits shows a small desire to go to therapy for the sake of others (di Giacomo et al., 2023). Their dark traits cause anti-social behaviours and a disregard the impact of their actions. Their lack self-judgement prevents them seeing themselves as part of the problem. == Conclusion == Dark empathy is a demonstration of how learning can be adapted to suit one’s desires. While it can develop through parental influence (Jiang et al., 2024), social experience (Decety, 2015), listening to music (Rabinowitch et al., 2013), and reading fiction (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013). It depends on morality of the individual. Understanding dark empathy is crucial for identifying and treating people with dark personality traits. Rather than genuinely sharing feelings, dark empaths use cognitive empathy as a tool to trick, manipulate, and exploit others (Heym et al., 2021). While traits like psychopathy and sadism usually involve anti-social behaviour, a lack of empathy, and joy in others' pain (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015), dark empaths fake emotional awareness and pro-social behaviour (Hurezan et al., 2026). This makes them difficult to spot, leaving victims vulnerable to gaslighting and emotional abuse. Consequently, standard person-centred frameworks are limited in effectiveness because these individuals rarely self-identify or seek help. ==See also== *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Dark triad personality and emotion|Dark triad personality and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional intelligence and anti-social behaviour|Emotional intelligence and antisocial behaviour]] (Book chapter, 2019) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Emotional intelligence and the dark triad|Emotional intelligence and the dark triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) *[[wikipedia:Machiavellianism_(psychology)|Machiavellianism]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Narcissism|Narcissism]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Psychopathy|Psychopathy]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Dark_triad|The Dark Triad]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Abramson, A. (2021, November 1). Cultivating empathy. Monitor on Psychology, 52(8). https://www.apa.org/monitor/2021/11/feature-cultivating-empathy Bal, P. M., & Veltkamp, M. (2013). How Does Fiction Reading Influence Empathy? An Experimental Investigation on the Role of Emotional Transportation. PloS one, 8(1), e55341. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0055341 Bloxsom, C. A. J., Firth, J., Kibowski, F., Egan, V., Sumich, A. L., & Heym, N. (2021). Dark shadow of the self: How the dark triad and empathy impact parental and intimate adult attachment relationships in women. Forensic Science International: Mind and Law, 2, 100045. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsiml.2021.100045 Breithaupt, F., & Hamilton, A. B. B. (2019). The dark sides of empathy (1st edition. ed.). Cornell University Press. https://doi.org/10.7591/9781501735608 Decety, J. (2015). The neural pathways, development and functions of empathy. Current opinion in behavioural sciences, 3, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2014.12.001 di Giacomo, E., Andreini, E., Lorusso, O., & Clerici, M. (2023). The dark side of empathy in narcissistic personality disorder. Front Psychiatry, 14, 1074558. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1074558 Duradoni, M., Gursesli, M. C., Fiorenza, M., Donati, A., & Guazzini, A. (2023). Cognitive Empathy and the Dark Triad: A Literature Review. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education (EJIHPE), 13(11), 2642-2680. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe13110184 Galán, M., Gerber, N., Valls, L., Molina, S., & Pineda, D. (2026). Dark Empaths and Intimate Partner Violence: A Latent Profile Analysis of Dark Tetrad Traits and Empathy Dimensions in Face-to-Face and Cyber Violence Perpetration. Behavioural sciences, 16(10), 1780. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16101780 Gojković, V., Dostanić, J. S., & Đurić, V. (2022). Structure of darkness: The Dark Triad, the ‘Dark’ Empathy and the ‘Dark’ Narcissism. Primenjena psihologija (Online), 15(2), 237-268. https://doi.org/10.19090/pp.v15i2.2380 Guo, Q., Li, S., Liang, J., Yu, X., & Lv, Y. (2023). Mindfulness may be associated with less prosocial engagement among high intelligence individuals. Scientific reports, 13(1), 4208. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31039-3 Hepper, E. G., Hart, C. M., & Sedikides, C. (2014). Moving Narcissus: Can Narcissists Be Empathic? Personality & social psychology bulletin, 40(9), 1079-1091. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167214535812 Heym, N., Firth, J., Kibowski, F., Sumich, A., Egan, V., & Bloxsom, C. A. (2019). Empathy at the heart of darkness: Empathy deficits that bind the dark triad and those that mediate indirect relational aggression. Frontiers in psychiatry, 10, 95. Heym, N., Kibowski, F., Bloxsom, C. A. J., Blanchard, A., Harper, A., Wallace, L., Firth, J., & Sumich, A. (2021). The Dark Empath: Characterising dark traits in the presence of empathy. Personality and Individual Differences, 169, 110172-110172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110172 Huang, C., Wu, Z., Sha, S., Liu, C., Yang, L., Jiang, P., Zhang, H., & Yang, C. (2025). The Dark Side of Empathy: The Role of Excessive Affective Empathy in Mental Health Disorders. Biological psychiatry (1969), 98(5), 404-415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2024.12.020 Hurezan, L., Miu, A. C., Costea, A., & Visu-Petra, L. (2026). Dark Personality, Empathy, and Prosocial Behaviour in Convicted Offenders. Scientific reports, 16(1), 4117-4177. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-34229-3 Iverson, K. M., Gradus, J. L., Resick, P. A., Suvak, M. K., Smith, K. F., & Monson, C. M. (2011). Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy for PTSD and Depression Symptoms Reduces Risk for Future Intimate Partner Violence Among Interpersonal Trauma Survivors. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 79(2), 193-202. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022512 Jiang, X., Liu, C., Xiao, X., & Zhan, Y. (2024). Role of narcissism and empathy in the relationship between parental attachment and moral response patterns. European journal of developmental psychology, 21(3), 365-387. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2024.2325173 Jonason, P. K., & Kroll, C. H. (2015). A Multidimensional View of the Relationship Between Empathy and the Dark Triad. Journal of individual differences, 36(3), 150-156. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000166 Kaufman, S. B., Yaden, D. B., Hyde, E., & Tsukayama, E. (2019). The Light vs. Dark Triad of Personality: Contrasting Two Very Different Profiles of Human Nature [Original Research]. Frontiers in psychology, Volume 10 - 2019. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00467 Mededovic, J., & Petrovic, B. (2015). The Dark Tetrad: Structural Properties and Location in the Personality Space. Journal of individual differences, 36(4), 228-236. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000179 Qiu, X., Gao, M., Zhu, H., Li, W., & Jiang, R. (2024). Theory of mind, empathy, and prosocial behaviour in children and adolescent: A meta-analysis. Current psychology (New Brunswick, N.J.), 43(22), 19690-19707. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-05762-7 Rabinowitch, T.-C., Cross, I., & Burnard, P. (2013). Long-term musical group interaction has a positive influence on empathy in children. Psychology of music, 41(4), 484-498. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735612440609 Rogers, C. R. (1951). Client-centered therapy; its current practice, implications, and theory. Houghton Mifflin. Shukla, M., & Upadhyay, N. (2025). Cold hearts and dark minds: A systematic review and meta-analysis of empathy across dark triad personalities. Frontiers in psychiatry, 16, 1546917. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1546917 Throop, C. J., Zahavi, D., de Lucas Freitas, J., Groark, K. P., Maibom, H., Satne, G. L., Stueber, K. R., & Trnka, S. (2020). Dark and Bright Empathy: Phenomenological and Anthropological Reflections. Current anthropology, 61(3), 283-303. https://doi.org/10.1086/708844 Vonk, J., Zeigler-Hill, V., Ewing, D., Mercer, S., & Noser, A. E. (2015). Mindreading in the dark: Dark personality features and theory of mind. Personality and Individual Differences, 87, 50-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.025 Wellman, H. M., & Liu, D. (2004). Scaling of Theory-of-Mind Tasks. Child development, 75(2), 523-541. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00691.x Yan, Z., Zeng, X., Su, J., & Zhang, X. (2021). The dark side of empathy: Meta‐analysis evidence of the relationship between empathy and depression. PsyCh journal (Victoria, Australia), 10(5), 794-804. https://doi.org/10.1002/pchj.482 }} ==External links== * [https://www.sciencefocus.com/wellbeing/dark-empaths Dark Empaths] (Science Focus) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/dark-tetrad Dark Tetrad] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.theguardian.com/science/2024/nov/10/narcissists-only-more-devious-the-truth-about-dark-empaths 'Narcissists - only more devious': the truth about dark empaths] (the Guardian) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] he57toeyahiyp79a8r7hww098v73ml5 2840847 2840845 2026-10-17T05:50:31Z U3228742 3005570 /* Addressing dark empathy */ updating sentence to better explain 2840847 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Dark empathy:<br>What is dark empathy, what are its consequences, and what can be done to address it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario In a workplace, a new colleague, Addison, joined a close-knit team. He is charming and empathises with each team member. Addison fits in the team very well and many of the colleagues to him for advice. The lead role for a project becomes available and several members of the team decide to apply. One member, Charlie, takes Addison’s offer to help them prepare for the promotion. Charlie shares her fears and her perceived weaknesses for the role. Before the interviews, Addison strategically reminds Charlie about her weaknesses with a supportive twist. ''“Good luck, Charlie. Take a breath and pause to avoid speaking too quickly. Despite your limited leadership experience, your skills speak for themselves. You got this!”'' Charlie felt very nervous and stumbled in the interview. She de-briefed with another colleague who said she never heard her speak quickly when nervous. She was known for keeping a calm front under pressure. After a few weeks, the promotion is given to Addison. No one knew Addison had applied and the team was shocked since they have limited skills in this area of the work. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Empathy can have a bright and dark side (Throop et al., 2020). The concern is when individuals with dark tetrad personality traits leverage their understanding of emotions and feelings to manipulate, control, or exploit to others. Dark empathy is a developed skill that uses the understanding of emotion and people's vulnerabilities against them to control and manipulate for their advantage (Throop et al., 2020). To consider the use of dark empathy, we need to understanding why and how people use it. Individuals with high dark tetrads usually struggle to understand body language and emotion. The ability to understand emotion and feelings allow these dark trait individuals to go undetected for longer and have better control of those around them. The ability to deceive and hide makes addressing the underlying behavioural problems harder. Their continued strategic and charming manipulation destroy the psychological safety of others around them. Research indicates understanding emotional intelligence, the dark tetrad, and theory of mind could assist with understanding the use of dark empathy (Vonk et al., 2015). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} ;Focus questions *How does dark empathy develop? *What drives an individual to use empathy to control and manipulate other people in their life? *How can psychological theory develop strategies to understand and assist individuals mitigate the negative effects of empathy? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The development of empathy == [[Empathy]] is the ability to share feelings and thoughts of others while remaining self-other distinction (Håkansson Eklund & Summer Meranius, 2021). This means a person can understand someone else’s experience while maintaining their identity. Empathy is not an innate but learned and developed. It can be cultivated through techniques to understand other's feelings and foster [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|pro-social behaviour]] (Abramson, 2021). Research found that teenagers learn empathy through their parent’s (Jiang et al., 2024), social groups (Decety, 2015), listening to music (Rabinowitch et al., 2013), and reading books particularly fiction (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013). Understanding how this foundational trait is normally developed provides a necessary baseline for examining how dark personalities can subvert empathy into a tool for manipulation. === The dark tetrad === [[File:Dark-triad-dark-tetrad-1.webp|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' The dark traits updated to include the fourth element of sadism. This created the dark tetrad of personality traits. ]] Dark personality traits were called the dark triad (Paulhus & Williams, 2002). An expansion on these traits were to include a fourth element, sadism (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015). There are four elements to the dark tetrad (see Figure 1): * Narcissism * Machiavellianism * Psychopathy * Sadism These traits demonstrate dark individuals have limited ability to comprehend other’s emotions and read their mental states (Vonk et al., 2015). Individuals are self-centred, emotionally unstable, and focused on anti-social behaviour which leads to few of them demonstrating empathy (Kaufman et al., 2019). See Table 1 for the breakdown of the personality traits. '''Table 1'''. Dark tetrad personality traits breakdown and behavioural signs {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Personality traits !! Definition !! Behavioural signs |- | '''Narcissism''' || Self-importance and constant need for admiration || Arrogance, entitlement, and bragging |- | '''Machiavellianism''' || Strategic manipulation, calculated world view and general distrust of motives and integrity || Deception, exploitation, and emotional detachment |- | '''Psychopathy''' || Lack of empathy, poor impulse control, and fearlessness || Reckless, charming, no remorse, and cruel |- | '''Sadism''' || Deriving pleasure or enjoyment from harming others || Bullying, shaming, and humiliating others |} === Theory of Mind (ToM) === Theory of Mind is the ability to understand the internal mental states of others, including their beliefs and intentions (Wellman & Liu, 2004). ToM plays an important role in understanding how dark understand internal mental states to successfully navigate social environments. ToM and empathy are both important influences on [[Prosocial behavior|pro-social behaviour]] (Qiu et al., 2024), which involves sharing, caring, helping, donating, comforting, and cooperating (Guo et al., 2023). While individuals with Dark trait do not demonstrate these behaviours (Hurezan et al., 2026), ToM explains how dark empathy assists to understand others and their own motives (Qiu et al., 2024). Dark trait individuals use this ability to read other's mental states and exploit for their personal gain (Gojković et al., 2022). Recognising other’s vulnerablitlities while monitoring their own mental state, makes strategically exploiting easier. Ultimately, dark empaths use ToM to understand their own mental state to maintain their charming, empathic mask while concealing their manipulation of their victims. === Types of empathy === Empathy has bright and dark sides as well two types (Throop et al., 2020): * Affective empathy is physical and emotional sharing of feelings **This involves experiencing with the other person which is found more commonly in bright empathy * Cognitive empathy is the intellectual understanding of another’s emotions and thoughts without feeling their pain. **This involves understanding, yet keeping that self-other determination which makes it easier for manipulating by utilising emotions against another Empathy relies on the individual to use it based on their morals and beliefs (Breithaupt & Hamilton, 2019). A study on parent's influence found that empathy was not increased in teens with narcissistic traits (Jiang et al., 2024). This shows that dark traits personalities are not affected by external influences. Therefore, understanding the specific type of empathy is key to understanding dark empathy. Cognitive empathy allows them to comprehend feelings and thoughts without experiencing the burden, it suits strategic manipulation tactics like Machiavellianism (Gojković et al., 2022). When the motivation is to deceive and control, cognitive empathy provides the tools to serve their interests. === Making of a dark empath === Dark empathy is understanding those feelings and harnessing them against others (Breithaupt & Hamilton, 2019). It often develops when children experience trauma that forces them to predict and understand others' emotions just to stay safe (Bloxsom et al., 2021). Later in life, dark traits (narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and sadism) use this skill to deceive and control (Gojković et al.,2022). Research assessing these personalities does not share common societal ethics and morality (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015). Because they are less likely to be honest and fair, they use dark empathy and their flexible morals to justify manipulating vulnerabilities for their own advantage (Throop et al., 2020). This helps to achieve their goals. Dark empath is not a formal medical diagnosis. Instead, it is a term that mixes dark personality traits with high cognitive empathy (Duradoni et al., 2023). Cognitive empathy allows people to understand others’ thoughts and feelings without feeling them. This helps people with dark traits hide behind superficial charm, chronic lying, and a lack of remorse (Hepper et al., 2014; Vonk et al., 2015). For example, narcissists can create a mask to hide their self-centred goals and better manipulate others (Hepper et al., 2014). Another sign is affective dissonance. This is a twisted emotional reaction, such as feeling happy when someone else suffers (Gojković et al., 2022). In the end, people with high dark traits may develop dark empathy to serve their goals. == Consequences of dark empathy == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario continued Charlie was assigned to report to Addison on the project and found herself becoming anxious at their one-on-one performance meetings. Charlie would spend over an hour preparing for the meetings despite keeping meticulous progress notes. She feels exhausted after each interaction and starts doubting her skills. Addison finds it hard to keep up with the workload. Other team members have complained that Addison has not been running the project well. Addison’s boss reviews the work and finds Addison has not been monitoring the project. Charlie’s work had been the only compliment the boss had for the update. Addison takes credit for Charlie's work and claims he has been managing Charlie's failing performance. Addison is to provide an update on the project and Charlie's performance. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Empathy can lead to depression (Yan et al., 2021) as well as severe emotional distress and burnout (Huang et al., 2025). An individual can use cognitive empathy to deceive, manipulate and exploit (Huang et al., 2025). Using dark traits like charm and chronic lying (Gojković et al., 2022), dark empaths manipulate others to reach their goals while pretending to be an ally. Both the person using dark empathy and their victims suffer harm to their wellbeing (Heym et al., 2021). Perceiving emotions, planning a response, and controlling reactions take considerable energy. There is a physical component in controlling their body language and expression to disarm others (Throop et al., 2020). While bright empathy brings people together. dark empathy isolates individuals from others and communities (Throop et al., 2020). === Effects on victims of dark empathy === The immediate impacts on their relationships are subtle and unlikely to be noticed. Dark empaths use their charming demeanour and their strategic understanding of other’s emotions and feelings to appear kind and empathic. After gaslighting an individual, they will develop chronic anxiety, depression, lower self-esteem, emotional dependency (Yan et al., 2021), shame, and humiliation (Throop et al., 2020). The dark traits are often linked to aggressive behaviours which increases the likelihood of intimate partner violence (Galán et al., 2026). === Outcome for dark empaths === An individual using dark empathy may find the indifference and emotional de-attachment to others useful for achieving their goals (Throop et al., 2020). The emotional distance can intervene serve as a protective factor or buffer to psychological distress for the dark empath (Heym et al., 2021). As empathy combined with self-judgement and/or over-thinking can cause emotional distress (Heym et al., 2021). Therefore, an individual who have dark traits and cognitive empathy (understanding but not sharing emotions) does not experience the same level of distress. The ability to not feel the emotions makes them better at utilising other’s vulnerabilities without the consequences. Though controlling others is effective at first, keeping up the mask leads to burnout (Throop et al., 2020). The thought of losing control can cause aggressive behaviour, driven by fear and shame (di Giacomo et al., 2023). While dark trait individuals are more self-centred and lack the pro-social behaviours, hiding their nature can lead to depression and a loss of identity (Qiu et al., 2024). == Addressing dark empathy == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario continued After talking to another colleague, Charlie notices her mental health is declining. She reaches out to the Employee Assistance Program (EAP) for support about her stress. The counsellor asks Charlie to consider when the anxiety and lower self-esteem started. She starts to realise it links back to Addison. Addison continues to blame Charlie for the project's failures. Addison fails to develop the deliverables in time for the boss’ deadline and a meeting is set up with him up with an EAP counsellor. Addison talks about Charlie's 'failures' and the counsellor asks Addison to consider his behaviour and input into the situation. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Dark empathy is not easily recognised as it can lower the appearance of aggressive behaviours in individuals with dark personalities traits (Heym et al., 2021). For example; a narcissist or sociopath may use understanding of ToM to influence others while a dark empath uses their cognitive empathy to control and most likely enjoy other's vulnerable emotions (Heym et al., 2021). The impacts of dark empathy can be found in the relationships of the dark empath. Person-centred approach assists in recognising patterns, identifying behaviours and setting boundaries (Galán et al., 2026). === Recovering from a dark empath === After dealing with a dark empath, an individual may find it hard to notice the patterns. Individual needs to set healthy emotional boundaries in this relationship which can be assisted by seeking therapy to identify patterns and how to address them. Person-centre framework (also known as client-centred approach) (Rogers, 1951) can assist in developing strategies and understanding the patterns they experienced (Galán et al., 2026). Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) would be effective for unlearning the patterns of abuse and understanding their trauma (Iverson et al., 2011) from the dark empath. === Unravelling from dark empathy === For a dark empath, the first step is recognizing their controlling behaviour and how it harms everyone's well-being. Carl Rogers' approach helps people understand who they are and who they want to be. This self-awareness lets them accept their dark traits and build stronger social skills (Galán et al., 2026). Some therapies that would be appropriate and effective for dark empaths are: *Dialectial behaviour therapy **This therapy allows people to talk through and accept their intense feelings (di Giacomo et al., 2023). *[[w:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive Behaviour Therapy]] (CBT) **This therapy assists in addressing anti-social behaviours and fosters pro-social behaviours (Shukla & Upadhyay, 2025) The steps to acknowledging the behaviours and traits are not easy process. Considering their dark traits lack of self-judgement, sense of self importance, enjoy in harming others, these dark trait individuals show little desire to go to therapy for the sake of others (di Giacomo et al., 2023). Their dark traits cause anti-social behaviours and a disregard the impact of their actions. Their lack self-judgement prevents them seeing themselves as part of the problem. == Conclusion == Dark empathy is a demonstration of how learning can be adapted to suit one’s desires. While it can develop through parental influence (Jiang et al., 2024), social experience (Decety, 2015), listening to music (Rabinowitch et al., 2013), and reading fiction (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013). It depends on morality of the individual. Understanding dark empathy is crucial for identifying and treating people with dark personality traits. Rather than genuinely sharing feelings, dark empaths use cognitive empathy as a tool to trick, manipulate, and exploit others (Heym et al., 2021). While traits like psychopathy and sadism usually involve anti-social behaviour, a lack of empathy, and joy in others' pain (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015), dark empaths fake emotional awareness and pro-social behaviour (Hurezan et al., 2026). This makes them difficult to spot, leaving victims vulnerable to gaslighting and emotional abuse. Consequently, standard person-centred frameworks are limited in effectiveness because these individuals rarely self-identify or seek help. ==See also== *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Dark triad personality and emotion|Dark triad personality and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional intelligence and anti-social behaviour|Emotional intelligence and antisocial behaviour]] (Book chapter, 2019) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Emotional intelligence and the dark triad|Emotional intelligence and the dark triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) *[[wikipedia:Machiavellianism_(psychology)|Machiavellianism]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Narcissism|Narcissism]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Psychopathy|Psychopathy]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Dark_triad|The Dark Triad]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Abramson, A. (2021, November 1). Cultivating empathy. Monitor on Psychology, 52(8). https://www.apa.org/monitor/2021/11/feature-cultivating-empathy Bal, P. M., & Veltkamp, M. (2013). How Does Fiction Reading Influence Empathy? An Experimental Investigation on the Role of Emotional Transportation. PloS one, 8(1), e55341. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0055341 Bloxsom, C. A. J., Firth, J., Kibowski, F., Egan, V., Sumich, A. L., & Heym, N. (2021). Dark shadow of the self: How the dark triad and empathy impact parental and intimate adult attachment relationships in women. Forensic Science International: Mind and Law, 2, 100045. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsiml.2021.100045 Breithaupt, F., & Hamilton, A. B. B. (2019). The dark sides of empathy (1st edition. ed.). Cornell University Press. https://doi.org/10.7591/9781501735608 Decety, J. (2015). The neural pathways, development and functions of empathy. Current opinion in behavioural sciences, 3, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2014.12.001 di Giacomo, E., Andreini, E., Lorusso, O., & Clerici, M. (2023). The dark side of empathy in narcissistic personality disorder. Front Psychiatry, 14, 1074558. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1074558 Duradoni, M., Gursesli, M. C., Fiorenza, M., Donati, A., & Guazzini, A. (2023). Cognitive Empathy and the Dark Triad: A Literature Review. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education (EJIHPE), 13(11), 2642-2680. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe13110184 Galán, M., Gerber, N., Valls, L., Molina, S., & Pineda, D. (2026). Dark Empaths and Intimate Partner Violence: A Latent Profile Analysis of Dark Tetrad Traits and Empathy Dimensions in Face-to-Face and Cyber Violence Perpetration. Behavioural sciences, 16(10), 1780. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16101780 Gojković, V., Dostanić, J. S., & Đurić, V. (2022). Structure of darkness: The Dark Triad, the ‘Dark’ Empathy and the ‘Dark’ Narcissism. Primenjena psihologija (Online), 15(2), 237-268. https://doi.org/10.19090/pp.v15i2.2380 Guo, Q., Li, S., Liang, J., Yu, X., & Lv, Y. (2023). Mindfulness may be associated with less prosocial engagement among high intelligence individuals. Scientific reports, 13(1), 4208. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31039-3 Hepper, E. G., Hart, C. M., & Sedikides, C. (2014). Moving Narcissus: Can Narcissists Be Empathic? Personality & social psychology bulletin, 40(9), 1079-1091. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167214535812 Heym, N., Firth, J., Kibowski, F., Sumich, A., Egan, V., & Bloxsom, C. A. (2019). Empathy at the heart of darkness: Empathy deficits that bind the dark triad and those that mediate indirect relational aggression. Frontiers in psychiatry, 10, 95. Heym, N., Kibowski, F., Bloxsom, C. A. J., Blanchard, A., Harper, A., Wallace, L., Firth, J., & Sumich, A. (2021). The Dark Empath: Characterising dark traits in the presence of empathy. Personality and Individual Differences, 169, 110172-110172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110172 Huang, C., Wu, Z., Sha, S., Liu, C., Yang, L., Jiang, P., Zhang, H., & Yang, C. (2025). The Dark Side of Empathy: The Role of Excessive Affective Empathy in Mental Health Disorders. Biological psychiatry (1969), 98(5), 404-415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2024.12.020 Hurezan, L., Miu, A. C., Costea, A., & Visu-Petra, L. (2026). Dark Personality, Empathy, and Prosocial Behaviour in Convicted Offenders. Scientific reports, 16(1), 4117-4177. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-34229-3 Iverson, K. M., Gradus, J. L., Resick, P. A., Suvak, M. K., Smith, K. F., & Monson, C. M. (2011). Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy for PTSD and Depression Symptoms Reduces Risk for Future Intimate Partner Violence Among Interpersonal Trauma Survivors. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 79(2), 193-202. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022512 Jiang, X., Liu, C., Xiao, X., & Zhan, Y. (2024). Role of narcissism and empathy in the relationship between parental attachment and moral response patterns. European journal of developmental psychology, 21(3), 365-387. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2024.2325173 Jonason, P. K., & Kroll, C. H. (2015). A Multidimensional View of the Relationship Between Empathy and the Dark Triad. Journal of individual differences, 36(3), 150-156. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000166 Kaufman, S. B., Yaden, D. B., Hyde, E., & Tsukayama, E. (2019). The Light vs. Dark Triad of Personality: Contrasting Two Very Different Profiles of Human Nature [Original Research]. Frontiers in psychology, Volume 10 - 2019. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00467 Mededovic, J., & Petrovic, B. (2015). The Dark Tetrad: Structural Properties and Location in the Personality Space. Journal of individual differences, 36(4), 228-236. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000179 Qiu, X., Gao, M., Zhu, H., Li, W., & Jiang, R. (2024). Theory of mind, empathy, and prosocial behaviour in children and adolescent: A meta-analysis. Current psychology (New Brunswick, N.J.), 43(22), 19690-19707. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-05762-7 Rabinowitch, T.-C., Cross, I., & Burnard, P. (2013). Long-term musical group interaction has a positive influence on empathy in children. Psychology of music, 41(4), 484-498. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735612440609 Rogers, C. R. (1951). Client-centered therapy; its current practice, implications, and theory. Houghton Mifflin. Shukla, M., & Upadhyay, N. (2025). Cold hearts and dark minds: A systematic review and meta-analysis of empathy across dark triad personalities. Frontiers in psychiatry, 16, 1546917. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1546917 Throop, C. J., Zahavi, D., de Lucas Freitas, J., Groark, K. P., Maibom, H., Satne, G. L., Stueber, K. R., & Trnka, S. (2020). Dark and Bright Empathy: Phenomenological and Anthropological Reflections. Current anthropology, 61(3), 283-303. https://doi.org/10.1086/708844 Vonk, J., Zeigler-Hill, V., Ewing, D., Mercer, S., & Noser, A. E. (2015). Mindreading in the dark: Dark personality features and theory of mind. Personality and Individual Differences, 87, 50-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.025 Wellman, H. M., & Liu, D. (2004). Scaling of Theory-of-Mind Tasks. Child development, 75(2), 523-541. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00691.x Yan, Z., Zeng, X., Su, J., & Zhang, X. (2021). The dark side of empathy: Meta‐analysis evidence of the relationship between empathy and depression. PsyCh journal (Victoria, Australia), 10(5), 794-804. https://doi.org/10.1002/pchj.482 }} ==External links== * [https://www.sciencefocus.com/wellbeing/dark-empaths Dark Empaths] (Science Focus) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/dark-tetrad Dark Tetrad] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.theguardian.com/science/2024/nov/10/narcissists-only-more-devious-the-truth-about-dark-empaths 'Narcissists - only more devious': the truth about dark empaths] (the Guardian) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] eh3it5e8jizajenkiar3e09sxdlrfro 2840853 2840847 2026-10-17T06:11:47Z U3228742 3005570 /* Effects on victims of dark empathy */ updating with more information on the effects 2840853 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Dark empathy:<br>What is dark empathy, what are its consequences, and what can be done to address it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario In a workplace, a new colleague, Addison, joined a close-knit team. He is charming and empathises with each team member. Addison fits in the team very well and many of the colleagues to him for advice. The lead role for a project becomes available and several members of the team decide to apply. One member, Charlie, takes Addison’s offer to help them prepare for the promotion. Charlie shares her fears and her perceived weaknesses for the role. Before the interviews, Addison strategically reminds Charlie about her weaknesses with a supportive twist. ''“Good luck, Charlie. Take a breath and pause to avoid speaking too quickly. Despite your limited leadership experience, your skills speak for themselves. You got this!”'' Charlie felt very nervous and stumbled in the interview. She de-briefed with another colleague who said she never heard her speak quickly when nervous. She was known for keeping a calm front under pressure. After a few weeks, the promotion is given to Addison. No one knew Addison had applied and the team was shocked since they have limited skills in this area of the work. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Empathy can have a bright and dark side (Throop et al., 2020). The concern is when individuals with dark tetrad personality traits leverage their understanding of emotions and feelings to manipulate, control, or exploit to others. Dark empathy is a developed skill that uses the understanding of emotion and people's vulnerabilities against them to control and manipulate for their advantage (Throop et al., 2020). To consider the use of dark empathy, we need to understanding why and how people use it. Individuals with high dark tetrads usually struggle to understand body language and emotion. The ability to understand emotion and feelings allow these dark trait individuals to go undetected for longer and have better control of those around them. The ability to deceive and hide makes addressing the underlying behavioural problems harder. Their continued strategic and charming manipulation destroy the psychological safety of others around them. Research indicates understanding emotional intelligence, the dark tetrad, and theory of mind could assist with understanding the use of dark empathy (Vonk et al., 2015). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} ;Focus questions *How does dark empathy develop? *What drives an individual to use empathy to control and manipulate other people in their life? *How can psychological theory develop strategies to understand and assist individuals mitigate the negative effects of empathy? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The development of empathy == [[Empathy]] is the ability to share feelings and thoughts of others while remaining self-other distinction (Håkansson Eklund & Summer Meranius, 2021). This means a person can understand someone else’s experience while maintaining their identity. Empathy is not an innate but learned and developed. It can be cultivated through techniques to understand other's feelings and foster [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|pro-social behaviour]] (Abramson, 2021). Research found that teenagers learn empathy through their parent’s (Jiang et al., 2024), social groups (Decety, 2015), listening to music (Rabinowitch et al., 2013), and reading books particularly fiction (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013). Understanding how this foundational trait is normally developed provides a necessary baseline for examining how dark personalities can subvert empathy into a tool for manipulation. === The dark tetrad === [[File:Dark-triad-dark-tetrad-1.webp|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' The dark traits updated to include the fourth element of sadism. This created the dark tetrad of personality traits. ]] Dark personality traits were called the dark triad (Paulhus & Williams, 2002). An expansion on these traits were to include a fourth element, sadism (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015). There are four elements to the dark tetrad (see Figure 1): * Narcissism * Machiavellianism * Psychopathy * Sadism These traits demonstrate dark individuals have limited ability to comprehend other’s emotions and read their mental states (Vonk et al., 2015). Individuals are self-centred, emotionally unstable, and focused on anti-social behaviour which leads to few of them demonstrating empathy (Kaufman et al., 2019). See Table 1 for the breakdown of the personality traits. '''Table 1'''. Dark tetrad personality traits breakdown and behavioural signs {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Personality traits !! Definition !! Behavioural signs |- | '''Narcissism''' || Self-importance and constant need for admiration || Arrogance, entitlement, and bragging |- | '''Machiavellianism''' || Strategic manipulation, calculated world view and general distrust of motives and integrity || Deception, exploitation, and emotional detachment |- | '''Psychopathy''' || Lack of empathy, poor impulse control, and fearlessness || Reckless, charming, no remorse, and cruel |- | '''Sadism''' || Deriving pleasure or enjoyment from harming others || Bullying, shaming, and humiliating others |} === Theory of Mind (ToM) === Theory of Mind is the ability to understand the internal mental states of others, including their beliefs and intentions (Wellman & Liu, 2004). ToM plays an important role in understanding how dark understand internal mental states to successfully navigate social environments. ToM and empathy are both important influences on [[Prosocial behavior|pro-social behaviour]] (Qiu et al., 2024), which involves sharing, caring, helping, donating, comforting, and cooperating (Guo et al., 2023). While individuals with Dark trait do not demonstrate these behaviours (Hurezan et al., 2026), ToM explains how dark empathy assists to understand others and their own motives (Qiu et al., 2024). Dark trait individuals use this ability to read other's mental states and exploit for their personal gain (Gojković et al., 2022). Recognising other’s vulnerablitlities while monitoring their own mental state, makes strategically exploiting easier. Ultimately, dark empaths use ToM to understand their own mental state to maintain their charming, empathic mask while concealing their manipulation of their victims. === Types of empathy === Empathy has bright and dark sides as well two types (Throop et al., 2020): * Affective empathy is physical and emotional sharing of feelings **This involves experiencing with the other person which is found more commonly in bright empathy * Cognitive empathy is the intellectual understanding of another’s emotions and thoughts without feeling their pain. **This involves understanding, yet keeping that self-other determination which makes it easier for manipulating by utilising emotions against another Empathy relies on the individual to use it based on their morals and beliefs (Breithaupt & Hamilton, 2019). A study on parent's influence found that empathy was not increased in teens with narcissistic traits (Jiang et al., 2024). This shows that dark traits personalities are not affected by external influences. Therefore, understanding the specific type of empathy is key to understanding dark empathy. Cognitive empathy allows them to comprehend feelings and thoughts without experiencing the burden, it suits strategic manipulation tactics like Machiavellianism (Gojković et al., 2022). When the motivation is to deceive and control, cognitive empathy provides the tools to serve their interests. === Making of a dark empath === Dark empathy is understanding those feelings and harnessing them against others (Breithaupt & Hamilton, 2019). It often develops when children experience trauma that forces them to predict and understand others' emotions just to stay safe (Bloxsom et al., 2021). Later in life, dark traits (narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and sadism) use this skill to deceive and control (Gojković et al.,2022). Research assessing these personalities does not share common societal ethics and morality (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015). Because they are less likely to be honest and fair, they use dark empathy and their flexible morals to justify manipulating vulnerabilities for their own advantage (Throop et al., 2020). This helps to achieve their goals. Dark empath is not a formal medical diagnosis. Instead, it is a term that mixes dark personality traits with high cognitive empathy (Duradoni et al., 2023). Cognitive empathy allows people to understand others’ thoughts and feelings without feeling them. This helps people with dark traits hide behind superficial charm, chronic lying, and a lack of remorse (Hepper et al., 2014; Vonk et al., 2015). For example, narcissists can create a mask to hide their self-centred goals and better manipulate others (Hepper et al., 2014). Another sign is affective dissonance. This is a twisted emotional reaction, such as feeling happy when someone else suffers (Gojković et al., 2022). In the end, people with high dark traits may develop dark empathy to serve their goals. == Consequences of dark empathy == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario continued Charlie was assigned to report to Addison on the project and found herself becoming anxious at their one-on-one performance meetings. Charlie would spend over an hour preparing for the meetings despite keeping meticulous progress notes. She feels exhausted after each interaction and starts doubting her skills. Addison finds it hard to keep up with the workload. Other team members have complained that Addison has not been running the project well. Addison’s boss reviews the work and finds Addison has not been monitoring the project. Charlie’s work had been the only compliment the boss had for the update. Addison takes credit for Charlie's work and claims he has been managing Charlie's failing performance. Addison is to provide an update on the project and Charlie's performance. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Empathy can lead to depression (Yan et al., 2021) as well as severe emotional distress and burnout (Huang et al., 2025). An individual can use cognitive empathy to deceive, manipulate and exploit (Huang et al., 2025). Using dark traits like charm and chronic lying (Gojković et al., 2022), dark empaths manipulate others to reach their goals while pretending to be an ally. Both the person using dark empathy and their victims suffer harm to their wellbeing (Heym et al., 2021). Perceiving emotions, planning a response, and controlling reactions take considerable energy. There is a physical component in controlling their body language and expression to disarm others (Throop et al., 2020). While bright empathy brings people together. dark empathy isolates individuals from others and communities (Throop et al., 2020). === Effects on victims of dark empathy === The immediate impacts on their relationships are subtle and unlikely to be noticed. Dark empaths use their charming demeanour and their strategic understanding of other’s emotions and feelings to appear kind and empathic. After gaslighting an individual, their victim will develop chronic anxiety, depression, lower self-esteem, emotional dependency (Yan et al., 2021), shame, and humiliation (Throop et al., 2020). This can isolate victim's and make them easier to manipulate for a dark empath. The victim's mental wellbeing may become apparent first and impact all areas of their lives. Additionally, the dark trait personalities are often linked to aggressive behaviours which increases the likelihood of intimate partner violence (Galán et al., 2026). Dark empathy can lead to harmful outcomes for dark empath's victims that become clearer with more exposure to the skillset. === Outcome for dark empaths === An individual using dark empathy may find the indifference and emotional de-attachment to others useful for achieving their goals (Throop et al., 2020). The emotional distance can intervene serve as a protective factor or buffer to psychological distress for the dark empath (Heym et al., 2021). As empathy combined with self-judgement and/or over-thinking can cause emotional distress (Heym et al., 2021). Therefore, an individual who have dark traits and cognitive empathy (understanding but not sharing emotions) does not experience the same level of distress. The ability to not feel the emotions makes them better at utilising other’s vulnerabilities without the consequences. Though controlling others is effective at first, keeping up the mask leads to burnout (Throop et al., 2020). The thought of losing control can cause aggressive behaviour, driven by fear and shame (di Giacomo et al., 2023). While dark trait individuals are more self-centred and lack the pro-social behaviours, hiding their nature can lead to depression and a loss of identity (Qiu et al., 2024). == Addressing dark empathy == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario continued After talking to another colleague, Charlie notices her mental health is declining. She reaches out to the Employee Assistance Program (EAP) for support about her stress. The counsellor asks Charlie to consider when the anxiety and lower self-esteem started. She starts to realise it links back to Addison. Addison continues to blame Charlie for the project's failures. Addison fails to develop the deliverables in time for the boss’ deadline and a meeting is set up with him up with an EAP counsellor. Addison talks about Charlie's 'failures' and the counsellor asks Addison to consider his behaviour and input into the situation. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Dark empathy is not easily recognised as it can lower the appearance of aggressive behaviours in individuals with dark personalities traits (Heym et al., 2021). For example; a narcissist or sociopath may use understanding of ToM to influence others while a dark empath uses their cognitive empathy to control and most likely enjoy other's vulnerable emotions (Heym et al., 2021). The impacts of dark empathy can be found in the relationships of the dark empath. Person-centred approach assists in recognising patterns, identifying behaviours and setting boundaries (Galán et al., 2026). === Recovering from a dark empath === After dealing with a dark empath, an individual may find it hard to notice the patterns. Individual needs to set healthy emotional boundaries in this relationship which can be assisted by seeking therapy to identify patterns and how to address them. Person-centre framework (also known as client-centred approach) (Rogers, 1951) can assist in developing strategies and understanding the patterns they experienced (Galán et al., 2026). Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) would be effective for unlearning the patterns of abuse and understanding their trauma (Iverson et al., 2011) from the dark empath. === Unravelling from dark empathy === For a dark empath, the first step is recognizing their controlling behaviour and how it harms everyone's well-being. Carl Rogers' approach helps people understand who they are and who they want to be. This self-awareness lets them accept their dark traits and build stronger social skills (Galán et al., 2026). Some therapies that would be appropriate and effective for dark empaths are: *Dialectial behaviour therapy **This therapy allows people to talk through and accept their intense feelings (di Giacomo et al., 2023). *[[w:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive Behaviour Therapy]] (CBT) **This therapy assists in addressing anti-social behaviours and fosters pro-social behaviours (Shukla & Upadhyay, 2025) The steps to acknowledging the behaviours and traits are not easy process. Considering their dark traits lack of self-judgement, sense of self importance, enjoy in harming others, these dark trait individuals show little desire to go to therapy for the sake of others (di Giacomo et al., 2023). Their dark traits cause anti-social behaviours and a disregard the impact of their actions. Their lack self-judgement prevents them seeing themselves as part of the problem. == Conclusion == Dark empathy is a demonstration of how learning can be adapted to suit one’s desires. While it can develop through parental influence (Jiang et al., 2024), social experience (Decety, 2015), listening to music (Rabinowitch et al., 2013), and reading fiction (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013). It depends on morality of the individual. Understanding dark empathy is crucial for identifying and treating people with dark personality traits. Rather than genuinely sharing feelings, dark empaths use cognitive empathy as a tool to trick, manipulate, and exploit others (Heym et al., 2021). While traits like psychopathy and sadism usually involve anti-social behaviour, a lack of empathy, and joy in others' pain (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015), dark empaths fake emotional awareness and pro-social behaviour (Hurezan et al., 2026). This makes them difficult to spot, leaving victims vulnerable to gaslighting and emotional abuse. Consequently, standard person-centred frameworks are limited in effectiveness because these individuals rarely self-identify or seek help. ==See also== *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Dark triad personality and emotion|Dark triad personality and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional intelligence and anti-social behaviour|Emotional intelligence and antisocial behaviour]] (Book chapter, 2019) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Emotional intelligence and the dark triad|Emotional intelligence and the dark triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) *[[wikipedia:Machiavellianism_(psychology)|Machiavellianism]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Narcissism|Narcissism]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Psychopathy|Psychopathy]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Dark_triad|The Dark Triad]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Abramson, A. (2021, November 1). Cultivating empathy. Monitor on Psychology, 52(8). https://www.apa.org/monitor/2021/11/feature-cultivating-empathy Bal, P. M., & Veltkamp, M. (2013). How Does Fiction Reading Influence Empathy? An Experimental Investigation on the Role of Emotional Transportation. PloS one, 8(1), e55341. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0055341 Bloxsom, C. A. J., Firth, J., Kibowski, F., Egan, V., Sumich, A. L., & Heym, N. (2021). Dark shadow of the self: How the dark triad and empathy impact parental and intimate adult attachment relationships in women. Forensic Science International: Mind and Law, 2, 100045. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsiml.2021.100045 Breithaupt, F., & Hamilton, A. B. B. (2019). The dark sides of empathy (1st edition. ed.). Cornell University Press. https://doi.org/10.7591/9781501735608 Decety, J. (2015). The neural pathways, development and functions of empathy. Current opinion in behavioural sciences, 3, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2014.12.001 di Giacomo, E., Andreini, E., Lorusso, O., & Clerici, M. (2023). The dark side of empathy in narcissistic personality disorder. Front Psychiatry, 14, 1074558. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1074558 Duradoni, M., Gursesli, M. C., Fiorenza, M., Donati, A., & Guazzini, A. (2023). Cognitive Empathy and the Dark Triad: A Literature Review. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education (EJIHPE), 13(11), 2642-2680. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe13110184 Galán, M., Gerber, N., Valls, L., Molina, S., & Pineda, D. (2026). Dark Empaths and Intimate Partner Violence: A Latent Profile Analysis of Dark Tetrad Traits and Empathy Dimensions in Face-to-Face and Cyber Violence Perpetration. Behavioural sciences, 16(10), 1780. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16101780 Gojković, V., Dostanić, J. S., & Đurić, V. (2022). Structure of darkness: The Dark Triad, the ‘Dark’ Empathy and the ‘Dark’ Narcissism. Primenjena psihologija (Online), 15(2), 237-268. https://doi.org/10.19090/pp.v15i2.2380 Guo, Q., Li, S., Liang, J., Yu, X., & Lv, Y. (2023). Mindfulness may be associated with less prosocial engagement among high intelligence individuals. Scientific reports, 13(1), 4208. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31039-3 Hepper, E. G., Hart, C. M., & Sedikides, C. (2014). Moving Narcissus: Can Narcissists Be Empathic? Personality & social psychology bulletin, 40(9), 1079-1091. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167214535812 Heym, N., Firth, J., Kibowski, F., Sumich, A., Egan, V., & Bloxsom, C. A. (2019). Empathy at the heart of darkness: Empathy deficits that bind the dark triad and those that mediate indirect relational aggression. Frontiers in psychiatry, 10, 95. Heym, N., Kibowski, F., Bloxsom, C. A. J., Blanchard, A., Harper, A., Wallace, L., Firth, J., & Sumich, A. (2021). The Dark Empath: Characterising dark traits in the presence of empathy. Personality and Individual Differences, 169, 110172-110172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110172 Huang, C., Wu, Z., Sha, S., Liu, C., Yang, L., Jiang, P., Zhang, H., & Yang, C. (2025). The Dark Side of Empathy: The Role of Excessive Affective Empathy in Mental Health Disorders. Biological psychiatry (1969), 98(5), 404-415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2024.12.020 Hurezan, L., Miu, A. C., Costea, A., & Visu-Petra, L. (2026). Dark Personality, Empathy, and Prosocial Behaviour in Convicted Offenders. Scientific reports, 16(1), 4117-4177. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-34229-3 Iverson, K. M., Gradus, J. L., Resick, P. A., Suvak, M. K., Smith, K. F., & Monson, C. M. (2011). Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy for PTSD and Depression Symptoms Reduces Risk for Future Intimate Partner Violence Among Interpersonal Trauma Survivors. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 79(2), 193-202. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022512 Jiang, X., Liu, C., Xiao, X., & Zhan, Y. (2024). Role of narcissism and empathy in the relationship between parental attachment and moral response patterns. European journal of developmental psychology, 21(3), 365-387. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2024.2325173 Jonason, P. K., & Kroll, C. H. (2015). A Multidimensional View of the Relationship Between Empathy and the Dark Triad. Journal of individual differences, 36(3), 150-156. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000166 Kaufman, S. B., Yaden, D. B., Hyde, E., & Tsukayama, E. (2019). The Light vs. Dark Triad of Personality: Contrasting Two Very Different Profiles of Human Nature [Original Research]. Frontiers in psychology, Volume 10 - 2019. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00467 Mededovic, J., & Petrovic, B. (2015). The Dark Tetrad: Structural Properties and Location in the Personality Space. Journal of individual differences, 36(4), 228-236. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000179 Qiu, X., Gao, M., Zhu, H., Li, W., & Jiang, R. (2024). Theory of mind, empathy, and prosocial behaviour in children and adolescent: A meta-analysis. Current psychology (New Brunswick, N.J.), 43(22), 19690-19707. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-05762-7 Rabinowitch, T.-C., Cross, I., & Burnard, P. (2013). Long-term musical group interaction has a positive influence on empathy in children. Psychology of music, 41(4), 484-498. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735612440609 Rogers, C. R. (1951). Client-centered therapy; its current practice, implications, and theory. Houghton Mifflin. Shukla, M., & Upadhyay, N. (2025). Cold hearts and dark minds: A systematic review and meta-analysis of empathy across dark triad personalities. Frontiers in psychiatry, 16, 1546917. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1546917 Throop, C. J., Zahavi, D., de Lucas Freitas, J., Groark, K. P., Maibom, H., Satne, G. L., Stueber, K. R., & Trnka, S. (2020). Dark and Bright Empathy: Phenomenological and Anthropological Reflections. Current anthropology, 61(3), 283-303. https://doi.org/10.1086/708844 Vonk, J., Zeigler-Hill, V., Ewing, D., Mercer, S., & Noser, A. E. (2015). Mindreading in the dark: Dark personality features and theory of mind. Personality and Individual Differences, 87, 50-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.025 Wellman, H. M., & Liu, D. (2004). Scaling of Theory-of-Mind Tasks. Child development, 75(2), 523-541. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00691.x Yan, Z., Zeng, X., Su, J., & Zhang, X. (2021). The dark side of empathy: Meta‐analysis evidence of the relationship between empathy and depression. PsyCh journal (Victoria, Australia), 10(5), 794-804. https://doi.org/10.1002/pchj.482 }} ==External links== * [https://www.sciencefocus.com/wellbeing/dark-empaths Dark Empaths] (Science Focus) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/dark-tetrad Dark Tetrad] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.theguardian.com/science/2024/nov/10/narcissists-only-more-devious-the-truth-about-dark-empaths 'Narcissists - only more devious': the truth about dark empaths] (the Guardian) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] 9tqudm1loc8ul80bujyw1151n558bhi 2840869 2840853 2026-10-17T06:27:21Z U3228742 3005570 /* Outcome for dark empaths */ updating links to ToM 2840869 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Dark empathy:<br>What is dark empathy, what are its consequences, and what can be done to address it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario In a workplace, a new colleague, Addison, joined a close-knit team. He is charming and empathises with each team member. Addison fits in the team very well and many of the colleagues to him for advice. The lead role for a project becomes available and several members of the team decide to apply. One member, Charlie, takes Addison’s offer to help them prepare for the promotion. Charlie shares her fears and her perceived weaknesses for the role. Before the interviews, Addison strategically reminds Charlie about her weaknesses with a supportive twist. ''“Good luck, Charlie. Take a breath and pause to avoid speaking too quickly. Despite your limited leadership experience, your skills speak for themselves. You got this!”'' Charlie felt very nervous and stumbled in the interview. She de-briefed with another colleague who said she never heard her speak quickly when nervous. She was known for keeping a calm front under pressure. After a few weeks, the promotion is given to Addison. No one knew Addison had applied and the team was shocked since they have limited skills in this area of the work. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Empathy can have a bright and dark side (Throop et al., 2020). The concern is when individuals with dark tetrad personality traits leverage their understanding of emotions and feelings to manipulate, control, or exploit to others. Dark empathy is a developed skill that uses the understanding of emotion and people's vulnerabilities against them to control and manipulate for their advantage (Throop et al., 2020). To consider the use of dark empathy, we need to understanding why and how people use it. Individuals with high dark tetrads usually struggle to understand body language and emotion. The ability to understand emotion and feelings allow these dark trait individuals to go undetected for longer and have better control of those around them. The ability to deceive and hide makes addressing the underlying behavioural problems harder. Their continued strategic and charming manipulation destroy the psychological safety of others around them. Research indicates understanding emotional intelligence, the dark tetrad, and theory of mind could assist with understanding the use of dark empathy (Vonk et al., 2015). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} ;Focus questions *How does dark empathy develop? *What drives an individual to use empathy to control and manipulate other people in their life? *How can psychological theory develop strategies to understand and assist individuals mitigate the negative effects of empathy? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The development of empathy == [[Empathy]] is the ability to share feelings and thoughts of others while remaining self-other distinction (Håkansson Eklund & Summer Meranius, 2021). This means a person can understand someone else’s experience while maintaining their identity. Empathy is not an innate but learned and developed. It can be cultivated through techniques to understand other's feelings and foster [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|pro-social behaviour]] (Abramson, 2021). Research found that teenagers learn empathy through their parent’s (Jiang et al., 2024), social groups (Decety, 2015), listening to music (Rabinowitch et al., 2013), and reading books particularly fiction (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013). Understanding how this foundational trait is normally developed provides a necessary baseline for examining how dark personalities can subvert empathy into a tool for manipulation. === The dark tetrad === [[File:Dark-triad-dark-tetrad-1.webp|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' The dark traits updated to include the fourth element of sadism. This created the dark tetrad of personality traits. ]] Dark personality traits were called the dark triad (Paulhus & Williams, 2002). An expansion on these traits were to include a fourth element, sadism (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015). There are four elements to the dark tetrad (see Figure 1): * Narcissism * Machiavellianism * Psychopathy * Sadism These traits demonstrate dark individuals have limited ability to comprehend other’s emotions and read their mental states (Vonk et al., 2015). Individuals are self-centred, emotionally unstable, and focused on anti-social behaviour which leads to few of them demonstrating empathy (Kaufman et al., 2019). See Table 1 for the breakdown of the personality traits. '''Table 1'''. Dark tetrad personality traits breakdown and behavioural signs {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Personality traits !! Definition !! Behavioural signs |- | '''Narcissism''' || Self-importance and constant need for admiration || Arrogance, entitlement, and bragging |- | '''Machiavellianism''' || Strategic manipulation, calculated world view and general distrust of motives and integrity || Deception, exploitation, and emotional detachment |- | '''Psychopathy''' || Lack of empathy, poor impulse control, and fearlessness || Reckless, charming, no remorse, and cruel |- | '''Sadism''' || Deriving pleasure or enjoyment from harming others || Bullying, shaming, and humiliating others |} === Theory of Mind (ToM) === Theory of Mind is the ability to understand the internal mental states of others, including their beliefs and intentions (Wellman & Liu, 2004). ToM plays an important role in understanding how dark understand internal mental states to successfully navigate social environments. ToM and empathy are both important influences on [[Prosocial behavior|pro-social behaviour]] (Qiu et al., 2024), which involves sharing, caring, helping, donating, comforting, and cooperating (Guo et al., 2023). While individuals with Dark trait do not demonstrate these behaviours (Hurezan et al., 2026), ToM explains how dark empathy assists to understand others and their own motives (Qiu et al., 2024). Dark trait individuals use this ability to read other's mental states and exploit for their personal gain (Gojković et al., 2022). Recognising other’s vulnerablitlities while monitoring their own mental state, makes strategically exploiting easier. Ultimately, dark empaths use ToM to understand their own mental state to maintain their charming, empathic mask while concealing their manipulation of their victims. === Types of empathy === Empathy has bright and dark sides as well two types (Throop et al., 2020): * Affective empathy is physical and emotional sharing of feelings **This involves experiencing with the other person which is found more commonly in bright empathy * Cognitive empathy is the intellectual understanding of another’s emotions and thoughts without feeling their pain. **This involves understanding, yet keeping that self-other determination which makes it easier for manipulating by utilising emotions against another Empathy relies on the individual to use it based on their morals and beliefs (Breithaupt & Hamilton, 2019). A study on parent's influence found that empathy was not increased in teens with narcissistic traits (Jiang et al., 2024). This shows that dark traits personalities are not affected by external influences. Therefore, understanding the specific type of empathy is key to understanding dark empathy. Cognitive empathy allows them to comprehend feelings and thoughts without experiencing the burden, it suits strategic manipulation tactics like Machiavellianism (Gojković et al., 2022). When the motivation is to deceive and control, cognitive empathy provides the tools to serve their interests. === Making of a dark empath === Dark empathy is understanding those feelings and harnessing them against others (Breithaupt & Hamilton, 2019). It often develops when children experience trauma that forces them to predict and understand others' emotions just to stay safe (Bloxsom et al., 2021). Later in life, dark traits (narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and sadism) use this skill to deceive and control (Gojković et al.,2022). Research assessing these personalities does not share common societal ethics and morality (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015). Because they are less likely to be honest and fair, they use dark empathy and their flexible morals to justify manipulating vulnerabilities for their own advantage (Throop et al., 2020). This helps to achieve their goals. Dark empath is not a formal medical diagnosis. Instead, it is a term that mixes dark personality traits with high cognitive empathy (Duradoni et al., 2023). Cognitive empathy allows people to understand others’ thoughts and feelings without feeling them. This helps people with dark traits hide behind superficial charm, chronic lying, and a lack of remorse (Hepper et al., 2014; Vonk et al., 2015). For example, narcissists can create a mask to hide their self-centred goals and better manipulate others (Hepper et al., 2014). Another sign is affective dissonance. This is a twisted emotional reaction, such as feeling happy when someone else suffers (Gojković et al., 2022). In the end, people with high dark traits may develop dark empathy to serve their goals. == Consequences of dark empathy == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario continued Charlie was assigned to report to Addison on the project and found herself becoming anxious at their one-on-one performance meetings. Charlie would spend over an hour preparing for the meetings despite keeping meticulous progress notes. She feels exhausted after each interaction and starts doubting her skills. Addison finds it hard to keep up with the workload. Other team members have complained that Addison has not been running the project well. Addison’s boss reviews the work and finds Addison has not been monitoring the project. Charlie’s work had been the only compliment the boss had for the update. Addison takes credit for Charlie's work and claims he has been managing Charlie's failing performance. Addison is to provide an update on the project and Charlie's performance. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Empathy can lead to depression (Yan et al., 2021) as well as severe emotional distress and burnout (Huang et al., 2025). An individual can use cognitive empathy to deceive, manipulate and exploit (Huang et al., 2025). Using dark traits like charm and chronic lying (Gojković et al., 2022), dark empaths manipulate others to reach their goals while pretending to be an ally. Both the person using dark empathy and their victims suffer harm to their wellbeing (Heym et al., 2021). Perceiving emotions, planning a response, and controlling reactions take considerable energy. There is a physical component in controlling their body language and expression to disarm others (Throop et al., 2020). While bright empathy brings people together. dark empathy isolates individuals from others and communities (Throop et al., 2020). === Effects on victims of dark empathy === The immediate impacts on their relationships are subtle and unlikely to be noticed. Dark empaths use their charming demeanour and their strategic understanding of other’s emotions and feelings to appear kind and empathic. The strategic manipulation relies heavily on ToM to better understand their victim's weakness to exploit and deceive them. After gaslighting an individual, their victim will develop chronic anxiety, depression, lower self-esteem, emotional dependency (Yan et al., 2021), shame, and humiliation (Throop et al., 2020). The victim's mental wellbeing may become apparent first and impact all areas of their lives. This can isolate victim and their mental state can become easier for a dark empath to manipulate. Additionally, the dark trait personalities are often linked to aggressive behaviours which increases the likelihood of intimate partner violence (Galán et al., 2026). Dark empathy can lead to harmful outcomes for dark empath's victims that become clearer with more exposure to the skillset. === Outcome for dark empaths === An individual using dark empathy may find the indifference and emotional de-attachment to others useful for achieving their goals (Throop et al., 2020). The emotional distance can intervene serve as a protective factor or buffer to psychological distress for the dark empath (Heym et al., 2021). While empathy combined with self-judgement and/or over-thinking can cause emotional distress (Heym et al., 2021), an individual who has dark traits and ToM, using cognitive empathy (understanding but not sharing emotions), does not experience the same level of that distress. The ability to not feel the emotions makes them better at utilising other’s vulnerabilities without the consequences. Though controlling others is effective at first, keeping up the mask leads to burnout (Throop et al., 2020). The thought of losing control can cause aggressive behaviour, driven by fear and shame (di Giacomo et al., 2023). While dark trait individuals are more self-centred and lack the pro-social behaviours, hiding their nature can lead to depression and a loss of identity (Qiu et al., 2024). == Addressing dark empathy == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario continued After talking to another colleague, Charlie notices her mental health is declining. She reaches out to the Employee Assistance Program (EAP) for support about her stress. The counsellor asks Charlie to consider when the anxiety and lower self-esteem started. She starts to realise it links back to Addison. Addison continues to blame Charlie for the project's failures. Addison fails to develop the deliverables in time for the boss’ deadline and a meeting is set up with him up with an EAP counsellor. Addison talks about Charlie's 'failures' and the counsellor asks Addison to consider his behaviour and input into the situation. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Dark empathy is not easily recognised as it can lower the appearance of aggressive behaviours in individuals with dark personalities traits (Heym et al., 2021). For example; a narcissist or sociopath may use understanding of ToM to influence others while a dark empath uses their cognitive empathy to control and most likely enjoy other's vulnerable emotions (Heym et al., 2021). The impacts of dark empathy can be found in the relationships of the dark empath. Person-centred approach assists in recognising patterns, identifying behaviours and setting boundaries (Galán et al., 2026). === Recovering from a dark empath === After dealing with a dark empath, an individual may find it hard to notice the patterns. Individual needs to set healthy emotional boundaries in this relationship which can be assisted by seeking therapy to identify patterns and how to address them. Person-centre framework (also known as client-centred approach) (Rogers, 1951) can assist in developing strategies and understanding the patterns they experienced (Galán et al., 2026). Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) would be effective for unlearning the patterns of abuse and understanding their trauma (Iverson et al., 2011) from the dark empath. === Unravelling from dark empathy === For a dark empath, the first step is recognizing their controlling behaviour and how it harms everyone's well-being. Carl Rogers' approach helps people understand who they are and who they want to be. This self-awareness lets them accept their dark traits and build stronger social skills (Galán et al., 2026). Some therapies that would be appropriate and effective for dark empaths are: *Dialectial behaviour therapy **This therapy allows people to talk through and accept their intense feelings (di Giacomo et al., 2023). *[[w:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive Behaviour Therapy]] (CBT) **This therapy assists in addressing anti-social behaviours and fosters pro-social behaviours (Shukla & Upadhyay, 2025) The steps to acknowledging the behaviours and traits are not easy process. Considering their dark traits lack of self-judgement, sense of self importance, enjoy in harming others, these dark trait individuals show little desire to go to therapy for the sake of others (di Giacomo et al., 2023). Their dark traits cause anti-social behaviours and a disregard the impact of their actions. Their lack self-judgement prevents them seeing themselves as part of the problem. == Conclusion == Dark empathy is a demonstration of how learning can be adapted to suit one’s desires. While it can develop through parental influence (Jiang et al., 2024), social experience (Decety, 2015), listening to music (Rabinowitch et al., 2013), and reading fiction (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013). It depends on morality of the individual. Understanding dark empathy is crucial for identifying and treating people with dark personality traits. Rather than genuinely sharing feelings, dark empaths use cognitive empathy as a tool to trick, manipulate, and exploit others (Heym et al., 2021). While traits like psychopathy and sadism usually involve anti-social behaviour, a lack of empathy, and joy in others' pain (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015), dark empaths fake emotional awareness and pro-social behaviour (Hurezan et al., 2026). This makes them difficult to spot, leaving victims vulnerable to gaslighting and emotional abuse. Consequently, standard person-centred frameworks are limited in effectiveness because these individuals rarely self-identify or seek help. ==See also== *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Dark triad personality and emotion|Dark triad personality and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional intelligence and anti-social behaviour|Emotional intelligence and antisocial behaviour]] (Book chapter, 2019) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Emotional intelligence and the dark triad|Emotional intelligence and the dark triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) *[[wikipedia:Machiavellianism_(psychology)|Machiavellianism]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Narcissism|Narcissism]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Psychopathy|Psychopathy]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Dark_triad|The Dark Triad]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Abramson, A. (2021, November 1). Cultivating empathy. Monitor on Psychology, 52(8). https://www.apa.org/monitor/2021/11/feature-cultivating-empathy Bal, P. M., & Veltkamp, M. (2013). How Does Fiction Reading Influence Empathy? An Experimental Investigation on the Role of Emotional Transportation. PloS one, 8(1), e55341. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0055341 Bloxsom, C. A. J., Firth, J., Kibowski, F., Egan, V., Sumich, A. L., & Heym, N. (2021). Dark shadow of the self: How the dark triad and empathy impact parental and intimate adult attachment relationships in women. Forensic Science International: Mind and Law, 2, 100045. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsiml.2021.100045 Breithaupt, F., & Hamilton, A. B. B. (2019). The dark sides of empathy (1st edition. ed.). Cornell University Press. https://doi.org/10.7591/9781501735608 Decety, J. (2015). The neural pathways, development and functions of empathy. Current opinion in behavioural sciences, 3, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2014.12.001 di Giacomo, E., Andreini, E., Lorusso, O., & Clerici, M. (2023). The dark side of empathy in narcissistic personality disorder. Front Psychiatry, 14, 1074558. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1074558 Duradoni, M., Gursesli, M. C., Fiorenza, M., Donati, A., & Guazzini, A. (2023). Cognitive Empathy and the Dark Triad: A Literature Review. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education (EJIHPE), 13(11), 2642-2680. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe13110184 Galán, M., Gerber, N., Valls, L., Molina, S., & Pineda, D. (2026). Dark Empaths and Intimate Partner Violence: A Latent Profile Analysis of Dark Tetrad Traits and Empathy Dimensions in Face-to-Face and Cyber Violence Perpetration. Behavioural sciences, 16(10), 1780. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16101780 Gojković, V., Dostanić, J. S., & Đurić, V. (2022). Structure of darkness: The Dark Triad, the ‘Dark’ Empathy and the ‘Dark’ Narcissism. Primenjena psihologija (Online), 15(2), 237-268. https://doi.org/10.19090/pp.v15i2.2380 Guo, Q., Li, S., Liang, J., Yu, X., & Lv, Y. (2023). Mindfulness may be associated with less prosocial engagement among high intelligence individuals. Scientific reports, 13(1), 4208. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31039-3 Hepper, E. G., Hart, C. M., & Sedikides, C. (2014). Moving Narcissus: Can Narcissists Be Empathic? Personality & social psychology bulletin, 40(9), 1079-1091. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167214535812 Heym, N., Firth, J., Kibowski, F., Sumich, A., Egan, V., & Bloxsom, C. A. (2019). Empathy at the heart of darkness: Empathy deficits that bind the dark triad and those that mediate indirect relational aggression. Frontiers in psychiatry, 10, 95. Heym, N., Kibowski, F., Bloxsom, C. A. J., Blanchard, A., Harper, A., Wallace, L., Firth, J., & Sumich, A. (2021). The Dark Empath: Characterising dark traits in the presence of empathy. Personality and Individual Differences, 169, 110172-110172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110172 Huang, C., Wu, Z., Sha, S., Liu, C., Yang, L., Jiang, P., Zhang, H., & Yang, C. (2025). The Dark Side of Empathy: The Role of Excessive Affective Empathy in Mental Health Disorders. Biological psychiatry (1969), 98(5), 404-415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2024.12.020 Hurezan, L., Miu, A. C., Costea, A., & Visu-Petra, L. (2026). Dark Personality, Empathy, and Prosocial Behaviour in Convicted Offenders. Scientific reports, 16(1), 4117-4177. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-34229-3 Iverson, K. M., Gradus, J. L., Resick, P. A., Suvak, M. K., Smith, K. F., & Monson, C. M. (2011). Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy for PTSD and Depression Symptoms Reduces Risk for Future Intimate Partner Violence Among Interpersonal Trauma Survivors. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 79(2), 193-202. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022512 Jiang, X., Liu, C., Xiao, X., & Zhan, Y. (2024). Role of narcissism and empathy in the relationship between parental attachment and moral response patterns. European journal of developmental psychology, 21(3), 365-387. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2024.2325173 Jonason, P. K., & Kroll, C. H. (2015). A Multidimensional View of the Relationship Between Empathy and the Dark Triad. Journal of individual differences, 36(3), 150-156. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000166 Kaufman, S. B., Yaden, D. B., Hyde, E., & Tsukayama, E. (2019). The Light vs. Dark Triad of Personality: Contrasting Two Very Different Profiles of Human Nature [Original Research]. Frontiers in psychology, Volume 10 - 2019. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00467 Mededovic, J., & Petrovic, B. (2015). The Dark Tetrad: Structural Properties and Location in the Personality Space. Journal of individual differences, 36(4), 228-236. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000179 Qiu, X., Gao, M., Zhu, H., Li, W., & Jiang, R. (2024). Theory of mind, empathy, and prosocial behaviour in children and adolescent: A meta-analysis. Current psychology (New Brunswick, N.J.), 43(22), 19690-19707. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-05762-7 Rabinowitch, T.-C., Cross, I., & Burnard, P. (2013). Long-term musical group interaction has a positive influence on empathy in children. Psychology of music, 41(4), 484-498. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735612440609 Rogers, C. R. (1951). Client-centered therapy; its current practice, implications, and theory. Houghton Mifflin. Shukla, M., & Upadhyay, N. (2025). Cold hearts and dark minds: A systematic review and meta-analysis of empathy across dark triad personalities. Frontiers in psychiatry, 16, 1546917. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1546917 Throop, C. J., Zahavi, D., de Lucas Freitas, J., Groark, K. P., Maibom, H., Satne, G. L., Stueber, K. R., & Trnka, S. (2020). Dark and Bright Empathy: Phenomenological and Anthropological Reflections. Current anthropology, 61(3), 283-303. https://doi.org/10.1086/708844 Vonk, J., Zeigler-Hill, V., Ewing, D., Mercer, S., & Noser, A. E. (2015). Mindreading in the dark: Dark personality features and theory of mind. Personality and Individual Differences, 87, 50-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.025 Wellman, H. M., & Liu, D. (2004). Scaling of Theory-of-Mind Tasks. Child development, 75(2), 523-541. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00691.x Yan, Z., Zeng, X., Su, J., & Zhang, X. (2021). The dark side of empathy: Meta‐analysis evidence of the relationship between empathy and depression. PsyCh journal (Victoria, Australia), 10(5), 794-804. https://doi.org/10.1002/pchj.482 }} ==External links== * [https://www.sciencefocus.com/wellbeing/dark-empaths Dark Empaths] (Science Focus) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/dark-tetrad Dark Tetrad] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.theguardian.com/science/2024/nov/10/narcissists-only-more-devious-the-truth-about-dark-empaths 'Narcissists - only more devious': the truth about dark empaths] (the Guardian) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] ehvwswzoztycqm2o8mkm4uexm4veftk 2840871 2840869 2026-10-17T06:32:36Z U3228742 3005570 /* Theory of Mind (ToM) */ updating gramma 2840871 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Dark empathy:<br>What is dark empathy, what are its consequences, and what can be done to address it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario In a workplace, a new colleague, Addison, joined a close-knit team. He is charming and empathises with each team member. Addison fits in the team very well and many of the colleagues to him for advice. The lead role for a project becomes available and several members of the team decide to apply. One member, Charlie, takes Addison’s offer to help them prepare for the promotion. Charlie shares her fears and her perceived weaknesses for the role. Before the interviews, Addison strategically reminds Charlie about her weaknesses with a supportive twist. ''“Good luck, Charlie. Take a breath and pause to avoid speaking too quickly. Despite your limited leadership experience, your skills speak for themselves. You got this!”'' Charlie felt very nervous and stumbled in the interview. She de-briefed with another colleague who said she never heard her speak quickly when nervous. She was known for keeping a calm front under pressure. After a few weeks, the promotion is given to Addison. No one knew Addison had applied and the team was shocked since they have limited skills in this area of the work. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Empathy can have a bright and dark side (Throop et al., 2020). The concern is when individuals with dark tetrad personality traits leverage their understanding of emotions and feelings to manipulate, control, or exploit to others. Dark empathy is a developed skill that uses the understanding of emotion and people's vulnerabilities against them to control and manipulate for their advantage (Throop et al., 2020). To consider the use of dark empathy, we need to understanding why and how people use it. Individuals with high dark tetrads usually struggle to understand body language and emotion. The ability to understand emotion and feelings allow these dark trait individuals to go undetected for longer and have better control of those around them. The ability to deceive and hide makes addressing the underlying behavioural problems harder. Their continued strategic and charming manipulation destroy the psychological safety of others around them. Research indicates understanding emotional intelligence, the dark tetrad, and theory of mind could assist with understanding the use of dark empathy (Vonk et al., 2015). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} ;Focus questions *How does dark empathy develop? *What drives an individual to use empathy to control and manipulate other people in their life? *How can psychological theory develop strategies to understand and assist individuals mitigate the negative effects of empathy? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The development of empathy == [[Empathy]] is the ability to share feelings and thoughts of others while remaining self-other distinction (Håkansson Eklund & Summer Meranius, 2021). This means a person can understand someone else’s experience while maintaining their identity. Empathy is not an innate but learned and developed. It can be cultivated through techniques to understand other's feelings and foster [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|pro-social behaviour]] (Abramson, 2021). Research found that teenagers learn empathy through their parent’s (Jiang et al., 2024), social groups (Decety, 2015), listening to music (Rabinowitch et al., 2013), and reading books particularly fiction (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013). Understanding how this foundational trait is normally developed provides a necessary baseline for examining how dark personalities can subvert empathy into a tool for manipulation. === The dark tetrad === [[File:Dark-triad-dark-tetrad-1.webp|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' The dark traits updated to include the fourth element of sadism. This created the dark tetrad of personality traits. ]] Dark personality traits were called the dark triad (Paulhus & Williams, 2002). An expansion on these traits were to include a fourth element, sadism (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015). There are four elements to the dark tetrad (see Figure 1): * Narcissism * Machiavellianism * Psychopathy * Sadism These traits demonstrate dark individuals have limited ability to comprehend other’s emotions and read their mental states (Vonk et al., 2015). Individuals are self-centred, emotionally unstable, and focused on anti-social behaviour which leads to few of them demonstrating empathy (Kaufman et al., 2019). See Table 1 for the breakdown of the personality traits. '''Table 1'''. Dark tetrad personality traits breakdown and behavioural signs {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Personality traits !! Definition !! Behavioural signs |- | '''Narcissism''' || Self-importance and constant need for admiration || Arrogance, entitlement, and bragging |- | '''Machiavellianism''' || Strategic manipulation, calculated world view and general distrust of motives and integrity || Deception, exploitation, and emotional detachment |- | '''Psychopathy''' || Lack of empathy, poor impulse control, and fearlessness || Reckless, charming, no remorse, and cruel |- | '''Sadism''' || Deriving pleasure or enjoyment from harming others || Bullying, shaming, and humiliating others |} === Theory of Mind (ToM) === Theory of Mind is the ability to understand the internal mental states of others, including their beliefs and intentions (Wellman & Liu, 2004). ToM plays an important role in understanding how dark trait individuals understand internal mental states to successfully navigate social environments. ToM and empathy are both important influences on [[Prosocial behavior|pro-social behaviour]] (Qiu et al., 2024), which involves sharing, caring, helping, donating, comforting, and cooperating (Guo et al., 2023). While individuals with dark trait do not demonstrate these behaviours (Hurezan et al., 2026), ToM explains how dark empathy assists individuals to understand others and their own motives (Qiu et al., 2024). Dark trait individuals use this ability to read other's mental states and exploit it for their personal gain (Gojković et al., 2022). Recognising other’s vulnerablitlities while monitoring their own mental state, makes strategically exploiting easier. Ultimately, dark empaths use ToM to understand their own mental state to maintain their charming, empathic mask while concealing their manipulation of their victims. === Types of empathy === Empathy has bright and dark sides as well two types (Throop et al., 2020): * Affective empathy is physical and emotional sharing of feelings **This involves experiencing with the other person which is found more commonly in bright empathy * Cognitive empathy is the intellectual understanding of another’s emotions and thoughts without feeling their pain. **This involves understanding, yet keeping that self-other determination which makes it easier for manipulating by utilising emotions against another Empathy relies on the individual to use it based on their morals and beliefs (Breithaupt & Hamilton, 2019). A study on parent's influence found that empathy was not increased in teens with narcissistic traits (Jiang et al., 2024). This shows that dark traits personalities are not affected by external influences. Therefore, understanding the specific type of empathy is key to understanding dark empathy. Cognitive empathy allows them to comprehend feelings and thoughts without experiencing the burden, it suits strategic manipulation tactics like Machiavellianism (Gojković et al., 2022). When the motivation is to deceive and control, cognitive empathy provides the tools to serve their interests. === Making of a dark empath === Dark empathy is understanding those feelings and harnessing them against others (Breithaupt & Hamilton, 2019). It often develops when children experience trauma that forces them to predict and understand others' emotions just to stay safe (Bloxsom et al., 2021). Later in life, dark traits (narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and sadism) use this skill to deceive and control (Gojković et al.,2022). Research assessing these personalities shows they do not share common societal ethics and morality (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015). Because they are less likely to be honest and fair, they use dark empathy and their flexible morals to justify manipulating vulnerabilities for their own advantage (Throop et al., 2020). This helps to achieve their goals. Dark empath is not a formal medical diagnosis. Instead, it is a term that mixes dark personality traits with high cognitive empathy (Duradoni et al., 2023). Cognitive empathy allows people to understand others’ thoughts and feelings without feeling them. This helps people with dark traits hide behind superficial charm, chronic lying, and a lack of remorse (Hepper et al., 2014; Vonk et al., 2015). For example, narcissists can create a mask to hide their self-centred goals and better manipulate others (Hepper et al., 2014). Another sign is affective dissonance. This is a twisted emotional reaction, such as feeling happy when someone else suffers (Gojković et al., 2022). In the end, people with high dark traits may develop dark empathy to serve their goals. == Consequences of dark empathy == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario continued Charlie was assigned to report to Addison on the project and found herself becoming anxious at their one-on-one performance meetings. Charlie would spend over an hour preparing for the meetings despite keeping meticulous progress notes. She feels exhausted after each interaction and starts doubting her skills. Addison finds it hard to keep up with the workload. Other team members have complained that Addison has not been running the project well. Addison’s boss reviews the work and finds Addison has not been monitoring the project. Charlie’s work had been the only compliment the boss had for the update. Addison takes credit for Charlie's work and claims he has been managing Charlie's failing performance. Addison is to provide an update on the project and Charlie's performance. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Empathy can lead to depression (Yan et al., 2021) as well as severe emotional distress and burnout (Huang et al., 2025). An individual can use cognitive empathy to deceive, manipulate and exploit (Huang et al., 2025). Using dark traits like charm and chronic lying (Gojković et al., 2022), dark empaths manipulate others to reach their goals while pretending to be an ally. Both the person using dark empathy and their victims suffer harm to their wellbeing (Heym et al., 2021). Perceiving emotions, planning a response, and controlling reactions take considerable energy. There is a physical component in controlling their body language and expression to disarm others (Throop et al., 2020). While bright empathy brings people together. dark empathy isolates individuals from others and communities (Throop et al., 2020). === Effects on victims of dark empathy === The immediate impacts on their relationships are subtle and unlikely to be noticed. Dark empaths use their charming demeanour and their strategic understanding of other’s emotions and feelings to appear kind and empathic. The strategic manipulation relies heavily on ToM to better understand their victim's weakness to exploit and deceive them. After gaslighting an individual, their victim will develop chronic anxiety, depression, lower self-esteem, emotional dependency (Yan et al., 2021), shame, and humiliation (Throop et al., 2020). The victim's mental wellbeing may become apparent first and impact all areas of their lives. This can isolate victim and their mental state can become easier for a dark empath to manipulate. Additionally, the dark trait personalities are often linked to aggressive behaviours which increases the likelihood of intimate partner violence (Galán et al., 2026). Dark empathy can lead to harmful outcomes for dark empath's victims that become clearer with more exposure to the skillset. === Outcome for dark empaths === An individual using dark empathy may find the indifference and emotional de-attachment to others useful for achieving their goals (Throop et al., 2020). The emotional distance can intervene serve as a protective factor or buffer to psychological distress for the dark empath (Heym et al., 2021). While empathy combined with self-judgement and/or over-thinking can cause emotional distress (Heym et al., 2021), an individual who has dark traits and ToM, using cognitive empathy (understanding but not sharing emotions), does not experience the same level of that distress. The ability to not feel the emotions makes them better at utilising other’s vulnerabilities without the consequences. Though controlling others is effective at first, keeping up the mask leads to burnout (Throop et al., 2020). The thought of losing control can cause aggressive behaviour, driven by fear and shame (di Giacomo et al., 2023). While dark trait individuals are more self-centred and lack the pro-social behaviours, hiding their nature can lead to depression and a loss of identity (Qiu et al., 2024). == Addressing dark empathy == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario continued After talking to another colleague, Charlie notices her mental health is declining. She reaches out to the Employee Assistance Program (EAP) for support about her stress. The counsellor asks Charlie to consider when the anxiety and lower self-esteem started. She starts to realise it links back to Addison. Addison continues to blame Charlie for the project's failures. Addison fails to develop the deliverables in time for the boss’ deadline and a meeting is set up with him up with an EAP counsellor. Addison talks about Charlie's 'failures' and the counsellor asks Addison to consider his behaviour and input into the situation. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Dark empathy is not easily recognised as it can lower the appearance of aggressive behaviours in individuals with dark personalities traits (Heym et al., 2021). For example; a narcissist or sociopath may use understanding of ToM to influence others while a dark empath uses their cognitive empathy to control and most likely enjoy other's vulnerable emotions (Heym et al., 2021). The impacts of dark empathy can be found in the relationships of the dark empath. Person-centred approach assists in recognising patterns, identifying behaviours and setting boundaries (Galán et al., 2026). === Recovering from a dark empath === After dealing with a dark empath, an individual may find it hard to notice the patterns. Individual needs to set healthy emotional boundaries in this relationship which can be assisted by seeking therapy to identify patterns and how to address them. Person-centre framework (also known as client-centred approach) (Rogers, 1951) can assist in developing strategies and understanding the patterns they experienced (Galán et al., 2026). Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) would be effective for unlearning the patterns of abuse and understanding their trauma (Iverson et al., 2011) from the dark empath. === Unravelling from dark empathy === For a dark empath, the first step is recognizing their controlling behaviour and how it harms everyone's well-being. Carl Rogers' approach helps people understand who they are and who they want to be. This self-awareness lets them accept their dark traits and build stronger social skills (Galán et al., 2026). Some therapies that would be appropriate and effective for dark empaths are: *Dialectial behaviour therapy **This therapy allows people to talk through and accept their intense feelings (di Giacomo et al., 2023). *[[w:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive Behaviour Therapy]] (CBT) **This therapy assists in addressing anti-social behaviours and fosters pro-social behaviours (Shukla & Upadhyay, 2025) The steps to acknowledging the behaviours and traits are not easy process. Considering their dark traits lack of self-judgement, sense of self importance, enjoy in harming others, these dark trait individuals show little desire to go to therapy for the sake of others (di Giacomo et al., 2023). Their dark traits cause anti-social behaviours and a disregard the impact of their actions. Their lack self-judgement prevents them seeing themselves as part of the problem. == Conclusion == Dark empathy is a demonstration of how learning can be adapted to suit one’s desires. While it can develop through parental influence (Jiang et al., 2024), social experience (Decety, 2015), listening to music (Rabinowitch et al., 2013), and reading fiction (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013). It depends on morality of the individual. Understanding dark empathy is crucial for identifying and treating people with dark personality traits. Rather than genuinely sharing feelings, dark empaths use cognitive empathy as a tool to trick, manipulate, and exploit others (Heym et al., 2021). While traits like psychopathy and sadism usually involve anti-social behaviour, a lack of empathy, and joy in others' pain (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015), dark empaths fake emotional awareness and pro-social behaviour (Hurezan et al., 2026). This makes them difficult to spot, leaving victims vulnerable to gaslighting and emotional abuse. Consequently, standard person-centred frameworks are limited in effectiveness because these individuals rarely self-identify or seek help. ==See also== *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Dark triad personality and emotion|Dark triad personality and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional intelligence and anti-social behaviour|Emotional intelligence and antisocial behaviour]] (Book chapter, 2019) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Emotional intelligence and the dark triad|Emotional intelligence and the dark triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) *[[wikipedia:Machiavellianism_(psychology)|Machiavellianism]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Narcissism|Narcissism]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Psychopathy|Psychopathy]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Dark_triad|The Dark Triad]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Abramson, A. (2021, November 1). Cultivating empathy. Monitor on Psychology, 52(8). https://www.apa.org/monitor/2021/11/feature-cultivating-empathy Bal, P. M., & Veltkamp, M. (2013). How Does Fiction Reading Influence Empathy? An Experimental Investigation on the Role of Emotional Transportation. PloS one, 8(1), e55341. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0055341 Bloxsom, C. A. J., Firth, J., Kibowski, F., Egan, V., Sumich, A. L., & Heym, N. (2021). Dark shadow of the self: How the dark triad and empathy impact parental and intimate adult attachment relationships in women. Forensic Science International: Mind and Law, 2, 100045. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsiml.2021.100045 Breithaupt, F., & Hamilton, A. B. B. (2019). The dark sides of empathy (1st edition. ed.). Cornell University Press. https://doi.org/10.7591/9781501735608 Decety, J. (2015). The neural pathways, development and functions of empathy. Current opinion in behavioural sciences, 3, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2014.12.001 di Giacomo, E., Andreini, E., Lorusso, O., & Clerici, M. (2023). The dark side of empathy in narcissistic personality disorder. Front Psychiatry, 14, 1074558. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1074558 Duradoni, M., Gursesli, M. C., Fiorenza, M., Donati, A., & Guazzini, A. (2023). Cognitive Empathy and the Dark Triad: A Literature Review. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education (EJIHPE), 13(11), 2642-2680. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe13110184 Galán, M., Gerber, N., Valls, L., Molina, S., & Pineda, D. (2026). Dark Empaths and Intimate Partner Violence: A Latent Profile Analysis of Dark Tetrad Traits and Empathy Dimensions in Face-to-Face and Cyber Violence Perpetration. Behavioural sciences, 16(10), 1780. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16101780 Gojković, V., Dostanić, J. S., & Đurić, V. (2022). Structure of darkness: The Dark Triad, the ‘Dark’ Empathy and the ‘Dark’ Narcissism. Primenjena psihologija (Online), 15(2), 237-268. https://doi.org/10.19090/pp.v15i2.2380 Guo, Q., Li, S., Liang, J., Yu, X., & Lv, Y. (2023). Mindfulness may be associated with less prosocial engagement among high intelligence individuals. Scientific reports, 13(1), 4208. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31039-3 Hepper, E. G., Hart, C. M., & Sedikides, C. (2014). Moving Narcissus: Can Narcissists Be Empathic? Personality & social psychology bulletin, 40(9), 1079-1091. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167214535812 Heym, N., Firth, J., Kibowski, F., Sumich, A., Egan, V., & Bloxsom, C. A. (2019). Empathy at the heart of darkness: Empathy deficits that bind the dark triad and those that mediate indirect relational aggression. Frontiers in psychiatry, 10, 95. Heym, N., Kibowski, F., Bloxsom, C. A. J., Blanchard, A., Harper, A., Wallace, L., Firth, J., & Sumich, A. (2021). The Dark Empath: Characterising dark traits in the presence of empathy. Personality and Individual Differences, 169, 110172-110172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110172 Huang, C., Wu, Z., Sha, S., Liu, C., Yang, L., Jiang, P., Zhang, H., & Yang, C. (2025). The Dark Side of Empathy: The Role of Excessive Affective Empathy in Mental Health Disorders. Biological psychiatry (1969), 98(5), 404-415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2024.12.020 Hurezan, L., Miu, A. C., Costea, A., & Visu-Petra, L. (2026). Dark Personality, Empathy, and Prosocial Behaviour in Convicted Offenders. Scientific reports, 16(1), 4117-4177. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-34229-3 Iverson, K. M., Gradus, J. L., Resick, P. A., Suvak, M. K., Smith, K. F., & Monson, C. M. (2011). Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy for PTSD and Depression Symptoms Reduces Risk for Future Intimate Partner Violence Among Interpersonal Trauma Survivors. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 79(2), 193-202. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022512 Jiang, X., Liu, C., Xiao, X., & Zhan, Y. (2024). Role of narcissism and empathy in the relationship between parental attachment and moral response patterns. European journal of developmental psychology, 21(3), 365-387. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2024.2325173 Jonason, P. K., & Kroll, C. H. (2015). A Multidimensional View of the Relationship Between Empathy and the Dark Triad. Journal of individual differences, 36(3), 150-156. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000166 Kaufman, S. B., Yaden, D. B., Hyde, E., & Tsukayama, E. (2019). The Light vs. Dark Triad of Personality: Contrasting Two Very Different Profiles of Human Nature [Original Research]. Frontiers in psychology, Volume 10 - 2019. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00467 Mededovic, J., & Petrovic, B. (2015). The Dark Tetrad: Structural Properties and Location in the Personality Space. Journal of individual differences, 36(4), 228-236. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000179 Qiu, X., Gao, M., Zhu, H., Li, W., & Jiang, R. (2024). Theory of mind, empathy, and prosocial behaviour in children and adolescent: A meta-analysis. Current psychology (New Brunswick, N.J.), 43(22), 19690-19707. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-05762-7 Rabinowitch, T.-C., Cross, I., & Burnard, P. (2013). Long-term musical group interaction has a positive influence on empathy in children. Psychology of music, 41(4), 484-498. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735612440609 Rogers, C. R. (1951). Client-centered therapy; its current practice, implications, and theory. Houghton Mifflin. Shukla, M., & Upadhyay, N. (2025). Cold hearts and dark minds: A systematic review and meta-analysis of empathy across dark triad personalities. Frontiers in psychiatry, 16, 1546917. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1546917 Throop, C. J., Zahavi, D., de Lucas Freitas, J., Groark, K. P., Maibom, H., Satne, G. L., Stueber, K. R., & Trnka, S. (2020). Dark and Bright Empathy: Phenomenological and Anthropological Reflections. Current anthropology, 61(3), 283-303. https://doi.org/10.1086/708844 Vonk, J., Zeigler-Hill, V., Ewing, D., Mercer, S., & Noser, A. E. (2015). Mindreading in the dark: Dark personality features and theory of mind. Personality and Individual Differences, 87, 50-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.025 Wellman, H. M., & Liu, D. (2004). Scaling of Theory-of-Mind Tasks. Child development, 75(2), 523-541. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00691.x Yan, Z., Zeng, X., Su, J., & Zhang, X. (2021). The dark side of empathy: Meta‐analysis evidence of the relationship between empathy and depression. PsyCh journal (Victoria, Australia), 10(5), 794-804. https://doi.org/10.1002/pchj.482 }} ==External links== * [https://www.sciencefocus.com/wellbeing/dark-empaths Dark Empaths] (Science Focus) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/dark-tetrad Dark Tetrad] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.theguardian.com/science/2024/nov/10/narcissists-only-more-devious-the-truth-about-dark-empaths 'Narcissists - only more devious': the truth about dark empaths] (the Guardian) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] s2d2fcryc1jd22sxnlhw28vdmyz9g45 2840873 2840871 2026-10-17T06:33:14Z U3228742 3005570 /* Conclusion */ updating grammar 2840873 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Dark empathy:<br>What is dark empathy, what are its consequences, and what can be done to address it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario In a workplace, a new colleague, Addison, joined a close-knit team. He is charming and empathises with each team member. Addison fits in the team very well and many of the colleagues to him for advice. The lead role for a project becomes available and several members of the team decide to apply. One member, Charlie, takes Addison’s offer to help them prepare for the promotion. Charlie shares her fears and her perceived weaknesses for the role. Before the interviews, Addison strategically reminds Charlie about her weaknesses with a supportive twist. ''“Good luck, Charlie. Take a breath and pause to avoid speaking too quickly. Despite your limited leadership experience, your skills speak for themselves. You got this!”'' Charlie felt very nervous and stumbled in the interview. She de-briefed with another colleague who said she never heard her speak quickly when nervous. She was known for keeping a calm front under pressure. After a few weeks, the promotion is given to Addison. No one knew Addison had applied and the team was shocked since they have limited skills in this area of the work. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Empathy can have a bright and dark side (Throop et al., 2020). The concern is when individuals with dark tetrad personality traits leverage their understanding of emotions and feelings to manipulate, control, or exploit to others. Dark empathy is a developed skill that uses the understanding of emotion and people's vulnerabilities against them to control and manipulate for their advantage (Throop et al., 2020). To consider the use of dark empathy, we need to understanding why and how people use it. Individuals with high dark tetrads usually struggle to understand body language and emotion. The ability to understand emotion and feelings allow these dark trait individuals to go undetected for longer and have better control of those around them. The ability to deceive and hide makes addressing the underlying behavioural problems harder. Their continued strategic and charming manipulation destroy the psychological safety of others around them. Research indicates understanding emotional intelligence, the dark tetrad, and theory of mind could assist with understanding the use of dark empathy (Vonk et al., 2015). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} ;Focus questions *How does dark empathy develop? *What drives an individual to use empathy to control and manipulate other people in their life? *How can psychological theory develop strategies to understand and assist individuals mitigate the negative effects of empathy? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The development of empathy == [[Empathy]] is the ability to share feelings and thoughts of others while remaining self-other distinction (Håkansson Eklund & Summer Meranius, 2021). This means a person can understand someone else’s experience while maintaining their identity. Empathy is not an innate but learned and developed. It can be cultivated through techniques to understand other's feelings and foster [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|pro-social behaviour]] (Abramson, 2021). Research found that teenagers learn empathy through their parent’s (Jiang et al., 2024), social groups (Decety, 2015), listening to music (Rabinowitch et al., 2013), and reading books particularly fiction (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013). Understanding how this foundational trait is normally developed provides a necessary baseline for examining how dark personalities can subvert empathy into a tool for manipulation. === The dark tetrad === [[File:Dark-triad-dark-tetrad-1.webp|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' The dark traits updated to include the fourth element of sadism. This created the dark tetrad of personality traits. ]] Dark personality traits were called the dark triad (Paulhus & Williams, 2002). An expansion on these traits were to include a fourth element, sadism (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015). There are four elements to the dark tetrad (see Figure 1): * Narcissism * Machiavellianism * Psychopathy * Sadism These traits demonstrate dark individuals have limited ability to comprehend other’s emotions and read their mental states (Vonk et al., 2015). Individuals are self-centred, emotionally unstable, and focused on anti-social behaviour which leads to few of them demonstrating empathy (Kaufman et al., 2019). See Table 1 for the breakdown of the personality traits. '''Table 1'''. Dark tetrad personality traits breakdown and behavioural signs {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Personality traits !! Definition !! Behavioural signs |- | '''Narcissism''' || Self-importance and constant need for admiration || Arrogance, entitlement, and bragging |- | '''Machiavellianism''' || Strategic manipulation, calculated world view and general distrust of motives and integrity || Deception, exploitation, and emotional detachment |- | '''Psychopathy''' || Lack of empathy, poor impulse control, and fearlessness || Reckless, charming, no remorse, and cruel |- | '''Sadism''' || Deriving pleasure or enjoyment from harming others || Bullying, shaming, and humiliating others |} === Theory of Mind (ToM) === Theory of Mind is the ability to understand the internal mental states of others, including their beliefs and intentions (Wellman & Liu, 2004). ToM plays an important role in understanding how dark trait individuals understand internal mental states to successfully navigate social environments. ToM and empathy are both important influences on [[Prosocial behavior|pro-social behaviour]] (Qiu et al., 2024), which involves sharing, caring, helping, donating, comforting, and cooperating (Guo et al., 2023). While individuals with dark trait do not demonstrate these behaviours (Hurezan et al., 2026), ToM explains how dark empathy assists individuals to understand others and their own motives (Qiu et al., 2024). Dark trait individuals use this ability to read other's mental states and exploit it for their personal gain (Gojković et al., 2022). Recognising other’s vulnerablitlities while monitoring their own mental state, makes strategically exploiting easier. Ultimately, dark empaths use ToM to understand their own mental state to maintain their charming, empathic mask while concealing their manipulation of their victims. === Types of empathy === Empathy has bright and dark sides as well two types (Throop et al., 2020): * Affective empathy is physical and emotional sharing of feelings **This involves experiencing with the other person which is found more commonly in bright empathy * Cognitive empathy is the intellectual understanding of another’s emotions and thoughts without feeling their pain. **This involves understanding, yet keeping that self-other determination which makes it easier for manipulating by utilising emotions against another Empathy relies on the individual to use it based on their morals and beliefs (Breithaupt & Hamilton, 2019). A study on parent's influence found that empathy was not increased in teens with narcissistic traits (Jiang et al., 2024). This shows that dark traits personalities are not affected by external influences. Therefore, understanding the specific type of empathy is key to understanding dark empathy. Cognitive empathy allows them to comprehend feelings and thoughts without experiencing the burden, it suits strategic manipulation tactics like Machiavellianism (Gojković et al., 2022). When the motivation is to deceive and control, cognitive empathy provides the tools to serve their interests. === Making of a dark empath === Dark empathy is understanding those feelings and harnessing them against others (Breithaupt & Hamilton, 2019). It often develops when children experience trauma that forces them to predict and understand others' emotions just to stay safe (Bloxsom et al., 2021). Later in life, dark traits (narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and sadism) use this skill to deceive and control (Gojković et al.,2022). Research assessing these personalities shows they do not share common societal ethics and morality (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015). Because they are less likely to be honest and fair, they use dark empathy and their flexible morals to justify manipulating vulnerabilities for their own advantage (Throop et al., 2020). This helps to achieve their goals. Dark empath is not a formal medical diagnosis. Instead, it is a term that mixes dark personality traits with high cognitive empathy (Duradoni et al., 2023). Cognitive empathy allows people to understand others’ thoughts and feelings without feeling them. This helps people with dark traits hide behind superficial charm, chronic lying, and a lack of remorse (Hepper et al., 2014; Vonk et al., 2015). For example, narcissists can create a mask to hide their self-centred goals and better manipulate others (Hepper et al., 2014). Another sign is affective dissonance. This is a twisted emotional reaction, such as feeling happy when someone else suffers (Gojković et al., 2022). In the end, people with high dark traits may develop dark empathy to serve their goals. == Consequences of dark empathy == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario continued Charlie was assigned to report to Addison on the project and found herself becoming anxious at their one-on-one performance meetings. Charlie would spend over an hour preparing for the meetings despite keeping meticulous progress notes. She feels exhausted after each interaction and starts doubting her skills. Addison finds it hard to keep up with the workload. Other team members have complained that Addison has not been running the project well. Addison’s boss reviews the work and finds Addison has not been monitoring the project. Charlie’s work had been the only compliment the boss had for the update. Addison takes credit for Charlie's work and claims he has been managing Charlie's failing performance. Addison is to provide an update on the project and Charlie's performance. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Empathy can lead to depression (Yan et al., 2021) as well as severe emotional distress and burnout (Huang et al., 2025). An individual can use cognitive empathy to deceive, manipulate and exploit (Huang et al., 2025). Using dark traits like charm and chronic lying (Gojković et al., 2022), dark empaths manipulate others to reach their goals while pretending to be an ally. Both the person using dark empathy and their victims suffer harm to their wellbeing (Heym et al., 2021). Perceiving emotions, planning a response, and controlling reactions take considerable energy. There is a physical component in controlling their body language and expression to disarm others (Throop et al., 2020). While bright empathy brings people together. dark empathy isolates individuals from others and communities (Throop et al., 2020). === Effects on victims of dark empathy === The immediate impacts on their relationships are subtle and unlikely to be noticed. Dark empaths use their charming demeanour and their strategic understanding of other’s emotions and feelings to appear kind and empathic. The strategic manipulation relies heavily on ToM to better understand their victim's weakness to exploit and deceive them. After gaslighting an individual, their victim will develop chronic anxiety, depression, lower self-esteem, emotional dependency (Yan et al., 2021), shame, and humiliation (Throop et al., 2020). The victim's mental wellbeing may become apparent first and impact all areas of their lives. This can isolate victim and their mental state can become easier for a dark empath to manipulate. Additionally, the dark trait personalities are often linked to aggressive behaviours which increases the likelihood of intimate partner violence (Galán et al., 2026). Dark empathy can lead to harmful outcomes for dark empath's victims that become clearer with more exposure to the skillset. === Outcome for dark empaths === An individual using dark empathy may find the indifference and emotional de-attachment to others useful for achieving their goals (Throop et al., 2020). The emotional distance can intervene serve as a protective factor or buffer to psychological distress for the dark empath (Heym et al., 2021). While empathy combined with self-judgement and/or over-thinking can cause emotional distress (Heym et al., 2021), an individual who has dark traits and ToM, using cognitive empathy (understanding but not sharing emotions), does not experience the same level of that distress. The ability to not feel the emotions makes them better at utilising other’s vulnerabilities without the consequences. Though controlling others is effective at first, keeping up the mask leads to burnout (Throop et al., 2020). The thought of losing control can cause aggressive behaviour, driven by fear and shame (di Giacomo et al., 2023). While dark trait individuals are more self-centred and lack the pro-social behaviours, hiding their nature can lead to depression and a loss of identity (Qiu et al., 2024). == Addressing dark empathy == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario continued After talking to another colleague, Charlie notices her mental health is declining. She reaches out to the Employee Assistance Program (EAP) for support about her stress. The counsellor asks Charlie to consider when the anxiety and lower self-esteem started. She starts to realise it links back to Addison. Addison continues to blame Charlie for the project's failures. Addison fails to develop the deliverables in time for the boss’ deadline and a meeting is set up with him up with an EAP counsellor. Addison talks about Charlie's 'failures' and the counsellor asks Addison to consider his behaviour and input into the situation. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Dark empathy is not easily recognised as it can lower the appearance of aggressive behaviours in individuals with dark personalities traits (Heym et al., 2021). For example; a narcissist or sociopath may use understanding of ToM to influence others while a dark empath uses their cognitive empathy to control and most likely enjoy other's vulnerable emotions (Heym et al., 2021). The impacts of dark empathy can be found in the relationships of the dark empath. Person-centred approach assists in recognising patterns, identifying behaviours and setting boundaries (Galán et al., 2026). === Recovering from a dark empath === After dealing with a dark empath, an individual may find it hard to notice the patterns. Individual needs to set healthy emotional boundaries in this relationship which can be assisted by seeking therapy to identify patterns and how to address them. Person-centre framework (also known as client-centred approach) (Rogers, 1951) can assist in developing strategies and understanding the patterns they experienced (Galán et al., 2026). Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) would be effective for unlearning the patterns of abuse and understanding their trauma (Iverson et al., 2011) from the dark empath. === Unravelling from dark empathy === For a dark empath, the first step is recognizing their controlling behaviour and how it harms everyone's well-being. Carl Rogers' approach helps people understand who they are and who they want to be. This self-awareness lets them accept their dark traits and build stronger social skills (Galán et al., 2026). Some therapies that would be appropriate and effective for dark empaths are: *Dialectial behaviour therapy **This therapy allows people to talk through and accept their intense feelings (di Giacomo et al., 2023). *[[w:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive Behaviour Therapy]] (CBT) **This therapy assists in addressing anti-social behaviours and fosters pro-social behaviours (Shukla & Upadhyay, 2025) The steps to acknowledging the behaviours and traits are not easy process. Considering their dark traits lack of self-judgement, sense of self importance, enjoy in harming others, these dark trait individuals show little desire to go to therapy for the sake of others (di Giacomo et al., 2023). Their dark traits cause anti-social behaviours and a disregard the impact of their actions. Their lack self-judgement prevents them seeing themselves as part of the problem. == Conclusion == Dark empathy is a demonstration of how learning can be adapted to suit one’s desires. While it can develop through parental influence (Jiang et al., 2024), social experience (Decety, 2015), listening to music (Rabinowitch et al., 2013), and reading fiction (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013), it depends on morality of the individual. Understanding dark empathy is crucial for identifying and treating people with dark personality traits. Rather than genuinely sharing feelings, dark empaths use cognitive empathy as a tool to trick, manipulate, and exploit others (Heym et al., 2021). While traits like psychopathy and sadism usually involve anti-social behaviour, a lack of empathy, and joy in others' pain (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015), dark empaths fake emotional awareness and pro-social behaviour (Hurezan et al., 2026). This makes them difficult to spot, leaving victims vulnerable to gaslighting and emotional abuse. Consequently, standard person-centred frameworks are limited in effectiveness because these individuals rarely self-identify or seek help. ==See also== *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Dark triad personality and emotion|Dark triad personality and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional intelligence and anti-social behaviour|Emotional intelligence and antisocial behaviour]] (Book chapter, 2019) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Emotional intelligence and the dark triad|Emotional intelligence and the dark triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) *[[wikipedia:Machiavellianism_(psychology)|Machiavellianism]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Narcissism|Narcissism]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Psychopathy|Psychopathy]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Dark_triad|The Dark Triad]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Abramson, A. (2021, November 1). Cultivating empathy. Monitor on Psychology, 52(8). https://www.apa.org/monitor/2021/11/feature-cultivating-empathy Bal, P. M., & Veltkamp, M. (2013). How Does Fiction Reading Influence Empathy? An Experimental Investigation on the Role of Emotional Transportation. PloS one, 8(1), e55341. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0055341 Bloxsom, C. A. J., Firth, J., Kibowski, F., Egan, V., Sumich, A. L., & Heym, N. (2021). Dark shadow of the self: How the dark triad and empathy impact parental and intimate adult attachment relationships in women. Forensic Science International: Mind and Law, 2, 100045. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsiml.2021.100045 Breithaupt, F., & Hamilton, A. B. B. (2019). The dark sides of empathy (1st edition. ed.). Cornell University Press. https://doi.org/10.7591/9781501735608 Decety, J. (2015). The neural pathways, development and functions of empathy. Current opinion in behavioural sciences, 3, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2014.12.001 di Giacomo, E., Andreini, E., Lorusso, O., & Clerici, M. (2023). The dark side of empathy in narcissistic personality disorder. Front Psychiatry, 14, 1074558. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1074558 Duradoni, M., Gursesli, M. C., Fiorenza, M., Donati, A., & Guazzini, A. (2023). Cognitive Empathy and the Dark Triad: A Literature Review. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education (EJIHPE), 13(11), 2642-2680. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe13110184 Galán, M., Gerber, N., Valls, L., Molina, S., & Pineda, D. (2026). Dark Empaths and Intimate Partner Violence: A Latent Profile Analysis of Dark Tetrad Traits and Empathy Dimensions in Face-to-Face and Cyber Violence Perpetration. Behavioural sciences, 16(10), 1780. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16101780 Gojković, V., Dostanić, J. S., & Đurić, V. (2022). Structure of darkness: The Dark Triad, the ‘Dark’ Empathy and the ‘Dark’ Narcissism. Primenjena psihologija (Online), 15(2), 237-268. https://doi.org/10.19090/pp.v15i2.2380 Guo, Q., Li, S., Liang, J., Yu, X., & Lv, Y. (2023). Mindfulness may be associated with less prosocial engagement among high intelligence individuals. Scientific reports, 13(1), 4208. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31039-3 Hepper, E. G., Hart, C. M., & Sedikides, C. (2014). Moving Narcissus: Can Narcissists Be Empathic? Personality & social psychology bulletin, 40(9), 1079-1091. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167214535812 Heym, N., Firth, J., Kibowski, F., Sumich, A., Egan, V., & Bloxsom, C. A. (2019). Empathy at the heart of darkness: Empathy deficits that bind the dark triad and those that mediate indirect relational aggression. Frontiers in psychiatry, 10, 95. Heym, N., Kibowski, F., Bloxsom, C. A. J., Blanchard, A., Harper, A., Wallace, L., Firth, J., & Sumich, A. (2021). The Dark Empath: Characterising dark traits in the presence of empathy. Personality and Individual Differences, 169, 110172-110172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110172 Huang, C., Wu, Z., Sha, S., Liu, C., Yang, L., Jiang, P., Zhang, H., & Yang, C. (2025). The Dark Side of Empathy: The Role of Excessive Affective Empathy in Mental Health Disorders. Biological psychiatry (1969), 98(5), 404-415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2024.12.020 Hurezan, L., Miu, A. C., Costea, A., & Visu-Petra, L. (2026). Dark Personality, Empathy, and Prosocial Behaviour in Convicted Offenders. Scientific reports, 16(1), 4117-4177. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-34229-3 Iverson, K. M., Gradus, J. L., Resick, P. A., Suvak, M. K., Smith, K. F., & Monson, C. M. (2011). Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy for PTSD and Depression Symptoms Reduces Risk for Future Intimate Partner Violence Among Interpersonal Trauma Survivors. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 79(2), 193-202. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022512 Jiang, X., Liu, C., Xiao, X., & Zhan, Y. (2024). Role of narcissism and empathy in the relationship between parental attachment and moral response patterns. European journal of developmental psychology, 21(3), 365-387. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2024.2325173 Jonason, P. K., & Kroll, C. H. (2015). A Multidimensional View of the Relationship Between Empathy and the Dark Triad. Journal of individual differences, 36(3), 150-156. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000166 Kaufman, S. B., Yaden, D. B., Hyde, E., & Tsukayama, E. (2019). The Light vs. Dark Triad of Personality: Contrasting Two Very Different Profiles of Human Nature [Original Research]. Frontiers in psychology, Volume 10 - 2019. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00467 Mededovic, J., & Petrovic, B. (2015). The Dark Tetrad: Structural Properties and Location in the Personality Space. Journal of individual differences, 36(4), 228-236. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000179 Qiu, X., Gao, M., Zhu, H., Li, W., & Jiang, R. (2024). Theory of mind, empathy, and prosocial behaviour in children and adolescent: A meta-analysis. Current psychology (New Brunswick, N.J.), 43(22), 19690-19707. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-05762-7 Rabinowitch, T.-C., Cross, I., & Burnard, P. (2013). Long-term musical group interaction has a positive influence on empathy in children. Psychology of music, 41(4), 484-498. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735612440609 Rogers, C. R. (1951). Client-centered therapy; its current practice, implications, and theory. Houghton Mifflin. Shukla, M., & Upadhyay, N. (2025). Cold hearts and dark minds: A systematic review and meta-analysis of empathy across dark triad personalities. Frontiers in psychiatry, 16, 1546917. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1546917 Throop, C. J., Zahavi, D., de Lucas Freitas, J., Groark, K. P., Maibom, H., Satne, G. L., Stueber, K. R., & Trnka, S. (2020). Dark and Bright Empathy: Phenomenological and Anthropological Reflections. Current anthropology, 61(3), 283-303. https://doi.org/10.1086/708844 Vonk, J., Zeigler-Hill, V., Ewing, D., Mercer, S., & Noser, A. E. (2015). Mindreading in the dark: Dark personality features and theory of mind. Personality and Individual Differences, 87, 50-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.025 Wellman, H. M., & Liu, D. (2004). Scaling of Theory-of-Mind Tasks. Child development, 75(2), 523-541. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00691.x Yan, Z., Zeng, X., Su, J., & Zhang, X. (2021). The dark side of empathy: Meta‐analysis evidence of the relationship between empathy and depression. PsyCh journal (Victoria, Australia), 10(5), 794-804. https://doi.org/10.1002/pchj.482 }} ==External links== * [https://www.sciencefocus.com/wellbeing/dark-empaths Dark Empaths] (Science Focus) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/dark-tetrad Dark Tetrad] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.theguardian.com/science/2024/nov/10/narcissists-only-more-devious-the-truth-about-dark-empaths 'Narcissists - only more devious': the truth about dark empaths] (the Guardian) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] ftvlotjwk5v90oprdgu5v1q8f78ut6t 2840886 2840873 2026-10-17T07:11:48Z U3228742 3005570 adding key takeaways 2840886 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Dark empathy:<br>What is dark empathy, what are its consequences, and what can be done to address it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario In a workplace, a new colleague, Addison, joined a close-knit team. He is charming and empathises with each team member. Addison fits in the team very well and many of the colleagues to him for advice. The lead role for a project becomes available and several members of the team decide to apply. One member, Charlie, takes Addison’s offer to help them prepare for the promotion. Charlie shares her fears and her perceived weaknesses for the role. Before the interviews, Addison strategically reminds Charlie about her weaknesses with a supportive twist. ''“Good luck, Charlie. Take a breath and pause to avoid speaking too quickly. Despite your limited leadership experience, your skills speak for themselves. You got this!”'' Charlie felt very nervous and stumbled in the interview. She de-briefed with another colleague who said she never heard her speak quickly when nervous. She was known for keeping a calm front under pressure. After a few weeks, the promotion is given to Addison. No one knew Addison had applied and the team was shocked since they have limited skills in this area of the work. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Empathy can have a bright and dark side (Throop et al., 2020). The concern is when individuals with dark tetrad personality traits leverage their understanding of emotions and feelings to manipulate, control, or exploit to others. Dark empathy is a developed skill that uses the understanding of emotion and people's vulnerabilities against them to control and manipulate for their advantage (Throop et al., 2020). To consider the use of dark empathy, we need to understanding why and how people use it. Individuals with high dark tetrads usually struggle to understand body language and emotion. The ability to understand emotion and feelings allow these dark trait individuals to go undetected for longer and have better control of those around them. The ability to deceive and hide makes addressing the underlying behavioural problems harder. Their continued strategic and charming manipulation destroy the psychological safety of others around them. Research indicates understanding emotional intelligence, the dark tetrad, and theory of mind could assist with understanding the use of dark empathy (Vonk et al., 2015). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} ;Focus questions *How does dark empathy develop? *What drives an individual to use empathy to control and manipulate other people in their life? *How can psychological theory develop strategies to understand and assist individuals mitigate the negative effects of empathy? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The development of empathy == [[Empathy]] is the ability to share feelings and thoughts of others while remaining self-other distinction (Håkansson Eklund & Summer Meranius, 2021). This means a person can understand someone else’s experience while maintaining their identity. Empathy is not an innate but learned and developed. It can be cultivated through techniques to understand other's feelings and foster [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|pro-social behaviour]] (Abramson, 2021). Research found that teenagers learn empathy through their parent’s (Jiang et al., 2024), social groups (Decety, 2015), listening to music (Rabinowitch et al., 2013), and reading books particularly fiction (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013). Understanding how this foundational trait is normally developed provides a necessary baseline for examining how dark personalities can subvert empathy into a tool for manipulation. === The dark tetrad === [[File:Dark-triad-dark-tetrad-1.webp|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' The dark traits updated to include the fourth element of sadism. This created the dark tetrad of personality traits. ]] Dark personality traits were called the dark triad (Paulhus & Williams, 2002). An expansion on these traits were to include a fourth element, sadism (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015). There are four elements to the dark tetrad (see Figure 1): * Narcissism * Machiavellianism * Psychopathy * Sadism These traits demonstrate dark individuals have limited ability to comprehend other’s emotions and read their mental states (Vonk et al., 2015). Individuals are self-centred, emotionally unstable, and focused on anti-social behaviour which leads to few of them demonstrating empathy (Kaufman et al., 2019). See Table 1 for the breakdown of the personality traits. '''Table 1'''. Dark tetrad personality traits breakdown and behavioural signs {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Personality traits !! Definition !! Behavioural signs |- | '''Narcissism''' || Self-importance and constant need for admiration || Arrogance, entitlement, and bragging |- | '''Machiavellianism''' || Strategic manipulation, calculated world view and general distrust of motives and integrity || Deception, exploitation, and emotional detachment |- | '''Psychopathy''' || Lack of empathy, poor impulse control, and fearlessness || Reckless, charming, no remorse, and cruel |- | '''Sadism''' || Deriving pleasure or enjoyment from harming others || Bullying, shaming, and humiliating others |} === Theory of Mind (ToM) === Theory of Mind is the ability to understand the internal mental states of others, including their beliefs and intentions (Wellman & Liu, 2004). ToM plays an important role in understanding how dark trait individuals understand internal mental states to successfully navigate social environments. ToM and empathy are both important influences on [[Prosocial behavior|pro-social behaviour]] (Qiu et al., 2024), which involves sharing, caring, helping, donating, comforting, and cooperating (Guo et al., 2023). While individuals with dark trait do not demonstrate these behaviours (Hurezan et al., 2026), ToM explains how dark empathy assists individuals to understand others and their own motives (Qiu et al., 2024). Dark trait individuals use this ability to read other's mental states and exploit it for their personal gain (Gojković et al., 2022). Recognising other’s vulnerablitlities while monitoring their own mental state, makes strategically exploiting easier. Ultimately, dark empaths use ToM to understand their own mental state to maintain their charming, empathic mask while concealing their manipulation of their victims. === Types of empathy === Empathy has bright and dark sides as well two types (Throop et al., 2020): * Affective empathy is physical and emotional sharing of feelings **This involves experiencing with the other person which is found more commonly in bright empathy * Cognitive empathy is the intellectual understanding of another’s emotions and thoughts without feeling their pain. **This involves understanding, yet keeping that self-other determination which makes it easier for manipulating by utilising emotions against another Empathy relies on the individual to use it based on their morals and beliefs (Breithaupt & Hamilton, 2019). A study on parent's influence found that empathy was not increased in teens with narcissistic traits (Jiang et al., 2024). This shows that dark traits personalities are not affected by external influences. Therefore, understanding the specific type of empathy is key to understanding dark empathy. Cognitive empathy allows them to comprehend feelings and thoughts without experiencing the burden, it suits strategic manipulation tactics like Machiavellianism (Gojković et al., 2022). When the motivation is to deceive and control, cognitive empathy provides the tools to serve their interests. === Making of a dark empath === Dark empathy is understanding those feelings and harnessing them against others (Breithaupt & Hamilton, 2019). It often develops when children experience trauma that forces them to predict and understand others' emotions just to stay safe (Bloxsom et al., 2021). Later in life, dark traits (narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and sadism) use this skill to deceive and control (Gojković et al.,2022). Research assessing these personalities shows they do not share common societal ethics and morality (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015). Because they are less likely to be honest and fair, they use dark empathy and their flexible morals to justify manipulating vulnerabilities for their own advantage (Throop et al., 2020). This helps to achieve their goals. Dark empath is not a formal medical diagnosis. Instead, it is a term that mixes dark personality traits with high cognitive empathy (Duradoni et al., 2023). Cognitive empathy allows people to understand others’ thoughts and feelings without feeling them. This helps people with dark traits hide behind superficial charm, chronic lying, and a lack of remorse (Hepper et al., 2014; Vonk et al., 2015). For example, narcissists can create a mask to hide their self-centred goals and better manipulate others (Hepper et al., 2014). Another sign is affective dissonance. This is a twisted emotional reaction, such as feeling happy when someone else suffers (Gojković et al., 2022). In the end, people with high dark traits may develop dark empathy to serve their goals. == Consequences of dark empathy == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario continued Charlie was assigned to report to Addison on the project and found herself becoming anxious at their one-on-one performance meetings. Charlie would spend over an hour preparing for the meetings despite keeping meticulous progress notes. She feels exhausted after each interaction and starts doubting her skills. Addison finds it hard to keep up with the workload. Other team members have complained that Addison has not been running the project well. Addison’s boss reviews the work and finds Addison has not been monitoring the project. Charlie’s work had been the only compliment the boss had for the update. Addison takes credit for Charlie's work and claims he has been managing Charlie's failing performance. Addison is to provide an update on the project and Charlie's performance. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Empathy can lead to depression (Yan et al., 2021) as well as severe emotional distress and burnout (Huang et al., 2025). An individual can use cognitive empathy to deceive, manipulate and exploit (Huang et al., 2025). Using dark traits like charm and chronic lying (Gojković et al., 2022), dark empaths manipulate others to reach their goals while pretending to be an ally. Both the person using dark empathy and their victims suffer harm to their wellbeing (Heym et al., 2021). Perceiving emotions, planning a response, and controlling reactions take considerable energy. There is a physical component in controlling their body language and expression to disarm others (Throop et al., 2020). While bright empathy brings people together. dark empathy isolates individuals from others and communities (Throop et al., 2020). === Effects on victims of dark empathy === The immediate impacts on their relationships are subtle and unlikely to be noticed. Dark empaths use their charming demeanour and their strategic understanding of other’s emotions and feelings to appear kind and empathic. The strategic manipulation relies heavily on ToM to better understand their victim's weakness to exploit and deceive them. After gaslighting an individual, their victim will develop chronic anxiety, depression, lower self-esteem, emotional dependency (Yan et al., 2021), shame, and humiliation (Throop et al., 2020). The victim's mental wellbeing may become apparent first and impact all areas of their lives. This can isolate victim and their mental state can become easier for a dark empath to manipulate. Additionally, the dark trait personalities are often linked to aggressive behaviours which increases the likelihood of intimate partner violence (Galán et al., 2026). Dark empathy can lead to harmful outcomes for dark empath's victims that become clearer with more exposure to the skillset. === Outcome for dark empaths === An individual using dark empathy may find the indifference and emotional de-attachment to others useful for achieving their goals (Throop et al., 2020). The emotional distance can intervene serve as a protective factor or buffer to psychological distress for the dark empath (Heym et al., 2021). While empathy combined with self-judgement and/or over-thinking can cause emotional distress (Heym et al., 2021), an individual who has dark traits and ToM, using cognitive empathy (understanding but not sharing emotions), does not experience the same level of that distress. The ability to not feel the emotions makes them better at utilising other’s vulnerabilities without the consequences. Though controlling others is effective at first, keeping up the mask leads to burnout (Throop et al., 2020). The thought of losing control can cause aggressive behaviour, driven by fear and shame (di Giacomo et al., 2023). While dark trait individuals are more self-centred and lack the pro-social behaviours, hiding their nature can lead to depression and a loss of identity (Qiu et al., 2024). == Addressing dark empathy == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario continued After talking to another colleague, Charlie notices her mental health is declining. She reaches out to the Employee Assistance Program (EAP) for support about her stress. The counsellor asks Charlie to consider when the anxiety and lower self-esteem started. She starts to realise it links back to Addison. Addison continues to blame Charlie for the project's failures. Addison fails to develop the deliverables in time for the boss’ deadline and a meeting is set up with him up with an EAP counsellor. Addison talks about Charlie's 'failures' and the counsellor asks Addison to consider his behaviour and input into the situation. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Dark empathy is not easily recognised as it can lower the appearance of aggressive behaviours in individuals with dark personalities traits (Heym et al., 2021). For example; a narcissist or sociopath may use understanding of ToM to influence others while a dark empath uses their cognitive empathy to control and most likely enjoy other's vulnerable emotions (Heym et al., 2021). The impacts of dark empathy can be found in the relationships of the dark empath. Person-centred approach assists in recognising patterns, identifying behaviours and setting boundaries (Galán et al., 2026). === Recovering from a dark empath === After dealing with a dark empath, an individual may find it hard to notice the patterns. Individual needs to set healthy emotional boundaries in this relationship which can be assisted by seeking therapy to identify patterns and how to address them. Person-centre framework (also known as client-centred approach) (Rogers, 1951) can assist in developing strategies and understanding the patterns they experienced (Galán et al., 2026). Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) would be effective for unlearning the patterns of abuse and understanding their trauma (Iverson et al., 2011) from the dark empath. === Unravelling from dark empathy === For a dark empath, the first step is recognizing their controlling behaviour and how it harms everyone's well-being. Carl Rogers' approach helps people understand who they are and who they want to be. This self-awareness lets them accept their dark traits and build stronger social skills (Galán et al., 2026). Some therapies that would be appropriate and effective for dark empaths are: *Dialectial behaviour therapy **This therapy allows people to talk through and accept their intense feelings (di Giacomo et al., 2023). *[[w:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive Behaviour Therapy]] (CBT) **This therapy assists in addressing anti-social behaviours and fosters pro-social behaviours (Shukla & Upadhyay, 2025) The steps to acknowledging the behaviours and traits are not easy process. Considering their dark traits lack of self-judgement, sense of self importance, enjoy in harming others, these dark trait individuals show little desire to go to therapy for the sake of others (di Giacomo et al., 2023). Their dark traits cause anti-social behaviours and a disregard the impact of their actions. Their lack self-judgement prevents them seeing themselves as part of the problem. == Conclusion == Dark empathy is a demonstration of how learning can be adapted to suit one’s desires. While it can develop through parental influence (Jiang et al., 2024), social experience (Decety, 2015), listening to music (Rabinowitch et al., 2013), and reading fiction (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013), it depends on morality of the individual. Understanding dark empathy is crucial for identifying and treating people with dark personality traits. Rather than genuinely sharing feelings, dark empaths use cognitive empathy as a tool to trick, manipulate, and exploit others (Heym et al., 2021). While traits like psychopathy and sadism usually involve anti-social behaviour, a lack of empathy, and joy in others' pain (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015), dark empaths fake emotional awareness and pro-social behaviour (Hurezan et al., 2026). This makes them difficult to spot, leaving victims vulnerable to gaslighting and emotional abuse. Consequently, standard person-centred frameworks are limited in effectiveness because these individuals rarely self-identify or seek help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} ;Key takeaway messages *Empathy can be developed, yet how it is used depends on the person's personality and sense of morals *Empathy has a bright and dark side. It can be as easy to use empathy's dark side for someone else's gain. *ToM can help understand how cognitive empathy is used. This is important to consider people's motivations and knowing how they can manipulate others. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also== *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Dark triad personality and emotion|Dark triad personality and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional intelligence and anti-social behaviour|Emotional intelligence and antisocial behaviour]] (Book chapter, 2019) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Emotional intelligence and the dark triad|Emotional intelligence and the dark triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) *[[wikipedia:Machiavellianism_(psychology)|Machiavellianism]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Narcissism|Narcissism]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Psychopathy|Psychopathy]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Dark_triad|The Dark Triad]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Abramson, A. (2021, November 1). Cultivating empathy. Monitor on Psychology, 52(8). https://www.apa.org/monitor/2021/11/feature-cultivating-empathy Bal, P. M., & Veltkamp, M. (2013). How Does Fiction Reading Influence Empathy? An Experimental Investigation on the Role of Emotional Transportation. PloS one, 8(1), e55341. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0055341 Bloxsom, C. A. J., Firth, J., Kibowski, F., Egan, V., Sumich, A. L., & Heym, N. (2021). Dark shadow of the self: How the dark triad and empathy impact parental and intimate adult attachment relationships in women. Forensic Science International: Mind and Law, 2, 100045. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsiml.2021.100045 Breithaupt, F., & Hamilton, A. B. B. (2019). The dark sides of empathy (1st edition. ed.). Cornell University Press. https://doi.org/10.7591/9781501735608 Decety, J. (2015). The neural pathways, development and functions of empathy. Current opinion in behavioural sciences, 3, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2014.12.001 di Giacomo, E., Andreini, E., Lorusso, O., & Clerici, M. (2023). The dark side of empathy in narcissistic personality disorder. Front Psychiatry, 14, 1074558. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1074558 Duradoni, M., Gursesli, M. C., Fiorenza, M., Donati, A., & Guazzini, A. (2023). Cognitive Empathy and the Dark Triad: A Literature Review. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education (EJIHPE), 13(11), 2642-2680. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe13110184 Galán, M., Gerber, N., Valls, L., Molina, S., & Pineda, D. (2026). Dark Empaths and Intimate Partner Violence: A Latent Profile Analysis of Dark Tetrad Traits and Empathy Dimensions in Face-to-Face and Cyber Violence Perpetration. Behavioural sciences, 16(10), 1780. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16101780 Gojković, V., Dostanić, J. S., & Đurić, V. (2022). Structure of darkness: The Dark Triad, the ‘Dark’ Empathy and the ‘Dark’ Narcissism. Primenjena psihologija (Online), 15(2), 237-268. https://doi.org/10.19090/pp.v15i2.2380 Guo, Q., Li, S., Liang, J., Yu, X., & Lv, Y. (2023). Mindfulness may be associated with less prosocial engagement among high intelligence individuals. Scientific reports, 13(1), 4208. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31039-3 Hepper, E. G., Hart, C. M., & Sedikides, C. (2014). Moving Narcissus: Can Narcissists Be Empathic? Personality & social psychology bulletin, 40(9), 1079-1091. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167214535812 Heym, N., Firth, J., Kibowski, F., Sumich, A., Egan, V., & Bloxsom, C. A. (2019). Empathy at the heart of darkness: Empathy deficits that bind the dark triad and those that mediate indirect relational aggression. Frontiers in psychiatry, 10, 95. Heym, N., Kibowski, F., Bloxsom, C. A. J., Blanchard, A., Harper, A., Wallace, L., Firth, J., & Sumich, A. (2021). The Dark Empath: Characterising dark traits in the presence of empathy. Personality and Individual Differences, 169, 110172-110172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110172 Huang, C., Wu, Z., Sha, S., Liu, C., Yang, L., Jiang, P., Zhang, H., & Yang, C. (2025). The Dark Side of Empathy: The Role of Excessive Affective Empathy in Mental Health Disorders. Biological psychiatry (1969), 98(5), 404-415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2024.12.020 Hurezan, L., Miu, A. C., Costea, A., & Visu-Petra, L. (2026). Dark Personality, Empathy, and Prosocial Behaviour in Convicted Offenders. Scientific reports, 16(1), 4117-4177. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-34229-3 Iverson, K. M., Gradus, J. L., Resick, P. A., Suvak, M. K., Smith, K. F., & Monson, C. M. (2011). Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy for PTSD and Depression Symptoms Reduces Risk for Future Intimate Partner Violence Among Interpersonal Trauma Survivors. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 79(2), 193-202. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022512 Jiang, X., Liu, C., Xiao, X., & Zhan, Y. (2024). Role of narcissism and empathy in the relationship between parental attachment and moral response patterns. European journal of developmental psychology, 21(3), 365-387. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2024.2325173 Jonason, P. K., & Kroll, C. H. (2015). A Multidimensional View of the Relationship Between Empathy and the Dark Triad. Journal of individual differences, 36(3), 150-156. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000166 Kaufman, S. B., Yaden, D. B., Hyde, E., & Tsukayama, E. (2019). The Light vs. Dark Triad of Personality: Contrasting Two Very Different Profiles of Human Nature [Original Research]. Frontiers in psychology, Volume 10 - 2019. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00467 Mededovic, J., & Petrovic, B. (2015). The Dark Tetrad: Structural Properties and Location in the Personality Space. Journal of individual differences, 36(4), 228-236. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000179 Qiu, X., Gao, M., Zhu, H., Li, W., & Jiang, R. (2024). Theory of mind, empathy, and prosocial behaviour in children and adolescent: A meta-analysis. Current psychology (New Brunswick, N.J.), 43(22), 19690-19707. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-05762-7 Rabinowitch, T.-C., Cross, I., & Burnard, P. (2013). Long-term musical group interaction has a positive influence on empathy in children. Psychology of music, 41(4), 484-498. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735612440609 Rogers, C. R. (1951). Client-centered therapy; its current practice, implications, and theory. Houghton Mifflin. Shukla, M., & Upadhyay, N. (2025). Cold hearts and dark minds: A systematic review and meta-analysis of empathy across dark triad personalities. Frontiers in psychiatry, 16, 1546917. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1546917 Throop, C. J., Zahavi, D., de Lucas Freitas, J., Groark, K. P., Maibom, H., Satne, G. L., Stueber, K. R., & Trnka, S. (2020). Dark and Bright Empathy: Phenomenological and Anthropological Reflections. Current anthropology, 61(3), 283-303. https://doi.org/10.1086/708844 Vonk, J., Zeigler-Hill, V., Ewing, D., Mercer, S., & Noser, A. E. (2015). Mindreading in the dark: Dark personality features and theory of mind. Personality and Individual Differences, 87, 50-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.025 Wellman, H. M., & Liu, D. (2004). Scaling of Theory-of-Mind Tasks. Child development, 75(2), 523-541. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00691.x Yan, Z., Zeng, X., Su, J., & Zhang, X. (2021). The dark side of empathy: Meta‐analysis evidence of the relationship between empathy and depression. PsyCh journal (Victoria, Australia), 10(5), 794-804. https://doi.org/10.1002/pchj.482 }} ==External links== * [https://www.sciencefocus.com/wellbeing/dark-empaths Dark Empaths] (Science Focus) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/dark-tetrad Dark Tetrad] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.theguardian.com/science/2024/nov/10/narcissists-only-more-devious-the-truth-about-dark-empaths 'Narcissists - only more devious': the truth about dark empaths] (the Guardian) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] c0x7ujejkxqmo2kpm1vpyjw77m1fqbl 2840887 2840886 2026-10-17T07:32:30Z U3228742 3005570 /* Conclusion */ updating the takeaway messages to look further research 2840887 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Dark empathy:<br>What is dark empathy, what are its consequences, and what can be done to address it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario In a workplace, a new colleague, Addison, joined a close-knit team. He is charming and empathises with each team member. Addison fits in the team very well and many of the colleagues to him for advice. The lead role for a project becomes available and several members of the team decide to apply. One member, Charlie, takes Addison’s offer to help them prepare for the promotion. Charlie shares her fears and her perceived weaknesses for the role. Before the interviews, Addison strategically reminds Charlie about her weaknesses with a supportive twist. ''“Good luck, Charlie. Take a breath and pause to avoid speaking too quickly. Despite your limited leadership experience, your skills speak for themselves. You got this!”'' Charlie felt very nervous and stumbled in the interview. She de-briefed with another colleague who said she never heard her speak quickly when nervous. She was known for keeping a calm front under pressure. After a few weeks, the promotion is given to Addison. No one knew Addison had applied and the team was shocked since they have limited skills in this area of the work. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Empathy can have a bright and dark side (Throop et al., 2020). The concern is when individuals with dark tetrad personality traits leverage their understanding of emotions and feelings to manipulate, control, or exploit to others. Dark empathy is a developed skill that uses the understanding of emotion and people's vulnerabilities against them to control and manipulate for their advantage (Throop et al., 2020). To consider the use of dark empathy, we need to understanding why and how people use it. Individuals with high dark tetrads usually struggle to understand body language and emotion. The ability to understand emotion and feelings allow these dark trait individuals to go undetected for longer and have better control of those around them. The ability to deceive and hide makes addressing the underlying behavioural problems harder. Their continued strategic and charming manipulation destroy the psychological safety of others around them. Research indicates understanding emotional intelligence, the dark tetrad, and theory of mind could assist with understanding the use of dark empathy (Vonk et al., 2015). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} ;Focus questions *How does dark empathy develop? *What drives an individual to use empathy to control and manipulate other people in their life? *How can psychological theory develop strategies to understand and assist individuals mitigate the negative effects of empathy? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The development of empathy == [[Empathy]] is the ability to share feelings and thoughts of others while remaining self-other distinction (Håkansson Eklund & Summer Meranius, 2021). This means a person can understand someone else’s experience while maintaining their identity. Empathy is not an innate but learned and developed. It can be cultivated through techniques to understand other's feelings and foster [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|pro-social behaviour]] (Abramson, 2021). Research found that teenagers learn empathy through their parent’s (Jiang et al., 2024), social groups (Decety, 2015), listening to music (Rabinowitch et al., 2013), and reading books particularly fiction (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013). Understanding how this foundational trait is normally developed provides a necessary baseline for examining how dark personalities can subvert empathy into a tool for manipulation. === The dark tetrad === [[File:Dark-triad-dark-tetrad-1.webp|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' The dark traits updated to include the fourth element of sadism. This created the dark tetrad of personality traits. ]] Dark personality traits were called the dark triad (Paulhus & Williams, 2002). An expansion on these traits were to include a fourth element, sadism (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015). There are four elements to the dark tetrad (see Figure 1): * Narcissism * Machiavellianism * Psychopathy * Sadism These traits demonstrate dark individuals have limited ability to comprehend other’s emotions and read their mental states (Vonk et al., 2015). Individuals are self-centred, emotionally unstable, and focused on anti-social behaviour which leads to few of them demonstrating empathy (Kaufman et al., 2019). See Table 1 for the breakdown of the personality traits. '''Table 1'''. Dark tetrad personality traits breakdown and behavioural signs {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Personality traits !! Definition !! Behavioural signs |- | '''Narcissism''' || Self-importance and constant need for admiration || Arrogance, entitlement, and bragging |- | '''Machiavellianism''' || Strategic manipulation, calculated world view and general distrust of motives and integrity || Deception, exploitation, and emotional detachment |- | '''Psychopathy''' || Lack of empathy, poor impulse control, and fearlessness || Reckless, charming, no remorse, and cruel |- | '''Sadism''' || Deriving pleasure or enjoyment from harming others || Bullying, shaming, and humiliating others |} === Theory of Mind (ToM) === Theory of Mind is the ability to understand the internal mental states of others, including their beliefs and intentions (Wellman & Liu, 2004). ToM plays an important role in understanding how dark trait individuals understand internal mental states to successfully navigate social environments. ToM and empathy are both important influences on [[Prosocial behavior|pro-social behaviour]] (Qiu et al., 2024), which involves sharing, caring, helping, donating, comforting, and cooperating (Guo et al., 2023). While individuals with dark trait do not demonstrate these behaviours (Hurezan et al., 2026), ToM explains how dark empathy assists individuals to understand others and their own motives (Qiu et al., 2024). Dark trait individuals use this ability to read other's mental states and exploit it for their personal gain (Gojković et al., 2022). Recognising other’s vulnerablitlities while monitoring their own mental state, makes strategically exploiting easier. Ultimately, dark empaths use ToM to understand their own mental state to maintain their charming, empathic mask while concealing their manipulation of their victims. === Types of empathy === Empathy has bright and dark sides as well two types (Throop et al., 2020): * Affective empathy is physical and emotional sharing of feelings **This involves experiencing with the other person which is found more commonly in bright empathy * Cognitive empathy is the intellectual understanding of another’s emotions and thoughts without feeling their pain. **This involves understanding, yet keeping that self-other determination which makes it easier for manipulating by utilising emotions against another Empathy relies on the individual to use it based on their morals and beliefs (Breithaupt & Hamilton, 2019). A study on parent's influence found that empathy was not increased in teens with narcissistic traits (Jiang et al., 2024). This shows that dark traits personalities are not affected by external influences. Therefore, understanding the specific type of empathy is key to understanding dark empathy. Cognitive empathy allows them to comprehend feelings and thoughts without experiencing the burden, it suits strategic manipulation tactics like Machiavellianism (Gojković et al., 2022). When the motivation is to deceive and control, cognitive empathy provides the tools to serve their interests. === Making of a dark empath === Dark empathy is understanding those feelings and harnessing them against others (Breithaupt & Hamilton, 2019). It often develops when children experience trauma that forces them to predict and understand others' emotions just to stay safe (Bloxsom et al., 2021). Later in life, dark traits (narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and sadism) use this skill to deceive and control (Gojković et al.,2022). Research assessing these personalities shows they do not share common societal ethics and morality (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015). Because they are less likely to be honest and fair, they use dark empathy and their flexible morals to justify manipulating vulnerabilities for their own advantage (Throop et al., 2020). This helps to achieve their goals. Dark empath is not a formal medical diagnosis. Instead, it is a term that mixes dark personality traits with high cognitive empathy (Duradoni et al., 2023). Cognitive empathy allows people to understand others’ thoughts and feelings without feeling them. This helps people with dark traits hide behind superficial charm, chronic lying, and a lack of remorse (Hepper et al., 2014; Vonk et al., 2015). For example, narcissists can create a mask to hide their self-centred goals and better manipulate others (Hepper et al., 2014). Another sign is affective dissonance. This is a twisted emotional reaction, such as feeling happy when someone else suffers (Gojković et al., 2022). In the end, people with high dark traits may develop dark empathy to serve their goals. == Consequences of dark empathy == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario continued Charlie was assigned to report to Addison on the project and found herself becoming anxious at their one-on-one performance meetings. Charlie would spend over an hour preparing for the meetings despite keeping meticulous progress notes. She feels exhausted after each interaction and starts doubting her skills. Addison finds it hard to keep up with the workload. Other team members have complained that Addison has not been running the project well. Addison’s boss reviews the work and finds Addison has not been monitoring the project. Charlie’s work had been the only compliment the boss had for the update. Addison takes credit for Charlie's work and claims he has been managing Charlie's failing performance. Addison is to provide an update on the project and Charlie's performance. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Empathy can lead to depression (Yan et al., 2021) as well as severe emotional distress and burnout (Huang et al., 2025). An individual can use cognitive empathy to deceive, manipulate and exploit (Huang et al., 2025). Using dark traits like charm and chronic lying (Gojković et al., 2022), dark empaths manipulate others to reach their goals while pretending to be an ally. Both the person using dark empathy and their victims suffer harm to their wellbeing (Heym et al., 2021). Perceiving emotions, planning a response, and controlling reactions take considerable energy. There is a physical component in controlling their body language and expression to disarm others (Throop et al., 2020). While bright empathy brings people together. dark empathy isolates individuals from others and communities (Throop et al., 2020). === Effects on victims of dark empathy === The immediate impacts on their relationships are subtle and unlikely to be noticed. Dark empaths use their charming demeanour and their strategic understanding of other’s emotions and feelings to appear kind and empathic. The strategic manipulation relies heavily on ToM to better understand their victim's weakness to exploit and deceive them. After gaslighting an individual, their victim will develop chronic anxiety, depression, lower self-esteem, emotional dependency (Yan et al., 2021), shame, and humiliation (Throop et al., 2020). The victim's mental wellbeing may become apparent first and impact all areas of their lives. This can isolate victim and their mental state can become easier for a dark empath to manipulate. Additionally, the dark trait personalities are often linked to aggressive behaviours which increases the likelihood of intimate partner violence (Galán et al., 2026). Dark empathy can lead to harmful outcomes for dark empath's victims that become clearer with more exposure to the skillset. === Outcome for dark empaths === An individual using dark empathy may find the indifference and emotional de-attachment to others useful for achieving their goals (Throop et al., 2020). The emotional distance can intervene serve as a protective factor or buffer to psychological distress for the dark empath (Heym et al., 2021). While empathy combined with self-judgement and/or over-thinking can cause emotional distress (Heym et al., 2021), an individual who has dark traits and ToM, using cognitive empathy (understanding but not sharing emotions), does not experience the same level of that distress. The ability to not feel the emotions makes them better at utilising other’s vulnerabilities without the consequences. Though controlling others is effective at first, keeping up the mask leads to burnout (Throop et al., 2020). The thought of losing control can cause aggressive behaviour, driven by fear and shame (di Giacomo et al., 2023). While dark trait individuals are more self-centred and lack the pro-social behaviours, hiding their nature can lead to depression and a loss of identity (Qiu et al., 2024). == Addressing dark empathy == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario continued After talking to another colleague, Charlie notices her mental health is declining. She reaches out to the Employee Assistance Program (EAP) for support about her stress. The counsellor asks Charlie to consider when the anxiety and lower self-esteem started. She starts to realise it links back to Addison. Addison continues to blame Charlie for the project's failures. Addison fails to develop the deliverables in time for the boss’ deadline and a meeting is set up with him up with an EAP counsellor. Addison talks about Charlie's 'failures' and the counsellor asks Addison to consider his behaviour and input into the situation. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Dark empathy is not easily recognised as it can lower the appearance of aggressive behaviours in individuals with dark personalities traits (Heym et al., 2021). For example; a narcissist or sociopath may use understanding of ToM to influence others while a dark empath uses their cognitive empathy to control and most likely enjoy other's vulnerable emotions (Heym et al., 2021). The impacts of dark empathy can be found in the relationships of the dark empath. Person-centred approach assists in recognising patterns, identifying behaviours and setting boundaries (Galán et al., 2026). === Recovering from a dark empath === After dealing with a dark empath, an individual may find it hard to notice the patterns. Individual needs to set healthy emotional boundaries in this relationship which can be assisted by seeking therapy to identify patterns and how to address them. Person-centre framework (also known as client-centred approach) (Rogers, 1951) can assist in developing strategies and understanding the patterns they experienced (Galán et al., 2026). Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) would be effective for unlearning the patterns of abuse and understanding their trauma (Iverson et al., 2011) from the dark empath. === Unravelling from dark empathy === For a dark empath, the first step is recognizing their controlling behaviour and how it harms everyone's well-being. Carl Rogers' approach helps people understand who they are and who they want to be. This self-awareness lets them accept their dark traits and build stronger social skills (Galán et al., 2026). Some therapies that would be appropriate and effective for dark empaths are: *Dialectial behaviour therapy **This therapy allows people to talk through and accept their intense feelings (di Giacomo et al., 2023). *[[w:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive Behaviour Therapy]] (CBT) **This therapy assists in addressing anti-social behaviours and fosters pro-social behaviours (Shukla & Upadhyay, 2025) The steps to acknowledging the behaviours and traits are not easy process. Considering their dark traits lack of self-judgement, sense of self importance, enjoy in harming others, these dark trait individuals show little desire to go to therapy for the sake of others (di Giacomo et al., 2023). Their dark traits cause anti-social behaviours and a disregard the impact of their actions. Their lack self-judgement prevents them seeing themselves as part of the problem. == Conclusion == Dark empathy is a demonstration of how learning can be adapted to suit one’s desires. While it can develop through parental influence (Jiang et al., 2024), social experience (Decety, 2015), listening to music (Rabinowitch et al., 2013), and reading fiction (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013), it depends on morality of the individual. Understanding dark empathy is crucial for identifying and treating people with dark personality traits. Rather than genuinely sharing feelings, dark empaths use cognitive empathy as a tool to trick, manipulate, and exploit others (Heym et al., 2021). While traits like psychopathy and sadism usually involve anti-social behaviour, a lack of empathy, and joy in others' pain (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015), dark empaths fake emotional awareness and pro-social behaviour (Hurezan et al., 2026). This makes them difficult to spot, leaving victims vulnerable to gaslighting and emotional abuse. Consequently, standard person-centred frameworks are limited in effectiveness because these individuals rarely self-identify or seek help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} ;Key takeaway messages *Empathy can be developed, yet how it is used depends on the person's personality and sense of morals *Empathy has a bright and dark side. Dark empathy is a lesser recognised and it's impacts have a large effect on their community. *ToM can help understand how cognitive empathy is used. This is important in considering people's motivations of using empathy. *Further research on dark empathy and the dark tetrad's use of it will significantly improve identification and assisting in developing effective prevention strategies for their victims {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also== *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Dark triad personality and emotion|Dark triad personality and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional intelligence and anti-social behaviour|Emotional intelligence and antisocial behaviour]] (Book chapter, 2019) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Emotional intelligence and the dark triad|Emotional intelligence and the dark triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) *[[wikipedia:Machiavellianism_(psychology)|Machiavellianism]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Narcissism|Narcissism]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Psychopathy|Psychopathy]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Dark_triad|The Dark Triad]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Abramson, A. (2021, November 1). Cultivating empathy. Monitor on Psychology, 52(8). https://www.apa.org/monitor/2021/11/feature-cultivating-empathy Bal, P. M., & Veltkamp, M. (2013). How Does Fiction Reading Influence Empathy? An Experimental Investigation on the Role of Emotional Transportation. PloS one, 8(1), e55341. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0055341 Bloxsom, C. A. J., Firth, J., Kibowski, F., Egan, V., Sumich, A. L., & Heym, N. (2021). Dark shadow of the self: How the dark triad and empathy impact parental and intimate adult attachment relationships in women. Forensic Science International: Mind and Law, 2, 100045. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsiml.2021.100045 Breithaupt, F., & Hamilton, A. B. B. (2019). The dark sides of empathy (1st edition. ed.). Cornell University Press. https://doi.org/10.7591/9781501735608 Decety, J. (2015). The neural pathways, development and functions of empathy. Current opinion in behavioural sciences, 3, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2014.12.001 di Giacomo, E., Andreini, E., Lorusso, O., & Clerici, M. (2023). The dark side of empathy in narcissistic personality disorder. Front Psychiatry, 14, 1074558. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1074558 Duradoni, M., Gursesli, M. C., Fiorenza, M., Donati, A., & Guazzini, A. (2023). Cognitive Empathy and the Dark Triad: A Literature Review. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education (EJIHPE), 13(11), 2642-2680. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe13110184 Galán, M., Gerber, N., Valls, L., Molina, S., & Pineda, D. (2026). Dark Empaths and Intimate Partner Violence: A Latent Profile Analysis of Dark Tetrad Traits and Empathy Dimensions in Face-to-Face and Cyber Violence Perpetration. Behavioural sciences, 16(10), 1780. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16101780 Gojković, V., Dostanić, J. S., & Đurić, V. (2022). Structure of darkness: The Dark Triad, the ‘Dark’ Empathy and the ‘Dark’ Narcissism. Primenjena psihologija (Online), 15(2), 237-268. https://doi.org/10.19090/pp.v15i2.2380 Guo, Q., Li, S., Liang, J., Yu, X., & Lv, Y. (2023). Mindfulness may be associated with less prosocial engagement among high intelligence individuals. Scientific reports, 13(1), 4208. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31039-3 Hepper, E. G., Hart, C. M., & Sedikides, C. (2014). Moving Narcissus: Can Narcissists Be Empathic? Personality & social psychology bulletin, 40(9), 1079-1091. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167214535812 Heym, N., Firth, J., Kibowski, F., Sumich, A., Egan, V., & Bloxsom, C. A. (2019). Empathy at the heart of darkness: Empathy deficits that bind the dark triad and those that mediate indirect relational aggression. Frontiers in psychiatry, 10, 95. Heym, N., Kibowski, F., Bloxsom, C. A. J., Blanchard, A., Harper, A., Wallace, L., Firth, J., & Sumich, A. (2021). The Dark Empath: Characterising dark traits in the presence of empathy. Personality and Individual Differences, 169, 110172-110172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110172 Huang, C., Wu, Z., Sha, S., Liu, C., Yang, L., Jiang, P., Zhang, H., & Yang, C. (2025). The Dark Side of Empathy: The Role of Excessive Affective Empathy in Mental Health Disorders. Biological psychiatry (1969), 98(5), 404-415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2024.12.020 Hurezan, L., Miu, A. C., Costea, A., & Visu-Petra, L. (2026). Dark Personality, Empathy, and Prosocial Behaviour in Convicted Offenders. Scientific reports, 16(1), 4117-4177. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-34229-3 Iverson, K. M., Gradus, J. L., Resick, P. A., Suvak, M. K., Smith, K. F., & Monson, C. M. (2011). Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy for PTSD and Depression Symptoms Reduces Risk for Future Intimate Partner Violence Among Interpersonal Trauma Survivors. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 79(2), 193-202. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022512 Jiang, X., Liu, C., Xiao, X., & Zhan, Y. (2024). Role of narcissism and empathy in the relationship between parental attachment and moral response patterns. European journal of developmental psychology, 21(3), 365-387. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2024.2325173 Jonason, P. K., & Kroll, C. H. (2015). A Multidimensional View of the Relationship Between Empathy and the Dark Triad. Journal of individual differences, 36(3), 150-156. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000166 Kaufman, S. B., Yaden, D. B., Hyde, E., & Tsukayama, E. (2019). The Light vs. Dark Triad of Personality: Contrasting Two Very Different Profiles of Human Nature [Original Research]. Frontiers in psychology, Volume 10 - 2019. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00467 Mededovic, J., & Petrovic, B. (2015). The Dark Tetrad: Structural Properties and Location in the Personality Space. Journal of individual differences, 36(4), 228-236. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000179 Qiu, X., Gao, M., Zhu, H., Li, W., & Jiang, R. (2024). Theory of mind, empathy, and prosocial behaviour in children and adolescent: A meta-analysis. Current psychology (New Brunswick, N.J.), 43(22), 19690-19707. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-05762-7 Rabinowitch, T.-C., Cross, I., & Burnard, P. (2013). Long-term musical group interaction has a positive influence on empathy in children. Psychology of music, 41(4), 484-498. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735612440609 Rogers, C. R. (1951). Client-centered therapy; its current practice, implications, and theory. Houghton Mifflin. Shukla, M., & Upadhyay, N. (2025). Cold hearts and dark minds: A systematic review and meta-analysis of empathy across dark triad personalities. Frontiers in psychiatry, 16, 1546917. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1546917 Throop, C. J., Zahavi, D., de Lucas Freitas, J., Groark, K. P., Maibom, H., Satne, G. L., Stueber, K. R., & Trnka, S. (2020). Dark and Bright Empathy: Phenomenological and Anthropological Reflections. Current anthropology, 61(3), 283-303. https://doi.org/10.1086/708844 Vonk, J., Zeigler-Hill, V., Ewing, D., Mercer, S., & Noser, A. E. (2015). Mindreading in the dark: Dark personality features and theory of mind. Personality and Individual Differences, 87, 50-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.025 Wellman, H. M., & Liu, D. (2004). Scaling of Theory-of-Mind Tasks. Child development, 75(2), 523-541. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00691.x Yan, Z., Zeng, X., Su, J., & Zhang, X. (2021). The dark side of empathy: Meta‐analysis evidence of the relationship between empathy and depression. PsyCh journal (Victoria, Australia), 10(5), 794-804. https://doi.org/10.1002/pchj.482 }} ==External links== * [https://www.sciencefocus.com/wellbeing/dark-empaths Dark Empaths] (Science Focus) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/dark-tetrad Dark Tetrad] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.theguardian.com/science/2024/nov/10/narcissists-only-more-devious-the-truth-about-dark-empaths 'Narcissists - only more devious': the truth about dark empaths] (the Guardian) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] fzadorgjqsttei5fi0r23g3u9zzgsr9 2840888 2840887 2026-10-17T07:36:12Z U3228742 3005570 /* The dark tetrad */ tweaking wording for clarity 2840888 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Dark empathy:<br>What is dark empathy, what are its consequences, and what can be done to address it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario In a workplace, a new colleague, Addison, joined a close-knit team. He is charming and empathises with each team member. Addison fits in the team very well and many of the colleagues to him for advice. The lead role for a project becomes available and several members of the team decide to apply. One member, Charlie, takes Addison’s offer to help them prepare for the promotion. Charlie shares her fears and her perceived weaknesses for the role. Before the interviews, Addison strategically reminds Charlie about her weaknesses with a supportive twist. ''“Good luck, Charlie. Take a breath and pause to avoid speaking too quickly. Despite your limited leadership experience, your skills speak for themselves. You got this!”'' Charlie felt very nervous and stumbled in the interview. She de-briefed with another colleague who said she never heard her speak quickly when nervous. She was known for keeping a calm front under pressure. After a few weeks, the promotion is given to Addison. No one knew Addison had applied and the team was shocked since they have limited skills in this area of the work. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Empathy can have a bright and dark side (Throop et al., 2020). The concern is when individuals with dark tetrad personality traits leverage their understanding of emotions and feelings to manipulate, control, or exploit to others. Dark empathy is a developed skill that uses the understanding of emotion and people's vulnerabilities against them to control and manipulate for their advantage (Throop et al., 2020). To consider the use of dark empathy, we need to understanding why and how people use it. Individuals with high dark tetrads usually struggle to understand body language and emotion. The ability to understand emotion and feelings allow these dark trait individuals to go undetected for longer and have better control of those around them. The ability to deceive and hide makes addressing the underlying behavioural problems harder. Their continued strategic and charming manipulation destroy the psychological safety of others around them. Research indicates understanding emotional intelligence, the dark tetrad, and theory of mind could assist with understanding the use of dark empathy (Vonk et al., 2015). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} ;Focus questions *How does dark empathy develop? *What drives an individual to use empathy to control and manipulate other people in their life? *How can psychological theory develop strategies to understand and assist individuals mitigate the negative effects of empathy? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The development of empathy == [[Empathy]] is the ability to share feelings and thoughts of others while remaining self-other distinction (Håkansson Eklund & Summer Meranius, 2021). This means a person can understand someone else’s experience while maintaining their identity. Empathy is not an innate but learned and developed. It can be cultivated through techniques to understand other's feelings and foster [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|pro-social behaviour]] (Abramson, 2021). Research found that teenagers learn empathy through their parent’s (Jiang et al., 2024), social groups (Decety, 2015), listening to music (Rabinowitch et al., 2013), and reading books particularly fiction (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013). Understanding how this foundational trait is normally developed provides a necessary baseline for examining how dark personalities can subvert empathy into a tool for manipulation. === The dark tetrad === [[File:Dark-triad-dark-tetrad-1.webp|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' The dark traits updated to include the fourth element of sadism. This created the dark tetrad of personality traits. ]] Negative personality traits were called the dark triad (Paulhus & Williams, 2002). An expansion on these traits were to include a fourth element, sadism (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015). There are four elements to the dark tetrad (see Figure 1): * Narcissism * Machiavellianism * Psychopathy * Sadism These traits demonstrate dark individuals have limited ability to comprehend other’s emotions and read their mental states (Vonk et al., 2015). Individuals are self-centred, emotionally unstable, and focused on anti-social behaviour which leads to few of them demonstrating empathy (Kaufman et al., 2019). See Table 1 for the breakdown of the personality traits. '''Table 1'''. Dark tetrad personality traits breakdown and behavioural signs {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Personality traits !! Definition !! Behavioural signs |- | '''Narcissism''' || Self-importance and constant need for admiration || Arrogance, entitlement, and bragging |- | '''Machiavellianism''' || Strategic manipulation, calculated world view and general distrust of motives and integrity || Deception, exploitation, and emotional detachment |- | '''Psychopathy''' || Lack of empathy, poor impulse control, and fearlessness || Reckless, charming, no remorse, and cruel |- | '''Sadism''' || Deriving pleasure or enjoyment from harming others || Bullying, shaming, and humiliating others |} === Theory of Mind (ToM) === Theory of Mind is the ability to understand the internal mental states of others, including their beliefs and intentions (Wellman & Liu, 2004). ToM plays an important role in understanding how dark trait individuals understand internal mental states to successfully navigate social environments. ToM and empathy are both important influences on [[Prosocial behavior|pro-social behaviour]] (Qiu et al., 2024), which involves sharing, caring, helping, donating, comforting, and cooperating (Guo et al., 2023). While individuals with dark trait do not demonstrate these behaviours (Hurezan et al., 2026), ToM explains how dark empathy assists individuals to understand others and their own motives (Qiu et al., 2024). Dark trait individuals use this ability to read other's mental states and exploit it for their personal gain (Gojković et al., 2022). Recognising other’s vulnerablitlities while monitoring their own mental state, makes strategically exploiting easier. Ultimately, dark empaths use ToM to understand their own mental state to maintain their charming, empathic mask while concealing their manipulation of their victims. === Types of empathy === Empathy has bright and dark sides as well two types (Throop et al., 2020): * Affective empathy is physical and emotional sharing of feelings **This involves experiencing with the other person which is found more commonly in bright empathy * Cognitive empathy is the intellectual understanding of another’s emotions and thoughts without feeling their pain. **This involves understanding, yet keeping that self-other determination which makes it easier for manipulating by utilising emotions against another Empathy relies on the individual to use it based on their morals and beliefs (Breithaupt & Hamilton, 2019). A study on parent's influence found that empathy was not increased in teens with narcissistic traits (Jiang et al., 2024). This shows that dark traits personalities are not affected by external influences. Therefore, understanding the specific type of empathy is key to understanding dark empathy. Cognitive empathy allows them to comprehend feelings and thoughts without experiencing the burden, it suits strategic manipulation tactics like Machiavellianism (Gojković et al., 2022). When the motivation is to deceive and control, cognitive empathy provides the tools to serve their interests. === Making of a dark empath === Dark empathy is understanding those feelings and harnessing them against others (Breithaupt & Hamilton, 2019). It often develops when children experience trauma that forces them to predict and understand others' emotions just to stay safe (Bloxsom et al., 2021). Later in life, dark traits (narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and sadism) use this skill to deceive and control (Gojković et al.,2022). Research assessing these personalities shows they do not share common societal ethics and morality (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015). Because they are less likely to be honest and fair, they use dark empathy and their flexible morals to justify manipulating vulnerabilities for their own advantage (Throop et al., 2020). This helps to achieve their goals. Dark empath is not a formal medical diagnosis. Instead, it is a term that mixes dark personality traits with high cognitive empathy (Duradoni et al., 2023). Cognitive empathy allows people to understand others’ thoughts and feelings without feeling them. This helps people with dark traits hide behind superficial charm, chronic lying, and a lack of remorse (Hepper et al., 2014; Vonk et al., 2015). For example, narcissists can create a mask to hide their self-centred goals and better manipulate others (Hepper et al., 2014). Another sign is affective dissonance. This is a twisted emotional reaction, such as feeling happy when someone else suffers (Gojković et al., 2022). In the end, people with high dark traits may develop dark empathy to serve their goals. == Consequences of dark empathy == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario continued Charlie was assigned to report to Addison on the project and found herself becoming anxious at their one-on-one performance meetings. Charlie would spend over an hour preparing for the meetings despite keeping meticulous progress notes. She feels exhausted after each interaction and starts doubting her skills. Addison finds it hard to keep up with the workload. Other team members have complained that Addison has not been running the project well. Addison’s boss reviews the work and finds Addison has not been monitoring the project. Charlie’s work had been the only compliment the boss had for the update. Addison takes credit for Charlie's work and claims he has been managing Charlie's failing performance. Addison is to provide an update on the project and Charlie's performance. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Empathy can lead to depression (Yan et al., 2021) as well as severe emotional distress and burnout (Huang et al., 2025). An individual can use cognitive empathy to deceive, manipulate and exploit (Huang et al., 2025). Using dark traits like charm and chronic lying (Gojković et al., 2022), dark empaths manipulate others to reach their goals while pretending to be an ally. Both the person using dark empathy and their victims suffer harm to their wellbeing (Heym et al., 2021). Perceiving emotions, planning a response, and controlling reactions take considerable energy. There is a physical component in controlling their body language and expression to disarm others (Throop et al., 2020). While bright empathy brings people together. dark empathy isolates individuals from others and communities (Throop et al., 2020). === Effects on victims of dark empathy === The immediate impacts on their relationships are subtle and unlikely to be noticed. Dark empaths use their charming demeanour and their strategic understanding of other’s emotions and feelings to appear kind and empathic. The strategic manipulation relies heavily on ToM to better understand their victim's weakness to exploit and deceive them. After gaslighting an individual, their victim will develop chronic anxiety, depression, lower self-esteem, emotional dependency (Yan et al., 2021), shame, and humiliation (Throop et al., 2020). The victim's mental wellbeing may become apparent first and impact all areas of their lives. This can isolate victim and their mental state can become easier for a dark empath to manipulate. Additionally, the dark trait personalities are often linked to aggressive behaviours which increases the likelihood of intimate partner violence (Galán et al., 2026). Dark empathy can lead to harmful outcomes for dark empath's victims that become clearer with more exposure to the skillset. === Outcome for dark empaths === An individual using dark empathy may find the indifference and emotional de-attachment to others useful for achieving their goals (Throop et al., 2020). The emotional distance can intervene serve as a protective factor or buffer to psychological distress for the dark empath (Heym et al., 2021). While empathy combined with self-judgement and/or over-thinking can cause emotional distress (Heym et al., 2021), an individual who has dark traits and ToM, using cognitive empathy (understanding but not sharing emotions), does not experience the same level of that distress. The ability to not feel the emotions makes them better at utilising other’s vulnerabilities without the consequences. Though controlling others is effective at first, keeping up the mask leads to burnout (Throop et al., 2020). The thought of losing control can cause aggressive behaviour, driven by fear and shame (di Giacomo et al., 2023). While dark trait individuals are more self-centred and lack the pro-social behaviours, hiding their nature can lead to depression and a loss of identity (Qiu et al., 2024). == Addressing dark empathy == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario continued After talking to another colleague, Charlie notices her mental health is declining. She reaches out to the Employee Assistance Program (EAP) for support about her stress. The counsellor asks Charlie to consider when the anxiety and lower self-esteem started. She starts to realise it links back to Addison. Addison continues to blame Charlie for the project's failures. Addison fails to develop the deliverables in time for the boss’ deadline and a meeting is set up with him up with an EAP counsellor. Addison talks about Charlie's 'failures' and the counsellor asks Addison to consider his behaviour and input into the situation. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Dark empathy is not easily recognised as it can lower the appearance of aggressive behaviours in individuals with dark personalities traits (Heym et al., 2021). For example; a narcissist or sociopath may use understanding of ToM to influence others while a dark empath uses their cognitive empathy to control and most likely enjoy other's vulnerable emotions (Heym et al., 2021). The impacts of dark empathy can be found in the relationships of the dark empath. Person-centred approach assists in recognising patterns, identifying behaviours and setting boundaries (Galán et al., 2026). === Recovering from a dark empath === After dealing with a dark empath, an individual may find it hard to notice the patterns. Individual needs to set healthy emotional boundaries in this relationship which can be assisted by seeking therapy to identify patterns and how to address them. Person-centre framework (also known as client-centred approach) (Rogers, 1951) can assist in developing strategies and understanding the patterns they experienced (Galán et al., 2026). Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) would be effective for unlearning the patterns of abuse and understanding their trauma (Iverson et al., 2011) from the dark empath. === Unravelling from dark empathy === For a dark empath, the first step is recognizing their controlling behaviour and how it harms everyone's well-being. Carl Rogers' approach helps people understand who they are and who they want to be. This self-awareness lets them accept their dark traits and build stronger social skills (Galán et al., 2026). Some therapies that would be appropriate and effective for dark empaths are: *Dialectial behaviour therapy **This therapy allows people to talk through and accept their intense feelings (di Giacomo et al., 2023). *[[w:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive Behaviour Therapy]] (CBT) **This therapy assists in addressing anti-social behaviours and fosters pro-social behaviours (Shukla & Upadhyay, 2025) The steps to acknowledging the behaviours and traits are not easy process. Considering their dark traits lack of self-judgement, sense of self importance, enjoy in harming others, these dark trait individuals show little desire to go to therapy for the sake of others (di Giacomo et al., 2023). Their dark traits cause anti-social behaviours and a disregard the impact of their actions. Their lack self-judgement prevents them seeing themselves as part of the problem. == Conclusion == Dark empathy is a demonstration of how learning can be adapted to suit one’s desires. While it can develop through parental influence (Jiang et al., 2024), social experience (Decety, 2015), listening to music (Rabinowitch et al., 2013), and reading fiction (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013), it depends on morality of the individual. Understanding dark empathy is crucial for identifying and treating people with dark personality traits. Rather than genuinely sharing feelings, dark empaths use cognitive empathy as a tool to trick, manipulate, and exploit others (Heym et al., 2021). While traits like psychopathy and sadism usually involve anti-social behaviour, a lack of empathy, and joy in others' pain (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015), dark empaths fake emotional awareness and pro-social behaviour (Hurezan et al., 2026). This makes them difficult to spot, leaving victims vulnerable to gaslighting and emotional abuse. Consequently, standard person-centred frameworks are limited in effectiveness because these individuals rarely self-identify or seek help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} ;Key takeaway messages *Empathy can be developed, yet how it is used depends on the person's personality and sense of morals *Empathy has a bright and dark side. Dark empathy is a lesser recognised and it's impacts have a large effect on their community. *ToM can help understand how cognitive empathy is used. This is important in considering people's motivations of using empathy. *Further research on dark empathy and the dark tetrad's use of it will significantly improve identification and assisting in developing effective prevention strategies for their victims {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also== *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Dark triad personality and emotion|Dark triad personality and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional intelligence and anti-social behaviour|Emotional intelligence and antisocial behaviour]] (Book chapter, 2019) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Emotional intelligence and the dark triad|Emotional intelligence and the dark triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) *[[wikipedia:Machiavellianism_(psychology)|Machiavellianism]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Narcissism|Narcissism]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Psychopathy|Psychopathy]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Dark_triad|The Dark Triad]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Abramson, A. (2021, November 1). Cultivating empathy. Monitor on Psychology, 52(8). https://www.apa.org/monitor/2021/11/feature-cultivating-empathy Bal, P. M., & Veltkamp, M. (2013). How Does Fiction Reading Influence Empathy? An Experimental Investigation on the Role of Emotional Transportation. PloS one, 8(1), e55341. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0055341 Bloxsom, C. A. J., Firth, J., Kibowski, F., Egan, V., Sumich, A. L., & Heym, N. (2021). Dark shadow of the self: How the dark triad and empathy impact parental and intimate adult attachment relationships in women. Forensic Science International: Mind and Law, 2, 100045. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsiml.2021.100045 Breithaupt, F., & Hamilton, A. B. B. (2019). The dark sides of empathy (1st edition. ed.). Cornell University Press. https://doi.org/10.7591/9781501735608 Decety, J. (2015). The neural pathways, development and functions of empathy. Current opinion in behavioural sciences, 3, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2014.12.001 di Giacomo, E., Andreini, E., Lorusso, O., & Clerici, M. (2023). The dark side of empathy in narcissistic personality disorder. Front Psychiatry, 14, 1074558. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1074558 Duradoni, M., Gursesli, M. C., Fiorenza, M., Donati, A., & Guazzini, A. (2023). Cognitive Empathy and the Dark Triad: A Literature Review. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education (EJIHPE), 13(11), 2642-2680. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe13110184 Galán, M., Gerber, N., Valls, L., Molina, S., & Pineda, D. (2026). Dark Empaths and Intimate Partner Violence: A Latent Profile Analysis of Dark Tetrad Traits and Empathy Dimensions in Face-to-Face and Cyber Violence Perpetration. Behavioural sciences, 16(10), 1780. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16101780 Gojković, V., Dostanić, J. S., & Đurić, V. (2022). Structure of darkness: The Dark Triad, the ‘Dark’ Empathy and the ‘Dark’ Narcissism. Primenjena psihologija (Online), 15(2), 237-268. https://doi.org/10.19090/pp.v15i2.2380 Guo, Q., Li, S., Liang, J., Yu, X., & Lv, Y. (2023). Mindfulness may be associated with less prosocial engagement among high intelligence individuals. Scientific reports, 13(1), 4208. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31039-3 Hepper, E. G., Hart, C. M., & Sedikides, C. (2014). Moving Narcissus: Can Narcissists Be Empathic? Personality & social psychology bulletin, 40(9), 1079-1091. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167214535812 Heym, N., Firth, J., Kibowski, F., Sumich, A., Egan, V., & Bloxsom, C. A. (2019). Empathy at the heart of darkness: Empathy deficits that bind the dark triad and those that mediate indirect relational aggression. Frontiers in psychiatry, 10, 95. Heym, N., Kibowski, F., Bloxsom, C. A. J., Blanchard, A., Harper, A., Wallace, L., Firth, J., & Sumich, A. (2021). The Dark Empath: Characterising dark traits in the presence of empathy. Personality and Individual Differences, 169, 110172-110172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110172 Huang, C., Wu, Z., Sha, S., Liu, C., Yang, L., Jiang, P., Zhang, H., & Yang, C. (2025). The Dark Side of Empathy: The Role of Excessive Affective Empathy in Mental Health Disorders. Biological psychiatry (1969), 98(5), 404-415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2024.12.020 Hurezan, L., Miu, A. C., Costea, A., & Visu-Petra, L. (2026). Dark Personality, Empathy, and Prosocial Behaviour in Convicted Offenders. Scientific reports, 16(1), 4117-4177. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-34229-3 Iverson, K. M., Gradus, J. L., Resick, P. A., Suvak, M. K., Smith, K. F., & Monson, C. M. (2011). Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy for PTSD and Depression Symptoms Reduces Risk for Future Intimate Partner Violence Among Interpersonal Trauma Survivors. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 79(2), 193-202. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022512 Jiang, X., Liu, C., Xiao, X., & Zhan, Y. (2024). Role of narcissism and empathy in the relationship between parental attachment and moral response patterns. European journal of developmental psychology, 21(3), 365-387. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2024.2325173 Jonason, P. K., & Kroll, C. H. (2015). A Multidimensional View of the Relationship Between Empathy and the Dark Triad. Journal of individual differences, 36(3), 150-156. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000166 Kaufman, S. B., Yaden, D. B., Hyde, E., & Tsukayama, E. (2019). The Light vs. Dark Triad of Personality: Contrasting Two Very Different Profiles of Human Nature [Original Research]. Frontiers in psychology, Volume 10 - 2019. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00467 Mededovic, J., & Petrovic, B. (2015). The Dark Tetrad: Structural Properties and Location in the Personality Space. Journal of individual differences, 36(4), 228-236. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000179 Qiu, X., Gao, M., Zhu, H., Li, W., & Jiang, R. (2024). Theory of mind, empathy, and prosocial behaviour in children and adolescent: A meta-analysis. Current psychology (New Brunswick, N.J.), 43(22), 19690-19707. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-05762-7 Rabinowitch, T.-C., Cross, I., & Burnard, P. (2013). Long-term musical group interaction has a positive influence on empathy in children. Psychology of music, 41(4), 484-498. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735612440609 Rogers, C. R. (1951). Client-centered therapy; its current practice, implications, and theory. Houghton Mifflin. Shukla, M., & Upadhyay, N. (2025). Cold hearts and dark minds: A systematic review and meta-analysis of empathy across dark triad personalities. Frontiers in psychiatry, 16, 1546917. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1546917 Throop, C. J., Zahavi, D., de Lucas Freitas, J., Groark, K. P., Maibom, H., Satne, G. L., Stueber, K. R., & Trnka, S. (2020). Dark and Bright Empathy: Phenomenological and Anthropological Reflections. Current anthropology, 61(3), 283-303. https://doi.org/10.1086/708844 Vonk, J., Zeigler-Hill, V., Ewing, D., Mercer, S., & Noser, A. E. (2015). Mindreading in the dark: Dark personality features and theory of mind. Personality and Individual Differences, 87, 50-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.025 Wellman, H. M., & Liu, D. (2004). Scaling of Theory-of-Mind Tasks. Child development, 75(2), 523-541. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00691.x Yan, Z., Zeng, X., Su, J., & Zhang, X. (2021). The dark side of empathy: Meta‐analysis evidence of the relationship between empathy and depression. PsyCh journal (Victoria, Australia), 10(5), 794-804. https://doi.org/10.1002/pchj.482 }} ==External links== * [https://www.sciencefocus.com/wellbeing/dark-empaths Dark Empaths] (Science Focus) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/dark-tetrad Dark Tetrad] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.theguardian.com/science/2024/nov/10/narcissists-only-more-devious-the-truth-about-dark-empaths 'Narcissists - only more devious': the truth about dark empaths] (the Guardian) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] anky0wyirnoywi0q3xvwo08zbjedhub 2840889 2840888 2026-10-17T07:37:09Z U3228742 3005570 /* Theory of Mind (ToM) */ grammar tweaks 2840889 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Dark empathy:<br>What is dark empathy, what are its consequences, and what can be done to address it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario In a workplace, a new colleague, Addison, joined a close-knit team. He is charming and empathises with each team member. Addison fits in the team very well and many of the colleagues to him for advice. The lead role for a project becomes available and several members of the team decide to apply. One member, Charlie, takes Addison’s offer to help them prepare for the promotion. Charlie shares her fears and her perceived weaknesses for the role. Before the interviews, Addison strategically reminds Charlie about her weaknesses with a supportive twist. ''“Good luck, Charlie. Take a breath and pause to avoid speaking too quickly. Despite your limited leadership experience, your skills speak for themselves. You got this!”'' Charlie felt very nervous and stumbled in the interview. She de-briefed with another colleague who said she never heard her speak quickly when nervous. She was known for keeping a calm front under pressure. After a few weeks, the promotion is given to Addison. No one knew Addison had applied and the team was shocked since they have limited skills in this area of the work. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Empathy can have a bright and dark side (Throop et al., 2020). The concern is when individuals with dark tetrad personality traits leverage their understanding of emotions and feelings to manipulate, control, or exploit to others. Dark empathy is a developed skill that uses the understanding of emotion and people's vulnerabilities against them to control and manipulate for their advantage (Throop et al., 2020). To consider the use of dark empathy, we need to understanding why and how people use it. Individuals with high dark tetrads usually struggle to understand body language and emotion. The ability to understand emotion and feelings allow these dark trait individuals to go undetected for longer and have better control of those around them. The ability to deceive and hide makes addressing the underlying behavioural problems harder. Their continued strategic and charming manipulation destroy the psychological safety of others around them. Research indicates understanding emotional intelligence, the dark tetrad, and theory of mind could assist with understanding the use of dark empathy (Vonk et al., 2015). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} ;Focus questions *How does dark empathy develop? *What drives an individual to use empathy to control and manipulate other people in their life? *How can psychological theory develop strategies to understand and assist individuals mitigate the negative effects of empathy? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The development of empathy == [[Empathy]] is the ability to share feelings and thoughts of others while remaining self-other distinction (Håkansson Eklund & Summer Meranius, 2021). This means a person can understand someone else’s experience while maintaining their identity. Empathy is not an innate but learned and developed. It can be cultivated through techniques to understand other's feelings and foster [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|pro-social behaviour]] (Abramson, 2021). Research found that teenagers learn empathy through their parent’s (Jiang et al., 2024), social groups (Decety, 2015), listening to music (Rabinowitch et al., 2013), and reading books particularly fiction (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013). Understanding how this foundational trait is normally developed provides a necessary baseline for examining how dark personalities can subvert empathy into a tool for manipulation. === The dark tetrad === [[File:Dark-triad-dark-tetrad-1.webp|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' The dark traits updated to include the fourth element of sadism. This created the dark tetrad of personality traits. ]] Negative personality traits were called the dark triad (Paulhus & Williams, 2002). An expansion on these traits were to include a fourth element, sadism (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015). There are four elements to the dark tetrad (see Figure 1): * Narcissism * Machiavellianism * Psychopathy * Sadism These traits demonstrate dark individuals have limited ability to comprehend other’s emotions and read their mental states (Vonk et al., 2015). Individuals are self-centred, emotionally unstable, and focused on anti-social behaviour which leads to few of them demonstrating empathy (Kaufman et al., 2019). See Table 1 for the breakdown of the personality traits. '''Table 1'''. Dark tetrad personality traits breakdown and behavioural signs {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Personality traits !! Definition !! Behavioural signs |- | '''Narcissism''' || Self-importance and constant need for admiration || Arrogance, entitlement, and bragging |- | '''Machiavellianism''' || Strategic manipulation, calculated world view and general distrust of motives and integrity || Deception, exploitation, and emotional detachment |- | '''Psychopathy''' || Lack of empathy, poor impulse control, and fearlessness || Reckless, charming, no remorse, and cruel |- | '''Sadism''' || Deriving pleasure or enjoyment from harming others || Bullying, shaming, and humiliating others |} === Theory of Mind (Tom) === Theory of Mind (ToM) is the ability to understand the internal mental states of others, including their beliefs and intentions (Wellman & Liu, 2004). ToM plays an important role in understanding how dark trait individuals understand internal mental states to successfully navigate social environments. ToM and empathy are both important influences on [[Prosocial behavior|pro-social behaviour]] (Qiu et al., 2024), which involves sharing, caring, helping, donating, comforting, and cooperating (Guo et al., 2023). While individuals with dark trait do not demonstrate these behaviours (Hurezan et al., 2026), ToM explains how dark empathy assists individuals to understand others and their own motives (Qiu et al., 2024). Dark trait individuals use this ability to read other's mental states and exploit it for their personal gain (Gojković et al., 2022). Recognising other’s vulnerablitlities while monitoring their own mental state, makes strategically exploiting easier. Ultimately, dark empaths use ToM to understand their own mental state to maintain their charming, empathic mask while concealing their manipulation of their victims. === Types of empathy === Empathy has bright and dark sides as well two types (Throop et al., 2020): * Affective empathy is physical and emotional sharing of feelings **This involves experiencing with the other person which is found more commonly in bright empathy * Cognitive empathy is the intellectual understanding of another’s emotions and thoughts without feeling their pain. **This involves understanding, yet keeping that self-other determination which makes it easier for manipulating by utilising emotions against another Empathy relies on the individual to use it based on their morals and beliefs (Breithaupt & Hamilton, 2019). A study on parent's influence found that empathy was not increased in teens with narcissistic traits (Jiang et al., 2024). This shows that dark traits personalities are not affected by external influences. Therefore, understanding the specific type of empathy is key to understanding dark empathy. Cognitive empathy allows them to comprehend feelings and thoughts without experiencing the burden, it suits strategic manipulation tactics like Machiavellianism (Gojković et al., 2022). When the motivation is to deceive and control, cognitive empathy provides the tools to serve their interests. === Making of a dark empath === Dark empathy is understanding those feelings and harnessing them against others (Breithaupt & Hamilton, 2019). It often develops when children experience trauma that forces them to predict and understand others' emotions just to stay safe (Bloxsom et al., 2021). Later in life, dark traits (narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and sadism) use this skill to deceive and control (Gojković et al.,2022). Research assessing these personalities shows they do not share common societal ethics and morality (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015). Because they are less likely to be honest and fair, they use dark empathy and their flexible morals to justify manipulating vulnerabilities for their own advantage (Throop et al., 2020). This helps to achieve their goals. Dark empath is not a formal medical diagnosis. Instead, it is a term that mixes dark personality traits with high cognitive empathy (Duradoni et al., 2023). Cognitive empathy allows people to understand others’ thoughts and feelings without feeling them. This helps people with dark traits hide behind superficial charm, chronic lying, and a lack of remorse (Hepper et al., 2014; Vonk et al., 2015). For example, narcissists can create a mask to hide their self-centred goals and better manipulate others (Hepper et al., 2014). Another sign is affective dissonance. This is a twisted emotional reaction, such as feeling happy when someone else suffers (Gojković et al., 2022). In the end, people with high dark traits may develop dark empathy to serve their goals. == Consequences of dark empathy == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario continued Charlie was assigned to report to Addison on the project and found herself becoming anxious at their one-on-one performance meetings. Charlie would spend over an hour preparing for the meetings despite keeping meticulous progress notes. She feels exhausted after each interaction and starts doubting her skills. Addison finds it hard to keep up with the workload. Other team members have complained that Addison has not been running the project well. Addison’s boss reviews the work and finds Addison has not been monitoring the project. Charlie’s work had been the only compliment the boss had for the update. Addison takes credit for Charlie's work and claims he has been managing Charlie's failing performance. Addison is to provide an update on the project and Charlie's performance. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Empathy can lead to depression (Yan et al., 2021) as well as severe emotional distress and burnout (Huang et al., 2025). An individual can use cognitive empathy to deceive, manipulate and exploit (Huang et al., 2025). Using dark traits like charm and chronic lying (Gojković et al., 2022), dark empaths manipulate others to reach their goals while pretending to be an ally. Both the person using dark empathy and their victims suffer harm to their wellbeing (Heym et al., 2021). Perceiving emotions, planning a response, and controlling reactions take considerable energy. There is a physical component in controlling their body language and expression to disarm others (Throop et al., 2020). While bright empathy brings people together. dark empathy isolates individuals from others and communities (Throop et al., 2020). === Effects on victims of dark empathy === The immediate impacts on their relationships are subtle and unlikely to be noticed. Dark empaths use their charming demeanour and their strategic understanding of other’s emotions and feelings to appear kind and empathic. The strategic manipulation relies heavily on ToM to better understand their victim's weakness to exploit and deceive them. After gaslighting an individual, their victim will develop chronic anxiety, depression, lower self-esteem, emotional dependency (Yan et al., 2021), shame, and humiliation (Throop et al., 2020). The victim's mental wellbeing may become apparent first and impact all areas of their lives. This can isolate victim and their mental state can become easier for a dark empath to manipulate. Additionally, the dark trait personalities are often linked to aggressive behaviours which increases the likelihood of intimate partner violence (Galán et al., 2026). Dark empathy can lead to harmful outcomes for dark empath's victims that become clearer with more exposure to the skillset. === Outcome for dark empaths === An individual using dark empathy may find the indifference and emotional de-attachment to others useful for achieving their goals (Throop et al., 2020). The emotional distance can intervene serve as a protective factor or buffer to psychological distress for the dark empath (Heym et al., 2021). While empathy combined with self-judgement and/or over-thinking can cause emotional distress (Heym et al., 2021), an individual who has dark traits and ToM, using cognitive empathy (understanding but not sharing emotions), does not experience the same level of that distress. The ability to not feel the emotions makes them better at utilising other’s vulnerabilities without the consequences. Though controlling others is effective at first, keeping up the mask leads to burnout (Throop et al., 2020). The thought of losing control can cause aggressive behaviour, driven by fear and shame (di Giacomo et al., 2023). While dark trait individuals are more self-centred and lack the pro-social behaviours, hiding their nature can lead to depression and a loss of identity (Qiu et al., 2024). == Addressing dark empathy == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario continued After talking to another colleague, Charlie notices her mental health is declining. She reaches out to the Employee Assistance Program (EAP) for support about her stress. The counsellor asks Charlie to consider when the anxiety and lower self-esteem started. She starts to realise it links back to Addison. Addison continues to blame Charlie for the project's failures. Addison fails to develop the deliverables in time for the boss’ deadline and a meeting is set up with him up with an EAP counsellor. Addison talks about Charlie's 'failures' and the counsellor asks Addison to consider his behaviour and input into the situation. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Dark empathy is not easily recognised as it can lower the appearance of aggressive behaviours in individuals with dark personalities traits (Heym et al., 2021). For example; a narcissist or sociopath may use understanding of ToM to influence others while a dark empath uses their cognitive empathy to control and most likely enjoy other's vulnerable emotions (Heym et al., 2021). The impacts of dark empathy can be found in the relationships of the dark empath. Person-centred approach assists in recognising patterns, identifying behaviours and setting boundaries (Galán et al., 2026). === Recovering from a dark empath === After dealing with a dark empath, an individual may find it hard to notice the patterns. Individual needs to set healthy emotional boundaries in this relationship which can be assisted by seeking therapy to identify patterns and how to address them. Person-centre framework (also known as client-centred approach) (Rogers, 1951) can assist in developing strategies and understanding the patterns they experienced (Galán et al., 2026). Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) would be effective for unlearning the patterns of abuse and understanding their trauma (Iverson et al., 2011) from the dark empath. === Unravelling from dark empathy === For a dark empath, the first step is recognizing their controlling behaviour and how it harms everyone's well-being. Carl Rogers' approach helps people understand who they are and who they want to be. This self-awareness lets them accept their dark traits and build stronger social skills (Galán et al., 2026). Some therapies that would be appropriate and effective for dark empaths are: *Dialectial behaviour therapy **This therapy allows people to talk through and accept their intense feelings (di Giacomo et al., 2023). *[[w:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive Behaviour Therapy]] (CBT) **This therapy assists in addressing anti-social behaviours and fosters pro-social behaviours (Shukla & Upadhyay, 2025) The steps to acknowledging the behaviours and traits are not easy process. Considering their dark traits lack of self-judgement, sense of self importance, enjoy in harming others, these dark trait individuals show little desire to go to therapy for the sake of others (di Giacomo et al., 2023). Their dark traits cause anti-social behaviours and a disregard the impact of their actions. Their lack self-judgement prevents them seeing themselves as part of the problem. == Conclusion == Dark empathy is a demonstration of how learning can be adapted to suit one’s desires. While it can develop through parental influence (Jiang et al., 2024), social experience (Decety, 2015), listening to music (Rabinowitch et al., 2013), and reading fiction (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013), it depends on morality of the individual. Understanding dark empathy is crucial for identifying and treating people with dark personality traits. Rather than genuinely sharing feelings, dark empaths use cognitive empathy as a tool to trick, manipulate, and exploit others (Heym et al., 2021). While traits like psychopathy and sadism usually involve anti-social behaviour, a lack of empathy, and joy in others' pain (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015), dark empaths fake emotional awareness and pro-social behaviour (Hurezan et al., 2026). This makes them difficult to spot, leaving victims vulnerable to gaslighting and emotional abuse. Consequently, standard person-centred frameworks are limited in effectiveness because these individuals rarely self-identify or seek help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} ;Key takeaway messages *Empathy can be developed, yet how it is used depends on the person's personality and sense of morals *Empathy has a bright and dark side. Dark empathy is a lesser recognised and it's impacts have a large effect on their community. *ToM can help understand how cognitive empathy is used. This is important in considering people's motivations of using empathy. *Further research on dark empathy and the dark tetrad's use of it will significantly improve identification and assisting in developing effective prevention strategies for their victims {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also== *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Dark triad personality and emotion|Dark triad personality and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional intelligence and anti-social behaviour|Emotional intelligence and antisocial behaviour]] (Book chapter, 2019) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Emotional intelligence and the dark triad|Emotional intelligence and the dark triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) *[[wikipedia:Machiavellianism_(psychology)|Machiavellianism]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Narcissism|Narcissism]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Psychopathy|Psychopathy]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Dark_triad|The Dark Triad]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Abramson, A. (2021, November 1). Cultivating empathy. Monitor on Psychology, 52(8). https://www.apa.org/monitor/2021/11/feature-cultivating-empathy Bal, P. M., & Veltkamp, M. (2013). How Does Fiction Reading Influence Empathy? An Experimental Investigation on the Role of Emotional Transportation. PloS one, 8(1), e55341. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0055341 Bloxsom, C. A. J., Firth, J., Kibowski, F., Egan, V., Sumich, A. L., & Heym, N. (2021). Dark shadow of the self: How the dark triad and empathy impact parental and intimate adult attachment relationships in women. Forensic Science International: Mind and Law, 2, 100045. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsiml.2021.100045 Breithaupt, F., & Hamilton, A. B. B. (2019). The dark sides of empathy (1st edition. ed.). Cornell University Press. https://doi.org/10.7591/9781501735608 Decety, J. (2015). The neural pathways, development and functions of empathy. Current opinion in behavioural sciences, 3, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2014.12.001 di Giacomo, E., Andreini, E., Lorusso, O., & Clerici, M. (2023). The dark side of empathy in narcissistic personality disorder. Front Psychiatry, 14, 1074558. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1074558 Duradoni, M., Gursesli, M. C., Fiorenza, M., Donati, A., & Guazzini, A. (2023). Cognitive Empathy and the Dark Triad: A Literature Review. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education (EJIHPE), 13(11), 2642-2680. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe13110184 Galán, M., Gerber, N., Valls, L., Molina, S., & Pineda, D. (2026). Dark Empaths and Intimate Partner Violence: A Latent Profile Analysis of Dark Tetrad Traits and Empathy Dimensions in Face-to-Face and Cyber Violence Perpetration. Behavioural sciences, 16(10), 1780. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16101780 Gojković, V., Dostanić, J. S., & Đurić, V. (2022). Structure of darkness: The Dark Triad, the ‘Dark’ Empathy and the ‘Dark’ Narcissism. Primenjena psihologija (Online), 15(2), 237-268. https://doi.org/10.19090/pp.v15i2.2380 Guo, Q., Li, S., Liang, J., Yu, X., & Lv, Y. (2023). Mindfulness may be associated with less prosocial engagement among high intelligence individuals. Scientific reports, 13(1), 4208. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31039-3 Hepper, E. G., Hart, C. M., & Sedikides, C. (2014). Moving Narcissus: Can Narcissists Be Empathic? Personality & social psychology bulletin, 40(9), 1079-1091. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167214535812 Heym, N., Firth, J., Kibowski, F., Sumich, A., Egan, V., & Bloxsom, C. A. (2019). Empathy at the heart of darkness: Empathy deficits that bind the dark triad and those that mediate indirect relational aggression. Frontiers in psychiatry, 10, 95. Heym, N., Kibowski, F., Bloxsom, C. A. J., Blanchard, A., Harper, A., Wallace, L., Firth, J., & Sumich, A. (2021). The Dark Empath: Characterising dark traits in the presence of empathy. Personality and Individual Differences, 169, 110172-110172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110172 Huang, C., Wu, Z., Sha, S., Liu, C., Yang, L., Jiang, P., Zhang, H., & Yang, C. (2025). The Dark Side of Empathy: The Role of Excessive Affective Empathy in Mental Health Disorders. Biological psychiatry (1969), 98(5), 404-415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2024.12.020 Hurezan, L., Miu, A. C., Costea, A., & Visu-Petra, L. (2026). Dark Personality, Empathy, and Prosocial Behaviour in Convicted Offenders. Scientific reports, 16(1), 4117-4177. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-34229-3 Iverson, K. M., Gradus, J. L., Resick, P. A., Suvak, M. K., Smith, K. F., & Monson, C. M. (2011). Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy for PTSD and Depression Symptoms Reduces Risk for Future Intimate Partner Violence Among Interpersonal Trauma Survivors. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 79(2), 193-202. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022512 Jiang, X., Liu, C., Xiao, X., & Zhan, Y. (2024). Role of narcissism and empathy in the relationship between parental attachment and moral response patterns. European journal of developmental psychology, 21(3), 365-387. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2024.2325173 Jonason, P. K., & Kroll, C. H. (2015). A Multidimensional View of the Relationship Between Empathy and the Dark Triad. Journal of individual differences, 36(3), 150-156. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000166 Kaufman, S. B., Yaden, D. B., Hyde, E., & Tsukayama, E. (2019). The Light vs. Dark Triad of Personality: Contrasting Two Very Different Profiles of Human Nature [Original Research]. Frontiers in psychology, Volume 10 - 2019. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00467 Mededovic, J., & Petrovic, B. (2015). The Dark Tetrad: Structural Properties and Location in the Personality Space. Journal of individual differences, 36(4), 228-236. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000179 Qiu, X., Gao, M., Zhu, H., Li, W., & Jiang, R. (2024). Theory of mind, empathy, and prosocial behaviour in children and adolescent: A meta-analysis. Current psychology (New Brunswick, N.J.), 43(22), 19690-19707. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-05762-7 Rabinowitch, T.-C., Cross, I., & Burnard, P. (2013). Long-term musical group interaction has a positive influence on empathy in children. Psychology of music, 41(4), 484-498. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735612440609 Rogers, C. R. (1951). Client-centered therapy; its current practice, implications, and theory. Houghton Mifflin. Shukla, M., & Upadhyay, N. (2025). Cold hearts and dark minds: A systematic review and meta-analysis of empathy across dark triad personalities. Frontiers in psychiatry, 16, 1546917. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1546917 Throop, C. J., Zahavi, D., de Lucas Freitas, J., Groark, K. P., Maibom, H., Satne, G. L., Stueber, K. R., & Trnka, S. (2020). Dark and Bright Empathy: Phenomenological and Anthropological Reflections. Current anthropology, 61(3), 283-303. https://doi.org/10.1086/708844 Vonk, J., Zeigler-Hill, V., Ewing, D., Mercer, S., & Noser, A. E. (2015). Mindreading in the dark: Dark personality features and theory of mind. Personality and Individual Differences, 87, 50-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.025 Wellman, H. M., & Liu, D. (2004). Scaling of Theory-of-Mind Tasks. Child development, 75(2), 523-541. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00691.x Yan, Z., Zeng, X., Su, J., & Zhang, X. (2021). The dark side of empathy: Meta‐analysis evidence of the relationship between empathy and depression. PsyCh journal (Victoria, Australia), 10(5), 794-804. https://doi.org/10.1002/pchj.482 }} ==External links== * [https://www.sciencefocus.com/wellbeing/dark-empaths Dark Empaths] (Science Focus) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/dark-tetrad Dark Tetrad] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.theguardian.com/science/2024/nov/10/narcissists-only-more-devious-the-truth-about-dark-empaths 'Narcissists - only more devious': the truth about dark empaths] (the Guardian) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] oik5jy8m2nkhacvbrrw03ayirpp7kpw 2840890 2840889 2026-10-17T07:39:12Z U3228742 3005570 /* Theory of Mind (Tom) */ captialisation 2840890 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Dark empathy:<br>What is dark empathy, what are its consequences, and what can be done to address it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario In a workplace, a new colleague, Addison, joined a close-knit team. He is charming and empathises with each team member. Addison fits in the team very well and many of the colleagues to him for advice. The lead role for a project becomes available and several members of the team decide to apply. One member, Charlie, takes Addison’s offer to help them prepare for the promotion. Charlie shares her fears and her perceived weaknesses for the role. Before the interviews, Addison strategically reminds Charlie about her weaknesses with a supportive twist. ''“Good luck, Charlie. Take a breath and pause to avoid speaking too quickly. Despite your limited leadership experience, your skills speak for themselves. You got this!”'' Charlie felt very nervous and stumbled in the interview. She de-briefed with another colleague who said she never heard her speak quickly when nervous. She was known for keeping a calm front under pressure. After a few weeks, the promotion is given to Addison. No one knew Addison had applied and the team was shocked since they have limited skills in this area of the work. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Empathy can have a bright and dark side (Throop et al., 2020). The concern is when individuals with dark tetrad personality traits leverage their understanding of emotions and feelings to manipulate, control, or exploit to others. Dark empathy is a developed skill that uses the understanding of emotion and people's vulnerabilities against them to control and manipulate for their advantage (Throop et al., 2020). To consider the use of dark empathy, we need to understanding why and how people use it. Individuals with high dark tetrads usually struggle to understand body language and emotion. The ability to understand emotion and feelings allow these dark trait individuals to go undetected for longer and have better control of those around them. The ability to deceive and hide makes addressing the underlying behavioural problems harder. Their continued strategic and charming manipulation destroy the psychological safety of others around them. Research indicates understanding emotional intelligence, the dark tetrad, and theory of mind could assist with understanding the use of dark empathy (Vonk et al., 2015). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} ;Focus questions *How does dark empathy develop? *What drives an individual to use empathy to control and manipulate other people in their life? *How can psychological theory develop strategies to understand and assist individuals mitigate the negative effects of empathy? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The development of empathy == [[Empathy]] is the ability to share feelings and thoughts of others while remaining self-other distinction (Håkansson Eklund & Summer Meranius, 2021). This means a person can understand someone else’s experience while maintaining their identity. Empathy is not an innate but learned and developed. It can be cultivated through techniques to understand other's feelings and foster [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|pro-social behaviour]] (Abramson, 2021). Research found that teenagers learn empathy through their parent’s (Jiang et al., 2024), social groups (Decety, 2015), listening to music (Rabinowitch et al., 2013), and reading books particularly fiction (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013). Understanding how this foundational trait is normally developed provides a necessary baseline for examining how dark personalities can subvert empathy into a tool for manipulation. === The dark tetrad === [[File:Dark-triad-dark-tetrad-1.webp|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' The dark traits updated to include the fourth element of sadism. This created the dark tetrad of personality traits. ]] Negative personality traits were called the dark triad (Paulhus & Williams, 2002). An expansion on these traits were to include a fourth element, sadism (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015). There are four elements to the dark tetrad (see Figure 1): * Narcissism * Machiavellianism * Psychopathy * Sadism These traits demonstrate dark individuals have limited ability to comprehend other’s emotions and read their mental states (Vonk et al., 2015). Individuals are self-centred, emotionally unstable, and focused on anti-social behaviour which leads to few of them demonstrating empathy (Kaufman et al., 2019). See Table 1 for the breakdown of the personality traits. '''Table 1'''. Dark tetrad personality traits breakdown and behavioural signs {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Personality traits !! Definition !! Behavioural signs |- | '''Narcissism''' || Self-importance and constant need for admiration || Arrogance, entitlement, and bragging |- | '''Machiavellianism''' || Strategic manipulation, calculated world view and general distrust of motives and integrity || Deception, exploitation, and emotional detachment |- | '''Psychopathy''' || Lack of empathy, poor impulse control, and fearlessness || Reckless, charming, no remorse, and cruel |- | '''Sadism''' || Deriving pleasure or enjoyment from harming others || Bullying, shaming, and humiliating others |} === Theory of Mind (ToM) === Theory of Mind (ToM) is the ability to understand the internal mental states of others, including their beliefs and intentions (Wellman & Liu, 2004). ToM plays an important role in understanding how dark trait individuals understand internal mental states to successfully navigate social environments. ToM and empathy are both important influences on [[Prosocial behavior|pro-social behaviour]] (Qiu et al., 2024), which involves sharing, caring, helping, donating, comforting, and cooperating (Guo et al., 2023). While individuals with dark trait do not demonstrate these behaviours (Hurezan et al., 2026), ToM explains how dark empathy assists individuals to understand others and their own motives (Qiu et al., 2024). Dark trait individuals use this ability to read other's mental states and exploit it for their personal gain (Gojković et al., 2022). Recognising other’s vulnerablitlities while monitoring their own mental state, makes strategically exploiting easier. Ultimately, dark empaths use ToM to understand their own mental state to maintain their charming, empathic mask while concealing their manipulation of their victims. === Types of empathy === Empathy has bright and dark sides as well two types (Throop et al., 2020): * Affective empathy is physical and emotional sharing of feelings **This involves experiencing with the other person which is found more commonly in bright empathy * Cognitive empathy is the intellectual understanding of another’s emotions and thoughts without feeling their pain. **This involves understanding, yet keeping that self-other determination which makes it easier for manipulating by utilising emotions against another Empathy relies on the individual to use it based on their morals and beliefs (Breithaupt & Hamilton, 2019). A study on parent's influence found that empathy was not increased in teens with narcissistic traits (Jiang et al., 2024). This shows that dark traits personalities are not affected by external influences. Therefore, understanding the specific type of empathy is key to understanding dark empathy. Cognitive empathy allows them to comprehend feelings and thoughts without experiencing the burden, it suits strategic manipulation tactics like Machiavellianism (Gojković et al., 2022). When the motivation is to deceive and control, cognitive empathy provides the tools to serve their interests. === Making of a dark empath === Dark empathy is understanding those feelings and harnessing them against others (Breithaupt & Hamilton, 2019). It often develops when children experience trauma that forces them to predict and understand others' emotions just to stay safe (Bloxsom et al., 2021). Later in life, dark traits (narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and sadism) use this skill to deceive and control (Gojković et al.,2022). Research assessing these personalities shows they do not share common societal ethics and morality (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015). Because they are less likely to be honest and fair, they use dark empathy and their flexible morals to justify manipulating vulnerabilities for their own advantage (Throop et al., 2020). This helps to achieve their goals. Dark empath is not a formal medical diagnosis. Instead, it is a term that mixes dark personality traits with high cognitive empathy (Duradoni et al., 2023). Cognitive empathy allows people to understand others’ thoughts and feelings without feeling them. This helps people with dark traits hide behind superficial charm, chronic lying, and a lack of remorse (Hepper et al., 2014; Vonk et al., 2015). For example, narcissists can create a mask to hide their self-centred goals and better manipulate others (Hepper et al., 2014). Another sign is affective dissonance. This is a twisted emotional reaction, such as feeling happy when someone else suffers (Gojković et al., 2022). In the end, people with high dark traits may develop dark empathy to serve their goals. == Consequences of dark empathy == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario continued Charlie was assigned to report to Addison on the project and found herself becoming anxious at their one-on-one performance meetings. Charlie would spend over an hour preparing for the meetings despite keeping meticulous progress notes. She feels exhausted after each interaction and starts doubting her skills. Addison finds it hard to keep up with the workload. Other team members have complained that Addison has not been running the project well. Addison’s boss reviews the work and finds Addison has not been monitoring the project. Charlie’s work had been the only compliment the boss had for the update. Addison takes credit for Charlie's work and claims he has been managing Charlie's failing performance. Addison is to provide an update on the project and Charlie's performance. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Empathy can lead to depression (Yan et al., 2021) as well as severe emotional distress and burnout (Huang et al., 2025). An individual can use cognitive empathy to deceive, manipulate and exploit (Huang et al., 2025). Using dark traits like charm and chronic lying (Gojković et al., 2022), dark empaths manipulate others to reach their goals while pretending to be an ally. Both the person using dark empathy and their victims suffer harm to their wellbeing (Heym et al., 2021). Perceiving emotions, planning a response, and controlling reactions take considerable energy. There is a physical component in controlling their body language and expression to disarm others (Throop et al., 2020). While bright empathy brings people together. dark empathy isolates individuals from others and communities (Throop et al., 2020). === Effects on victims of dark empathy === The immediate impacts on their relationships are subtle and unlikely to be noticed. Dark empaths use their charming demeanour and their strategic understanding of other’s emotions and feelings to appear kind and empathic. The strategic manipulation relies heavily on ToM to better understand their victim's weakness to exploit and deceive them. After gaslighting an individual, their victim will develop chronic anxiety, depression, lower self-esteem, emotional dependency (Yan et al., 2021), shame, and humiliation (Throop et al., 2020). The victim's mental wellbeing may become apparent first and impact all areas of their lives. This can isolate victim and their mental state can become easier for a dark empath to manipulate. Additionally, the dark trait personalities are often linked to aggressive behaviours which increases the likelihood of intimate partner violence (Galán et al., 2026). Dark empathy can lead to harmful outcomes for dark empath's victims that become clearer with more exposure to the skillset. === Outcome for dark empaths === An individual using dark empathy may find the indifference and emotional de-attachment to others useful for achieving their goals (Throop et al., 2020). The emotional distance can intervene serve as a protective factor or buffer to psychological distress for the dark empath (Heym et al., 2021). While empathy combined with self-judgement and/or over-thinking can cause emotional distress (Heym et al., 2021), an individual who has dark traits and ToM, using cognitive empathy (understanding but not sharing emotions), does not experience the same level of that distress. The ability to not feel the emotions makes them better at utilising other’s vulnerabilities without the consequences. Though controlling others is effective at first, keeping up the mask leads to burnout (Throop et al., 2020). The thought of losing control can cause aggressive behaviour, driven by fear and shame (di Giacomo et al., 2023). While dark trait individuals are more self-centred and lack the pro-social behaviours, hiding their nature can lead to depression and a loss of identity (Qiu et al., 2024). == Addressing dark empathy == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario continued After talking to another colleague, Charlie notices her mental health is declining. She reaches out to the Employee Assistance Program (EAP) for support about her stress. The counsellor asks Charlie to consider when the anxiety and lower self-esteem started. She starts to realise it links back to Addison. Addison continues to blame Charlie for the project's failures. Addison fails to develop the deliverables in time for the boss’ deadline and a meeting is set up with him up with an EAP counsellor. Addison talks about Charlie's 'failures' and the counsellor asks Addison to consider his behaviour and input into the situation. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Dark empathy is not easily recognised as it can lower the appearance of aggressive behaviours in individuals with dark personalities traits (Heym et al., 2021). For example; a narcissist or sociopath may use understanding of ToM to influence others while a dark empath uses their cognitive empathy to control and most likely enjoy other's vulnerable emotions (Heym et al., 2021). The impacts of dark empathy can be found in the relationships of the dark empath. Person-centred approach assists in recognising patterns, identifying behaviours and setting boundaries (Galán et al., 2026). === Recovering from a dark empath === After dealing with a dark empath, an individual may find it hard to notice the patterns. Individual needs to set healthy emotional boundaries in this relationship which can be assisted by seeking therapy to identify patterns and how to address them. Person-centre framework (also known as client-centred approach) (Rogers, 1951) can assist in developing strategies and understanding the patterns they experienced (Galán et al., 2026). Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) would be effective for unlearning the patterns of abuse and understanding their trauma (Iverson et al., 2011) from the dark empath. === Unravelling from dark empathy === For a dark empath, the first step is recognizing their controlling behaviour and how it harms everyone's well-being. Carl Rogers' approach helps people understand who they are and who they want to be. This self-awareness lets them accept their dark traits and build stronger social skills (Galán et al., 2026). Some therapies that would be appropriate and effective for dark empaths are: *Dialectial behaviour therapy **This therapy allows people to talk through and accept their intense feelings (di Giacomo et al., 2023). *[[w:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive Behaviour Therapy]] (CBT) **This therapy assists in addressing anti-social behaviours and fosters pro-social behaviours (Shukla & Upadhyay, 2025) The steps to acknowledging the behaviours and traits are not easy process. Considering their dark traits lack of self-judgement, sense of self importance, enjoy in harming others, these dark trait individuals show little desire to go to therapy for the sake of others (di Giacomo et al., 2023). Their dark traits cause anti-social behaviours and a disregard the impact of their actions. Their lack self-judgement prevents them seeing themselves as part of the problem. == Conclusion == Dark empathy is a demonstration of how learning can be adapted to suit one’s desires. While it can develop through parental influence (Jiang et al., 2024), social experience (Decety, 2015), listening to music (Rabinowitch et al., 2013), and reading fiction (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013), it depends on morality of the individual. Understanding dark empathy is crucial for identifying and treating people with dark personality traits. Rather than genuinely sharing feelings, dark empaths use cognitive empathy as a tool to trick, manipulate, and exploit others (Heym et al., 2021). While traits like psychopathy and sadism usually involve anti-social behaviour, a lack of empathy, and joy in others' pain (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015), dark empaths fake emotional awareness and pro-social behaviour (Hurezan et al., 2026). This makes them difficult to spot, leaving victims vulnerable to gaslighting and emotional abuse. Consequently, standard person-centred frameworks are limited in effectiveness because these individuals rarely self-identify or seek help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} ;Key takeaway messages *Empathy can be developed, yet how it is used depends on the person's personality and sense of morals *Empathy has a bright and dark side. Dark empathy is a lesser recognised and it's impacts have a large effect on their community. *ToM can help understand how cognitive empathy is used. This is important in considering people's motivations of using empathy. *Further research on dark empathy and the dark tetrad's use of it will significantly improve identification and assisting in developing effective prevention strategies for their victims {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also== *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Dark triad personality and emotion|Dark triad personality and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional intelligence and anti-social behaviour|Emotional intelligence and antisocial behaviour]] (Book chapter, 2019) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Emotional intelligence and the dark triad|Emotional intelligence and the dark triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) *[[wikipedia:Machiavellianism_(psychology)|Machiavellianism]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Narcissism|Narcissism]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Psychopathy|Psychopathy]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Dark_triad|The Dark Triad]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Abramson, A. (2021, November 1). Cultivating empathy. Monitor on Psychology, 52(8). https://www.apa.org/monitor/2021/11/feature-cultivating-empathy Bal, P. M., & Veltkamp, M. (2013). How Does Fiction Reading Influence Empathy? An Experimental Investigation on the Role of Emotional Transportation. PloS one, 8(1), e55341. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0055341 Bloxsom, C. A. J., Firth, J., Kibowski, F., Egan, V., Sumich, A. L., & Heym, N. (2021). Dark shadow of the self: How the dark triad and empathy impact parental and intimate adult attachment relationships in women. Forensic Science International: Mind and Law, 2, 100045. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsiml.2021.100045 Breithaupt, F., & Hamilton, A. B. B. (2019). The dark sides of empathy (1st edition. ed.). Cornell University Press. https://doi.org/10.7591/9781501735608 Decety, J. (2015). The neural pathways, development and functions of empathy. Current opinion in behavioural sciences, 3, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2014.12.001 di Giacomo, E., Andreini, E., Lorusso, O., & Clerici, M. (2023). The dark side of empathy in narcissistic personality disorder. Front Psychiatry, 14, 1074558. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1074558 Duradoni, M., Gursesli, M. C., Fiorenza, M., Donati, A., & Guazzini, A. (2023). Cognitive Empathy and the Dark Triad: A Literature Review. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education (EJIHPE), 13(11), 2642-2680. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe13110184 Galán, M., Gerber, N., Valls, L., Molina, S., & Pineda, D. (2026). Dark Empaths and Intimate Partner Violence: A Latent Profile Analysis of Dark Tetrad Traits and Empathy Dimensions in Face-to-Face and Cyber Violence Perpetration. Behavioural sciences, 16(10), 1780. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16101780 Gojković, V., Dostanić, J. S., & Đurić, V. (2022). Structure of darkness: The Dark Triad, the ‘Dark’ Empathy and the ‘Dark’ Narcissism. Primenjena psihologija (Online), 15(2), 237-268. https://doi.org/10.19090/pp.v15i2.2380 Guo, Q., Li, S., Liang, J., Yu, X., & Lv, Y. (2023). Mindfulness may be associated with less prosocial engagement among high intelligence individuals. Scientific reports, 13(1), 4208. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31039-3 Hepper, E. G., Hart, C. M., & Sedikides, C. (2014). Moving Narcissus: Can Narcissists Be Empathic? Personality & social psychology bulletin, 40(9), 1079-1091. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167214535812 Heym, N., Firth, J., Kibowski, F., Sumich, A., Egan, V., & Bloxsom, C. A. (2019). Empathy at the heart of darkness: Empathy deficits that bind the dark triad and those that mediate indirect relational aggression. Frontiers in psychiatry, 10, 95. Heym, N., Kibowski, F., Bloxsom, C. A. J., Blanchard, A., Harper, A., Wallace, L., Firth, J., & Sumich, A. (2021). The Dark Empath: Characterising dark traits in the presence of empathy. Personality and Individual Differences, 169, 110172-110172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110172 Huang, C., Wu, Z., Sha, S., Liu, C., Yang, L., Jiang, P., Zhang, H., & Yang, C. (2025). The Dark Side of Empathy: The Role of Excessive Affective Empathy in Mental Health Disorders. Biological psychiatry (1969), 98(5), 404-415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2024.12.020 Hurezan, L., Miu, A. C., Costea, A., & Visu-Petra, L. (2026). Dark Personality, Empathy, and Prosocial Behaviour in Convicted Offenders. Scientific reports, 16(1), 4117-4177. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-34229-3 Iverson, K. M., Gradus, J. L., Resick, P. A., Suvak, M. K., Smith, K. F., & Monson, C. M. (2011). Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy for PTSD and Depression Symptoms Reduces Risk for Future Intimate Partner Violence Among Interpersonal Trauma Survivors. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 79(2), 193-202. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022512 Jiang, X., Liu, C., Xiao, X., & Zhan, Y. (2024). Role of narcissism and empathy in the relationship between parental attachment and moral response patterns. European journal of developmental psychology, 21(3), 365-387. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2024.2325173 Jonason, P. K., & Kroll, C. H. (2015). A Multidimensional View of the Relationship Between Empathy and the Dark Triad. Journal of individual differences, 36(3), 150-156. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000166 Kaufman, S. B., Yaden, D. B., Hyde, E., & Tsukayama, E. (2019). The Light vs. Dark Triad of Personality: Contrasting Two Very Different Profiles of Human Nature [Original Research]. Frontiers in psychology, Volume 10 - 2019. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00467 Mededovic, J., & Petrovic, B. (2015). The Dark Tetrad: Structural Properties and Location in the Personality Space. Journal of individual differences, 36(4), 228-236. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000179 Qiu, X., Gao, M., Zhu, H., Li, W., & Jiang, R. (2024). Theory of mind, empathy, and prosocial behaviour in children and adolescent: A meta-analysis. Current psychology (New Brunswick, N.J.), 43(22), 19690-19707. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-05762-7 Rabinowitch, T.-C., Cross, I., & Burnard, P. (2013). Long-term musical group interaction has a positive influence on empathy in children. Psychology of music, 41(4), 484-498. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735612440609 Rogers, C. R. (1951). Client-centered therapy; its current practice, implications, and theory. Houghton Mifflin. Shukla, M., & Upadhyay, N. (2025). Cold hearts and dark minds: A systematic review and meta-analysis of empathy across dark triad personalities. Frontiers in psychiatry, 16, 1546917. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1546917 Throop, C. J., Zahavi, D., de Lucas Freitas, J., Groark, K. P., Maibom, H., Satne, G. L., Stueber, K. R., & Trnka, S. (2020). Dark and Bright Empathy: Phenomenological and Anthropological Reflections. Current anthropology, 61(3), 283-303. https://doi.org/10.1086/708844 Vonk, J., Zeigler-Hill, V., Ewing, D., Mercer, S., & Noser, A. E. (2015). Mindreading in the dark: Dark personality features and theory of mind. Personality and Individual Differences, 87, 50-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.025 Wellman, H. M., & Liu, D. (2004). Scaling of Theory-of-Mind Tasks. Child development, 75(2), 523-541. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00691.x Yan, Z., Zeng, X., Su, J., & Zhang, X. (2021). The dark side of empathy: Meta‐analysis evidence of the relationship between empathy and depression. PsyCh journal (Victoria, Australia), 10(5), 794-804. https://doi.org/10.1002/pchj.482 }} ==External links== * [https://www.sciencefocus.com/wellbeing/dark-empaths Dark Empaths] (Science Focus) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/dark-tetrad Dark Tetrad] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.theguardian.com/science/2024/nov/10/narcissists-only-more-devious-the-truth-about-dark-empaths 'Narcissists - only more devious': the truth about dark empaths] (the Guardian) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] pt2x89vpy0ekjfd6rh8qqk8ftektasl 2840892 2840890 2026-10-17T08:02:58Z U3228742 3005570 Studiosity (Gen AI) tweaks to grammar 2840892 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Dark empathy:<br>What is dark empathy, what are its consequences, and what can be done to address it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario In a workplace, a new colleague, Addison, joined a close-knit team. He is charming and empathises with each team member. Addison fits in the team very well and many of the colleagues to him for advice. The lead role for a project becomes available and several members of the team decide to apply. One member, Charlie, takes Addison’s offer to help them prepare for the promotion. Charlie shares her fears and her perceived weaknesses for the role. Before the interviews, Addison strategically reminds Charlie about her weaknesses with a supportive twist. ''“Good luck, Charlie. Take a breath and pause to avoid speaking too quickly. Despite your limited leadership experience, your skills speak for themselves. You got this!”'' Charlie felt very nervous and stumbled in the interview. She de-briefed with another colleague who said she had never heard her speak quickly when nervous. She was known for keeping a calm front under pressure. After a few weeks, the promotion is given to Addison. No one knew Addison had applied and the team was shocked since they have limited skills in this area of the work. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Empathy can have a bright and dark side (Throop et al., 2020). The concern is when individuals with dark tetrad personality traits leverage their understanding of emotions and feelings to manipulate, control, or exploit to others. Dark empathy is a developed skill that uses the understanding of emotion and people's vulnerabilities against them to control and manipulate for their advantage (Throop et al., 2020). To consider the use of dark empathy, we need understand why and how people use it. Individuals with high dark tetrads usually struggle to understand body language and emotion. The ability to understand emotion and feelings allows these dark trait individuals to go undetected for longer and have better control of those around them. The ability to deceive and hide makes addressing the underlying behavioural problems harder. Their continued strategic and charming manipulation destroys the psychological safety of others around them. Research indicates that understanding emotional intelligence, the dark tetrad, and theory of mind could assist with understanding the use of dark empathy (Vonk et al., 2015). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} ;Focus questions *How does dark empathy develop? *What drives an individual to use empathy to control and manipulate other people in their life? *How can psychological theory develop strategies to understand and assist individuals mitigate the negative effects of empathy? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The development of empathy == [[Empathy]] is the ability to share feelings and thoughts of others while remaining self-other distinction (Håkansson Eklund & Summer Meranius, 2021). This means a person can understand someone else’s experience while maintaining their identity. Empathy is not an innate but learned and developed. It can be cultivated through techniques to understand other's feelings and foster [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|pro-social behaviour]] (Abramson, 2021). Research found that teenagers learn empathy through their parent’s (Jiang et al., 2024), social groups (Decety, 2015), listening to music (Rabinowitch et al., 2013), and reading books particularly fiction (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013). Understanding how this foundational trait is normally developed provides a necessary baseline for examining how dark personalities can subvert empathy into a tool for manipulation. === The dark tetrad === [[File:Dark-triad-dark-tetrad-1.webp|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' The dark traits updated to include the fourth element of sadism. This created the dark tetrad of personality traits. ]] Negative personality traits was called the dark triad (Paulhus & Williams, 2002). An expansion on these traits were to include a fourth element, sadism (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015). There are four elements to the dark tetrad (see Figure 1): * Narcissism * Machiavellianism * Psychopathy * Sadism These traits demonstrate dark individuals have limited ability to comprehend other’s emotions and read their mental states (Vonk et al., 2015). Individuals are self-centred, emotionally unstable, and focused on anti-social behaviour and this leads to few of them demonstrating empathy (Kaufman et al., 2019). See Table 1 for the breakdown of the personality traits. '''Table 1'''. Dark tetrad personality traits breakdown and behavioural signs {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Personality traits !! Definition !! Behavioural signs |- | '''Narcissism''' || Self-importance and constant need for admiration || Arrogance, entitlement, and bragging |- | '''Machiavellianism''' || Strategic manipulation, calculated world view and general distrust of motives and integrity || Deception, exploitation, and emotional detachment |- | '''Psychopathy''' || Lack of empathy, poor impulse control, and fearlessness || Reckless, charming, no remorse, and cruel |- | '''Sadism''' || Deriving pleasure or enjoyment from harming others || Bullying, shaming, and humiliating others |} === Theory of Mind (ToM) === Theory of Mind (ToM) is the ability to understand the internal mental states of others, including their beliefs and intentions (Wellman & Liu, 2004). ToM plays an important role in understanding how dark trait individuals understand internal mental states to successfully navigate social environments. ToM and empathy are both important influences on [[Prosocial behavior|pro-social behaviour]] (Qiu et al., 2024), which involves sharing, caring, helping, donating, comforting, and cooperating (Guo et al., 2023). While individuals with dark traits do not demonstrate these behaviours (Hurezan et al., 2026), ToM explains how dark empathy assists individuals to understand others and their own motives (Qiu et al., 2024). Dark trait individuals use this ability to read other's mental states and exploit it for their personal gain (Gojković et al., 2022). Recognising other’s vulnerablitlities while monitoring their own mental state, makes strategically exploiting easier. Ultimately, dark empaths use ToM to understand their own mental state to maintain their charming, empathic mask while concealing their manipulation of their victims. === Types of empathy === Empathy has bright and dark sides as well two types (Throop et al., 2020): * Affective empathy is physical and emotional sharing of feelings **This involves experiencing with the other person which is found more commonly in bright empathy * Cognitive empathy is the intellectual understanding of another’s emotions and thoughts without feeling their pain. **This involves understanding, yet keeping that self-other determination which makes it easier for manipulating by utilising emotions against another Empathy relies on the individual to use it based on their morals and beliefs (Breithaupt & Hamilton, 2019). A study on parent's influence found that empathy was not increased in teens with narcissistic traits (Jiang et al., 2024). This shows that dark traits personalities are not affected by external influences. Therefore, understanding the specific type of empathy is key to understanding dark empathy. Cognitive empathy allows them to comprehend feelings and thoughts without experiencing the burden, it suits strategic manipulation tactics like Machiavellianism (Gojković et al., 2022). When the motivation is to deceive and control, cognitive empathy provides the tools to serve their interests. === Making of a dark empath === Dark empathy is understanding those feelings and harnessing them against others (Breithaupt & Hamilton, 2019). It often develops when children experience trauma that forces them to predict and understand others' emotions just to stay safe (Bloxsom et al., 2021). Later in life, dark traits (narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and sadism) use this skill to deceive and control (Gojković et al.,2022). Research assessing these personalities shows they do not share common societal ethics and morality (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015). Because they are less likely to be honest and fair, they use dark empathy and their flexible morals to justify manipulating vulnerabilities for their own advantage (Throop et al., 2020). This helps to achieve their goals. Dark empath is not a formal medical diagnosis. Instead, it is a term that mixes dark personality traits with high cognitive empathy (Duradoni et al., 2023). Cognitive empathy allows people to understand others’ thoughts and feelings without feeling them. This helps people with dark traits hide behind superficial charm, chronic lying, and a lack of remorse (Hepper et al., 2014; Vonk et al., 2015). For example, narcissists can create a mask to hide their self-centred goals and better manipulate others (Hepper et al., 2014). Another sign is affective dissonance. This is a twisted emotional reaction, such as feeling happy when someone else suffers (Gojković et al., 2022). In the end, people with high dark traits may develop dark empathy to serve their goals. == Consequences of dark empathy == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario continued Charlie was assigned to report to Addison on the project and found herself becoming anxious at their one-on-one performance meetings. Charlie would spend over an hour preparing for the meetings despite keeping meticulous progress notes. She feels exhausted after each interaction and starts doubting her skills. Addison finds it hard to keep up with the workload. Other team members have complained that Addison has not been running the project well. Addison’s boss reviews the work and finds Addison has not been monitoring the project. Charlie’s work had been the only praise the boss had for the update. Addison takes credit for Charlie's work and claims he has been managing Charlie's failing performance. Addison is to provide an update on the project and Charlie's performance. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Empathy can lead to depression (Yan et al., 2021) as well as severe emotional distress and burnout (Huang et al., 2025). An individual can use cognitive empathy to deceive, manipulate and exploit (Huang et al., 2025). Using dark traits like charm and chronic lying (Gojković et al., 2022), dark empaths manipulate others to reach their goals while pretending to be an ally. Both the person using dark empathy and their victims suffer harm to their wellbeing (Heym et al., 2021). Perceiving emotions, planning a response, and controlling reactions take considerable energy. There is a physical component in controlling their body language and expression to disarm others (Throop et al., 2020). While bright empathy brings people together. dark empathy isolates individuals from others and communities (Throop et al., 2020). === Effects on victims of dark empathy === The immediate impacts on their relationships are subtle and unlikely to be noticed. Dark empaths use their charming demeanour and their strategic understanding of other’s emotions and feelings to appear kind and empathic. The strategic manipulation relies heavily on ToM to better understand their victim's weakness in order to exploit and deceive them. After gaslighting an individual, their victim will develop chronic anxiety, depression, lower self-esteem, emotional dependency (Yan et al., 2021), shame, and humiliation (Throop et al., 2020). The victim's mental wellbeing may become apparent first and impact all areas of their lives. This can isolate victim and their mental state can become easier for a dark empath to manipulate. Additionally, the dark trait personalities are often linked to aggressive behaviours which increases the likelihood of intimate partner violence (Galán et al., 2026). Dark empathy can lead to harmful outcomes for dark empath's victims that become clearer with more exposure to the skillset. === Outcome for dark empaths === An individual using dark empathy may find the indifference and emotional de-attachment to others useful for achieving their goals (Throop et al., 2020). The emotional distance can intervene serve as a protective factor or buffer to psychological distress for the dark empath (Heym et al., 2021). While empathy combined with self-judgement and/or over-thinking can cause emotional distress (Heym et al., 2021), an individual who has dark traits and ToM, using cognitive empathy (understanding but not sharing emotions), does not experience the same level of that distress. The ability to not feel the emotions makes them better at utilising other’s vulnerabilities without the consequences. Though controlling others is effective at first, keeping up the mask leads to burnout (Throop et al., 2020). The thought of losing control can cause aggressive behaviour, driven by fear and shame (di Giacomo et al., 2023). While dark trait individuals are more self-centred and lack the pro-social behaviours, hiding their nature can lead to depression and a loss of identity (Qiu et al., 2024). == Addressing dark empathy == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario continued After talking to another colleague, Charlie notices her mental health is declining. She reaches out to the Employee Assistance Program (EAP) for support about her stress. The counsellor asks Charlie to consider when the anxiety and lower self-esteem started. She starts to realise it links back to Addison. Addison continues to blame Charlie for the project's failures. Addison fails to develop the deliverables in time for the boss’ deadline and a meeting is set up with him up with an EAP counsellor. Addison talks about Charlie's 'failures' and the counsellor asks Addison to consider his behaviour and input into the situation. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Dark empathy is not easily recognised as it can lower the appearance of aggressive behaviours in individuals with dark personalities traits (Heym et al., 2021). For example; a narcissist or sociopath may use understanding of ToM to influence others while a dark empath uses their cognitive empathy to control and most likely enjoy other's vulnerable emotions (Heym et al., 2021). The impacts of dark empathy can be found in the relationships of the dark empath. Person-centred approach assists in recognising patterns, identifying behaviours and setting boundaries (Galán et al., 2026). === Recovering from a dark empath === After dealing with a dark empath, an individual may find it hard to notice the patterns. Individual needs to set healthy emotional boundaries in this relationship which can be assisted by seeking therapy to identify patterns and how to address them. Person-centre framework (also known as client-centred approach) (Rogers, 1951) can assist in developing strategies and understanding the patterns they experienced (Galán et al., 2026). Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) would be effective for unlearning the patterns of abuse and understanding their trauma (Iverson et al., 2011) from the dark empath. === Unravelling from dark empathy === For a dark empath, the first step is recognizing their controlling behaviour and how it harms everyone's well-being. Carl Rogers' approach helps people understand who they are and who they want to be. This self-awareness lets them accept their dark traits and build stronger social skills (Galán et al., 2026). Some therapies that would be appropriate and effective for dark empaths are: *Dialectial behaviour therapy **This therapy allows people to talk through and accept their intense feelings (di Giacomo et al., 2023). *[[w:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive Behaviour Therapy]] (CBT) **This therapy assists in addressing anti-social behaviours and fosters pro-social behaviours (Shukla & Upadhyay, 2025) The steps to acknowledging the behaviours and traits are not easy process. Considering their dark traits' lack of self-judgement, sense of self importance, enjoy in harming others, these dark trait individuals show little desire to go to therapy for the sake of others (di Giacomo et al., 2023). Their dark traits cause anti-social behaviours and a disregard the impact of their actions. Their lack self-judgement prevents them seeing themselves as part of the problem. == Conclusion == Dark empathy is a demonstration of how learning can be adapted to suit one’s desires. While it can develop through parental influence (Jiang et al., 2024), social experience (Decety, 2015), listening to music (Rabinowitch et al., 2013), and reading fiction (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013), it depends on morality of the individual. Understanding dark empathy is crucial for identifying and treating people with dark personality traits. Rather than genuinely sharing feelings, dark empaths use cognitive empathy as a tool to trick, manipulate, and exploit others (Heym et al., 2021). While traits like psychopathy and sadism usually involve anti-social behaviour, a lack of empathy, and enjoy others' pain (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015), dark empaths fake emotional awareness and pro-social behaviour (Hurezan et al., 2026). This makes them difficult to spot, leaving victims vulnerable to gaslighting and emotional abuse. Consequently, standard person-centred frameworks are limited in effectiveness because these individuals rarely self-identify or seek help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} ;Key takeaway messages *Empathy can be developed, yet how it is used depends on the person's personality and sense of morals *Empathy has a bright and dark side. Dark empathy is a lesser recognised and its impacts have a large effect on their community. *ToM can help understand how cognitive empathy is used. This is important in considering people's motivations of using empathy. *Further research on dark empathy and the dark tetrad's use of it will significantly improve identification and assisting in developing effective prevention strategies for their victims {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also== *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Dark triad personality and emotion|Dark triad personality and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional intelligence and anti-social behaviour|Emotional intelligence and antisocial behaviour]] (Book chapter, 2019) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Emotional intelligence and the dark triad|Emotional intelligence and the dark triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) *[[wikipedia:Machiavellianism_(psychology)|Machiavellianism]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Narcissism|Narcissism]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Psychopathy|Psychopathy]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Dark_triad|The Dark Triad]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Abramson, A. (2021, November 1). Cultivating empathy. Monitor on Psychology, 52(8). https://www.apa.org/monitor/2021/11/feature-cultivating-empathy Bal, P. M., & Veltkamp, M. (2013). How Does Fiction Reading Influence Empathy? An Experimental Investigation on the Role of Emotional Transportation. PloS one, 8(1), e55341. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0055341 Bloxsom, C. A. J., Firth, J., Kibowski, F., Egan, V., Sumich, A. L., & Heym, N. (2021). Dark shadow of the self: How the dark triad and empathy impact parental and intimate adult attachment relationships in women. Forensic Science International: Mind and Law, 2, 100045. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsiml.2021.100045 Breithaupt, F., & Hamilton, A. B. B. (2019). The dark sides of empathy (1st edition. ed.). Cornell University Press. https://doi.org/10.7591/9781501735608 Decety, J. (2015). The neural pathways, development and functions of empathy. Current opinion in behavioural sciences, 3, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2014.12.001 di Giacomo, E., Andreini, E., Lorusso, O., & Clerici, M. (2023). The dark side of empathy in narcissistic personality disorder. Front Psychiatry, 14, 1074558. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1074558 Duradoni, M., Gursesli, M. C., Fiorenza, M., Donati, A., & Guazzini, A. (2023). Cognitive Empathy and the Dark Triad: A Literature Review. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education (EJIHPE), 13(11), 2642-2680. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe13110184 Galán, M., Gerber, N., Valls, L., Molina, S., & Pineda, D. (2026). Dark Empaths and Intimate Partner Violence: A Latent Profile Analysis of Dark Tetrad Traits and Empathy Dimensions in Face-to-Face and Cyber Violence Perpetration. Behavioural sciences, 16(10), 1780. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16101780 Gojković, V., Dostanić, J. S., & Đurić, V. (2022). Structure of darkness: The Dark Triad, the ‘Dark’ Empathy and the ‘Dark’ Narcissism. Primenjena psihologija (Online), 15(2), 237-268. https://doi.org/10.19090/pp.v15i2.2380 Guo, Q., Li, S., Liang, J., Yu, X., & Lv, Y. (2023). Mindfulness may be associated with less prosocial engagement among high intelligence individuals. Scientific reports, 13(1), 4208. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31039-3 Hepper, E. G., Hart, C. M., & Sedikides, C. (2014). Moving Narcissus: Can Narcissists Be Empathic? Personality & social psychology bulletin, 40(9), 1079-1091. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167214535812 Heym, N., Firth, J., Kibowski, F., Sumich, A., Egan, V., & Bloxsom, C. A. (2019). Empathy at the heart of darkness: Empathy deficits that bind the dark triad and those that mediate indirect relational aggression. Frontiers in psychiatry, 10, 95. Heym, N., Kibowski, F., Bloxsom, C. A. J., Blanchard, A., Harper, A., Wallace, L., Firth, J., & Sumich, A. (2021). The Dark Empath: Characterising dark traits in the presence of empathy. Personality and Individual Differences, 169, 110172-110172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110172 Huang, C., Wu, Z., Sha, S., Liu, C., Yang, L., Jiang, P., Zhang, H., & Yang, C. (2025). The Dark Side of Empathy: The Role of Excessive Affective Empathy in Mental Health Disorders. Biological psychiatry (1969), 98(5), 404-415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2024.12.020 Hurezan, L., Miu, A. C., Costea, A., & Visu-Petra, L. (2026). Dark Personality, Empathy, and Prosocial Behaviour in Convicted Offenders. Scientific reports, 16(1), 4117-4177. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-34229-3 Iverson, K. M., Gradus, J. L., Resick, P. A., Suvak, M. K., Smith, K. F., & Monson, C. M. (2011). Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy for PTSD and Depression Symptoms Reduces Risk for Future Intimate Partner Violence Among Interpersonal Trauma Survivors. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 79(2), 193-202. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022512 Jiang, X., Liu, C., Xiao, X., & Zhan, Y. (2024). Role of narcissism and empathy in the relationship between parental attachment and moral response patterns. European journal of developmental psychology, 21(3), 365-387. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2024.2325173 Jonason, P. K., & Kroll, C. H. (2015). A Multidimensional View of the Relationship Between Empathy and the Dark Triad. Journal of individual differences, 36(3), 150-156. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000166 Kaufman, S. B., Yaden, D. B., Hyde, E., & Tsukayama, E. (2019). The Light vs. Dark Triad of Personality: Contrasting Two Very Different Profiles of Human Nature [Original Research]. Frontiers in psychology, Volume 10 - 2019. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00467 Mededovic, J., & Petrovic, B. (2015). The Dark Tetrad: Structural Properties and Location in the Personality Space. Journal of individual differences, 36(4), 228-236. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000179 Qiu, X., Gao, M., Zhu, H., Li, W., & Jiang, R. (2024). Theory of mind, empathy, and prosocial behaviour in children and adolescent: A meta-analysis. Current psychology (New Brunswick, N.J.), 43(22), 19690-19707. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-05762-7 Rabinowitch, T.-C., Cross, I., & Burnard, P. (2013). Long-term musical group interaction has a positive influence on empathy in children. Psychology of music, 41(4), 484-498. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735612440609 Rogers, C. R. (1951). Client-centered therapy; its current practice, implications, and theory. Houghton Mifflin. Shukla, M., & Upadhyay, N. (2025). Cold hearts and dark minds: A systematic review and meta-analysis of empathy across dark triad personalities. Frontiers in psychiatry, 16, 1546917. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1546917 Throop, C. J., Zahavi, D., de Lucas Freitas, J., Groark, K. P., Maibom, H., Satne, G. L., Stueber, K. R., & Trnka, S. (2020). Dark and Bright Empathy: Phenomenological and Anthropological Reflections. Current anthropology, 61(3), 283-303. https://doi.org/10.1086/708844 Vonk, J., Zeigler-Hill, V., Ewing, D., Mercer, S., & Noser, A. E. (2015). Mindreading in the dark: Dark personality features and theory of mind. Personality and Individual Differences, 87, 50-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.025 Wellman, H. M., & Liu, D. (2004). Scaling of Theory-of-Mind Tasks. Child development, 75(2), 523-541. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00691.x Yan, Z., Zeng, X., Su, J., & Zhang, X. (2021). The dark side of empathy: Meta‐analysis evidence of the relationship between empathy and depression. PsyCh journal (Victoria, Australia), 10(5), 794-804. https://doi.org/10.1002/pchj.482 }} ==External links== * [https://www.sciencefocus.com/wellbeing/dark-empaths Dark Empaths] (Science Focus) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/dark-tetrad Dark Tetrad] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.theguardian.com/science/2024/nov/10/narcissists-only-more-devious-the-truth-about-dark-empaths 'Narcissists - only more devious': the truth about dark empaths] (the Guardian) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] pjqc0lyhbzg0i9k21c10rewa1gu7d4m 2840893 2840892 2026-10-17T08:16:02Z U3228742 3005570 /* Recovering from a dark empath */ added more context and explaination 2840893 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Dark empathy:<br>What is dark empathy, what are its consequences, and what can be done to address it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario In a workplace, a new colleague, Addison, joined a close-knit team. He is charming and empathises with each team member. Addison fits in the team very well and many of the colleagues to him for advice. The lead role for a project becomes available and several members of the team decide to apply. One member, Charlie, takes Addison’s offer to help them prepare for the promotion. Charlie shares her fears and her perceived weaknesses for the role. Before the interviews, Addison strategically reminds Charlie about her weaknesses with a supportive twist. ''“Good luck, Charlie. Take a breath and pause to avoid speaking too quickly. Despite your limited leadership experience, your skills speak for themselves. You got this!”'' Charlie felt very nervous and stumbled in the interview. She de-briefed with another colleague who said she had never heard her speak quickly when nervous. She was known for keeping a calm front under pressure. After a few weeks, the promotion is given to Addison. No one knew Addison had applied and the team was shocked since they have limited skills in this area of the work. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Empathy can have a bright and dark side (Throop et al., 2020). The concern is when individuals with dark tetrad personality traits leverage their understanding of emotions and feelings to manipulate, control, or exploit to others. Dark empathy is a developed skill that uses the understanding of emotion and people's vulnerabilities against them to control and manipulate for their advantage (Throop et al., 2020). To consider the use of dark empathy, we need understand why and how people use it. Individuals with high dark tetrads usually struggle to understand body language and emotion. The ability to understand emotion and feelings allows these dark trait individuals to go undetected for longer and have better control of those around them. The ability to deceive and hide makes addressing the underlying behavioural problems harder. Their continued strategic and charming manipulation destroys the psychological safety of others around them. Research indicates that understanding emotional intelligence, the dark tetrad, and theory of mind could assist with understanding the use of dark empathy (Vonk et al., 2015). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} ;Focus questions *How does dark empathy develop? *What drives an individual to use empathy to control and manipulate other people in their life? *How can psychological theory develop strategies to understand and assist individuals mitigate the negative effects of empathy? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The development of empathy == [[Empathy]] is the ability to share feelings and thoughts of others while remaining self-other distinction (Håkansson Eklund & Summer Meranius, 2021). This means a person can understand someone else’s experience while maintaining their identity. Empathy is not an innate but learned and developed. It can be cultivated through techniques to understand other's feelings and foster [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|pro-social behaviour]] (Abramson, 2021). Research found that teenagers learn empathy through their parent’s (Jiang et al., 2024), social groups (Decety, 2015), listening to music (Rabinowitch et al., 2013), and reading books particularly fiction (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013). Understanding how this foundational trait is normally developed provides a necessary baseline for examining how dark personalities can subvert empathy into a tool for manipulation. === The dark tetrad === [[File:Dark-triad-dark-tetrad-1.webp|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' The dark traits updated to include the fourth element of sadism. This created the dark tetrad of personality traits. ]] Negative personality traits was called the dark triad (Paulhus & Williams, 2002). An expansion on these traits were to include a fourth element, sadism (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015). There are four elements to the dark tetrad (see Figure 1): * Narcissism * Machiavellianism * Psychopathy * Sadism These traits demonstrate dark individuals have limited ability to comprehend other’s emotions and read their mental states (Vonk et al., 2015). Individuals are self-centred, emotionally unstable, and focused on anti-social behaviour and this leads to few of them demonstrating empathy (Kaufman et al., 2019). See Table 1 for the breakdown of the personality traits. '''Table 1'''. Dark tetrad personality traits breakdown and behavioural signs {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Personality traits !! Definition !! Behavioural signs |- | '''Narcissism''' || Self-importance and constant need for admiration || Arrogance, entitlement, and bragging |- | '''Machiavellianism''' || Strategic manipulation, calculated world view and general distrust of motives and integrity || Deception, exploitation, and emotional detachment |- | '''Psychopathy''' || Lack of empathy, poor impulse control, and fearlessness || Reckless, charming, no remorse, and cruel |- | '''Sadism''' || Deriving pleasure or enjoyment from harming others || Bullying, shaming, and humiliating others |} === Theory of Mind (ToM) === Theory of Mind (ToM) is the ability to understand the internal mental states of others, including their beliefs and intentions (Wellman & Liu, 2004). ToM plays an important role in understanding how dark trait individuals understand internal mental states to successfully navigate social environments. ToM and empathy are both important influences on [[Prosocial behavior|pro-social behaviour]] (Qiu et al., 2024), which involves sharing, caring, helping, donating, comforting, and cooperating (Guo et al., 2023). While individuals with dark traits do not demonstrate these behaviours (Hurezan et al., 2026), ToM explains how dark empathy assists individuals to understand others and their own motives (Qiu et al., 2024). Dark trait individuals use this ability to read other's mental states and exploit it for their personal gain (Gojković et al., 2022). Recognising other’s vulnerablitlities while monitoring their own mental state, makes strategically exploiting easier. Ultimately, dark empaths use ToM to understand their own mental state to maintain their charming, empathic mask while concealing their manipulation of their victims. === Types of empathy === Empathy has bright and dark sides as well two types (Throop et al., 2020): * Affective empathy is physical and emotional sharing of feelings **This involves experiencing with the other person which is found more commonly in bright empathy * Cognitive empathy is the intellectual understanding of another’s emotions and thoughts without feeling their pain. **This involves understanding, yet keeping that self-other determination which makes it easier for manipulating by utilising emotions against another Empathy relies on the individual to use it based on their morals and beliefs (Breithaupt & Hamilton, 2019). A study on parent's influence found that empathy was not increased in teens with narcissistic traits (Jiang et al., 2024). This shows that dark traits personalities are not affected by external influences. Therefore, understanding the specific type of empathy is key to understanding dark empathy. Cognitive empathy allows them to comprehend feelings and thoughts without experiencing the burden, it suits strategic manipulation tactics like Machiavellianism (Gojković et al., 2022). When the motivation is to deceive and control, cognitive empathy provides the tools to serve their interests. === Making of a dark empath === Dark empathy is understanding those feelings and harnessing them against others (Breithaupt & Hamilton, 2019). It often develops when children experience trauma that forces them to predict and understand others' emotions just to stay safe (Bloxsom et al., 2021). Later in life, dark traits (narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and sadism) use this skill to deceive and control (Gojković et al.,2022). Research assessing these personalities shows they do not share common societal ethics and morality (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015). Because they are less likely to be honest and fair, they use dark empathy and their flexible morals to justify manipulating vulnerabilities for their own advantage (Throop et al., 2020). This helps to achieve their goals. Dark empath is not a formal medical diagnosis. Instead, it is a term that mixes dark personality traits with high cognitive empathy (Duradoni et al., 2023). Cognitive empathy allows people to understand others’ thoughts and feelings without feeling them. This helps people with dark traits hide behind superficial charm, chronic lying, and a lack of remorse (Hepper et al., 2014; Vonk et al., 2015). For example, narcissists can create a mask to hide their self-centred goals and better manipulate others (Hepper et al., 2014). Another sign is affective dissonance. This is a twisted emotional reaction, such as feeling happy when someone else suffers (Gojković et al., 2022). In the end, people with high dark traits may develop dark empathy to serve their goals. == Consequences of dark empathy == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario continued Charlie was assigned to report to Addison on the project and found herself becoming anxious at their one-on-one performance meetings. Charlie would spend over an hour preparing for the meetings despite keeping meticulous progress notes. She feels exhausted after each interaction and starts doubting her skills. Addison finds it hard to keep up with the workload. Other team members have complained that Addison has not been running the project well. Addison’s boss reviews the work and finds Addison has not been monitoring the project. Charlie’s work had been the only praise the boss had for the update. Addison takes credit for Charlie's work and claims he has been managing Charlie's failing performance. Addison is to provide an update on the project and Charlie's performance. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Empathy can lead to depression (Yan et al., 2021) as well as severe emotional distress and burnout (Huang et al., 2025). An individual can use cognitive empathy to deceive, manipulate and exploit (Huang et al., 2025). Using dark traits like charm and chronic lying (Gojković et al., 2022), dark empaths manipulate others to reach their goals while pretending to be an ally. Both the person using dark empathy and their victims suffer harm to their wellbeing (Heym et al., 2021). Perceiving emotions, planning a response, and controlling reactions take considerable energy. There is a physical component in controlling their body language and expression to disarm others (Throop et al., 2020). While bright empathy brings people together. dark empathy isolates individuals from others and communities (Throop et al., 2020). === Effects on victims of dark empathy === The immediate impacts on their relationships are subtle and unlikely to be noticed. Dark empaths use their charming demeanour and their strategic understanding of other’s emotions and feelings to appear kind and empathic. The strategic manipulation relies heavily on ToM to better understand their victim's weakness in order to exploit and deceive them. After gaslighting an individual, their victim will develop chronic anxiety, depression, lower self-esteem, emotional dependency (Yan et al., 2021), shame, and humiliation (Throop et al., 2020). The victim's mental wellbeing may become apparent first and impact all areas of their lives. This can isolate victim and their mental state can become easier for a dark empath to manipulate. Additionally, the dark trait personalities are often linked to aggressive behaviours which increases the likelihood of intimate partner violence (Galán et al., 2026). Dark empathy can lead to harmful outcomes for dark empath's victims that become clearer with more exposure to the skillset. === Outcome for dark empaths === An individual using dark empathy may find the indifference and emotional de-attachment to others useful for achieving their goals (Throop et al., 2020). The emotional distance can intervene serve as a protective factor or buffer to psychological distress for the dark empath (Heym et al., 2021). While empathy combined with self-judgement and/or over-thinking can cause emotional distress (Heym et al., 2021), an individual who has dark traits and ToM, using cognitive empathy (understanding but not sharing emotions), does not experience the same level of that distress. The ability to not feel the emotions makes them better at utilising other’s vulnerabilities without the consequences. Though controlling others is effective at first, keeping up the mask leads to burnout (Throop et al., 2020). The thought of losing control can cause aggressive behaviour, driven by fear and shame (di Giacomo et al., 2023). While dark trait individuals are more self-centred and lack the pro-social behaviours, hiding their nature can lead to depression and a loss of identity (Qiu et al., 2024). == Addressing dark empathy == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario continued After talking to another colleague, Charlie notices her mental health is declining. She reaches out to the Employee Assistance Program (EAP) for support about her stress. The counsellor asks Charlie to consider when the anxiety and lower self-esteem started. She starts to realise it links back to Addison. Addison continues to blame Charlie for the project's failures. Addison fails to develop the deliverables in time for the boss’ deadline and a meeting is set up with him up with an EAP counsellor. Addison talks about Charlie's 'failures' and the counsellor asks Addison to consider his behaviour and input into the situation. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Dark empathy is not easily recognised as it can lower the appearance of aggressive behaviours in individuals with dark personalities traits (Heym et al., 2021). For example; a narcissist or sociopath may use understanding of ToM to influence others while a dark empath uses their cognitive empathy to control and most likely enjoy other's vulnerable emotions (Heym et al., 2021). The impacts of dark empathy can be found in the relationships of the dark empath. Person-centred approach assists in recognising patterns, identifying behaviours and setting boundaries (Galán et al., 2026). === Recovering from a dark empath === After dealing with a dark empath, an individual may find it hard to notice the patterns. Individual needs to set healthy emotional boundaries in this relationship which can be assisted by seeking therapy to identify patterns and how to address them. Person-centre framework (also known as client-centred approach) (Rogers, 1951) can assist in developing strategies and understanding the patterns they experienced (Galán et al., 2026). As victim's of dark empathy can develop mental health disorders such as PTSD, it's important to understand the patterns of abuse that affected their lives. Roger's non-judgemental approach in therapy can assist them to feel safe when victim's may have become guarded and mistrusting. Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) would be effective for unlearning the patterns of abuse and understanding their trauma (Iverson et al., 2011) from the dark empath. Dark empathy has a negative affect on those being exploited and bright empathy towards them will assist in recovering from the patterns of abuse. === Unravelling from dark empathy === For a dark empath, the first step is recognizing their controlling behaviour and how it harms everyone's well-being. Carl Rogers' approach helps people understand who they are and who they want to be. This self-awareness lets them accept their dark traits and build stronger social skills (Galán et al., 2026). Some therapies that would be appropriate and effective for dark empaths are: *Dialectial behaviour therapy **This therapy allows people to talk through and accept their intense feelings (di Giacomo et al., 2023). *[[w:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive Behaviour Therapy]] (CBT) **This therapy assists in addressing anti-social behaviours and fosters pro-social behaviours (Shukla & Upadhyay, 2025) The steps to acknowledging the behaviours and traits are not easy process. Considering their dark traits' lack of self-judgement, sense of self importance, enjoy in harming others, these dark trait individuals show little desire to go to therapy for the sake of others (di Giacomo et al., 2023). Their dark traits cause anti-social behaviours and a disregard the impact of their actions. Their lack self-judgement prevents them seeing themselves as part of the problem. == Conclusion == Dark empathy is a demonstration of how learning can be adapted to suit one’s desires. While it can develop through parental influence (Jiang et al., 2024), social experience (Decety, 2015), listening to music (Rabinowitch et al., 2013), and reading fiction (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013), it depends on morality of the individual. Understanding dark empathy is crucial for identifying and treating people with dark personality traits. Rather than genuinely sharing feelings, dark empaths use cognitive empathy as a tool to trick, manipulate, and exploit others (Heym et al., 2021). While traits like psychopathy and sadism usually involve anti-social behaviour, a lack of empathy, and enjoy others' pain (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015), dark empaths fake emotional awareness and pro-social behaviour (Hurezan et al., 2026). This makes them difficult to spot, leaving victims vulnerable to gaslighting and emotional abuse. Consequently, standard person-centred frameworks are limited in effectiveness because these individuals rarely self-identify or seek help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} ;Key takeaway messages *Empathy can be developed, yet how it is used depends on the person's personality and sense of morals *Empathy has a bright and dark side. Dark empathy is a lesser recognised and its impacts have a large effect on their community. *ToM can help understand how cognitive empathy is used. This is important in considering people's motivations of using empathy. *Further research on dark empathy and the dark tetrad's use of it will significantly improve identification and assisting in developing effective prevention strategies for their victims {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also== *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Dark triad personality and emotion|Dark triad personality and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional intelligence and anti-social behaviour|Emotional intelligence and antisocial behaviour]] (Book chapter, 2019) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Emotional intelligence and the dark triad|Emotional intelligence and the dark triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) *[[wikipedia:Machiavellianism_(psychology)|Machiavellianism]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Narcissism|Narcissism]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Psychopathy|Psychopathy]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Dark_triad|The Dark Triad]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Abramson, A. (2021, November 1). Cultivating empathy. Monitor on Psychology, 52(8). https://www.apa.org/monitor/2021/11/feature-cultivating-empathy Bal, P. M., & Veltkamp, M. (2013). How Does Fiction Reading Influence Empathy? An Experimental Investigation on the Role of Emotional Transportation. PloS one, 8(1), e55341. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0055341 Bloxsom, C. A. J., Firth, J., Kibowski, F., Egan, V., Sumich, A. L., & Heym, N. (2021). Dark shadow of the self: How the dark triad and empathy impact parental and intimate adult attachment relationships in women. Forensic Science International: Mind and Law, 2, 100045. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsiml.2021.100045 Breithaupt, F., & Hamilton, A. B. B. (2019). The dark sides of empathy (1st edition. ed.). Cornell University Press. https://doi.org/10.7591/9781501735608 Decety, J. (2015). The neural pathways, development and functions of empathy. Current opinion in behavioural sciences, 3, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2014.12.001 di Giacomo, E., Andreini, E., Lorusso, O., & Clerici, M. (2023). The dark side of empathy in narcissistic personality disorder. Front Psychiatry, 14, 1074558. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1074558 Duradoni, M., Gursesli, M. C., Fiorenza, M., Donati, A., & Guazzini, A. (2023). Cognitive Empathy and the Dark Triad: A Literature Review. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education (EJIHPE), 13(11), 2642-2680. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe13110184 Galán, M., Gerber, N., Valls, L., Molina, S., & Pineda, D. (2026). Dark Empaths and Intimate Partner Violence: A Latent Profile Analysis of Dark Tetrad Traits and Empathy Dimensions in Face-to-Face and Cyber Violence Perpetration. Behavioural sciences, 16(10), 1780. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16101780 Gojković, V., Dostanić, J. S., & Đurić, V. (2022). Structure of darkness: The Dark Triad, the ‘Dark’ Empathy and the ‘Dark’ Narcissism. Primenjena psihologija (Online), 15(2), 237-268. https://doi.org/10.19090/pp.v15i2.2380 Guo, Q., Li, S., Liang, J., Yu, X., & Lv, Y. (2023). Mindfulness may be associated with less prosocial engagement among high intelligence individuals. Scientific reports, 13(1), 4208. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31039-3 Hepper, E. G., Hart, C. M., & Sedikides, C. (2014). Moving Narcissus: Can Narcissists Be Empathic? Personality & social psychology bulletin, 40(9), 1079-1091. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167214535812 Heym, N., Firth, J., Kibowski, F., Sumich, A., Egan, V., & Bloxsom, C. A. (2019). Empathy at the heart of darkness: Empathy deficits that bind the dark triad and those that mediate indirect relational aggression. Frontiers in psychiatry, 10, 95. Heym, N., Kibowski, F., Bloxsom, C. A. J., Blanchard, A., Harper, A., Wallace, L., Firth, J., & Sumich, A. (2021). The Dark Empath: Characterising dark traits in the presence of empathy. Personality and Individual Differences, 169, 110172-110172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110172 Huang, C., Wu, Z., Sha, S., Liu, C., Yang, L., Jiang, P., Zhang, H., & Yang, C. (2025). The Dark Side of Empathy: The Role of Excessive Affective Empathy in Mental Health Disorders. Biological psychiatry (1969), 98(5), 404-415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2024.12.020 Hurezan, L., Miu, A. C., Costea, A., & Visu-Petra, L. (2026). Dark Personality, Empathy, and Prosocial Behaviour in Convicted Offenders. Scientific reports, 16(1), 4117-4177. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-34229-3 Iverson, K. M., Gradus, J. L., Resick, P. A., Suvak, M. K., Smith, K. F., & Monson, C. M. (2011). Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy for PTSD and Depression Symptoms Reduces Risk for Future Intimate Partner Violence Among Interpersonal Trauma Survivors. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 79(2), 193-202. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022512 Jiang, X., Liu, C., Xiao, X., & Zhan, Y. (2024). Role of narcissism and empathy in the relationship between parental attachment and moral response patterns. European journal of developmental psychology, 21(3), 365-387. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2024.2325173 Jonason, P. K., & Kroll, C. H. (2015). A Multidimensional View of the Relationship Between Empathy and the Dark Triad. Journal of individual differences, 36(3), 150-156. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000166 Kaufman, S. B., Yaden, D. B., Hyde, E., & Tsukayama, E. (2019). The Light vs. Dark Triad of Personality: Contrasting Two Very Different Profiles of Human Nature [Original Research]. Frontiers in psychology, Volume 10 - 2019. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00467 Mededovic, J., & Petrovic, B. (2015). The Dark Tetrad: Structural Properties and Location in the Personality Space. Journal of individual differences, 36(4), 228-236. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000179 Qiu, X., Gao, M., Zhu, H., Li, W., & Jiang, R. (2024). Theory of mind, empathy, and prosocial behaviour in children and adolescent: A meta-analysis. Current psychology (New Brunswick, N.J.), 43(22), 19690-19707. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-05762-7 Rabinowitch, T.-C., Cross, I., & Burnard, P. (2013). Long-term musical group interaction has a positive influence on empathy in children. Psychology of music, 41(4), 484-498. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735612440609 Rogers, C. R. (1951). Client-centered therapy; its current practice, implications, and theory. Houghton Mifflin. Shukla, M., & Upadhyay, N. (2025). Cold hearts and dark minds: A systematic review and meta-analysis of empathy across dark triad personalities. Frontiers in psychiatry, 16, 1546917. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1546917 Throop, C. J., Zahavi, D., de Lucas Freitas, J., Groark, K. P., Maibom, H., Satne, G. L., Stueber, K. R., & Trnka, S. (2020). Dark and Bright Empathy: Phenomenological and Anthropological Reflections. Current anthropology, 61(3), 283-303. https://doi.org/10.1086/708844 Vonk, J., Zeigler-Hill, V., Ewing, D., Mercer, S., & Noser, A. E. (2015). Mindreading in the dark: Dark personality features and theory of mind. Personality and Individual Differences, 87, 50-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.025 Wellman, H. M., & Liu, D. (2004). Scaling of Theory-of-Mind Tasks. Child development, 75(2), 523-541. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00691.x Yan, Z., Zeng, X., Su, J., & Zhang, X. (2021). The dark side of empathy: Meta‐analysis evidence of the relationship between empathy and depression. PsyCh journal (Victoria, Australia), 10(5), 794-804. https://doi.org/10.1002/pchj.482 }} ==External links== * [https://www.sciencefocus.com/wellbeing/dark-empaths Dark Empaths] (Science Focus) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/dark-tetrad Dark Tetrad] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.theguardian.com/science/2024/nov/10/narcissists-only-more-devious-the-truth-about-dark-empaths 'Narcissists - only more devious': the truth about dark empaths] (the Guardian) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] 4furpjmg75th1i3sqfyp0k1tp42ln1f 2840894 2840893 2026-10-17T08:30:50Z U3228742 3005570 /* Conclusion */ updating wording 2840894 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Dark empathy:<br>What is dark empathy, what are its consequences, and what can be done to address it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario In a workplace, a new colleague, Addison, joined a close-knit team. He is charming and empathises with each team member. Addison fits in the team very well and many of the colleagues to him for advice. The lead role for a project becomes available and several members of the team decide to apply. One member, Charlie, takes Addison’s offer to help them prepare for the promotion. Charlie shares her fears and her perceived weaknesses for the role. Before the interviews, Addison strategically reminds Charlie about her weaknesses with a supportive twist. ''“Good luck, Charlie. Take a breath and pause to avoid speaking too quickly. Despite your limited leadership experience, your skills speak for themselves. You got this!”'' Charlie felt very nervous and stumbled in the interview. She de-briefed with another colleague who said she had never heard her speak quickly when nervous. She was known for keeping a calm front under pressure. After a few weeks, the promotion is given to Addison. No one knew Addison had applied and the team was shocked since they have limited skills in this area of the work. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Empathy can have a bright and dark side (Throop et al., 2020). The concern is when individuals with dark tetrad personality traits leverage their understanding of emotions and feelings to manipulate, control, or exploit to others. Dark empathy is a developed skill that uses the understanding of emotion and people's vulnerabilities against them to control and manipulate for their advantage (Throop et al., 2020). To consider the use of dark empathy, we need understand why and how people use it. Individuals with high dark tetrads usually struggle to understand body language and emotion. The ability to understand emotion and feelings allows these dark trait individuals to go undetected for longer and have better control of those around them. The ability to deceive and hide makes addressing the underlying behavioural problems harder. Their continued strategic and charming manipulation destroys the psychological safety of others around them. Research indicates that understanding emotional intelligence, the dark tetrad, and theory of mind could assist with understanding the use of dark empathy (Vonk et al., 2015). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} ;Focus questions *How does dark empathy develop? *What drives an individual to use empathy to control and manipulate other people in their life? *How can psychological theory develop strategies to understand and assist individuals mitigate the negative effects of empathy? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The development of empathy == [[Empathy]] is the ability to share feelings and thoughts of others while remaining self-other distinction (Håkansson Eklund & Summer Meranius, 2021). This means a person can understand someone else’s experience while maintaining their identity. Empathy is not an innate but learned and developed. It can be cultivated through techniques to understand other's feelings and foster [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|pro-social behaviour]] (Abramson, 2021). Research found that teenagers learn empathy through their parent’s (Jiang et al., 2024), social groups (Decety, 2015), listening to music (Rabinowitch et al., 2013), and reading books particularly fiction (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013). Understanding how this foundational trait is normally developed provides a necessary baseline for examining how dark personalities can subvert empathy into a tool for manipulation. === The dark tetrad === [[File:Dark-triad-dark-tetrad-1.webp|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' The dark traits updated to include the fourth element of sadism. This created the dark tetrad of personality traits. ]] Negative personality traits was called the dark triad (Paulhus & Williams, 2002). An expansion on these traits were to include a fourth element, sadism (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015). There are four elements to the dark tetrad (see Figure 1): * Narcissism * Machiavellianism * Psychopathy * Sadism These traits demonstrate dark individuals have limited ability to comprehend other’s emotions and read their mental states (Vonk et al., 2015). Individuals are self-centred, emotionally unstable, and focused on anti-social behaviour and this leads to few of them demonstrating empathy (Kaufman et al., 2019). See Table 1 for the breakdown of the personality traits. '''Table 1'''. Dark tetrad personality traits breakdown and behavioural signs {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Personality traits !! Definition !! Behavioural signs |- | '''Narcissism''' || Self-importance and constant need for admiration || Arrogance, entitlement, and bragging |- | '''Machiavellianism''' || Strategic manipulation, calculated world view and general distrust of motives and integrity || Deception, exploitation, and emotional detachment |- | '''Psychopathy''' || Lack of empathy, poor impulse control, and fearlessness || Reckless, charming, no remorse, and cruel |- | '''Sadism''' || Deriving pleasure or enjoyment from harming others || Bullying, shaming, and humiliating others |} === Theory of Mind (ToM) === Theory of Mind (ToM) is the ability to understand the internal mental states of others, including their beliefs and intentions (Wellman & Liu, 2004). ToM plays an important role in understanding how dark trait individuals understand internal mental states to successfully navigate social environments. ToM and empathy are both important influences on [[Prosocial behavior|pro-social behaviour]] (Qiu et al., 2024), which involves sharing, caring, helping, donating, comforting, and cooperating (Guo et al., 2023). While individuals with dark traits do not demonstrate these behaviours (Hurezan et al., 2026), ToM explains how dark empathy assists individuals to understand others and their own motives (Qiu et al., 2024). Dark trait individuals use this ability to read other's mental states and exploit it for their personal gain (Gojković et al., 2022). Recognising other’s vulnerablitlities while monitoring their own mental state, makes strategically exploiting easier. Ultimately, dark empaths use ToM to understand their own mental state to maintain their charming, empathic mask while concealing their manipulation of their victims. === Types of empathy === Empathy has bright and dark sides as well two types (Throop et al., 2020): * Affective empathy is physical and emotional sharing of feelings **This involves experiencing with the other person which is found more commonly in bright empathy * Cognitive empathy is the intellectual understanding of another’s emotions and thoughts without feeling their pain. **This involves understanding, yet keeping that self-other determination which makes it easier for manipulating by utilising emotions against another Empathy relies on the individual to use it based on their morals and beliefs (Breithaupt & Hamilton, 2019). A study on parent's influence found that empathy was not increased in teens with narcissistic traits (Jiang et al., 2024). This shows that dark traits personalities are not affected by external influences. Therefore, understanding the specific type of empathy is key to understanding dark empathy. Cognitive empathy allows them to comprehend feelings and thoughts without experiencing the burden, it suits strategic manipulation tactics like Machiavellianism (Gojković et al., 2022). When the motivation is to deceive and control, cognitive empathy provides the tools to serve their interests. === Making of a dark empath === Dark empathy is understanding those feelings and harnessing them against others (Breithaupt & Hamilton, 2019). It often develops when children experience trauma that forces them to predict and understand others' emotions just to stay safe (Bloxsom et al., 2021). Later in life, dark traits (narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and sadism) use this skill to deceive and control (Gojković et al.,2022). Research assessing these personalities shows they do not share common societal ethics and morality (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015). Because they are less likely to be honest and fair, they use dark empathy and their flexible morals to justify manipulating vulnerabilities for their own advantage (Throop et al., 2020). This helps to achieve their goals. Dark empath is not a formal medical diagnosis. Instead, it is a term that mixes dark personality traits with high cognitive empathy (Duradoni et al., 2023). Cognitive empathy allows people to understand others’ thoughts and feelings without feeling them. This helps people with dark traits hide behind superficial charm, chronic lying, and a lack of remorse (Hepper et al., 2014; Vonk et al., 2015). For example, narcissists can create a mask to hide their self-centred goals and better manipulate others (Hepper et al., 2014). Another sign is affective dissonance. This is a twisted emotional reaction, such as feeling happy when someone else suffers (Gojković et al., 2022). In the end, people with high dark traits may develop dark empathy to serve their goals. == Consequences of dark empathy == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario continued Charlie was assigned to report to Addison on the project and found herself becoming anxious at their one-on-one performance meetings. Charlie would spend over an hour preparing for the meetings despite keeping meticulous progress notes. She feels exhausted after each interaction and starts doubting her skills. Addison finds it hard to keep up with the workload. Other team members have complained that Addison has not been running the project well. Addison’s boss reviews the work and finds Addison has not been monitoring the project. Charlie’s work had been the only praise the boss had for the update. Addison takes credit for Charlie's work and claims he has been managing Charlie's failing performance. Addison is to provide an update on the project and Charlie's performance. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Empathy can lead to depression (Yan et al., 2021) as well as severe emotional distress and burnout (Huang et al., 2025). An individual can use cognitive empathy to deceive, manipulate and exploit (Huang et al., 2025). Using dark traits like charm and chronic lying (Gojković et al., 2022), dark empaths manipulate others to reach their goals while pretending to be an ally. Both the person using dark empathy and their victims suffer harm to their wellbeing (Heym et al., 2021). Perceiving emotions, planning a response, and controlling reactions take considerable energy. There is a physical component in controlling their body language and expression to disarm others (Throop et al., 2020). While bright empathy brings people together. dark empathy isolates individuals from others and communities (Throop et al., 2020). === Effects on victims of dark empathy === The immediate impacts on their relationships are subtle and unlikely to be noticed. Dark empaths use their charming demeanour and their strategic understanding of other’s emotions and feelings to appear kind and empathic. The strategic manipulation relies heavily on ToM to better understand their victim's weakness in order to exploit and deceive them. After gaslighting an individual, their victim will develop chronic anxiety, depression, lower self-esteem, emotional dependency (Yan et al., 2021), shame, and humiliation (Throop et al., 2020). The victim's mental wellbeing may become apparent first and impact all areas of their lives. This can isolate victim and their mental state can become easier for a dark empath to manipulate. Additionally, the dark trait personalities are often linked to aggressive behaviours which increases the likelihood of intimate partner violence (Galán et al., 2026). Dark empathy can lead to harmful outcomes for dark empath's victims that become clearer with more exposure to the skillset. === Outcome for dark empaths === An individual using dark empathy may find the indifference and emotional de-attachment to others useful for achieving their goals (Throop et al., 2020). The emotional distance can intervene serve as a protective factor or buffer to psychological distress for the dark empath (Heym et al., 2021). While empathy combined with self-judgement and/or over-thinking can cause emotional distress (Heym et al., 2021), an individual who has dark traits and ToM, using cognitive empathy (understanding but not sharing emotions), does not experience the same level of that distress. The ability to not feel the emotions makes them better at utilising other’s vulnerabilities without the consequences. Though controlling others is effective at first, keeping up the mask leads to burnout (Throop et al., 2020). The thought of losing control can cause aggressive behaviour, driven by fear and shame (di Giacomo et al., 2023). While dark trait individuals are more self-centred and lack the pro-social behaviours, hiding their nature can lead to depression and a loss of identity (Qiu et al., 2024). == Addressing dark empathy == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario continued After talking to another colleague, Charlie notices her mental health is declining. She reaches out to the Employee Assistance Program (EAP) for support about her stress. The counsellor asks Charlie to consider when the anxiety and lower self-esteem started. She starts to realise it links back to Addison. Addison continues to blame Charlie for the project's failures. Addison fails to develop the deliverables in time for the boss’ deadline and a meeting is set up with him up with an EAP counsellor. Addison talks about Charlie's 'failures' and the counsellor asks Addison to consider his behaviour and input into the situation. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Dark empathy is not easily recognised as it can lower the appearance of aggressive behaviours in individuals with dark personalities traits (Heym et al., 2021). For example; a narcissist or sociopath may use understanding of ToM to influence others while a dark empath uses their cognitive empathy to control and most likely enjoy other's vulnerable emotions (Heym et al., 2021). The impacts of dark empathy can be found in the relationships of the dark empath. Person-centred approach assists in recognising patterns, identifying behaviours and setting boundaries (Galán et al., 2026). === Recovering from a dark empath === After dealing with a dark empath, an individual may find it hard to notice the patterns. Individual needs to set healthy emotional boundaries in this relationship which can be assisted by seeking therapy to identify patterns and how to address them. Person-centre framework (also known as client-centred approach) (Rogers, 1951) can assist in developing strategies and understanding the patterns they experienced (Galán et al., 2026). As victim's of dark empathy can develop mental health disorders such as PTSD, it's important to understand the patterns of abuse that affected their lives. Roger's non-judgemental approach in therapy can assist them to feel safe when victim's may have become guarded and mistrusting. Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) would be effective for unlearning the patterns of abuse and understanding their trauma (Iverson et al., 2011) from the dark empath. Dark empathy has a negative affect on those being exploited and bright empathy towards them will assist in recovering from the patterns of abuse. === Unravelling from dark empathy === For a dark empath, the first step is recognizing their controlling behaviour and how it harms everyone's well-being. Carl Rogers' approach helps people understand who they are and who they want to be. This self-awareness lets them accept their dark traits and build stronger social skills (Galán et al., 2026). Some therapies that would be appropriate and effective for dark empaths are: *Dialectial behaviour therapy **This therapy allows people to talk through and accept their intense feelings (di Giacomo et al., 2023). *[[w:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive Behaviour Therapy]] (CBT) **This therapy assists in addressing anti-social behaviours and fosters pro-social behaviours (Shukla & Upadhyay, 2025) The steps to acknowledging the behaviours and traits are not easy process. Considering their dark traits' lack of self-judgement, sense of self importance, enjoy in harming others, these dark trait individuals show little desire to go to therapy for the sake of others (di Giacomo et al., 2023). Their dark traits cause anti-social behaviours and a disregard the impact of their actions. Their lack self-judgement prevents them seeing themselves as part of the problem. == Conclusion == Dark empathy is a demonstration of how learning can be adapted to suit one’s desires. While it can develop through parental influence (Jiang et al., 2024), social experience (Decety, 2015), listening to music (Rabinowitch et al., 2013), and reading fiction (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013), it depends on morality of the individual. Understanding dark empathy is crucial for identifying and treating people with dark personality traits. Rather than genuinely sharing feelings, dark empaths use cognitive empathy as a tool to trick, manipulate, and exploit others (Heym et al., 2021). While traits like psychopathy and sadism usually involve anti-social behaviour, a lack of empathy, and enjoy others' pain (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015), dark empaths fake emotional awareness and pro-social behaviour (Hurezan et al., 2026). This makes them difficult to spot, leaving victims vulnerable to gaslighting and emotional abuse. Consequently, standard person-centred frameworks are limited in effectiveness because these individuals rarely self-identify or seek help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} ;Key takeaway messages *Empathy can be developed, yet how it is used depends on the person's personality and sense of morals *Empathy has a bright and dark side. Dark empathy is a lesser recognised and its impacts have a large effect on their community. *ToM can help understand how cognitive empathy is used. This is important in considering people's motivations of using dark empathy. *Further research on dark empathy and the dark tetrad's use of it will significantly improve identification and assisting in developing effective prevention strategies for their victims {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also== *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Dark triad personality and emotion|Dark triad personality and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional intelligence and anti-social behaviour|Emotional intelligence and antisocial behaviour]] (Book chapter, 2019) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Emotional intelligence and the dark triad|Emotional intelligence and the dark triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) *[[wikipedia:Machiavellianism_(psychology)|Machiavellianism]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Narcissism|Narcissism]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Psychopathy|Psychopathy]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Dark_triad|The Dark Triad]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Abramson, A. (2021, November 1). Cultivating empathy. Monitor on Psychology, 52(8). https://www.apa.org/monitor/2021/11/feature-cultivating-empathy Bal, P. M., & Veltkamp, M. (2013). How Does Fiction Reading Influence Empathy? An Experimental Investigation on the Role of Emotional Transportation. PloS one, 8(1), e55341. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0055341 Bloxsom, C. A. J., Firth, J., Kibowski, F., Egan, V., Sumich, A. L., & Heym, N. (2021). Dark shadow of the self: How the dark triad and empathy impact parental and intimate adult attachment relationships in women. Forensic Science International: Mind and Law, 2, 100045. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsiml.2021.100045 Breithaupt, F., & Hamilton, A. B. B. (2019). The dark sides of empathy (1st edition. ed.). Cornell University Press. https://doi.org/10.7591/9781501735608 Decety, J. (2015). The neural pathways, development and functions of empathy. Current opinion in behavioural sciences, 3, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2014.12.001 di Giacomo, E., Andreini, E., Lorusso, O., & Clerici, M. (2023). The dark side of empathy in narcissistic personality disorder. Front Psychiatry, 14, 1074558. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1074558 Duradoni, M., Gursesli, M. C., Fiorenza, M., Donati, A., & Guazzini, A. (2023). Cognitive Empathy and the Dark Triad: A Literature Review. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education (EJIHPE), 13(11), 2642-2680. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe13110184 Galán, M., Gerber, N., Valls, L., Molina, S., & Pineda, D. (2026). Dark Empaths and Intimate Partner Violence: A Latent Profile Analysis of Dark Tetrad Traits and Empathy Dimensions in Face-to-Face and Cyber Violence Perpetration. Behavioural sciences, 16(10), 1780. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16101780 Gojković, V., Dostanić, J. S., & Đurić, V. (2022). Structure of darkness: The Dark Triad, the ‘Dark’ Empathy and the ‘Dark’ Narcissism. Primenjena psihologija (Online), 15(2), 237-268. https://doi.org/10.19090/pp.v15i2.2380 Guo, Q., Li, S., Liang, J., Yu, X., & Lv, Y. (2023). Mindfulness may be associated with less prosocial engagement among high intelligence individuals. Scientific reports, 13(1), 4208. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31039-3 Hepper, E. G., Hart, C. M., & Sedikides, C. (2014). Moving Narcissus: Can Narcissists Be Empathic? Personality & social psychology bulletin, 40(9), 1079-1091. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167214535812 Heym, N., Firth, J., Kibowski, F., Sumich, A., Egan, V., & Bloxsom, C. A. (2019). Empathy at the heart of darkness: Empathy deficits that bind the dark triad and those that mediate indirect relational aggression. Frontiers in psychiatry, 10, 95. Heym, N., Kibowski, F., Bloxsom, C. A. J., Blanchard, A., Harper, A., Wallace, L., Firth, J., & Sumich, A. (2021). The Dark Empath: Characterising dark traits in the presence of empathy. Personality and Individual Differences, 169, 110172-110172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110172 Huang, C., Wu, Z., Sha, S., Liu, C., Yang, L., Jiang, P., Zhang, H., & Yang, C. (2025). The Dark Side of Empathy: The Role of Excessive Affective Empathy in Mental Health Disorders. Biological psychiatry (1969), 98(5), 404-415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2024.12.020 Hurezan, L., Miu, A. C., Costea, A., & Visu-Petra, L. (2026). Dark Personality, Empathy, and Prosocial Behaviour in Convicted Offenders. Scientific reports, 16(1), 4117-4177. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-34229-3 Iverson, K. M., Gradus, J. L., Resick, P. A., Suvak, M. K., Smith, K. F., & Monson, C. M. (2011). Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy for PTSD and Depression Symptoms Reduces Risk for Future Intimate Partner Violence Among Interpersonal Trauma Survivors. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 79(2), 193-202. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022512 Jiang, X., Liu, C., Xiao, X., & Zhan, Y. (2024). Role of narcissism and empathy in the relationship between parental attachment and moral response patterns. European journal of developmental psychology, 21(3), 365-387. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2024.2325173 Jonason, P. K., & Kroll, C. H. (2015). A Multidimensional View of the Relationship Between Empathy and the Dark Triad. Journal of individual differences, 36(3), 150-156. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000166 Kaufman, S. B., Yaden, D. B., Hyde, E., & Tsukayama, E. (2019). The Light vs. Dark Triad of Personality: Contrasting Two Very Different Profiles of Human Nature [Original Research]. Frontiers in psychology, Volume 10 - 2019. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00467 Mededovic, J., & Petrovic, B. (2015). The Dark Tetrad: Structural Properties and Location in the Personality Space. Journal of individual differences, 36(4), 228-236. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000179 Qiu, X., Gao, M., Zhu, H., Li, W., & Jiang, R. (2024). Theory of mind, empathy, and prosocial behaviour in children and adolescent: A meta-analysis. Current psychology (New Brunswick, N.J.), 43(22), 19690-19707. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-05762-7 Rabinowitch, T.-C., Cross, I., & Burnard, P. (2013). Long-term musical group interaction has a positive influence on empathy in children. Psychology of music, 41(4), 484-498. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735612440609 Rogers, C. R. (1951). Client-centered therapy; its current practice, implications, and theory. Houghton Mifflin. Shukla, M., & Upadhyay, N. (2025). Cold hearts and dark minds: A systematic review and meta-analysis of empathy across dark triad personalities. Frontiers in psychiatry, 16, 1546917. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1546917 Throop, C. J., Zahavi, D., de Lucas Freitas, J., Groark, K. P., Maibom, H., Satne, G. L., Stueber, K. R., & Trnka, S. (2020). Dark and Bright Empathy: Phenomenological and Anthropological Reflections. Current anthropology, 61(3), 283-303. https://doi.org/10.1086/708844 Vonk, J., Zeigler-Hill, V., Ewing, D., Mercer, S., & Noser, A. E. (2015). Mindreading in the dark: Dark personality features and theory of mind. Personality and Individual Differences, 87, 50-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.025 Wellman, H. M., & Liu, D. (2004). Scaling of Theory-of-Mind Tasks. Child development, 75(2), 523-541. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00691.x Yan, Z., Zeng, X., Su, J., & Zhang, X. (2021). The dark side of empathy: Meta‐analysis evidence of the relationship between empathy and depression. PsyCh journal (Victoria, Australia), 10(5), 794-804. https://doi.org/10.1002/pchj.482 }} ==External links== * [https://www.sciencefocus.com/wellbeing/dark-empaths Dark Empaths] (Science Focus) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/dark-tetrad Dark Tetrad] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.theguardian.com/science/2024/nov/10/narcissists-only-more-devious-the-truth-about-dark-empaths 'Narcissists - only more devious': the truth about dark empaths] (the Guardian) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] 2dfgivyw57z4prv397u3bz6hbv41etb 2 331314 2840759 2840622 2026-10-16T23:15:10Z Ella Kay244 3107007 /* Social Contributions */ 2840759 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a 3rd year student. Who is studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra.] [[File:Snowboarding.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. man snowboarding ]] My hobbies: * [[w:Snowboarding|Snowboarding]] * rock climbing * cooking == Book Chapter I'm Working On == [[File:Elderly man tending to trees in a garden.jpg|thumb|200x200px|'''Figure 2'''. elderly man tending to his tree ]] [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-determination theory and dementia care|Self-determination theory and dementia care]] == Social Contributions == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Mental_health_first_aid_and_helping_behaviour&oldid=2825506 Added a starter articel for the page] Mental health first aid and helping behaviour What motivates people to recognise, approach, and support someone with a mental health problem? # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmpathy_fatigue_and_emotional_exhaustion&diff=2825516&oldid=2823527 Added a starter artical for the page:] Empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion: How does sustained empathic engagement contribute to emotional exhaustion? # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAdolescent_risk-taking_and_reward-system_development&diff=2825526&oldid=2825376 Changed casing to a heading on the page]: Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development. How does reward circuit maturation influence adolescent sensation-seeking and impulsive behaviours? # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAdolescent_risk-taking_and_reward-system_development&diff=2825529&oldid=2822945 Started a discussion topic to discuss correct formatting.] # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmpathy_fatigue_and_emotional_exhaustion&diff=2840411&oldid=2832859 Turned the scenario into a first person perspective] for better reader engament # Hperlinked 'burnout' to a [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmpathy_fatigue_and_emotional_exhaustion&diff=2840415&oldid=2840411 beyond blue page] that describes symptoms # Gave [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/465374 feedback] on book chapter Emotion regulation though exercise # linked '[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAutomaticity_and_goal_pursuit&diff=2840419&oldid=2840265 higher-order thinking'] to an artical describing the meanging # gave feedback on [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/465940 boredom and interest] book chapter in response to a request for feedback on the canvas page # linked text in Boredom and interest book chapter to a [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FBoredom_and_interest&diff=2840618&oldid=2840580 webiste on brain regions] for better reader engagement # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FBrief_motivational_interviewing_as_a_health_intervention&diff=2840621&oldid=2567618 updated the citation] for the caim that reflective therapies can help promote healthy eating habits # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2020%2FBasic_psychological_need_theory&diff=2840758&oldid=2410716 Fixed the correction in the opening paragraph] and re worded it to improve the clarity of ideas. I added an updated citation mbjj1pht84qdz0bdmmkqbm8nip9hu9p 2840791 2840759 2026-10-17T01:41:33Z Ella Kay244 3107007 /* Social Contributions */ 2840791 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a 3rd year student. Who is studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra.] [[File:Snowboarding.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. man snowboarding ]] My hobbies: * [[w:Snowboarding|Snowboarding]] * rock climbing * cooking == Book Chapter I'm Working On == [[File:Elderly man tending to trees in a garden.jpg|thumb|200x200px|'''Figure 2'''. elderly man tending to his tree ]] [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-determination theory and dementia care|Self-determination theory and dementia care]] == Social Contributions == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Mental_health_first_aid_and_helping_behaviour&oldid=2825506 Added a starter article for the page] Mental health first aid and helping behaviour; What motivates people to recognise, approach, and support someone with a mental health problem? # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmpathy_fatigue_and_emotional_exhaustion&diff=2825516&oldid=2823527 Added a starter article for the page:] Empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion: How does sustained empathic engagement contribute to emotional exhaustion? # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAdolescent_risk-taking_and_reward-system_development&diff=2825526&oldid=2825376 Changed casing to a heading on the page]: Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development. How does reward circuit maturation influence adolescent sensation-seeking and impulsive behaviours? # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAdolescent_risk-taking_and_reward-system_development&diff=2825529&oldid=2822945 Started a discussion topic to discuss correct formatting.] # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmpathy_fatigue_and_emotional_exhaustion&diff=2840411&oldid=2832859 Turned the scenario into a first person perspective] for better reader engagement # Hperlinked 'burnout' to a [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmpathy_fatigue_and_emotional_exhaustion&diff=2840415&oldid=2840411 beyond blue page] that describes symptoms # Gave [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/465374 feedback] on book chapter - Emotion regulation though exercise # linked '[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAutomaticity_and_goal_pursuit&diff=2840419&oldid=2840265 higher-order thinking'] to an article describing the meaning # gave feedback on [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/465940 boredom and interest] book chapter in response to a request for feedback on the canvas page # linked text in Boredom and interest book chapter to a [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FBoredom_and_interest&diff=2840618&oldid=2840580 webiste on brain regions] for better reader engagement # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FBrief_motivational_interviewing_as_a_health_intervention&diff=2840621&oldid=2567618 updated the citation] for the claim that reflective therapies can help promote healthy eating habits # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2020%2FBasic_psychological_need_theory&diff=2840758&oldid=2410716 Fixed the correction in the opening paragraph] and re-worded it to improve the clarity of ideas. I added an updated citation lrc5mapwgeb27syyht6847s9kg76ps1 2840817 2840791 2026-10-17T03:36:11Z Ella Kay244 3107007 /* Social Contributions */ 2840817 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a 3rd year student. Who is studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra.] [[File:Snowboarding.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. man snowboarding ]] My hobbies: * [[w:Snowboarding|Snowboarding]] * rock climbing * cooking == Book Chapter I'm Working On == [[File:Elderly man tending to trees in a garden.jpg|thumb|200x200px|'''Figure 2'''. elderly man tending to his tree ]] [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-determination theory and dementia care|Self-determination theory and dementia care]] == Social Contributions == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Mental_health_first_aid_and_helping_behaviour&oldid=2825506 Added a starter article for the page] Mental health first aid and helping behaviour; What motivates people to recognise, approach, and support someone with a mental health problem? # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmpathy_fatigue_and_emotional_exhaustion&diff=2825516&oldid=2823527 Added a starter article for the page:] Empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion: How does sustained empathic engagement contribute to emotional exhaustion? # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAdolescent_risk-taking_and_reward-system_development&diff=2825526&oldid=2825376 Changed casing to a heading on the page]: Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development. How does reward circuit maturation influence adolescent sensation-seeking and impulsive behaviours? # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAdolescent_risk-taking_and_reward-system_development&diff=2825529&oldid=2822945 Started a discussion topic to discuss correct formatting.] # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmpathy_fatigue_and_emotional_exhaustion&diff=2840411&oldid=2832859 Turned the scenario into a first person perspective] for better reader engagement # Hperlinked 'burnout' to a [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmpathy_fatigue_and_emotional_exhaustion&diff=2840415&oldid=2840411 beyond blue page] that describes symptoms # Gave [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/465374 feedback] on book chapter - Emotion regulation though exercise # linked '[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAutomaticity_and_goal_pursuit&diff=2840419&oldid=2840265 higher-order thinking'] to an article describing the meaning # gave feedback on [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/465940 boredom and interest] book chapter in response to a request for feedback on the canvas page # linked text in Boredom and interest book chapter to a [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FBoredom_and_interest&diff=2840618&oldid=2840580 webiste on brain regions] for better reader engagement # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FBrief_motivational_interviewing_as_a_health_intervention&diff=2840621&oldid=2567618 updated the citation] for the claim that reflective therapies can help promote healthy eating habits # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2020%2FBasic_psychological_need_theory&diff=2840758&oldid=2410716 Fixed the correction in the opening paragraph] and re-worded it to improve the clarity of ideas. I added an updated citation # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FWork_motivation_and_self-determination_theory&diff=2840816&oldid=2739753 Changed to a narrative point of view for better reader engagement.] I also changed it slightly to better introduce the theory and explain why you need to increase psychology needs. 3u7sxu8if5qbs8v5bn54v20567x5emg 2840825 2840817 2026-10-17T04:00:51Z Ella Kay244 3107007 /* Social Contributions */ 2840825 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a 3rd year student. Who is studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra.] [[File:Snowboarding.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. man snowboarding ]] My hobbies: * [[w:Snowboarding|Snowboarding]] * rock climbing * cooking == Book Chapter I'm Working On == [[File:Elderly man tending to trees in a garden.jpg|thumb|200x200px|'''Figure 2'''. elderly man tending to his tree ]] [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-determination theory and dementia care|Self-determination theory and dementia care]] == Social Contributions == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Mental_health_first_aid_and_helping_behaviour&oldid=2825506 Added a starter article for the page] Mental health first aid and helping behaviour; What motivates people to recognise, approach, and support someone with a mental health problem? # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmpathy_fatigue_and_emotional_exhaustion&diff=2825516&oldid=2823527 Added a starter article for the page:] Empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion: How does sustained empathic engagement contribute to emotional exhaustion? # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAdolescent_risk-taking_and_reward-system_development&diff=2825526&oldid=2825376 Changed casing to a heading on the page]: Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development. How does reward circuit maturation influence adolescent sensation-seeking and impulsive behaviours? # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAdolescent_risk-taking_and_reward-system_development&diff=2825529&oldid=2822945 Started a discussion topic to discuss correct formatting.] # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmpathy_fatigue_and_emotional_exhaustion&diff=2840411&oldid=2832859 Turned the scenario into a first person perspective] for better reader engagement # Hperlinked 'burnout' to a [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmpathy_fatigue_and_emotional_exhaustion&diff=2840415&oldid=2840411 beyond blue page] that describes symptoms # Gave [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/465374 feedback] on book chapter - Emotion regulation though exercise # linked '[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAutomaticity_and_goal_pursuit&diff=2840419&oldid=2840265 higher-order thinking'] to an article describing the meaning # gave feedback on [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/465940 boredom and interest] book chapter in response to a request for feedback on the canvas page # linked text in Boredom and interest book chapter to a [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FBoredom_and_interest&diff=2840618&oldid=2840580 webiste on brain regions] for better reader engagement # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FBrief_motivational_interviewing_as_a_health_intervention&diff=2840621&oldid=2567618 updated the citation] for the claim that reflective therapies can help promote healthy eating habits # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2020%2FBasic_psychological_need_theory&diff=2840758&oldid=2410716 Fixed the correction in the opening paragraph] and re-worded it to improve the clarity of ideas. I added an updated citation # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FWork_motivation_and_self-determination_theory&diff=2840816&oldid=2739753 Changed to a narrative point of view for better reader engagement.] I also changed it slightly to better introduce the theory and explain why you need to increase psychology needs. # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FMorbid_curiosity&diff=2840821&oldid=2771289 Made a scenario] to get readers attention and introduce the chapter # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FMorbid_curiosity&diff=2840823&oldid=2840822 put a photo in the scenario box] ecb5vwba0wxtz2f0yrutjya4hxlythd 2840828 2840825 2026-10-17T04:04:59Z Ella Kay244 3107007 2840828 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a 3rd year student. Who is studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra.] [[File:Snowboarding.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. man snowboarding ]] My hobbies: * [[w:Snowboarding|Snowboarding]] * rock climbing * cooking == Book Chapter I'm Working On == [[File:Elderly man tending to trees in a garden.jpg|thumb|200x200px|'''Figure 2'''. elderly man tending to his tree ]] [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-determination theory and dementia care|Self-determination theory and dementia care]] == Social Contributions == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Mental_health_first_aid_and_helping_behaviour&oldid=2825506 Added a starter article for the page] Mental health first aid and helping behaviour; What motivates people to recognise, approach, and support someone with a mental health problem? # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmpathy_fatigue_and_emotional_exhaustion&diff=2825516&oldid=2823527 Added a starter article for the page:] Empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion: How does sustained empathic engagement contribute to emotional exhaustion? # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAdolescent_risk-taking_and_reward-system_development&diff=2825526&oldid=2825376 Changed casing to a heading on the page]: Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development. How does reward circuit maturation influence adolescent sensation-seeking and impulsive behaviours? # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAdolescent_risk-taking_and_reward-system_development&diff=2825529&oldid=2822945 Started a discussion topic to discuss correct formatting.] # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmpathy_fatigue_and_emotional_exhaustion&diff=2840411&oldid=2832859 Turned the scenario into a first person perspective] for better reader engagement # Hperlinked 'burnout' to a [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmpathy_fatigue_and_emotional_exhaustion&diff=2840415&oldid=2840411 beyond blue page] that describes symptoms # Gave [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/465374 feedback] on book chapter - Emotion regulation though exercise # linked '[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAutomaticity_and_goal_pursuit&diff=2840419&oldid=2840265 higher-order thinking'] to an article describing the meaning # gave feedback on [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/465940 boredom and interest] book chapter in response to a request for feedback on the canvas page # linked text in Boredom and interest book chapter to a [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FBoredom_and_interest&diff=2840618&oldid=2840580 webiste on brain regions] for better reader engagement # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FBrief_motivational_interviewing_as_a_health_intervention&diff=2840621&oldid=2567618 updated the citation] for the claim that reflective therapies can help promote healthy eating habits # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2020%2FBasic_psychological_need_theory&diff=2840758&oldid=2410716 Fixed the correction in the opening paragraph] and re-worded it to improve the clarity of ideas. I added an updated citation # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FWork_motivation_and_self-determination_theory&diff=2840816&oldid=2739753 Changed to a narrative point of view for better reader engagement.] I also changed it slightly to better introduce the theory and explain why you need to increase psychology needs. # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FMorbid_curiosity&diff=2840821&oldid=2771289 Made a scenario] to get readers attention and introduce the chapter # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FMorbid_curiosity&diff=2840823&oldid=2840822 put a photo in the scenario box] # [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/466565 asked] if people needed help finishing their book chapter h5rwyylbixwudc09wjkr9krsuiw5usj 0 331347 2840788 2837226 2026-10-17T01:36:50Z Jtneill 10242 Copyediting 2840788 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-determination theory and physical activity:<br>How do autonomy, competence, and relatedness predict engagement in physical activity and exercise adherence?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Imagine this...''' You have decided to start exercising more regularly. You download a workout app and decide to follow a program, {{g}} you set alarms for 3 days a week and follow the workout program strictly. For a short period, you stick to the program and feel motivated, but after a few weeks you start to lose interest in the activities you are doing, and you feel like you are completing chores. You don’t find the exercises you are doing fun, {{g}} they are becoming increasingly difficult to get through, and you cannot see much progress. You are also exercising alone and you aren’t getting much support from others. Your friend also decided to exercise more regularly. They did not follow a set program, but instead chose to sign up to activities they enjoyed. They set goals for themselves that were relevant and realistic for them. They have noticed gradual progress in their fitness levels and have frequently participated in exercise with their friends and felt strong support from their community. Both people have the same goal, to exercise more. However, they have very different experiences, {{g}} one has little choice and social support and doesn’t feel capable, whilst the other has full choice and social support, and can see growth from the change. The differences in these two people demonstrate the 3 psychological needs of self-determination theory. Autonomy, competence, and relatedness. The theory suggests that these needs being met can drive motivation and engagement (Ryan & Deci, 2018). '''Why could the differences between these two people lead to different levels of exercise adherence?''' {{RoundBoxBottom}} This chapter explores self-determination theory and how meeting the psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness can help explain engagement with physical activity and exercise adherence. * '''Physical activity is important for ongoing participation.''' ** Although most people are aware of the physical and psychological benefits of exercise, motivation can heavily influence individuals starting, maintaining, and dropping physical activity. Understanding the things that influence motivation can help us to create environments that encourage ongoing participation (Kilpatrick et al., 2002). * '''Starting physical activity doesn’t always lead to long term adherence.''' ** People can easily start exercising regularly but also easily drop out. Kinnafick et al. (2014), found that meeting the needs for competence and relatedness were significantly important to participation, but added autonomy was crucial to maintaining adherence. * '''Self-determination theory (SDT) provides a psychological framework for understanding this.''' ** Self-determination theory by Ryan & Deci (2018), {{g}} suggests that motivation is driven by three psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. * '''Applying SDT to physical activity can help explain how and why people maintain exercise activities.''' ** When exercise environments support the needs suggested by SDT, people can keep {{awkward}} motivation, in turn becoming more likely to maintain participation (Kilpatrick et al., 2002). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''': * How does self-determination theory explain motivation to exercise? * How does autonomy influence engagement in physical activity? * How does competence influence engagement in physical activity? * How does relatedness influence engagement in physical activity? * How can meeting basic psychological needs increase exercise adherence? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Self-determination theory and physical activity == Self-determination theory (SDT) is a motivation theory that aims to understand why people engage in behaviours. SDT suggest{{g}} that there are three psychological needs {{ic|What are these needs?}} that contribute to motivation in turn contributing to behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2018). SDT suggests that two different forms of motivation are involved in behaviour, '''autonomous motivation''' and '''controlled motivation''': * '''Autonomous motivation''' is when a person choses to engage in a behaviour with a sense of personal choice and because they enjoy it. * '''Controlled motivation''' is when a person performs a behaviour with a sense of external pressure, consequence, or obligation (Ryan & Deci, 2018). This is the presented '''scenario 1''' {{ic|There is no scenario 1?}}, where the first person was behaving from controlled motivation whereas person two was behaving out of autonomous motivation. The behaviour may be the same, however the motivation is different. SDT suggests that there are '''three basic psychological needs'''. These needs directly influence motivation and mental wellbeing (Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004): * '''Autonomy''': Feeling that you have choice and control over your behaviours. In an exercise setting this could look like participating in sports you find fun and setting your own goals. * '''Competence''': Feeling that you are capable and successful in your behaviours. In an exercise setting this could look like developing skills, reaching goals, and successfully completing challenges. * '''Relatedness''': Feeling that you are supported and belong with others. In an exercise setting this could look like having a supportive coach, exercising with a group, or receiving support from friends and family. These needs can be supported or harmed by the environment a person is in. '''Table 1''' ''The basic psychological needs and examples of how environments can support or harm them. {{fact}}'' {{ic|Use APA style e.g., capitalise the first letters of key words in table captions}} {| class="wikitable" |'''Basic psychological need''' |'''Positive''' |'''Negative''' |- |'''Autonomy''' |Choosing preferred activities, setting personal goals, having control over exercises |Pressured, controlled, or forced to participate |- |'''Competence''' |Noticing progress, achieving goals, developing skills, positive feedback |Failure, unrealistic expectations, lack of progress |- |'''Relatedness''' |Exercising with friends, supportive coaches, group classes, feeling included |Isolated, excluded, or criticised |} Research applying SDT to physical activity suggests that more autonomous forms of motivation are connected to more physical activity participation and maintenance (Teixeira et al., 2012) {{expand}}. This means that supporting physical activity is not only about encouraging people to exercise and promoting the benefits, but is also dependent on the environment a person is in. Creating autonomy, competence, and relatedness leads to more autonomous motivation which is more likely to translate into behaviour. '''''Understanding these three needs and how they each impact motivation, is important predicting and encouraging long-term exercise adherence.''''' == Autonomy and physical activity == Autonomy refers to a persons{{g}} '''sense of choice and self-direction, without feeling pressured or controlled''' (Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004). In physical activity, autonomy can be supported by allowing individuals to choose activities that match their interests, abilities, and goals (Kilpatrick et al., 2002). Autonomy in physical activity can be driven by ensuring a person has '''control''' over how they do physical activity {{g}} '''This could look like:''' * Choosing an activity they enjoy * Setting personal goals * Choosing when and where they exercise * Doing the activity to only their own extent * Having options When people are given autonomy over their physical activity, it can encourage them to value and understand their own reasons to participate in physical activity. This creates '''[[intrinsic motivation]]''' as they continue to participate for their own internal satisfaction, strengthening their overall '''autonomous motivation''' (Teixeira et al., 2012). In contrast to this, the environment could also reduce autonomy. Being pressured to exercise, feeling like they only have one option, or exercising to meet external expectations can create '''controlled motivation.''' For example, if a person feels pressured to work out, and guilty when they don’t, they are less likely to participate long-term than someone who is driven by autonomous motivation (Teixeira et al., 2012). Autonomy can be especially important in the adherence stage of peoples{{g}} exercise habits, as people move from starting to maintaining physical activity. Kinnafick et al. (2014),{{g}} found {{ic|Share more about the method.}} that whilst competence and relatedness are important when starting physical activity, autonomy becomes more important during the adherence stage, suggesting that feeling ownership over their exercise becomes increasingly important for maintaining it long-term. A person could still feel autonomy when being coached or participating in a program, under the condition that they feel control and that they have a say in how they participate, as well as understanding and personally valuing the exercise {{fact}}. Overall, supporting autonomy is important, specifically to exercise adherence and maintain physical activity long-term. It supports autonomous motivation, creating stronger prediction of behaviour. {{fact}} == Competence and physical activity == Competence can be described as the need to feel '''effective, capable, and able to reach goals''' (Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004). In physical activity, competence could look like noticing progress, developing skills, achieving goals, and getting constructive feedback. These experiences can help people to recognise their own capability of progress in physical activity. {{fact}} <quiz display=simple> {Which of the following are ways competence can be supported? (select all that apply) {{ic|Revise this question to focus on the application of SDT to physical exercise}} |type="[]"} + Setting realistic goals + Developing new skills + Noticing improvement in your own performance - Comparing your performance to other people + Increasing the difficulty of the exercise yourself - Doing the same exercises without changing them as you improve </quiz> In '''Scenario 1''' {{ic|There is no scenario 1?}}, the first person does not feel competent as the exercises are beginning to feel increasingly hard and they are not seeing progress. Whereas the second person does have strong feelings of competence as they have set goals for themselves and are able to notice progress. Therefore, an environment that has unrealistic or difficult programs will not support a persons need for competence, instead creating feelings of failure and lack of progress. Teixeira et al.,{{g}} (2012),{{g}} found {{how}} that feeling competent also increased confidence in ability to participate in physical activity overall, and was a contributor to being intrinsically motivated. Unlike autonomy, Kinnafick et al. (2014) found feelings of competence to be {{how}} important in the adoption stage of physical activity, as feeling capable was important to forming a routine. In an exercise environment, competence doesn’t mean the person needs to be high-performing or technically skilled, it just means the exercise is more likely to provide feelings of competence when it matches their level and is achievable to that specific person. == Relatedness and physical activity == The third need relatedness, {{g}} is the need for a person to feel '''connected''', '''supported''', and '''valued''' by others (Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004). In physical activity, relatedness can be supported through different forms of social interaction, creating a supportive environment. '''This could look like:''' * Exercising socially, with your friends or family * Joining a fitness group (e.g., run club, group fitness class, sports team) * Having a supportive coach * Feeling included by others This is briefly shown in '''scenario 1,''' {{ic|There is no scenario 1?}} where person 1 does not feel supported and is exercising alone, whereas person 2 has felt strong support from their community, and often exercise with their friends. Having social support can encourage physical activity efforts and make it more enjoyable and entertaining, relatedness also supports adherence in that it creates an environment where you are motivated by other people even when you do find it difficult. Relatedness can also be reduced in these environments by things {{vague}} such as feeling excluded or judged during physical activity, also negatively impacting emotion, creating a negative experience and reducing motivation {{rewrite}}.   Kinnafick et al. (2014) found relatedness to be important in the adoption stage of physical activity, emphasising the role of social connection in forming participation. Rodrigues et al. (2018), also found social connection and relatedness to be important to '''autonomous motivation''', noting its importance in exercise adherence long-term. Relatedness can be present in both group and individual exercise. In individual exercise it can look like support from community like coaches, family, and friends outside of the activity, with the overall need being feelings of connection. {{fact}} == Psychological needs and exercise adherence == '''Exercise adherence''' is when a person participates consistently in physical activity consistently over a long period {{f}}. Research suggests that SDT helps to explain why some people demonstrate exercise adherence whilst others struggle with motivation and stop {{f}}. The three needs suggested in SDT of '''autonomy''', '''competence''', and '''relatedness''' (see Figure 1) can explain motivation and behaviour and support exercise adherence and positive experience in physical activity. This can be seen in '''scenario 1''' {{ic|There is no scenario 1?}}, as explained throughout the second person made decisions that supported their '''autonomous motivation''', likely creating exercise adherence, whereas the first person made choices that harmed their motivation, likely making them quit. In a systematic review of 66 studies, Teixeira et al., (2012) found that all versions of '''autonomous motivation''' were consistently associated with exercise adherence, also finding that different motivation was important at different stages of forming exercise adherence. For example, recognising the personal value of exercise was important in adoption stage, whereas intrinsic motivation was associated with long-term exercise adherence {{g}} Kinnafick et al. (2014), {{g}} study similarly found that '''different needs were important in different stages of physical activity'''. Their study followed 15 women through exercise journeys, {{g}} found that competence and relatedness were particularly important in the adoption phase, and autonomy became more important in creating adherence, also noting that participants who lapsed and restarted felt autonomy in readoption as well. This strongly supports that importance of each need is independent and relative to different stages. Kang et al. (2019) further supported SDT’s impact on exercise adherence. Their study examining 391 sport participants found a'''ll 3 needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness to be significant predictors''' of 6-month exercise adherence, noting that autonomy had the highest predictive value at 86.4%. Supporting the validity and reliability of SDTs prediction of exercise adherence {{g}}. A meta-analysis by Ntoumanis et al. (2020), focusing on SDT based health interventions, found that '''increased need support and autonomous motivation were associated with positive increases in health behaviour including physical activity'''. [[File:Self-Determination-Theory.png|thumb|400px|Figure 1: The three basic psychological needs as described by self-determination theory]] === Are all three needs equal? === Although all three needs are presented as equally important in SDT {{f}}, research {{f}} suggests that this is not always true in cases of exercise adherence, their individual importance can depend on the person, stage, and environment. Findings from Kinnafick et al. (2014), {{g}} found competence and relatedness to be important particularly at the start of physical activity programs, and autonomy was more important during habit formation. Kang et al. (2019) however found that all three predicted adherence with autonomy being the strongest predictor overall, {{g}} this could be due to the different experiment lengths in each, with Kinnafick et al. (2014) studying a 10-month period, and Kang et al. (2019) studying a 6-month period. A study by Vlachopoulos and Neikou (2007) also studied a 6-month period, following 228 {{ic|what sort of}} participants exercise adherence. They found competence to be the only need that significantly predicted exercise adherence. Noting that this study’s participants were not selected randomly, limiting the generalisability of these results {{g}}. This result further supports the importance of each need being relative to the environment. It is also worth considering the other variables that affect exercise adherence. A person could feel motivated, competent, and supported but be unable to adhere to exercise due to factors like cost, transport, time constraints, injury etc. {{f}} Therefore, it is important to consider the needs as a group working together instead of competing importance. SDT provides a strong explanation of the psychological predictors of exercise behaviour, however, is not on its own a holistic approach to physical activity. Cases should be analysed and considered individually in practical settings. == Practical considerations == Understanding and applying SDT to exercise environments can support stronger motivation and exercise adherence. Rather than only focusing on external encouragement, SDT considers the different psychological needs involved in creating autonomous motivation and suggests that they can strongly predict exercise adherence. '''In a practical setting coaches, trainers, teams, and peers can contribute to supporting all three needs.''' It is important to note when using SDT that each need might have a different level of importance to each person and environment, meaning that this approach needs to be tailored individually to have the strongest impact on motivation. It is also important to consider that whilst SDT can support creating environments to support motivation, other '''external''' '''factors''' such as time, money, access, and transport can also impact exercise adherence {{f}}. Therefore, whilst motivation may still be present external factors can also prevent individuals from consistently exercising. ==Conclusion== Self-determination theory provides a strong framework to understand the psychological needs of '''autonomy''', '''competence''', and '''relatedness''', and how they affect motivation and adherence in physical activity. SDT suggests that when the needs are supported, they support '''autonomous motivation''', contributing to behaviour, in this case exercise adherence. * '''Autonomy''' supports a persons need to feel in control {{ic|Explain how this relates to exercise}} * '''Competence''' supports the need to feel capable * '''Relatedness''' supports the need to feel connected and encouraged. Research suggests that all three impacted physical activity, however their relative importance changed in different environments and stages. {{ic|Which needs are most important at which stages?}} In practice supporting these needs can look like, choosing activities they care about and want to do, setting achievable goals, noticing progress, exercising socially, or feeling encouraged by others. However external barriers like time, money, and access can prevent exercise adherence, meaning that SDT needs to be applied relative to each person. SDT shows that creating engagement cannot just be through supporting one need, rather it needs to be approached holistically and the environment and needs of each person need to be considered to develop motivation and exercise adherence.   ==See also== {{ic|Sort into alphabetical order}} * [[w:Self-determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Exercise motivation|Exercise motivation]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity, 2022) * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-determination theory|Self determination theory chapters]] (Motivation and emotion book chapters) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Deci, E. L., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2004). Self-determination theory and basic need satisfaction: Understanding human development in positive psychology. In ''Lirias'' (Vol. 27, pp. 17–34). https://lirias.kuleuven.be/handle/123456789/627470 Kang, S., Lee, K., & Kwon, S. (2019). Basic psychological needs, exercise intention and sport commitment as predictors of recreational sport participants’ exercise adherence. ''Psychology and Health'', 35(8), 916–932. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2019.169908 Kilpatrick, M., Hebert, E., & Jacobsen, D. (2002). Physical Activity Motivation: A Practitioner’s Guide to Self-Determination Theory. ''Journal of Physical Education Recreation & Dance'', 73(4), 36–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2002.10607789 Kinnafick, F., Thøgersen-Ntoumani, C., & Duda, J. L. (2014). Physical activity adoption to adherence, lapse, and dropout. ''Qualitative Health Research'', 24(5), 706–718. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732314528811 Ntoumanis, N., Ng, J. Y., Prestwich, A., Quested, E., Hancox, J. E., Thøgersen-Ntoumani, C., Deci, E. L., Ryan, R. M., Lonsdale, C., & Williams, G. C. (2020). A meta-analysis of self-determination theory-informed intervention studies in the health domain: effects on motivation, health behavior, physical, and psychological health. Health Psychology Review, 15(2), 214–244. https://doi.org/10.1080/17437199.2020.1718529 Rodrigues, F., Bento, T., Cid, L., Neiva, H. P., Teixeira, D., Moutão, J., Marinho, D. A., & Monteiro, D. (2018). Can interpersonal behavior influence the persistence and adherence to physical exercise practice in adults? A systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 2141. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02141 Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L. (2018). Self-Determination Theory: Basic Psychological Needs in Motivation, Development, and Wellness. United Kingdom: Guilford Publications. Teixeira, P. J., Carraça, E. V., Markland, D., Silva, M. N., & Ryan, R. M. (2012). Exercise, physical activity, and self-determination theory: A systematic review. ''International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity'', 9(1), 78. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-9-78 Vlachopoulos, S. P., & Neikou, E. (2007). A prospective study of the relationships of autonomy, competence, and relatedness with exercise attendance, adherence, and dropout. PubMed, 47(4), 475–482. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18091690 }} ==External links== * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (Center for Self-Determination Theory) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/topics/application-basic-psychological-needs/ Basic psychological needs] (Center for Self-Determination Theory) * [https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/physical-activity Physical activity] (World Health Organization) * [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/fitness-and-exercise Fitness and exercise] (Health Direct) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Physical exercise]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-determination theory]] 2w9h0y44541edlglqc3k9gw7akzcal7 2 331364 2840878 2830373 2026-10-17T06:39:00Z U3228742 3005570 /* Social contributions */ adding social contribution 2840878 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a student studying an undergraduate Bachelor of Science in Psychology. My interests and area of focus is social psychology, emotional intelligence, and the understanding people's motivations. I am a life learner who has studied other health modalities and would love to practice clinical psychology. [[File:Sourdough Bread Loaf.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Sourdough is time consuming process yet worth it for every bite]] == Hobbies == * [[w:Painting|Painting]] * Reading * Baking [[w:Sourdough|sourdough]] == Chapter I am currently working on == Created a chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Dark empathy|Dark Empathy]] in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|Motivation and emotion book 2026]] == Social contributions == #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FBreathing_exercises_and_relaxation&diff=2829879&oldid=2828782 Fixed '''title'''] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Cognitive_versus_affective_empathy&action=edit Comment on Wikiversity page] #[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457898?entry_id=813044 Added to discussion] Book chapter submission contributions # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FCognitive_versus_affective_empathy&diff=2840877&oldid=2839430 Captialisation of words] # mtke5cgwmtah3hhvam5k9f2tds7wt3b 2840880 2840878 2026-10-17T06:43:35Z U3228742 3005570 /* Social contributions */ added another social contribution 2840880 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a student studying an undergraduate Bachelor of Science in Psychology. My interests and area of focus is social psychology, emotional intelligence, and the understanding people's motivations. I am a life learner who has studied other health modalities and would love to practice clinical psychology. [[File:Sourdough Bread Loaf.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Sourdough is time consuming process yet worth it for every bite]] == Hobbies == * [[w:Painting|Painting]] * Reading * Baking [[w:Sourdough|sourdough]] == Chapter I am currently working on == Created a chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Dark empathy|Dark Empathy]] in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|Motivation and emotion book 2026]] == Social contributions == #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FBreathing_exercises_and_relaxation&diff=2829879&oldid=2828782 Fixed '''title'''] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Cognitive_versus_affective_empathy&action=edit Comment on Wikiversity page] #[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457898?entry_id=813044 Added to discussion] Book chapter submission contributions # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FCognitive_versus_affective_empathy&diff=2840877&oldid=2839430 Captialisation of words] #[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Psychedelic treatment of eating disorders#c-U3228742-20261017064100-Emotion Dysregulation research suggestion|Suggestion to explore research on comorbid conditions]] # buceqhlwosh47t9rscnk63u0qwlr6jj 2840882 2840880 2026-10-17T06:51:28Z U3228742 3005570 /* Social contributions */ added another social contribution 2840882 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a student studying an undergraduate Bachelor of Science in Psychology. My interests and area of focus is social psychology, emotional intelligence, and the understanding people's motivations. I am a life learner who has studied other health modalities and would love to practice clinical psychology. [[File:Sourdough Bread Loaf.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Sourdough is time consuming process yet worth it for every bite]] == Hobbies == * [[w:Painting|Painting]] * Reading * Baking [[w:Sourdough|sourdough]] == Chapter I am currently working on == Created a chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Dark empathy|Dark Empathy]] in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|Motivation and emotion book 2026]] == Social contributions == #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FBreathing_exercises_and_relaxation&diff=2829879&oldid=2828782 Fixed '''title'''] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Cognitive_versus_affective_empathy&action=edit Comment on Wikiversity page] #[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457898?entry_id=813044 Added to discussion] Book chapter submission contributions # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FCognitive_versus_affective_empathy&diff=2840877&oldid=2839430 Captialisation of words] #[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Psychedelic treatment of eating disorders#c-U3228742-20261017064100-Emotion Dysregulation research suggestion|Suggestion to explore research on comorbid conditions]] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FCognitive_hardiness_and_stress_resilience&diff=2840881&oldid=2829571 Grammar updates] # h8hv122a8k0ucbejudpjh4ntgt367an 2840885 2840882 2026-10-17T06:55:56Z U3228742 3005570 /* Social contributions */ adding another social contribution 2840885 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a student studying an undergraduate Bachelor of Science in Psychology. My interests and area of focus is social psychology, emotional intelligence, and the understanding people's motivations. I am a life learner who has studied other health modalities and would love to practice clinical psychology. [[File:Sourdough Bread Loaf.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Sourdough is time consuming process yet worth it for every bite]] == Hobbies == * [[w:Painting|Painting]] * Reading * Baking [[w:Sourdough|sourdough]] == Chapter I am currently working on == Created a chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Dark empathy|Dark Empathy]] in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|Motivation and emotion book 2026]] == Social contributions == #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FBreathing_exercises_and_relaxation&diff=2829879&oldid=2828782 Fixed '''title'''] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Cognitive_versus_affective_empathy&action=edit Comment on Wikiversity page] #[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457898?entry_id=813044 Added to discussion] Book chapter submission contributions # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FCognitive_versus_affective_empathy&diff=2840877&oldid=2839430 Captialisation of words] #[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Psychedelic treatment of eating disorders#c-U3228742-20261017064100-Emotion Dysregulation research suggestion|Suggestion to explore research on comorbid conditions]] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FCognitive_hardiness_and_stress_resilience&diff=2840881&oldid=2829571 Grammar updates] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmotion_regulation_through_exercise&diff=2840884&oldid=2838583 Updating language to Australia English] # 7j8tth9an087u06l5eelkfk4se1y0be 0 331386 2840777 2840626 2026-10-17T01:12:26Z Ella Kay244 3107007 2840777 wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] {{title|Self-determination theory and dementia care:<br>How can autonomy, competence, and relatedness be supported in people living with dementia?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Wolf Creek NFH nursing home fishing event October 2024.png|thumb|'''Figure 1:''' Residence of an aged care home enjoying an outside activity ]] ;Imagine this ... Imagine you are an elderly resident with dementia living in a psychogeriatric ward in the beautiful Dutch countryside. On the walk from your bedroom to the communal dining room, you pass many people; staff, other residents and resident’s family members, but you do not recognise any of them. You take your breakfast to a table overlooking the garden and imagine walking outside, feeling the sun and smelling the flowers. Despite your longing to enjoy the garden, whether you get outside today is not up to you. You have been told it is unsafe, and you may only go out when a staff member has time to take you. How would this scenario make you feel? Trapped? Unsafe? {{RoundBoxBottom}} This scenario draws on experiences that residents of a Dutch psychogeriatric ward shared with researchers studying what gives residents a sense of freedom and safety. They identified that time in nature, knowing the staff and spending time with others all contributed positively to a sense of personal freedom and safety in the ward (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024). Scenarios like this are common within aged care homes for residents living with dementia. A review of 1158 articles published between 2000 and 2018 found that residents felt a lack of freedom, belonging, and connection, with some residents even describing their living situation as “living in a prison camp” (Shiells et al., 2020, p 1563). Many residents describe their well-being as low with reports of poor self-esteem, connection, value and independence (Shiells et al., 2020). This chapter asks how Self-Determination Theory (SDT) can help understand and support the psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness (ACR) in people with dementia. It begins with an overview of dementia and models of care, introduces SDT as a framework for understanding motivation and well-being, then examines how ACR can be supported for people living with dementia and highlights where the evidence is still limited. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus Questions''' # What is dementia, and what care options exists to support people living with it? # What does SDT propose about human motivation and well-being, and why is it a useful framework for understanding dementia care? # What interventions increase well-being for dementia patients? # How does person-centred care impact psychological well-being? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding dementia and models of care == '''Addresses focus question 1''' Dementia is a neurodegenerative disease (Cipriani et al., 2020). 57 million people across the globe live with dementia as of 2021, making it the seventh most common cause of death globally (World Health Organisation, 2026). Dementia disproportionately affects women as they are both more likely to get dementia and more likely to look after people with it (World Health Organisation, 2026). There are four types of dementia: Alzheimer’s disease, [https://www.dementia.org.au/about-dementia/vascular-dementia vascular dementia], frontotemporal dementia and dementia Lewy body (Maclin et al., 2019). Alzheimer’s is the most common type of dementia, occurring in 69% of the population over 75. Alzheimer’s involves gradual memory and cognitive loss that impairs daily activities. The second most common is frontotemporal dementia and is distinguished by a distorted personality, along with loss of social and executive function, including in some cases the loss of speech (Maclin et al., 2019). Vascular dementia affects cognition from blood vessels in the brain becoming blocked resulting in deficits in the sensory and motor systems. Lewy bodies is characterised by [[wikipedia:Lewy_body|cellular inclusions]] in the brain that cause fluctuations in [[Cognition|cognitive function]], hallucinations and behavioural problems. Support is often needed for people with dementia in the early stages for complex daily activities such as organising transportation. As the disease progresses, help with basic activities like getting dressed is needed too (Cipriani et al., 2020). Providing care and support for people living with dementia comes in many forms including in-home and institutionalised care. Families and patients choose between models based on a number of factors, including cultural values, knowledge of dementia, access to services, financial position and geographic location (Singh et al., 2014; Giebel et al., 2021). People receiving in-home care may be looked after by informal caregivers such as family members, formal caregivers or a mix of both, who are able to provide services at the home of the patient (Singh et al., 2014). Institutionalised care refers to the model of care where patients move into a facility where they can be monitored and looked after entirely by professionals or formal caregivers. In Australia, most people living with dementia choose in-home care. However, there are still over one million people living in institutionalised settings (Singh et al., 2014). == Self-Determination theory == '''Addresses focus question 2''' Self-determination Theory (SDT) is a theory of motivation. SDT predicts motivation by explaining why people are intrinsically or extrinsically motivated to perform a behaviour (Dombestein et at, 2020; Ryan & Deci, 2020). If someone is intrinsically motivated to perform a behaviour it means they find motivation from internal factors with no influence from the environment. This could be learning to [[Portal:Dance|dance]] purely for the enjoyment of it. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation is when someone behaves in response to environmental factors (Ryan & Deci, 2020). This could be learning to dance because all their friends are dancing. People are very rarely motivated entirely for internal or external reasons therefore, extrinsic motivation is considered to be a continuum, starting with external regulation and finishing at integration: * External regulation - behaviours are regulated from environmental cues, rewards and punishments. * Introjection - environmental cues are being injected internally for instance the “punishment” of doing something wrong is feeling guilty. * Identified - you identify with your behaviours for example you identify with being a good student, so you show up to class but do not enjoy class. * Integration - there is less conflict between your identity and your behaviour. For example, you show up to class because you value being a good student and think it’s the right thing to do (Dombestein et al, 2020). Motivation is multidimensional, as people often have several forms of motivation for the same task (Ryan & Deci, 2020). For example, someone might run because their doctor advised it (identified) and because they enjoy seeing friends there (intrinsic). SDT offers an explanation as to where on the motivation continuum people operate. SDT says that for people to be intrinsically motivated or on the upper end of the extrinsic motivation scale you must satisfy all three critical psychological needs. These needs are:   * Autonomy - feeling ownership over actions and life circumstances * Competence - a sense of confidence or mastery over performing tasks * Relatedness - the need to feel like you belong to a group, that you are supported by others and in return people feel supported by you. Achievement of these three psychological needs is not automatic, and people often require support to achieve these needs. Organismic SDT states that people have a natural drive towards obtaining the critical psychological needs (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Zou et al. (2026) found that Chinese girls chose menstrual products that increased bodily autonomy, confidence in areas they identified with, and closeness to family and media figures, but could only do so if they could afford them. This reflects the theory that people have a natural desire to achieve the three psychological needs but need support from their environment. There is some debate in motivation research as to whether the different types of motivation describe distinct qualitative forms of motivation or if they point to different quantitative points along a scale of motivation (Van den Broeck et al., 2021). SDT theorists view motivation as a continuum, supported by findings that students with higher ACR have better wellbeing, higher grades and more intrinsic motivation. (Bureau et al., 2022; Ryan & Deci, 2020). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Key points''' * SDT is a theory of motivation. Extrinsic motivation sits on a continuum: external regulation, introjection, identified and integration. * Autonomy, competence and relatedness must all be met for people to be intrinsically motivated or at the upper end of the continuum. * People have a natural drive towards these needs but require support from their environment. * Higher need satisfaction is linked to better wellbeing. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Putting Self-Determination Theory into Practice: Meeting Psychological Needs in Dementia Patients == '''Addresses focus questions 3''' SDT posits that supporting ACR in people living with dementia leads to better well-being, but these needs cannot just be given directly to a person. Therefore, the strategies discussed below are best understood as shaping conditions rather than delivering outcomes. One of the most well-documented examples of SDT in practice is the process of facilitating patient decision-making. Colclough et al. (2026) found that it did not improve well-being directly but did so by separately increasing satisfaction levels of all three needs, which is consistent with SDT’s claim that need satisfaction underlies well-being. However, decision-making is not the only pathway to increase ACR. [[File:Self-determination_theory_diagrame.png|thumb|347x347px|'''Figure 2.''' Self-determination theory diagram]] === '''Competency''' === Competency has been seen to be supported by carers assisting or allowing patients were possible to perform tasks independently (Custers et al., 2011). When adults with dementia cannot perform simple tasks by themselves like eating, they report feeling ashamed and embarrassed (Estrada, 2021). The ability to perform tasks independently is one reason most people prefer to stay in their home (Wammes et al., 2021). Both formal and informal caregivers help people with dementia feel competent and safe in their own home with patients reporting that their informal caregivers help them with daily living tasks, navigating the health system and organising social activities (Wammes et al., 2021). Similar sentiments have been shared around formal caregivers helping with medical information and daily tasks (Hoel et al., 2021). Aides for everyday activities are also cited as supporting competence (Rapaport et al., 2020; Wammes et al., 2021). The importance of the environment for allowing psychological needs to flourish is evident in respect to competency as people living in aged care homes are less likely to complete tasks independently as cognitive decline progresses, compared to people receiving informal care (Anselmo et al., 2025). Residents often report having little control over daily routines, such as what they eat or when they shower (Shiells et al., 2020). Assisting dementia patients to identify personal strengths and meaningful activities have been seen to increase self-direction (Döpp et al., 2021). Although the correlations are unclear, these studies suggest that helping residents identify personal strengths and meaningful activities could show caregivers where to allow more independence, such as control over daily routines. === Autonomy === Supporting autonomy in people with dementia is best understood through SDT’s definition of autonomy which is having a sense of agency over one’s life rather than the physical ability to act independently (Ryan & Deci, 2020). A study by Stumpf et al. (2025) found that people with dementia did not mind if they did not contribute much to decision making, as long as they were included in the process. 90% of people living with mild forms of dementia can articulate preferences and provide reasons for their preferences based on their [https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/values#google_vignette values] (Stumpf et al., 2025). Despite this, healthcare professionals will often defer all questions to patient’s family members (Stumpf et al., 2025). People with dementia generally accept the gradual loss of independence that comes with the progression of the disease if the decisions they do make around everyday things like going for a walk or dyeing their hair are respected (Estrada, 2021). Interventions that help to increase decision-making capacity by applying advance care planning to everyday situations, simplifying and visualising options, and staff knowing the residents have all helped increase autonomy (Van Der Weide et al., 2023). Van Der Weide et al. (2023) did warn that offering fewer choices increases the risk of staff accidently letting their preferences dictate the options available to residents. They also found autonomy interventions only appeared valuable within trusting relationships with family and staff (Van Der Weide et al., 2023). === Relatedness === The need for relatedness is often clearly expressed by people living in aged care homes with many residents reporting love and connection as important values (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024). Shiells et al. (2020) have discovered that reading groups, exercising, and helping other residents with problems have all been linked to feeling valued. The provision of in-home care by formal caregivers has been seen to increase feelings of relatedness, as people report appreciating the conversation and liking when they had regular contact with the same carer, as that carer better understood their preferences (Hoel et al., 2021).  Lastly, decision-making has also been seen to increase relatedness if ideas are heard and respected (Stumpf et al., 2025).  Estrada (2021) offers a richer understanding as to why decision-making might increase relatedness through the principles of [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6465833/ person-centres care], by which you can develop a deeper connection through conversation. Many of these strategies depend on carers having the time, energy and support to deliver them. Therefore, Person-centred care has also been explored as an intervention to help increase the well-being of carers. == Person-centred care impacts on promoting psychological well-being == '''Addresses focus question 4''' Person or client-centred care is an approach to care that focuses on maintaining a person’s sense of self by putting them and their needs at the forefront of importance when delivering care (Serbser-Koal et al., 2024). Person-centred care has been investigated for solutions to increase staff satisfaction in aged care homes and in-home services and to help to increase well-being in people with dementia. One of the principles of person-centred care is to ‘enter the person’s world’ through communication to develop a better connection (Serbser-Koal et al., 2024). Estrada (2021) revealed that one way you can increase connection with dementia patients is by simply allowing more time for conversations. People with dementia need more time to communicate because as their disease progresses their processing speed and [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19672843/ short-term memory] capacity decreases (Estrada, 2021). Allowing enough time for communicating is important as many people express frustrations when they feel rushed (Estrada, 2021). Even in people with non-fluent dementia, communication can increase relatedness through the encouragement of non-verbal communication like smiling, waving or touch (Estrada, 2021). Although it is well established that increased and better-quality communication between nursing, home staff and residents is needed, nursing staff report not having enough time to get to know residents (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024) and therefore place more importance on basic survival needs over psychological needs (Estrada, 2021). In-home care staff have also reported that the lack of time to addresses patients’ needs is also a reason for high staff turnover (Lämås et al., 2021). Lämås et al. (2021) tested person-centred care in home care services. Thriving rose among people with dementia, but self-determination fell and formal caregivers did not benefit. However, the caregiver [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19672843/ sample] was too small to detect an effect, and the self-determination measure captured only autonomy, whereas the thriving measure (attitudes to home, care and relationships) likely reflected all three needs better. A study with a larger sample size by Vassbø et al. (2020) looked at the effects of a person-centred intervention over 14 months and also found no effect on job satisfaction. Person-centred care therefore does not appear to be a solution to increase staff satisfaction. However, there are promising sings it may increase well-being dementia patients. == Increasing the well-being on informal caregivers == The psychological well-being of informal caregivers also affects the well-being of the people they care for. Informal caregivers report needing more emotional support, finding caring increasingly difficult as they become older, and report navigating the healthcare system on their own as challenging (Wammes et al., 2021). Interventions, based on SDT, that focus on increasing coping skills, communication skills and improving relationships made carers more intrinsically motivated to care for their loved one, which led to increased wellbeing (Dombestein et al., 2020). Carers also reported that being able to drop their loved ones off at [https://agedcare.salvos.org.au/residential-aged-care/carpenter-court-aged-care-centre/ day-care centres] allowed them to socialise with others, thereby increasing relatedness, and provision of at-home aides that helped them complete domestic tasks helped them feel competent (Wammes et al., 2021). ==Conclusion== Dementia makes independent living challenging, but it does not mean that agency should be taken away. As shown above, dementia patients are capable of decision-making even in severe cases.  SDT seeks to explain well-being through the prism of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. To become intrinsically motivated an individual must satisfy all three psychological needs. The strategies for increasing psychology well-being disgust in this paper are most successful when the interconnected nature of the needs are understood (Slemp et al., 2024). Interventions aimed at one need often support others. For example, feeling genuinely listened-to and respected increases both relatedness and autonomy (Stumpf et al., 2025; Estrada, 2021). Because these needs overlap and cannot be supplied directly, the most effective interventions are those that change the environment to allow them to develop. Allowing more time to communicate, creating spaces where people can act more independently, and increasing collaboration in decision-making all support the satisfaction of one or more needs, which in turn supports the satisfaction of other needs. Carer well-being remains an important area for future research to help increase well-being for dementia patients. <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}">{{Robelbox|theme=13|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg|iconwidth=48px|title=Review time!<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {You operate a dementia care live-in clinic. Two of your employees come to you with competing ideas of how to make the lives of your patients better. Employee A suggests that you should provide the patients with a larger variety of food. Employee B suggests that you should allow patients to choose what they want to eat. Assuming you can implement either option, which would you choose?} - A. Larger variety of food + B. Choosing the weekly menu </quiz> </div> {{RoundBoxBottom}} }} == External links == * [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551552/ Behavioural and psychological symptoms in dementia] (National library of medicine) * [https://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/dementia-care-study-highlights-importance-of-caregiver-self-efficacy Dementia care study highlights importance of caregiver self-efficacy] (UCLA newsroom) * [https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/scholarlywork/1753807-older-adults-using-technology-for-meaningful-activities-during-covid-19--an-analysis-through-the-lens-of-self-determination-theory Older] [https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/scholarlywork/1753807-older-adults-using-technology-for-meaningful-activities-during-covid-19--an-analysis-through-the-lens-of-self-determination-theory adults using technology for meaningful activities during COVID-19: an analysis through the lens of self-determination theory] (University of Melbourne) == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Basic psychological need theory|Basic psychological need theory]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Dementia care motivation|Dementia care motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[Dementia]] (Wikiversity) * [[wikipedia:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[Neurodegenerative disease]] (Wikiversity) == References == <div style="padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;"> Anselmo, A., Corallo, F., Pagano, M., Cardile, D., Marra, A., Maresca, G., De Luca, R., Alagna, A., Quartarone, A., Calabrò, R. S., & Cappadona, I. (2025). Beyond diagnosis: Exploring residual autonomy in dementia through a systematic review. ''Medicina, 61''(5), Article 895. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina61050895</nowiki> Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to student motivation: A meta-analysis of antecedents of autonomous and controlled motivations. ''Review of Educational Research, 92''(1), 46–72. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426</nowiki> Cipriani, G., Danti, S., Picchi, L., Nuti, A., & Fiorino, M. D. (2020). Daily functioning and dementia. ''Dementia & Neuropsychologia, 14''(2), 93–102. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-57642020dn14-020001</nowiki> Colclough, C., Perach, R., Harris, P., Rusted, J., Banerjee, S., & Miles, E. (2026). Decision-making involvement and quality of life in people with dementia: The mediating role of psychological needs. ''Aging & Mental Health, 30''(2), 267–276. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2025.2541188</nowiki> Custers, A. F. J., Kuin, Y., Riksen-Walraven, M., & Westerhof, G. J. (2011). Need support and wellbeing during morning care activities: An observational study on resident–staff interaction in nursing homes. ''Ageing and Society, 31''(8), 1425–1442. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X10001522</nowiki> Dombestein, H., Norheim, A., & Lunde Husebø, A. M. (2020). Understanding informal caregivers’ motivation from the perspective of self‐determination theory: An integrative review. ''Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 34''(2), 267–279. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/scs.12735</nowiki> Döpp, C. M. E., Drenth, H., Verkade, P.-J., Francke, A. F., & van der Heide, I. (2021). Interventions for improving self-direction in people with dementia: ''A systematic review. BMC Geriatrics, 21''(1), Article 195. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-021-02133-w</nowiki> Estrada, R. (2021). Listen and you will see the person through the dementia. ''Journal for Person-Oriented Research, 7''(2), 88–97. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.17505/jpor.2021.23891</nowiki> Giebel, C., Robertson, S., Beaulen, A., Zwakhalen, S., Allen, D., & Verbeek, H. (2021). “Nobody seems to know where to even turn to”: Barriers in accessing and utilising dementia care services in England and the Netherlands. International Journal of ''Environmental Research and Public Health, 18''(22), 12233. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182212233</nowiki> Hoel, K.-A., Rokstad, A. M. M., Feiring, I. H., Lichtwarck, B., Selbæk, G., & Bergh, S. (2021). Person-centred dementia care in home care services – highly recommended but still challenging to obtain: A qualitative interview study. ''BMC Health Services Research, 21''(1), Article 723. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-021-06722-8</nowiki> Lämås, K., Bölenius, K., Sandman, P.-O., Lindkvist, M., & Edvardsson, D. (2021). Effects of a person-centred and health-promoting intervention in home care services– a non-randomized controlled trial. ''BMC Geriatrics, 21''(1), Article 720. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-021-02661-5</nowiki> Maclin, J. M. A., Wang, T., & Xiao, S. (2019). Biomarkers for the diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease, dementia Lewy body, frontotemporal dementia and vascular dementia. ''General Psychiatry, 32''(1), e100054-n/a. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1136/gpsych-2019-100054</nowiki> Rapaport, P., Burton, A., Leverton, M., Herat-Gunaratne, R., Beresford-Dent, J., Lord, K., Downs, M., Boex, S., Horsley, R., Giebel, C., & Cooper, C. (2020). “I just keep thinking that I don’t want to rely on people.” a qualitative study of how people living with dementia achieve and maintain independence at home: Stakeholder perspectives. ''BMC Geriatrics, 20''(1), Article 5. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-019-1406-6</nowiki> Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61'', Article 101860. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860</nowiki> Shiells, K., Pivodic, L., Holmerová, I., & Van den Block, L. (2020). Self-reported needs and experiences of people with dementia living in nursing homes: ''A scoping review. Aging & Mental Health, 24''(10), 1553–1568. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2019.1625303</nowiki> Serbser-Koal, J., Rommerskirch-Manietta, M., Purwins, D., & Roes, M. (2024). Person-centredness in dementia care: An integrative review of theoretical approaches. ''BMJ Open, 14''(6), e085051. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2024-085051</nowiki> Singh, P., Hussain, R., Khan, A., Irwin, L., & Foskey, R. (2014). Dementia Care: Intersecting informal family care and formal care systems. ''Journal of Aging Research'', 109–117. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/486521</nowiki> Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Personality and ''Social Psychology, 127''(5), 1012–1037. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459</nowiki> Stumpf, A. D. H., McKenzie, E., & Beavers, A. (2025). An account of personal autonomy for people living with dementia. ''The Gerontologist, 65''(11), 1. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnaf210</nowiki> Van Andel, S., & Holkenborg, A. (2024). From the perspective of people with dementia: Using creative qualitative measures to assess the values and opinions on freedom and safety among people living with dementia. ''Healthcare,12''(14), 1412. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12141412</nowiki> Van Der Weide, H., Lovink, M. H., Luijkx, K. G., & Gerritsen, D. L. (2023). Supporting autonomy for people with dementia living in nursing homes: A rapid realist review. ''International Journal of Nursing Studies'',137, Article 104382. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2022.104382</nowiki> Van Den Broeck, A., Howard, J. L., Van Vaerenbergh, Y., Leroy, H., & Gagné, M. (2021). Beyond intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: A meta-analysis on self-determination theory’s multidimensional conceptualization of work motivation. ''Organizational Psychology Review, 11''(3), 240–273. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/20413866211006173</nowiki> Vassbø, T. K., Bergland, Å., Kirkevold, M., Lindkvist, M., Lood, Q., Sandman, P., Sjögren, K., & Edvardsson, D. (2020). Effects of a person‐centred and thriving‐promoting intervention on nursing home staff job satisfaction: A multi‐centre, non‐equivalent controlled before–after study. ''Nursing Open, 7''(6), 1787–1797. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1002/nop2.565</nowiki> Wammes, J. D., Labrie, N. H. M., Agogo, G. O., Monin, J. K., Bekker‐Grob, E. W., & MacNeil Vroomen, J. L. (2021). Persons with dementia and informal caregivers prioritizing care: A mixed‐methods study. Alzheimer’s & Dementia : ''Translational Research & Clinical Interventions, 7''(1), Article e12193 <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1002/trc2.12193</nowiki> World Health Organisation. (2026). Dementia <nowiki>https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/dementia</nowiki> Zou, W., Meadows, C. C. Z., Huang, L., & Wang, B. (2026). Psychological determinants of menstrual product preferences: Applying self-determination theory to women’s reproductive health decision-making. J''ournal of Health Psychology, 31''(9), 3512–3527. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/13591053251407843</nowiki> </div> gjlnna0yiwtqf0byg7anu5q30pf5hiv 2840785 2840777 2026-10-17T01:32:44Z Ella Kay244 3107007 /* Conclusion */ 2840785 wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] {{title|Self-determination theory and dementia care:<br>How can autonomy, competence, and relatedness be supported in people living with dementia?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Wolf Creek NFH nursing home fishing event October 2024.png|thumb|'''Figure 1:''' Residence of an aged care home enjoying an outside activity ]] ;Imagine this ... Imagine you are an elderly resident with dementia living in a psychogeriatric ward in the beautiful Dutch countryside. On the walk from your bedroom to the communal dining room, you pass many people; staff, other residents and resident’s family members, but you do not recognise any of them. You take your breakfast to a table overlooking the garden and imagine walking outside, feeling the sun and smelling the flowers. Despite your longing to enjoy the garden, whether you get outside today is not up to you. You have been told it is unsafe, and you may only go out when a staff member has time to take you. How would this scenario make you feel? Trapped? Unsafe? {{RoundBoxBottom}} This scenario draws on experiences that residents of a Dutch psychogeriatric ward shared with researchers studying what gives residents a sense of freedom and safety. They identified that time in nature, knowing the staff and spending time with others all contributed positively to a sense of personal freedom and safety in the ward (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024). Scenarios like this are common within aged care homes for residents living with dementia. A review of 1158 articles published between 2000 and 2018 found that residents felt a lack of freedom, belonging, and connection, with some residents even describing their living situation as “living in a prison camp” (Shiells et al., 2020, p 1563). Many residents describe their well-being as low with reports of poor self-esteem, connection, value and independence (Shiells et al., 2020). This chapter asks how Self-Determination Theory (SDT) can help understand and support the psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness (ACR) in people with dementia. It begins with an overview of dementia and models of care, introduces SDT as a framework for understanding motivation and well-being, then examines how ACR can be supported for people living with dementia and highlights where the evidence is still limited. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus Questions''' # What is dementia, and what care options exists to support people living with it? # What does SDT propose about human motivation and well-being, and why is it a useful framework for understanding dementia care? # What interventions increase well-being for dementia patients? # How does person-centred care impact psychological well-being? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding dementia and models of care == '''Addresses focus question 1''' Dementia is a neurodegenerative disease (Cipriani et al., 2020). 57 million people across the globe live with dementia as of 2021, making it the seventh most common cause of death globally (World Health Organisation, 2026). Dementia disproportionately affects women as they are both more likely to get dementia and more likely to look after people with it (World Health Organisation, 2026). There are four types of dementia: Alzheimer’s disease, [https://www.dementia.org.au/about-dementia/vascular-dementia vascular dementia], frontotemporal dementia and dementia Lewy body (Maclin et al., 2019). Alzheimer’s is the most common type of dementia, occurring in 69% of the population over 75. Alzheimer’s involves gradual memory and cognitive loss that impairs daily activities. The second most common is frontotemporal dementia and is distinguished by a distorted personality, along with loss of social and executive function, including in some cases the loss of speech (Maclin et al., 2019). Vascular dementia affects cognition from blood vessels in the brain becoming blocked resulting in deficits in the sensory and motor systems. Lewy bodies is characterised by [[wikipedia:Lewy_body|cellular inclusions]] in the brain that cause fluctuations in [[Cognition|cognitive function]], hallucinations and behavioural problems. Support is often needed for people with dementia in the early stages for complex daily activities such as organising transportation. As the disease progresses, help with basic activities like getting dressed is needed too (Cipriani et al., 2020). Providing care and support for people living with dementia comes in many forms including in-home and institutionalised care. Families and patients choose between models based on a number of factors, including cultural values, knowledge of dementia, access to services, financial position and geographic location (Singh et al., 2014; Giebel et al., 2021). People receiving in-home care may be looked after by informal caregivers such as family members, formal caregivers or a mix of both, who are able to provide services at the home of the patient (Singh et al., 2014). Institutionalised care refers to the model of care where patients move into a facility where they can be monitored and looked after entirely by professionals or formal caregivers. In Australia, most people living with dementia choose in-home care. However, there are still over one million people living in institutionalised settings (Singh et al., 2014). == Self-Determination theory == '''Addresses focus question 2''' Self-determination Theory (SDT) is a theory of motivation. SDT predicts motivation by explaining why people are intrinsically or extrinsically motivated to perform a behaviour (Dombestein et at, 2020; Ryan & Deci, 2020). If someone is intrinsically motivated to perform a behaviour it means they find motivation from internal factors with no influence from the environment. This could be learning to [[Portal:Dance|dance]] purely for the enjoyment of it. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation is when someone behaves in response to environmental factors (Ryan & Deci, 2020). This could be learning to dance because all their friends are dancing. People are very rarely motivated entirely for internal or external reasons therefore, extrinsic motivation is considered to be a continuum, starting with external regulation and finishing at integration: * External regulation - behaviours are regulated from environmental cues, rewards and punishments. * Introjection - environmental cues are being injected internally for instance the “punishment” of doing something wrong is feeling guilty. * Identified - you identify with your behaviours for example you identify with being a good student, so you show up to class but do not enjoy class. * Integration - there is less conflict between your identity and your behaviour. For example, you show up to class because you value being a good student and think it’s the right thing to do (Dombestein et al, 2020). Motivation is multidimensional, as people often have several forms of motivation for the same task (Ryan & Deci, 2020). For example, someone might run because their doctor advised it (identified) and because they enjoy seeing friends there (intrinsic). SDT offers an explanation as to where on the motivation continuum people operate. SDT says that for people to be intrinsically motivated or on the upper end of the extrinsic motivation scale you must satisfy all three critical psychological needs. These needs are:   * Autonomy - feeling ownership over actions and life circumstances * Competence - a sense of confidence or mastery over performing tasks * Relatedness - the need to feel like you belong to a group, that you are supported by others and in return people feel supported by you. Achievement of these three psychological needs is not automatic, and people often require support to achieve these needs. Organismic SDT states that people have a natural drive towards obtaining the critical psychological needs (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Zou et al. (2026) found that Chinese girls chose menstrual products that increased bodily autonomy, confidence in areas they identified with, and closeness to family and media figures, but could only do so if they could afford them. This reflects the theory that people have a natural desire to achieve the three psychological needs but need support from their environment. There is some debate in motivation research as to whether the different types of motivation describe distinct qualitative forms of motivation or if they point to different quantitative points along a scale of motivation (Van den Broeck et al., 2021). SDT theorists view motivation as a continuum, supported by findings that students with higher ACR have better wellbeing, higher grades and more intrinsic motivation. (Bureau et al., 2022; Ryan & Deci, 2020). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Key points''' * SDT is a theory of motivation. Extrinsic motivation sits on a continuum: external regulation, introjection, identified and integration. * Autonomy, competence and relatedness must all be met for people to be intrinsically motivated or at the upper end of the continuum. * People have a natural drive towards these needs but require support from their environment. * Higher need satisfaction is linked to better wellbeing. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Putting Self-Determination Theory into Practice: Meeting Psychological Needs in Dementia Patients == '''Addresses focus questions 3''' SDT posits that supporting ACR in people living with dementia leads to better well-being, but these needs cannot just be given directly to a person. Therefore, the strategies discussed below are best understood as shaping conditions rather than delivering outcomes. One of the most well-documented examples of SDT in practice is the process of facilitating patient decision-making. Colclough et al. (2026) found that it did not improve well-being directly but did so by separately increasing satisfaction levels of all three needs, which is consistent with SDT’s claim that need satisfaction underlies well-being. However, decision-making is not the only pathway to increase ACR. [[File:Self-determination_theory_diagrame.png|thumb|347x347px|'''Figure 2.''' Self-determination theory diagram]] === '''Competency''' === Competency has been seen to be supported by carers assisting or allowing patients were possible to perform tasks independently (Custers et al., 2011). When adults with dementia cannot perform simple tasks by themselves like eating, they report feeling ashamed and embarrassed (Estrada, 2021). The ability to perform tasks independently is one reason most people prefer to stay in their home (Wammes et al., 2021). Both formal and informal caregivers help people with dementia feel competent and safe in their own home with patients reporting that their informal caregivers help them with daily living tasks, navigating the health system and organising social activities (Wammes et al., 2021). Similar sentiments have been shared around formal caregivers helping with medical information and daily tasks (Hoel et al., 2021). Aides for everyday activities are also cited as supporting competence (Rapaport et al., 2020; Wammes et al., 2021). The importance of the environment for allowing psychological needs to flourish is evident in respect to competency as people living in aged care homes are less likely to complete tasks independently as cognitive decline progresses, compared to people receiving informal care (Anselmo et al., 2025). Residents often report having little control over daily routines, such as what they eat or when they shower (Shiells et al., 2020). Assisting dementia patients to identify personal strengths and meaningful activities have been seen to increase self-direction (Döpp et al., 2021). Although the correlations are unclear, these studies suggest that helping residents identify personal strengths and meaningful activities could show caregivers where to allow more independence, such as control over daily routines. === Autonomy === Supporting autonomy in people with dementia is best understood through SDT’s definition of autonomy which is having a sense of agency over one’s life rather than the physical ability to act independently (Ryan & Deci, 2020). A study by Stumpf et al. (2025) found that people with dementia did not mind if they did not contribute much to decision making, as long as they were included in the process. 90% of people living with mild forms of dementia can articulate preferences and provide reasons for their preferences based on their [https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/values#google_vignette values] (Stumpf et al., 2025). Despite this, healthcare professionals will often defer all questions to patient’s family members (Stumpf et al., 2025). People with dementia generally accept the gradual loss of independence that comes with the progression of the disease if the decisions they do make around everyday things like going for a walk or dyeing their hair are respected (Estrada, 2021). Interventions that help to increase decision-making capacity by applying advance care planning to everyday situations, simplifying and visualising options, and staff knowing the residents have all helped increase autonomy (Van Der Weide et al., 2023). Van Der Weide et al. (2023) did warn that offering fewer choices increases the risk of staff accidently letting their preferences dictate the options available to residents. They also found autonomy interventions only appeared valuable within trusting relationships with family and staff (Van Der Weide et al., 2023). === Relatedness === The need for relatedness is often clearly expressed by people living in aged care homes with many residents reporting love and connection as important values (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024). Shiells et al. (2020) have discovered that reading groups, exercising, and helping other residents with problems have all been linked to feeling valued. The provision of in-home care by formal caregivers has been seen to increase feelings of relatedness, as people report appreciating the conversation and liking when they had regular contact with the same carer, as that carer better understood their preferences (Hoel et al., 2021).  Lastly, decision-making has also been seen to increase relatedness if ideas are heard and respected (Stumpf et al., 2025).  Estrada (2021) offers a richer understanding as to why decision-making might increase relatedness through the principles of [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6465833/ person-centres care], by which you can develop a deeper connection through conversation. Many of these strategies depend on carers having the time, energy and support to deliver them. Therefore, Person-centred care has also been explored as an intervention to help increase the well-being of carers. == Person-centred care impacts on promoting psychological well-being == '''Addresses focus question 4''' Person or client-centred care is an approach to care that focuses on maintaining a person’s sense of self by putting them and their needs at the forefront of importance when delivering care (Serbser-Koal et al., 2024). Person-centred care has been investigated for solutions to increase staff satisfaction in aged care homes and in-home services and to help to increase well-being in people with dementia. One of the principles of person-centred care is to ‘enter the person’s world’ through communication to develop a better connection (Serbser-Koal et al., 2024). Estrada (2021) revealed that one way you can increase connection with dementia patients is by simply allowing more time for conversations. People with dementia need more time to communicate because as their disease progresses their processing speed and [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19672843/ short-term memory] capacity decreases (Estrada, 2021). Allowing enough time for communicating is important as many people express frustrations when they feel rushed (Estrada, 2021). Even in people with non-fluent dementia, communication can increase relatedness through the encouragement of non-verbal communication like smiling, waving or touch (Estrada, 2021). Although it is well established that increased and better-quality communication between nursing, home staff and residents is needed, nursing staff report not having enough time to get to know residents (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024) and therefore place more importance on basic survival needs over psychological needs (Estrada, 2021). In-home care staff have also reported that the lack of time to addresses patients’ needs is also a reason for high staff turnover (Lämås et al., 2021). Lämås et al. (2021) tested person-centred care in home care services. Thriving rose among people with dementia, but self-determination fell and formal caregivers did not benefit. However, the caregiver [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19672843/ sample] was too small to detect an effect, and the self-determination measure captured only autonomy, whereas the thriving measure (attitudes to home, care and relationships) likely reflected all three needs better. A study with a larger sample size by Vassbø et al. (2020) looked at the effects of a person-centred intervention over 14 months and also found no effect on job satisfaction. Person-centred care therefore does not appear to be a solution to increase staff satisfaction. However, there are promising sings it may increase well-being dementia patients. == Increasing the well-being on informal caregivers == The psychological well-being of informal caregivers also affects the well-being of the people they care for. Informal caregivers report needing more emotional support, finding caring increasingly difficult as they become older, and report navigating the healthcare system on their own as challenging (Wammes et al., 2021). Interventions, based on SDT, that focus on increasing coping skills, communication skills and improving relationships made carers more intrinsically motivated to care for their loved one, which led to increased wellbeing (Dombestein et al., 2020). Carers also reported that being able to drop their loved ones off at [https://agedcare.salvos.org.au/residential-aged-care/carpenter-court-aged-care-centre/ day-care centres] allowed them to socialise with others, thereby increasing relatedness, and provision of at-home aides that helped them complete domestic tasks helped them feel competent (Wammes et al., 2021). ==Conclusion== Dementia makes independent living challenging, but it does not mean that agency should be taken away. As shown above, dementia patients are capable of decision-making even in severe cases.  SDT seeks to explain well-being through the prism of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. To become intrinsically motivated an individual must satisfy all three psychological needs. The strategies for increasing psychology well-being discussed in this paper are most successful when the interconnected nature of the needs are understood (Slemp et al., 2024). Interventions aimed at one need often support others. For example, feeling genuinely listened-to and respected increases both relatedness and autonomy (Stumpf et al., 2025; Estrada, 2021). Because these needs overlap and cannot be supplied directly, the most effective interventions are those that change the environment to allow them to develop. Allowing more time to communicate, creating spaces where people can act more independently, and increasing collaboration in decision-making all support the satisfaction of one or more needs, which in turn supports the satisfaction of other needs. Carer well-being remains an important area for future research to help increase well-being for dementia patients. <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}">{{Robelbox|theme=13|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg|iconwidth=48px|title=Review time!<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {You operate a dementia care live-in clinic. Two of your employees come to you with competing ideas of how to make the lives of your patients better. Employee A suggests that you should provide the patients with a larger variety of food. Employee B suggests that you should allow patients to choose what they want to eat. Assuming you can implement either option, which would you choose?} - A. Larger variety of food + B. Choosing the weekly menu </quiz> </div> {{RoundBoxBottom}} }} == External links == * [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551552/ Behavioural and psychological symptoms in dementia] (National library of medicine) * [https://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/dementia-care-study-highlights-importance-of-caregiver-self-efficacy Dementia care study highlights importance of caregiver self-efficacy] (UCLA newsroom) * [https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/scholarlywork/1753807-older-adults-using-technology-for-meaningful-activities-during-covid-19--an-analysis-through-the-lens-of-self-determination-theory Older] [https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/scholarlywork/1753807-older-adults-using-technology-for-meaningful-activities-during-covid-19--an-analysis-through-the-lens-of-self-determination-theory adults using technology for meaningful activities during COVID-19: an analysis through the lens of self-determination theory] (University of Melbourne) == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Basic psychological need theory|Basic psychological need theory]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Dementia care motivation|Dementia care motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[Dementia]] (Wikiversity) * [[wikipedia:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[Neurodegenerative disease]] (Wikiversity) == References == <div style="padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;"> Anselmo, A., Corallo, F., Pagano, M., Cardile, D., Marra, A., Maresca, G., De Luca, R., Alagna, A., Quartarone, A., Calabrò, R. S., & Cappadona, I. (2025). Beyond diagnosis: Exploring residual autonomy in dementia through a systematic review. ''Medicina, 61''(5), Article 895. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina61050895</nowiki> Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to student motivation: A meta-analysis of antecedents of autonomous and controlled motivations. ''Review of Educational Research, 92''(1), 46–72. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426</nowiki> Cipriani, G., Danti, S., Picchi, L., Nuti, A., & Fiorino, M. D. (2020). Daily functioning and dementia. ''Dementia & Neuropsychologia, 14''(2), 93–102. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-57642020dn14-020001</nowiki> Colclough, C., Perach, R., Harris, P., Rusted, J., Banerjee, S., & Miles, E. (2026). Decision-making involvement and quality of life in people with dementia: The mediating role of psychological needs. ''Aging & Mental Health, 30''(2), 267–276. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2025.2541188</nowiki> Custers, A. F. J., Kuin, Y., Riksen-Walraven, M., & Westerhof, G. J. (2011). Need support and wellbeing during morning care activities: An observational study on resident–staff interaction in nursing homes. ''Ageing and Society, 31''(8), 1425–1442. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X10001522</nowiki> Dombestein, H., Norheim, A., & Lunde Husebø, A. M. (2020). Understanding informal caregivers’ motivation from the perspective of self‐determination theory: An integrative review. ''Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 34''(2), 267–279. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/scs.12735</nowiki> Döpp, C. M. E., Drenth, H., Verkade, P.-J., Francke, A. F., & van der Heide, I. (2021). Interventions for improving self-direction in people with dementia: ''A systematic review. BMC Geriatrics, 21''(1), Article 195. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-021-02133-w</nowiki> Estrada, R. (2021). Listen and you will see the person through the dementia. ''Journal for Person-Oriented Research, 7''(2), 88–97. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.17505/jpor.2021.23891</nowiki> Giebel, C., Robertson, S., Beaulen, A., Zwakhalen, S., Allen, D., & Verbeek, H. (2021). “Nobody seems to know where to even turn to”: Barriers in accessing and utilising dementia care services in England and the Netherlands. International Journal of ''Environmental Research and Public Health, 18''(22), 12233. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182212233</nowiki> Hoel, K.-A., Rokstad, A. M. M., Feiring, I. H., Lichtwarck, B., Selbæk, G., & Bergh, S. (2021). Person-centred dementia care in home care services – highly recommended but still challenging to obtain: A qualitative interview study. ''BMC Health Services Research, 21''(1), Article 723. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-021-06722-8</nowiki> Lämås, K., Bölenius, K., Sandman, P.-O., Lindkvist, M., & Edvardsson, D. (2021). Effects of a person-centred and health-promoting intervention in home care services– a non-randomized controlled trial. ''BMC Geriatrics, 21''(1), Article 720. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-021-02661-5</nowiki> Maclin, J. M. A., Wang, T., & Xiao, S. (2019). Biomarkers for the diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease, dementia Lewy body, frontotemporal dementia and vascular dementia. ''General Psychiatry, 32''(1), e100054-n/a. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1136/gpsych-2019-100054</nowiki> Rapaport, P., Burton, A., Leverton, M., Herat-Gunaratne, R., Beresford-Dent, J., Lord, K., Downs, M., Boex, S., Horsley, R., Giebel, C., & Cooper, C. (2020). “I just keep thinking that I don’t want to rely on people.” a qualitative study of how people living with dementia achieve and maintain independence at home: Stakeholder perspectives. ''BMC Geriatrics, 20''(1), Article 5. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-019-1406-6</nowiki> Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61'', Article 101860. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860</nowiki> Shiells, K., Pivodic, L., Holmerová, I., & Van den Block, L. (2020). Self-reported needs and experiences of people with dementia living in nursing homes: ''A scoping review. Aging & Mental Health, 24''(10), 1553–1568. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2019.1625303</nowiki> Serbser-Koal, J., Rommerskirch-Manietta, M., Purwins, D., & Roes, M. (2024). Person-centredness in dementia care: An integrative review of theoretical approaches. ''BMJ Open, 14''(6), e085051. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2024-085051</nowiki> Singh, P., Hussain, R., Khan, A., Irwin, L., & Foskey, R. (2014). Dementia Care: Intersecting informal family care and formal care systems. ''Journal of Aging Research'', 109–117. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/486521</nowiki> Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Personality and ''Social Psychology, 127''(5), 1012–1037. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459</nowiki> Stumpf, A. D. H., McKenzie, E., & Beavers, A. (2025). An account of personal autonomy for people living with dementia. ''The Gerontologist, 65''(11), 1. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnaf210</nowiki> Van Andel, S., & Holkenborg, A. (2024). From the perspective of people with dementia: Using creative qualitative measures to assess the values and opinions on freedom and safety among people living with dementia. ''Healthcare,12''(14), 1412. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12141412</nowiki> Van Der Weide, H., Lovink, M. H., Luijkx, K. G., & Gerritsen, D. L. (2023). Supporting autonomy for people with dementia living in nursing homes: A rapid realist review. ''International Journal of Nursing Studies'',137, Article 104382. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2022.104382</nowiki> Van Den Broeck, A., Howard, J. L., Van Vaerenbergh, Y., Leroy, H., & Gagné, M. (2021). Beyond intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: A meta-analysis on self-determination theory’s multidimensional conceptualization of work motivation. ''Organizational Psychology Review, 11''(3), 240–273. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/20413866211006173</nowiki> Vassbø, T. K., Bergland, Å., Kirkevold, M., Lindkvist, M., Lood, Q., Sandman, P., Sjögren, K., & Edvardsson, D. (2020). Effects of a person‐centred and thriving‐promoting intervention on nursing home staff job satisfaction: A multi‐centre, non‐equivalent controlled before–after study. ''Nursing Open, 7''(6), 1787–1797. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1002/nop2.565</nowiki> Wammes, J. D., Labrie, N. H. M., Agogo, G. O., Monin, J. K., Bekker‐Grob, E. W., & MacNeil Vroomen, J. L. (2021). Persons with dementia and informal caregivers prioritizing care: A mixed‐methods study. Alzheimer’s & Dementia : ''Translational Research & Clinical Interventions, 7''(1), Article e12193 <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1002/trc2.12193</nowiki> World Health Organisation. (2026). Dementia <nowiki>https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/dementia</nowiki> Zou, W., Meadows, C. C. Z., Huang, L., & Wang, B. (2026). Psychological determinants of menstrual product preferences: Applying self-determination theory to women’s reproductive health decision-making. J''ournal of Health Psychology, 31''(9), 3512–3527. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/13591053251407843</nowiki> </div> 3hkf12fuknf4n7bzz4303utisfvkd84 2840793 2840785 2026-10-17T01:44:20Z Ella Kay244 3107007 /* Understanding dementia and models of care */ 2840793 wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] {{title|Self-determination theory and dementia care:<br>How can autonomy, competence, and relatedness be supported in people living with dementia?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Wolf Creek NFH nursing home fishing event October 2024.png|thumb|'''Figure 1:''' Residence of an aged care home enjoying an outside activity ]] ;Imagine this ... Imagine you are an elderly resident with dementia living in a psychogeriatric ward in the beautiful Dutch countryside. On the walk from your bedroom to the communal dining room, you pass many people; staff, other residents and resident’s family members, but you do not recognise any of them. You take your breakfast to a table overlooking the garden and imagine walking outside, feeling the sun and smelling the flowers. Despite your longing to enjoy the garden, whether you get outside today is not up to you. You have been told it is unsafe, and you may only go out when a staff member has time to take you. How would this scenario make you feel? Trapped? Unsafe? {{RoundBoxBottom}} This scenario draws on experiences that residents of a Dutch psychogeriatric ward shared with researchers studying what gives residents a sense of freedom and safety. They identified that time in nature, knowing the staff and spending time with others all contributed positively to a sense of personal freedom and safety in the ward (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024). Scenarios like this are common within aged care homes for residents living with dementia. A review of 1158 articles published between 2000 and 2018 found that residents felt a lack of freedom, belonging, and connection, with some residents even describing their living situation as “living in a prison camp” (Shiells et al., 2020, p 1563). Many residents describe their well-being as low with reports of poor self-esteem, connection, value and independence (Shiells et al., 2020). This chapter asks how Self-Determination Theory (SDT) can help understand and support the psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness (ACR) in people with dementia. It begins with an overview of dementia and models of care, introduces SDT as a framework for understanding motivation and well-being, then examines how ACR can be supported for people living with dementia and highlights where the evidence is still limited. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus Questions''' # What is dementia, and what care options exist to support people living with it? # What does SDT propose about human motivation and well-being, and why is it a useful framework for understanding dementia care? # What interventions increase well-being for dementia patients? # How does person-centred care impact psychological well-being? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding dementia and models of care == '''Addresses focus question 1''' Dementia is a neurodegenerative disease (Cipriani et al., 2020). 57 million people across the globe live with dementia as of 2021, making it the seventh most common cause of death globally (World Health Organisation, 2026). Dementia disproportionately affects women as they are both more likely to get dementia and more likely to look after people with it (World Health Organisation, 2026). There are four types of dementia: Alzheimer’s disease, [https://www.dementia.org.au/about-dementia/vascular-dementia vascular dementia], frontotemporal dementia and dementia Lewy body (Maclin et al., 2019). Alzheimer’s is the most common type of dementia, occurring in 69% of the population over 75. Alzheimer’s involves gradual memory and cognitive loss that impairs daily activities. The second most common is frontotemporal dementia and is distinguished by a distorted personality, along with loss of social and executive function, including in some cases the loss of speech (Maclin et al., 2019). Vascular dementia affects cognition from blood vessels in the brain becoming blocked resulting in deficits in the sensory and motor systems. Lewy bodies is characterised by [[wikipedia:Lewy_body|cellular inclusions]] in the brain that cause fluctuations in [[Cognition|cognitive function]], hallucinations and behavioural problems. Support is often needed for people with dementia in the early stages for complex daily activities such as organising transportation. As the disease progresses, help with basic activities like getting dressed is needed too (Cipriani et al., 2020). Providing care and support for people living with dementia comes in many forms including in-home and institutionalised care. Families and patients choose between models based on a number of factors, including cultural values, knowledge of dementia, access to services, financial position and geographic location (Singh et al., 2014; Giebel et al., 2021). People receiving in-home care may be looked after by informal caregivers such as family members, formal caregivers or a mix of both, who are able to provide services at the home of the patient (Singh et al., 2014). Institutionalised care refers to the model of care where patients move into a facility where they can be monitored and looked after entirely by professionals or formal caregivers. In Australia, most people living with dementia choose in-home care. However, there are still over one million people living in institutionalised settings (Singh et al., 2014). == Self-Determination theory == '''Addresses focus question 2''' Self-determination Theory (SDT) is a theory of motivation. SDT predicts motivation by explaining why people are intrinsically or extrinsically motivated to perform a behaviour (Dombestein et at, 2020; Ryan & Deci, 2020). If someone is intrinsically motivated to perform a behaviour it means they find motivation from internal factors with no influence from the environment. This could be learning to [[Portal:Dance|dance]] purely for the enjoyment of it. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation is when someone behaves in response to environmental factors (Ryan & Deci, 2020). This could be learning to dance because all their friends are dancing. People are very rarely motivated entirely for internal or external reasons therefore, extrinsic motivation is considered to be a continuum, starting with external regulation and finishing at integration: * External regulation - behaviours are regulated from environmental cues, rewards and punishments. * Introjection - environmental cues are being injected internally for instance the “punishment” of doing something wrong is feeling guilty. * Identified - you identify with your behaviours for example you identify with being a good student, so you show up to class but do not enjoy class. * Integration - there is less conflict between your identity and your behaviour. For example, you show up to class because you value being a good student and think it’s the right thing to do (Dombestein et al, 2020). Motivation is multidimensional, as people often have several forms of motivation for the same task (Ryan & Deci, 2020). For example, someone might run because their doctor advised it (identified) and because they enjoy seeing friends there (intrinsic). SDT offers an explanation as to where on the motivation continuum people operate. SDT says that for people to be intrinsically motivated or on the upper end of the extrinsic motivation scale you must satisfy all three critical psychological needs. These needs are:   * Autonomy - feeling ownership over actions and life circumstances * Competence - a sense of confidence or mastery over performing tasks * Relatedness - the need to feel like you belong to a group, that you are supported by others and in return people feel supported by you. Achievement of these three psychological needs is not automatic, and people often require support to achieve these needs. Organismic SDT states that people have a natural drive towards obtaining the critical psychological needs (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Zou et al. (2026) found that Chinese girls chose menstrual products that increased bodily autonomy, confidence in areas they identified with, and closeness to family and media figures, but could only do so if they could afford them. This reflects the theory that people have a natural desire to achieve the three psychological needs but need support from their environment. There is some debate in motivation research as to whether the different types of motivation describe distinct qualitative forms of motivation or if they point to different quantitative points along a scale of motivation (Van den Broeck et al., 2021). SDT theorists view motivation as a continuum, supported by findings that students with higher ACR have better wellbeing, higher grades and more intrinsic motivation. (Bureau et al., 2022; Ryan & Deci, 2020). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Key points''' * SDT is a theory of motivation. Extrinsic motivation sits on a continuum: external regulation, introjection, identified and integration. * Autonomy, competence and relatedness must all be met for people to be intrinsically motivated or at the upper end of the continuum. * People have a natural drive towards these needs but require support from their environment. * Higher need satisfaction is linked to better wellbeing. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Putting Self-Determination Theory into Practice: Meeting Psychological Needs in Dementia Patients == '''Addresses focus questions 3''' SDT posits that supporting ACR in people living with dementia leads to better well-being, but these needs cannot just be given directly to a person. Therefore, the strategies discussed below are best understood as shaping conditions rather than delivering outcomes. One of the most well-documented examples of SDT in practice is the process of facilitating patient decision-making. Colclough et al. (2026) found that it did not improve well-being directly but did so by separately increasing satisfaction levels of all three needs, which is consistent with SDT’s claim that need satisfaction underlies well-being. However, decision-making is not the only pathway to increase ACR. [[File:Self-determination_theory_diagrame.png|thumb|347x347px|'''Figure 2.''' Self-determination theory diagram]] === '''Competency''' === Competency has been seen to be supported by carers assisting or allowing patients were possible to perform tasks independently (Custers et al., 2011). When adults with dementia cannot perform simple tasks by themselves like eating, they report feeling ashamed and embarrassed (Estrada, 2021). The ability to perform tasks independently is one reason most people prefer to stay in their home (Wammes et al., 2021). Both formal and informal caregivers help people with dementia feel competent and safe in their own home with patients reporting that their informal caregivers help them with daily living tasks, navigating the health system and organising social activities (Wammes et al., 2021). Similar sentiments have been shared around formal caregivers helping with medical information and daily tasks (Hoel et al., 2021). Aides for everyday activities are also cited as supporting competence (Rapaport et al., 2020; Wammes et al., 2021). The importance of the environment for allowing psychological needs to flourish is evident in respect to competency as people living in aged care homes are less likely to complete tasks independently as cognitive decline progresses, compared to people receiving informal care (Anselmo et al., 2025). Residents often report having little control over daily routines, such as what they eat or when they shower (Shiells et al., 2020). Assisting dementia patients to identify personal strengths and meaningful activities have been seen to increase self-direction (Döpp et al., 2021). Although the correlations are unclear, these studies suggest that helping residents identify personal strengths and meaningful activities could show caregivers where to allow more independence, such as control over daily routines. === Autonomy === Supporting autonomy in people with dementia is best understood through SDT’s definition of autonomy which is having a sense of agency over one’s life rather than the physical ability to act independently (Ryan & Deci, 2020). A study by Stumpf et al. (2025) found that people with dementia did not mind if they did not contribute much to decision making, as long as they were included in the process. 90% of people living with mild forms of dementia can articulate preferences and provide reasons for their preferences based on their [https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/values#google_vignette values] (Stumpf et al., 2025). Despite this, healthcare professionals will often defer all questions to patient’s family members (Stumpf et al., 2025). People with dementia generally accept the gradual loss of independence that comes with the progression of the disease if the decisions they do make around everyday things like going for a walk or dyeing their hair are respected (Estrada, 2021). Interventions that help to increase decision-making capacity by applying advance care planning to everyday situations, simplifying and visualising options, and staff knowing the residents have all helped increase autonomy (Van Der Weide et al., 2023). Van Der Weide et al. (2023) did warn that offering fewer choices increases the risk of staff accidently letting their preferences dictate the options available to residents. They also found autonomy interventions only appeared valuable within trusting relationships with family and staff (Van Der Weide et al., 2023). === Relatedness === The need for relatedness is often clearly expressed by people living in aged care homes with many residents reporting love and connection as important values (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024). Shiells et al. (2020) have discovered that reading groups, exercising, and helping other residents with problems have all been linked to feeling valued. The provision of in-home care by formal caregivers has been seen to increase feelings of relatedness, as people report appreciating the conversation and liking when they had regular contact with the same carer, as that carer better understood their preferences (Hoel et al., 2021).  Lastly, decision-making has also been seen to increase relatedness if ideas are heard and respected (Stumpf et al., 2025).  Estrada (2021) offers a richer understanding as to why decision-making might increase relatedness through the principles of [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6465833/ person-centres care], by which you can develop a deeper connection through conversation. Many of these strategies depend on carers having the time, energy and support to deliver them. Therefore, Person-centred care has also been explored as an intervention to help increase the well-being of carers. == Person-centred care impacts on promoting psychological well-being == '''Addresses focus question 4''' Person or client-centred care is an approach to care that focuses on maintaining a person’s sense of self by putting them and their needs at the forefront of importance when delivering care (Serbser-Koal et al., 2024). Person-centred care has been investigated for solutions to increase staff satisfaction in aged care homes and in-home services and to help to increase well-being in people with dementia. One of the principles of person-centred care is to ‘enter the person’s world’ through communication to develop a better connection (Serbser-Koal et al., 2024). Estrada (2021) revealed that one way you can increase connection with dementia patients is by simply allowing more time for conversations. People with dementia need more time to communicate because as their disease progresses their processing speed and [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19672843/ short-term memory] capacity decreases (Estrada, 2021). Allowing enough time for communicating is important as many people express frustrations when they feel rushed (Estrada, 2021). Even in people with non-fluent dementia, communication can increase relatedness through the encouragement of non-verbal communication like smiling, waving or touch (Estrada, 2021). Although it is well established that increased and better-quality communication between nursing, home staff and residents is needed, nursing staff report not having enough time to get to know residents (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024) and therefore place more importance on basic survival needs over psychological needs (Estrada, 2021). In-home care staff have also reported that the lack of time to addresses patients’ needs is also a reason for high staff turnover (Lämås et al., 2021). Lämås et al. (2021) tested person-centred care in home care services. Thriving rose among people with dementia, but self-determination fell and formal caregivers did not benefit. However, the caregiver [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19672843/ sample] was too small to detect an effect, and the self-determination measure captured only autonomy, whereas the thriving measure (attitudes to home, care and relationships) likely reflected all three needs better. A study with a larger sample size by Vassbø et al. (2020) looked at the effects of a person-centred intervention over 14 months and also found no effect on job satisfaction. Person-centred care therefore does not appear to be a solution to increase staff satisfaction. However, there are promising sings it may increase well-being dementia patients. == Increasing the well-being on informal caregivers == The psychological well-being of informal caregivers also affects the well-being of the people they care for. Informal caregivers report needing more emotional support, finding caring increasingly difficult as they become older, and report navigating the healthcare system on their own as challenging (Wammes et al., 2021). Interventions, based on SDT, that focus on increasing coping skills, communication skills and improving relationships made carers more intrinsically motivated to care for their loved one, which led to increased wellbeing (Dombestein et al., 2020). Carers also reported that being able to drop their loved ones off at [https://agedcare.salvos.org.au/residential-aged-care/carpenter-court-aged-care-centre/ day-care centres] allowed them to socialise with others, thereby increasing relatedness, and provision of at-home aides that helped them complete domestic tasks helped them feel competent (Wammes et al., 2021). ==Conclusion== Dementia makes independent living challenging, but it does not mean that agency should be taken away. As shown above, dementia patients are capable of decision-making even in severe cases.  SDT seeks to explain well-being through the prism of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. To become intrinsically motivated an individual must satisfy all three psychological needs. The strategies for increasing psychology well-being discussed in this paper are most successful when the interconnected nature of the needs are understood (Slemp et al., 2024). Interventions aimed at one need often support others. For example, feeling genuinely listened-to and respected increases both relatedness and autonomy (Stumpf et al., 2025; Estrada, 2021). Because these needs overlap and cannot be supplied directly, the most effective interventions are those that change the environment to allow them to develop. Allowing more time to communicate, creating spaces where people can act more independently, and increasing collaboration in decision-making all support the satisfaction of one or more needs, which in turn supports the satisfaction of other needs. Carer well-being remains an important area for future research to help increase well-being for dementia patients. <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}">{{Robelbox|theme=13|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg|iconwidth=48px|title=Review time!<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {You operate a dementia care live-in clinic. Two of your employees come to you with competing ideas of how to make the lives of your patients better. Employee A suggests that you should provide the patients with a larger variety of food. Employee B suggests that you should allow patients to choose what they want to eat. Assuming you can implement either option, which would you choose?} - A. Larger variety of food + B. Choosing the weekly menu </quiz> </div> {{RoundBoxBottom}} }} == External links == * [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551552/ Behavioural and psychological symptoms in dementia] (National library of medicine) * [https://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/dementia-care-study-highlights-importance-of-caregiver-self-efficacy Dementia care study highlights importance of caregiver self-efficacy] (UCLA newsroom) * [https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/scholarlywork/1753807-older-adults-using-technology-for-meaningful-activities-during-covid-19--an-analysis-through-the-lens-of-self-determination-theory Older] [https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/scholarlywork/1753807-older-adults-using-technology-for-meaningful-activities-during-covid-19--an-analysis-through-the-lens-of-self-determination-theory adults using technology for meaningful activities during COVID-19: an analysis through the lens of self-determination theory] (University of Melbourne) == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Basic psychological need theory|Basic psychological need theory]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Dementia care motivation|Dementia care motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[Dementia]] (Wikiversity) * [[wikipedia:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[Neurodegenerative disease]] (Wikiversity) == References == <div style="padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;"> Anselmo, A., Corallo, F., Pagano, M., Cardile, D., Marra, A., Maresca, G., De Luca, R., Alagna, A., Quartarone, A., Calabrò, R. S., & Cappadona, I. (2025). Beyond diagnosis: Exploring residual autonomy in dementia through a systematic review. ''Medicina, 61''(5), Article 895. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina61050895</nowiki> Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to student motivation: A meta-analysis of antecedents of autonomous and controlled motivations. ''Review of Educational Research, 92''(1), 46–72. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426</nowiki> Cipriani, G., Danti, S., Picchi, L., Nuti, A., & Fiorino, M. D. (2020). Daily functioning and dementia. ''Dementia & Neuropsychologia, 14''(2), 93–102. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-57642020dn14-020001</nowiki> Colclough, C., Perach, R., Harris, P., Rusted, J., Banerjee, S., & Miles, E. (2026). Decision-making involvement and quality of life in people with dementia: The mediating role of psychological needs. ''Aging & Mental Health, 30''(2), 267–276. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2025.2541188</nowiki> Custers, A. F. J., Kuin, Y., Riksen-Walraven, M., & Westerhof, G. J. (2011). Need support and wellbeing during morning care activities: An observational study on resident–staff interaction in nursing homes. ''Ageing and Society, 31''(8), 1425–1442. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X10001522</nowiki> Dombestein, H., Norheim, A., & Lunde Husebø, A. M. (2020). Understanding informal caregivers’ motivation from the perspective of self‐determination theory: An integrative review. ''Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 34''(2), 267–279. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/scs.12735</nowiki> Döpp, C. M. E., Drenth, H., Verkade, P.-J., Francke, A. F., & van der Heide, I. (2021). Interventions for improving self-direction in people with dementia: ''A systematic review. BMC Geriatrics, 21''(1), Article 195. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-021-02133-w</nowiki> Estrada, R. (2021). Listen and you will see the person through the dementia. ''Journal for Person-Oriented Research, 7''(2), 88–97. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.17505/jpor.2021.23891</nowiki> Giebel, C., Robertson, S., Beaulen, A., Zwakhalen, S., Allen, D., & Verbeek, H. (2021). “Nobody seems to know where to even turn to”: Barriers in accessing and utilising dementia care services in England and the Netherlands. International Journal of ''Environmental Research and Public Health, 18''(22), 12233. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182212233</nowiki> Hoel, K.-A., Rokstad, A. M. M., Feiring, I. H., Lichtwarck, B., Selbæk, G., & Bergh, S. (2021). Person-centred dementia care in home care services – highly recommended but still challenging to obtain: A qualitative interview study. ''BMC Health Services Research, 21''(1), Article 723. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-021-06722-8</nowiki> Lämås, K., Bölenius, K., Sandman, P.-O., Lindkvist, M., & Edvardsson, D. (2021). Effects of a person-centred and health-promoting intervention in home care services– a non-randomized controlled trial. ''BMC Geriatrics, 21''(1), Article 720. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-021-02661-5</nowiki> Maclin, J. M. A., Wang, T., & Xiao, S. (2019). Biomarkers for the diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease, dementia Lewy body, frontotemporal dementia and vascular dementia. ''General Psychiatry, 32''(1), e100054-n/a. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1136/gpsych-2019-100054</nowiki> Rapaport, P., Burton, A., Leverton, M., Herat-Gunaratne, R., Beresford-Dent, J., Lord, K., Downs, M., Boex, S., Horsley, R., Giebel, C., & Cooper, C. (2020). “I just keep thinking that I don’t want to rely on people.” a qualitative study of how people living with dementia achieve and maintain independence at home: Stakeholder perspectives. ''BMC Geriatrics, 20''(1), Article 5. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-019-1406-6</nowiki> Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61'', Article 101860. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860</nowiki> Shiells, K., Pivodic, L., Holmerová, I., & Van den Block, L. (2020). Self-reported needs and experiences of people with dementia living in nursing homes: ''A scoping review. Aging & Mental Health, 24''(10), 1553–1568. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2019.1625303</nowiki> Serbser-Koal, J., Rommerskirch-Manietta, M., Purwins, D., & Roes, M. (2024). Person-centredness in dementia care: An integrative review of theoretical approaches. ''BMJ Open, 14''(6), e085051. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2024-085051</nowiki> Singh, P., Hussain, R., Khan, A., Irwin, L., & Foskey, R. (2014). Dementia Care: Intersecting informal family care and formal care systems. ''Journal of Aging Research'', 109–117. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/486521</nowiki> Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Personality and ''Social Psychology, 127''(5), 1012–1037. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459</nowiki> Stumpf, A. D. H., McKenzie, E., & Beavers, A. (2025). An account of personal autonomy for people living with dementia. ''The Gerontologist, 65''(11), 1. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnaf210</nowiki> Van Andel, S., & Holkenborg, A. (2024). From the perspective of people with dementia: Using creative qualitative measures to assess the values and opinions on freedom and safety among people living with dementia. ''Healthcare,12''(14), 1412. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12141412</nowiki> Van Der Weide, H., Lovink, M. H., Luijkx, K. G., & Gerritsen, D. L. (2023). Supporting autonomy for people with dementia living in nursing homes: A rapid realist review. ''International Journal of Nursing Studies'',137, Article 104382. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2022.104382</nowiki> Van Den Broeck, A., Howard, J. L., Van Vaerenbergh, Y., Leroy, H., & Gagné, M. (2021). Beyond intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: A meta-analysis on self-determination theory’s multidimensional conceptualization of work motivation. ''Organizational Psychology Review, 11''(3), 240–273. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/20413866211006173</nowiki> Vassbø, T. K., Bergland, Å., Kirkevold, M., Lindkvist, M., Lood, Q., Sandman, P., Sjögren, K., & Edvardsson, D. (2020). Effects of a person‐centred and thriving‐promoting intervention on nursing home staff job satisfaction: A multi‐centre, non‐equivalent controlled before–after study. ''Nursing Open, 7''(6), 1787–1797. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1002/nop2.565</nowiki> Wammes, J. D., Labrie, N. H. M., Agogo, G. O., Monin, J. K., Bekker‐Grob, E. W., & MacNeil Vroomen, J. L. (2021). Persons with dementia and informal caregivers prioritizing care: A mixed‐methods study. Alzheimer’s & Dementia : ''Translational Research & Clinical Interventions, 7''(1), Article e12193 <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1002/trc2.12193</nowiki> World Health Organisation. (2026). Dementia <nowiki>https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/dementia</nowiki> Zou, W., Meadows, C. C. Z., Huang, L., & Wang, B. (2026). Psychological determinants of menstrual product preferences: Applying self-determination theory to women’s reproductive health decision-making. J''ournal of Health Psychology, 31''(9), 3512–3527. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/13591053251407843</nowiki> </div> hgwj7g5n3t0jzvl5u0k2m24h4iw0j83 2840794 2840793 2026-10-17T01:47:47Z Ella Kay244 3107007 /* Self-Determination theory */ 2840794 wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] {{title|Self-determination theory and dementia care:<br>How can autonomy, competence, and relatedness be supported in people living with dementia?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Wolf Creek NFH nursing home fishing event October 2024.png|thumb|'''Figure 1:''' Residence of an aged care home enjoying an outside activity ]] ;Imagine this ... Imagine you are an elderly resident with dementia living in a psychogeriatric ward in the beautiful Dutch countryside. On the walk from your bedroom to the communal dining room, you pass many people; staff, other residents and resident’s family members, but you do not recognise any of them. You take your breakfast to a table overlooking the garden and imagine walking outside, feeling the sun and smelling the flowers. Despite your longing to enjoy the garden, whether you get outside today is not up to you. You have been told it is unsafe, and you may only go out when a staff member has time to take you. How would this scenario make you feel? Trapped? Unsafe? {{RoundBoxBottom}} This scenario draws on experiences that residents of a Dutch psychogeriatric ward shared with researchers studying what gives residents a sense of freedom and safety. They identified that time in nature, knowing the staff and spending time with others all contributed positively to a sense of personal freedom and safety in the ward (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024). Scenarios like this are common within aged care homes for residents living with dementia. A review of 1158 articles published between 2000 and 2018 found that residents felt a lack of freedom, belonging, and connection, with some residents even describing their living situation as “living in a prison camp” (Shiells et al., 2020, p 1563). Many residents describe their well-being as low with reports of poor self-esteem, connection, value and independence (Shiells et al., 2020). This chapter asks how Self-Determination Theory (SDT) can help understand and support the psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness (ACR) in people with dementia. It begins with an overview of dementia and models of care, introduces SDT as a framework for understanding motivation and well-being, then examines how ACR can be supported for people living with dementia and highlights where the evidence is still limited. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus Questions''' # What is dementia, and what care options exist to support people living with it? # What does SDT propose about human motivation and well-being, and why is it a useful framework for understanding dementia care? # What interventions increase well-being for dementia patients? # How does person-centred care impact psychological well-being? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding dementia and models of care == '''Addresses focus question 1''' Dementia is a neurodegenerative disease (Cipriani et al., 2020). 57 million people across the globe live with dementia as of 2021, making it the seventh most common cause of death globally (World Health Organisation, 2026). Dementia disproportionately affects women as they are both more likely to get dementia and more likely to look after people with it (World Health Organisation, 2026). There are four types of dementia: Alzheimer’s disease, [https://www.dementia.org.au/about-dementia/vascular-dementia vascular dementia], frontotemporal dementia and dementia Lewy body (Maclin et al., 2019). Alzheimer’s is the most common type of dementia, occurring in 69% of the population over 75. Alzheimer’s involves gradual memory and cognitive loss that impairs daily activities. The second most common is frontotemporal dementia and is distinguished by a distorted personality, along with loss of social and executive function, including in some cases the loss of speech (Maclin et al., 2019). Vascular dementia affects cognition from blood vessels in the brain becoming blocked resulting in deficits in the sensory and motor systems. Lewy bodies is characterised by [[wikipedia:Lewy_body|cellular inclusions]] in the brain that cause fluctuations in [[Cognition|cognitive function]], hallucinations and behavioural problems. Support is often needed for people with dementia in the early stages for complex daily activities such as organising transportation. As the disease progresses, help with basic activities like getting dressed is needed too (Cipriani et al., 2020). Providing care and support for people living with dementia comes in many forms including in-home and institutionalised care. Families and patients choose between models based on a number of factors, including cultural values, knowledge of dementia, access to services, financial position and geographic location (Singh et al., 2014; Giebel et al., 2021). People receiving in-home care may be looked after by informal caregivers such as family members, formal caregivers or a mix of both, who are able to provide services at the home of the patient (Singh et al., 2014). Institutionalised care refers to the model of care where patients move into a facility where they can be monitored and looked after entirely by professionals or formal caregivers. In Australia, most people living with dementia choose in-home care. However, there are still over one million people living in institutionalised settings (Singh et al., 2014). == Self-Determination theory == '''Addresses focus question 2''' Self-determination Theory (SDT) is a theory of motivation. SDT predicts motivation by explaining why people are intrinsically or extrinsically motivated to perform a behaviour (Dombestein et at, 2020; Ryan & Deci, 2020). If someone is intrinsically motivated to perform a behaviour it means they find motivation from internal factors with no influence from the environment. This could be learning to [[Portal:Dance|dance]] purely for the enjoyment of it. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation is when someone behaves in response to environmental factors (Ryan & Deci, 2020). This could be learning to dance because all of their friends are dancing. People are very rarely motivated entirely for internal or external reasons therefore, extrinsic motivation is considered to be a continuum, starting with external regulation and finishing at integration: * External regulation - behaviours are regulated from environmental cues, rewards and punishments. * Introjection - environmental cues are being injected internally for instance the “punishment” of doing something wrong is feeling guilty. * Identified - you identify with your behaviours for example you identify with being a good student, so you show up to class but do not enjoy class. * Integration - there is less conflict between your identity and your behaviour. For example, you show up to class because you value being a good student and think it’s the right thing to do (Dombestein et al, 2020). Motivation is multidimensional, as people often have several forms of motivation for the same task (Ryan & Deci, 2020). For example, someone might run because their doctor advised it (identified) and because they enjoy seeing friends there (intrinsic). SDT offers an explanation as to where on the motivation continuum people operate. SDT says that for people to be intrinsically motivated or on the upper end of the extrinsic motivation scale you must satisfy all three critical psychological needs. These needs are:   * Autonomy - feeling ownership over actions and life circumstances * Competence - a sense of confidence or mastery over performing tasks * Relatedness - the need to feel like you belong to a group, that you are supported by others and in return people feel supported by you. Achievement of these three psychological needs is not automatic, and people often require support to achieve these needs. Organismic SDT states that people have a natural drive towards obtaining the critical psychological needs (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Zou et al. (2026) found that Chinese girls chose menstrual products that increased bodily autonomy, confidence in areas they identified with, and closeness to family and media figures, but could only do so if they could afford them. This reflects the theory that people have a natural desire to achieve the three psychological needs but need support from their environment. There is some debate in motivation research as to whether the different types of motivation describe distinct qualitative forms of motivation or if they point to different quantitative points along a scale of motivation (Van den Broeck et al., 2021). SDT theorists view motivation as a continuum, supported by findings that students with higher ACR have better wellbeing, higher grades and more intrinsic motivation. (Bureau et al., 2022; Ryan & Deci, 2020). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Key points''' * SDT is a theory of motivation. Extrinsic motivation sits on a continuum: external regulation, introjection, identified and integration. * Autonomy, competence and relatedness must all be met for people to be intrinsically motivated or at the upper end of the continuum. * People have a natural drive towards these needs but require support from their environment. * Higher need satisfaction is linked to better wellbeing. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Putting Self-Determination Theory into Practice: Meeting Psychological Needs in Dementia Patients == '''Addresses focus questions 3''' SDT posits that supporting ACR in people living with dementia leads to better well-being, but these needs cannot just be given directly to a person. Therefore, the strategies discussed below are best understood as shaping conditions rather than delivering outcomes. One of the most well-documented examples of SDT in practice is the process of facilitating patient decision-making. Colclough et al. (2026) found that it did not improve well-being directly but did so by separately increasing satisfaction levels of all three needs, which is consistent with SDT’s claim that need satisfaction underlies well-being. However, decision-making is not the only pathway to increase ACR. [[File:Self-determination_theory_diagrame.png|thumb|347x347px|'''Figure 2.''' Self-determination theory diagram]] === '''Competency''' === Competency has been seen to be supported by carers assisting or allowing patients were possible to perform tasks independently (Custers et al., 2011). When adults with dementia cannot perform simple tasks by themselves like eating, they report feeling ashamed and embarrassed (Estrada, 2021). The ability to perform tasks independently is one reason most people prefer to stay in their home (Wammes et al., 2021). Both formal and informal caregivers help people with dementia feel competent and safe in their own home with patients reporting that their informal caregivers help them with daily living tasks, navigating the health system and organising social activities (Wammes et al., 2021). Similar sentiments have been shared around formal caregivers helping with medical information and daily tasks (Hoel et al., 2021). Aides for everyday activities are also cited as supporting competence (Rapaport et al., 2020; Wammes et al., 2021). The importance of the environment for allowing psychological needs to flourish is evident in respect to competency as people living in aged care homes are less likely to complete tasks independently as cognitive decline progresses, compared to people receiving informal care (Anselmo et al., 2025). Residents often report having little control over daily routines, such as what they eat or when they shower (Shiells et al., 2020). Assisting dementia patients to identify personal strengths and meaningful activities have been seen to increase self-direction (Döpp et al., 2021). Although the correlations are unclear, these studies suggest that helping residents identify personal strengths and meaningful activities could show caregivers where to allow more independence, such as control over daily routines. === Autonomy === Supporting autonomy in people with dementia is best understood through SDT’s definition of autonomy which is having a sense of agency over one’s life rather than the physical ability to act independently (Ryan & Deci, 2020). A study by Stumpf et al. (2025) found that people with dementia did not mind if they did not contribute much to decision making, as long as they were included in the process. 90% of people living with mild forms of dementia can articulate preferences and provide reasons for their preferences based on their [https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/values#google_vignette values] (Stumpf et al., 2025). Despite this, healthcare professionals will often defer all questions to patient’s family members (Stumpf et al., 2025). People with dementia generally accept the gradual loss of independence that comes with the progression of the disease if the decisions they do make around everyday things like going for a walk or dyeing their hair are respected (Estrada, 2021). Interventions that help to increase decision-making capacity by applying advance care planning to everyday situations, simplifying and visualising options, and staff knowing the residents have all helped increase autonomy (Van Der Weide et al., 2023). Van Der Weide et al. (2023) did warn that offering fewer choices increases the risk of staff accidently letting their preferences dictate the options available to residents. They also found autonomy interventions only appeared valuable within trusting relationships with family and staff (Van Der Weide et al., 2023). === Relatedness === The need for relatedness is often clearly expressed by people living in aged care homes with many residents reporting love and connection as important values (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024). Shiells et al. (2020) have discovered that reading groups, exercising, and helping other residents with problems have all been linked to feeling valued. The provision of in-home care by formal caregivers has been seen to increase feelings of relatedness, as people report appreciating the conversation and liking when they had regular contact with the same carer, as that carer better understood their preferences (Hoel et al., 2021).  Lastly, decision-making has also been seen to increase relatedness if ideas are heard and respected (Stumpf et al., 2025).  Estrada (2021) offers a richer understanding as to why decision-making might increase relatedness through the principles of [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6465833/ person-centres care], by which you can develop a deeper connection through conversation. Many of these strategies depend on carers having the time, energy and support to deliver them. Therefore, Person-centred care has also been explored as an intervention to help increase the well-being of carers. == Person-centred care impacts on promoting psychological well-being == '''Addresses focus question 4''' Person or client-centred care is an approach to care that focuses on maintaining a person’s sense of self by putting them and their needs at the forefront of importance when delivering care (Serbser-Koal et al., 2024). Person-centred care has been investigated for solutions to increase staff satisfaction in aged care homes and in-home services and to help to increase well-being in people with dementia. One of the principles of person-centred care is to ‘enter the person’s world’ through communication to develop a better connection (Serbser-Koal et al., 2024). Estrada (2021) revealed that one way you can increase connection with dementia patients is by simply allowing more time for conversations. People with dementia need more time to communicate because as their disease progresses their processing speed and [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19672843/ short-term memory] capacity decreases (Estrada, 2021). Allowing enough time for communicating is important as many people express frustrations when they feel rushed (Estrada, 2021). Even in people with non-fluent dementia, communication can increase relatedness through the encouragement of non-verbal communication like smiling, waving or touch (Estrada, 2021). Although it is well established that increased and better-quality communication between nursing, home staff and residents is needed, nursing staff report not having enough time to get to know residents (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024) and therefore place more importance on basic survival needs over psychological needs (Estrada, 2021). In-home care staff have also reported that the lack of time to addresses patients’ needs is also a reason for high staff turnover (Lämås et al., 2021). Lämås et al. (2021) tested person-centred care in home care services. Thriving rose among people with dementia, but self-determination fell and formal caregivers did not benefit. However, the caregiver [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19672843/ sample] was too small to detect an effect, and the self-determination measure captured only autonomy, whereas the thriving measure (attitudes to home, care and relationships) likely reflected all three needs better. A study with a larger sample size by Vassbø et al. (2020) looked at the effects of a person-centred intervention over 14 months and also found no effect on job satisfaction. Person-centred care therefore does not appear to be a solution to increase staff satisfaction. However, there are promising sings it may increase well-being dementia patients. == Increasing the well-being on informal caregivers == The psychological well-being of informal caregivers also affects the well-being of the people they care for. Informal caregivers report needing more emotional support, finding caring increasingly difficult as they become older, and report navigating the healthcare system on their own as challenging (Wammes et al., 2021). Interventions, based on SDT, that focus on increasing coping skills, communication skills and improving relationships made carers more intrinsically motivated to care for their loved one, which led to increased wellbeing (Dombestein et al., 2020). Carers also reported that being able to drop their loved ones off at [https://agedcare.salvos.org.au/residential-aged-care/carpenter-court-aged-care-centre/ day-care centres] allowed them to socialise with others, thereby increasing relatedness, and provision of at-home aides that helped them complete domestic tasks helped them feel competent (Wammes et al., 2021). ==Conclusion== Dementia makes independent living challenging, but it does not mean that agency should be taken away. As shown above, dementia patients are capable of decision-making even in severe cases.  SDT seeks to explain well-being through the prism of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. To become intrinsically motivated an individual must satisfy all three psychological needs. The strategies for increasing psychology well-being discussed in this paper are most successful when the interconnected nature of the needs are understood (Slemp et al., 2024). Interventions aimed at one need often support others. For example, feeling genuinely listened-to and respected increases both relatedness and autonomy (Stumpf et al., 2025; Estrada, 2021). Because these needs overlap and cannot be supplied directly, the most effective interventions are those that change the environment to allow them to develop. Allowing more time to communicate, creating spaces where people can act more independently, and increasing collaboration in decision-making all support the satisfaction of one or more needs, which in turn supports the satisfaction of other needs. Carer well-being remains an important area for future research to help increase well-being for dementia patients. <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}">{{Robelbox|theme=13|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg|iconwidth=48px|title=Review time!<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {You operate a dementia care live-in clinic. Two of your employees come to you with competing ideas of how to make the lives of your patients better. Employee A suggests that you should provide the patients with a larger variety of food. Employee B suggests that you should allow patients to choose what they want to eat. Assuming you can implement either option, which would you choose?} - A. Larger variety of food + B. Choosing the weekly menu </quiz> </div> {{RoundBoxBottom}} }} == External links == * [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551552/ Behavioural and psychological symptoms in dementia] (National library of medicine) * [https://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/dementia-care-study-highlights-importance-of-caregiver-self-efficacy Dementia care study highlights importance of caregiver self-efficacy] (UCLA newsroom) * [https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/scholarlywork/1753807-older-adults-using-technology-for-meaningful-activities-during-covid-19--an-analysis-through-the-lens-of-self-determination-theory Older] [https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/scholarlywork/1753807-older-adults-using-technology-for-meaningful-activities-during-covid-19--an-analysis-through-the-lens-of-self-determination-theory adults using technology for meaningful activities during COVID-19: an analysis through the lens of self-determination theory] (University of Melbourne) == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Basic psychological need theory|Basic psychological need theory]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Dementia care motivation|Dementia care motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[Dementia]] (Wikiversity) * [[wikipedia:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[Neurodegenerative disease]] (Wikiversity) == References == <div style="padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;"> Anselmo, A., Corallo, F., Pagano, M., Cardile, D., Marra, A., Maresca, G., De Luca, R., Alagna, A., Quartarone, A., Calabrò, R. S., & Cappadona, I. (2025). Beyond diagnosis: Exploring residual autonomy in dementia through a systematic review. ''Medicina, 61''(5), Article 895. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina61050895</nowiki> Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to student motivation: A meta-analysis of antecedents of autonomous and controlled motivations. ''Review of Educational Research, 92''(1), 46–72. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426</nowiki> Cipriani, G., Danti, S., Picchi, L., Nuti, A., & Fiorino, M. D. (2020). Daily functioning and dementia. ''Dementia & Neuropsychologia, 14''(2), 93–102. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-57642020dn14-020001</nowiki> Colclough, C., Perach, R., Harris, P., Rusted, J., Banerjee, S., & Miles, E. (2026). Decision-making involvement and quality of life in people with dementia: The mediating role of psychological needs. ''Aging & Mental Health, 30''(2), 267–276. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2025.2541188</nowiki> Custers, A. F. J., Kuin, Y., Riksen-Walraven, M., & Westerhof, G. J. (2011). Need support and wellbeing during morning care activities: An observational study on resident–staff interaction in nursing homes. ''Ageing and Society, 31''(8), 1425–1442. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X10001522</nowiki> Dombestein, H., Norheim, A., & Lunde Husebø, A. M. (2020). Understanding informal caregivers’ motivation from the perspective of self‐determination theory: An integrative review. ''Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 34''(2), 267–279. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/scs.12735</nowiki> Döpp, C. M. E., Drenth, H., Verkade, P.-J., Francke, A. F., & van der Heide, I. (2021). Interventions for improving self-direction in people with dementia: ''A systematic review. BMC Geriatrics, 21''(1), Article 195. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-021-02133-w</nowiki> Estrada, R. (2021). Listen and you will see the person through the dementia. ''Journal for Person-Oriented Research, 7''(2), 88–97. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.17505/jpor.2021.23891</nowiki> Giebel, C., Robertson, S., Beaulen, A., Zwakhalen, S., Allen, D., & Verbeek, H. (2021). “Nobody seems to know where to even turn to”: Barriers in accessing and utilising dementia care services in England and the Netherlands. International Journal of ''Environmental Research and Public Health, 18''(22), 12233. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182212233</nowiki> Hoel, K.-A., Rokstad, A. M. M., Feiring, I. H., Lichtwarck, B., Selbæk, G., & Bergh, S. (2021). Person-centred dementia care in home care services – highly recommended but still challenging to obtain: A qualitative interview study. ''BMC Health Services Research, 21''(1), Article 723. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-021-06722-8</nowiki> Lämås, K., Bölenius, K., Sandman, P.-O., Lindkvist, M., & Edvardsson, D. (2021). Effects of a person-centred and health-promoting intervention in home care services– a non-randomized controlled trial. ''BMC Geriatrics, 21''(1), Article 720. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-021-02661-5</nowiki> Maclin, J. M. A., Wang, T., & Xiao, S. (2019). Biomarkers for the diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease, dementia Lewy body, frontotemporal dementia and vascular dementia. ''General Psychiatry, 32''(1), e100054-n/a. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1136/gpsych-2019-100054</nowiki> Rapaport, P., Burton, A., Leverton, M., Herat-Gunaratne, R., Beresford-Dent, J., Lord, K., Downs, M., Boex, S., Horsley, R., Giebel, C., & Cooper, C. (2020). “I just keep thinking that I don’t want to rely on people.” a qualitative study of how people living with dementia achieve and maintain independence at home: Stakeholder perspectives. ''BMC Geriatrics, 20''(1), Article 5. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-019-1406-6</nowiki> Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61'', Article 101860. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860</nowiki> Shiells, K., Pivodic, L., Holmerová, I., & Van den Block, L. (2020). Self-reported needs and experiences of people with dementia living in nursing homes: ''A scoping review. Aging & Mental Health, 24''(10), 1553–1568. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2019.1625303</nowiki> Serbser-Koal, J., Rommerskirch-Manietta, M., Purwins, D., & Roes, M. (2024). Person-centredness in dementia care: An integrative review of theoretical approaches. ''BMJ Open, 14''(6), e085051. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2024-085051</nowiki> Singh, P., Hussain, R., Khan, A., Irwin, L., & Foskey, R. (2014). Dementia Care: Intersecting informal family care and formal care systems. ''Journal of Aging Research'', 109–117. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/486521</nowiki> Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Personality and ''Social Psychology, 127''(5), 1012–1037. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459</nowiki> Stumpf, A. D. H., McKenzie, E., & Beavers, A. (2025). An account of personal autonomy for people living with dementia. ''The Gerontologist, 65''(11), 1. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnaf210</nowiki> Van Andel, S., & Holkenborg, A. (2024). From the perspective of people with dementia: Using creative qualitative measures to assess the values and opinions on freedom and safety among people living with dementia. ''Healthcare,12''(14), 1412. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12141412</nowiki> Van Der Weide, H., Lovink, M. H., Luijkx, K. G., & Gerritsen, D. L. (2023). Supporting autonomy for people with dementia living in nursing homes: A rapid realist review. ''International Journal of Nursing Studies'',137, Article 104382. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2022.104382</nowiki> Van Den Broeck, A., Howard, J. L., Van Vaerenbergh, Y., Leroy, H., & Gagné, M. (2021). Beyond intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: A meta-analysis on self-determination theory’s multidimensional conceptualization of work motivation. ''Organizational Psychology Review, 11''(3), 240–273. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/20413866211006173</nowiki> Vassbø, T. K., Bergland, Å., Kirkevold, M., Lindkvist, M., Lood, Q., Sandman, P., Sjögren, K., & Edvardsson, D. (2020). Effects of a person‐centred and thriving‐promoting intervention on nursing home staff job satisfaction: A multi‐centre, non‐equivalent controlled before–after study. ''Nursing Open, 7''(6), 1787–1797. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1002/nop2.565</nowiki> Wammes, J. D., Labrie, N. H. M., Agogo, G. O., Monin, J. K., Bekker‐Grob, E. W., & MacNeil Vroomen, J. L. (2021). Persons with dementia and informal caregivers prioritizing care: A mixed‐methods study. Alzheimer’s & Dementia : ''Translational Research & Clinical Interventions, 7''(1), Article e12193 <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1002/trc2.12193</nowiki> World Health Organisation. (2026). Dementia <nowiki>https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/dementia</nowiki> Zou, W., Meadows, C. C. Z., Huang, L., & Wang, B. (2026). Psychological determinants of menstrual product preferences: Applying self-determination theory to women’s reproductive health decision-making. J''ournal of Health Psychology, 31''(9), 3512–3527. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/13591053251407843</nowiki> </div> 68psgu7jqfu6yzqw12mlkyemvglfcvt 2840796 2840794 2026-10-17T01:55:33Z Ella Kay244 3107007 /* Putting Self-Determination Theory into Practice: Meeting Psychological Needs in Dementia Patients */ 2840796 wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] {{title|Self-determination theory and dementia care:<br>How can autonomy, competence, and relatedness be supported in people living with dementia?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Wolf Creek NFH nursing home fishing event October 2024.png|thumb|'''Figure 1:''' Residence of an aged care home enjoying an outside activity ]] ;Imagine this ... Imagine you are an elderly resident with dementia living in a psychogeriatric ward in the beautiful Dutch countryside. On the walk from your bedroom to the communal dining room, you pass many people; staff, other residents and resident’s family members, but you do not recognise any of them. You take your breakfast to a table overlooking the garden and imagine walking outside, feeling the sun and smelling the flowers. Despite your longing to enjoy the garden, whether you get outside today is not up to you. You have been told it is unsafe, and you may only go out when a staff member has time to take you. How would this scenario make you feel? Trapped? Unsafe? {{RoundBoxBottom}} This scenario draws on experiences that residents of a Dutch psychogeriatric ward shared with researchers studying what gives residents a sense of freedom and safety. They identified that time in nature, knowing the staff and spending time with others all contributed positively to a sense of personal freedom and safety in the ward (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024). Scenarios like this are common within aged care homes for residents living with dementia. A review of 1158 articles published between 2000 and 2018 found that residents felt a lack of freedom, belonging, and connection, with some residents even describing their living situation as “living in a prison camp” (Shiells et al., 2020, p 1563). Many residents describe their well-being as low with reports of poor self-esteem, connection, value and independence (Shiells et al., 2020). This chapter asks how Self-Determination Theory (SDT) can help understand and support the psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness (ACR) in people with dementia. It begins with an overview of dementia and models of care, introduces SDT as a framework for understanding motivation and well-being, then examines how ACR can be supported for people living with dementia and highlights where the evidence is still limited. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus Questions''' # What is dementia, and what care options exist to support people living with it? # What does SDT propose about human motivation and well-being, and why is it a useful framework for understanding dementia care? # What interventions increase well-being for dementia patients? # How does person-centred care impact psychological well-being? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding dementia and models of care == '''Addresses focus question 1''' Dementia is a neurodegenerative disease (Cipriani et al., 2020). 57 million people across the globe live with dementia as of 2021, making it the seventh most common cause of death globally (World Health Organisation, 2026). Dementia disproportionately affects women as they are both more likely to get dementia and more likely to look after people with it (World Health Organisation, 2026). There are four types of dementia: Alzheimer’s disease, [https://www.dementia.org.au/about-dementia/vascular-dementia vascular dementia], frontotemporal dementia and dementia Lewy body (Maclin et al., 2019). Alzheimer’s is the most common type of dementia, occurring in 69% of the population over 75. Alzheimer’s involves gradual memory and cognitive loss that impairs daily activities. The second most common is frontotemporal dementia and is distinguished by a distorted personality, along with loss of social and executive function, including in some cases the loss of speech (Maclin et al., 2019). Vascular dementia affects cognition from blood vessels in the brain becoming blocked resulting in deficits in the sensory and motor systems. Lewy bodies is characterised by [[wikipedia:Lewy_body|cellular inclusions]] in the brain that cause fluctuations in [[Cognition|cognitive function]], hallucinations and behavioural problems. Support is often needed for people with dementia in the early stages for complex daily activities such as organising transportation. As the disease progresses, help with basic activities like getting dressed is needed too (Cipriani et al., 2020). Providing care and support for people living with dementia comes in many forms including in-home and institutionalised care. Families and patients choose between models based on a number of factors, including cultural values, knowledge of dementia, access to services, financial position and geographic location (Singh et al., 2014; Giebel et al., 2021). People receiving in-home care may be looked after by informal caregivers such as family members, formal caregivers or a mix of both, who are able to provide services at the home of the patient (Singh et al., 2014). Institutionalised care refers to the model of care where patients move into a facility where they can be monitored and looked after entirely by professionals or formal caregivers. In Australia, most people living with dementia choose in-home care. However, there are still over one million people living in institutionalised settings (Singh et al., 2014). == Self-Determination theory == '''Addresses focus question 2''' Self-determination Theory (SDT) is a theory of motivation. SDT predicts motivation by explaining why people are intrinsically or extrinsically motivated to perform a behaviour (Dombestein et at, 2020; Ryan & Deci, 2020). If someone is intrinsically motivated to perform a behaviour it means they find motivation from internal factors with no influence from the environment. This could be learning to [[Portal:Dance|dance]] purely for the enjoyment of it. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation is when someone behaves in response to environmental factors (Ryan & Deci, 2020). This could be learning to dance because all of their friends are dancing. People are very rarely motivated entirely for internal or external reasons therefore, extrinsic motivation is considered to be a continuum, starting with external regulation and finishing at integration: * External regulation - behaviours are regulated from environmental cues, rewards and punishments. * Introjection - environmental cues are being injected internally for instance the “punishment” of doing something wrong is feeling guilty. * Identified - you identify with your behaviours for example you identify with being a good student, so you show up to class but do not enjoy class. * Integration - there is less conflict between your identity and your behaviour. For example, you show up to class because you value being a good student and think it’s the right thing to do (Dombestein et al, 2020). Motivation is multidimensional, as people often have several forms of motivation for the same task (Ryan & Deci, 2020). For example, someone might run because their doctor advised it (identified) and because they enjoy seeing friends there (intrinsic). SDT offers an explanation as to where on the motivation continuum people operate. SDT says that for people to be intrinsically motivated or on the upper end of the extrinsic motivation scale you must satisfy all three critical psychological needs. These needs are:   * Autonomy - feeling ownership over actions and life circumstances * Competence - a sense of confidence or mastery over performing tasks * Relatedness - the need to feel like you belong to a group, that you are supported by others and in return people feel supported by you. Achievement of these three psychological needs is not automatic, and people often require support to achieve these needs. Organismic SDT states that people have a natural drive towards obtaining the critical psychological needs (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Zou et al. (2026) found that Chinese girls chose menstrual products that increased bodily autonomy, confidence in areas they identified with, and closeness to family and media figures, but could only do so if they could afford them. This reflects the theory that people have a natural desire to achieve the three psychological needs but need support from their environment. There is some debate in motivation research as to whether the different types of motivation describe distinct qualitative forms of motivation or if they point to different quantitative points along a scale of motivation (Van den Broeck et al., 2021). SDT theorists view motivation as a continuum, supported by findings that students with higher ACR have better wellbeing, higher grades and more intrinsic motivation. (Bureau et al., 2022; Ryan & Deci, 2020). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Key points''' * SDT is a theory of motivation. Extrinsic motivation sits on a continuum: external regulation, introjection, identified and integration. * Autonomy, competence and relatedness must all be met for people to be intrinsically motivated or at the upper end of the continuum. * People have a natural drive towards these needs but require support from their environment. * Higher need satisfaction is linked to better wellbeing. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Putting Self-Determination Theory into Practice: Meeting Psychological Needs in Dementia Patients == '''Addresses focus questions 3''' SDT proposes that supporting ACR in people living with dementia leads to better well-being, but these needs cannot just be given directly to a person. Therefore, the strategies discussed below are best understood as shaping conditions rather than delivering outcomes. One of the most well-documented examples of SDT in practice is the process of facilitating patient decision-making. Colclough et al. (2026) found that it did not improve well-being directly but did so by separately increasing satisfaction levels of all three needs, which is consistent with SDT’s claim that need satisfaction underlies well-being. However, decision-making is not the only pathway to increase ACR. [[File:Self-determination_theory_diagrame.png|thumb|347x347px|'''Figure 2.''' Self-determination theory diagram]] === '''Competency''' === Competency has been seen to be supported by carers assisting or allowing patients were possible to perform tasks independently (Custers et al., 2011). When adults with dementia cannot perform simple tasks by themselves like eating, they report feeling ashamed and embarrassed (Estrada, 2021). The ability to perform tasks independently is one reason most people prefer to stay in their home (Wammes et al., 2021). Both formal and informal caregivers help people with dementia feel competent and safe in their own home with patients reporting that their informal caregivers help them with daily living tasks, navigating the health system and organising social activities (Wammes et al., 2021). Similar sentiments have been shared around formal caregivers helping with medical information and daily tasks (Hoel et al., 2021). Aides for everyday activities are also cited as supporting competence (Rapaport et al., 2020; Wammes et al., 2021). The importance of the environment for allowing psychological needs to flourish is evident in respect to competency as people living in aged care homes are less likely to complete tasks independently as cognitive decline progresses, compared to people receiving informal care (Anselmo et al., 2025). Residents often report having little control over daily routines, such as what they eat or when they shower (Shiells et al., 2020). Assisting dementia patients to identify personal strengths and meaningful activities have been seen to increase self-direction (Döpp et al., 2021). Although the correlations are unclear, these studies suggest that helping residents identify personal strengths and meaningful activities could show caregivers where to allow more independence, such as control over daily routines. === Autonomy === Supporting autonomy in people with dementia is best understood through SDT’s definition of autonomy which is having a sense of agency over one’s life rather than the physical ability to act independently (Ryan & Deci, 2020). A study by Stumpf et al. (2025) found that people with dementia did not mind if they did not contribute much to decision making, as long as they were included in the process. 90% of people living with mild forms of dementia can articulate preferences and provide reasons for their preferences based on their [https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/values#google_vignette values] (Stumpf et al., 2025). Despite this, healthcare professionals will often defer all questions to patient’s family members (Stumpf et al., 2025). People with dementia generally accept the gradual loss of independence that comes with the progression of the disease if the decisions they do make around everyday things like going for a walk or dyeing their hair are respected (Estrada, 2021). Interventions that help to increase decision-making capacity by applying advance care planning to everyday situations, simplifying and visualising options, and staff knowing the residents have all helped increase autonomy (Van Der Weide et al., 2023). Van Der Weide et al. (2023) did warn that offering fewer choices increases the risk of staff accidently letting their preferences dictate the options available to residents. They also found autonomy interventions only appeared valuable within trusting relationships with family and staff (Van Der Weide et al., 2023). === Relatedness === The need for relatedness is often clearly expressed by people living in aged care homes with many residents reporting love and connection as important values (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024). Shiells et al. (2020) have discovered that reading groups, exercising, and helping other residents with problems have all been linked to feeling valued. The provision of in-home care by formal caregivers has been seen to increase feelings of relatedness, as people report appreciating the conversation and liking when they had regular contact with the same carer, as that carer better understood their preferences (Hoel et al., 2021).  Lastly, decision-making has also been seen to increase relatedness if ideas are heard and respected (Stumpf et al., 2025).  Estrada (2021) offers a richer understanding as to why decision-making might increase relatedness through the principles of [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6465833/ person-centres care], by which you can develop a deeper connection through conversation. Many of these strategies depend on carers having the time, energy and support to deliver them. Therefore, Person-centred care has also been explored as an intervention to help increase the well-being of carers. == Person-centred care impacts on promoting psychological well-being == '''Addresses focus question 4''' Person or client-centred care is an approach to care that focuses on maintaining a person’s sense of self by putting them and their needs at the forefront of importance when delivering care (Serbser-Koal et al., 2024). Person-centred care has been investigated for solutions to increase staff satisfaction in aged care homes and in-home services and to help to increase well-being in people with dementia. One of the principles of person-centred care is to ‘enter the person’s world’ through communication to develop a better connection (Serbser-Koal et al., 2024). Estrada (2021) revealed that one way you can increase connection with dementia patients is by simply allowing more time for conversations. People with dementia need more time to communicate because as their disease progresses their processing speed and [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19672843/ short-term memory] capacity decreases (Estrada, 2021). Allowing enough time for communicating is important as many people express frustrations when they feel rushed (Estrada, 2021). Even in people with non-fluent dementia, communication can increase relatedness through the encouragement of non-verbal communication like smiling, waving or touch (Estrada, 2021). Although it is well established that increased and better-quality communication between nursing, home staff and residents is needed, nursing staff report not having enough time to get to know residents (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024) and therefore place more importance on basic survival needs over psychological needs (Estrada, 2021). In-home care staff have also reported that the lack of time to addresses patients’ needs is also a reason for high staff turnover (Lämås et al., 2021). Lämås et al. (2021) tested person-centred care in home care services. Thriving rose among people with dementia, but self-determination fell and formal caregivers did not benefit. However, the caregiver [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19672843/ sample] was too small to detect an effect, and the self-determination measure captured only autonomy, whereas the thriving measure (attitudes to home, care and relationships) likely reflected all three needs better. A study with a larger sample size by Vassbø et al. (2020) looked at the effects of a person-centred intervention over 14 months and also found no effect on job satisfaction. Person-centred care therefore does not appear to be a solution to increase staff satisfaction. However, there are promising sings it may increase well-being dementia patients. == Increasing the well-being on informal caregivers == The psychological well-being of informal caregivers also affects the well-being of the people they care for. Informal caregivers report needing more emotional support, finding caring increasingly difficult as they become older, and report navigating the healthcare system on their own as challenging (Wammes et al., 2021). Interventions, based on SDT, that focus on increasing coping skills, communication skills and improving relationships made carers more intrinsically motivated to care for their loved one, which led to increased wellbeing (Dombestein et al., 2020). Carers also reported that being able to drop their loved ones off at [https://agedcare.salvos.org.au/residential-aged-care/carpenter-court-aged-care-centre/ day-care centres] allowed them to socialise with others, thereby increasing relatedness, and provision of at-home aides that helped them complete domestic tasks helped them feel competent (Wammes et al., 2021). ==Conclusion== Dementia makes independent living challenging, but it does not mean that agency should be taken away. As shown above, dementia patients are capable of decision-making even in severe cases.  SDT seeks to explain well-being through the prism of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. To become intrinsically motivated an individual must satisfy all three psychological needs. The strategies for increasing psychology well-being discussed in this paper are most successful when the interconnected nature of the needs are understood (Slemp et al., 2024). Interventions aimed at one need often support others. For example, feeling genuinely listened-to and respected increases both relatedness and autonomy (Stumpf et al., 2025; Estrada, 2021). Because these needs overlap and cannot be supplied directly, the most effective interventions are those that change the environment to allow them to develop. Allowing more time to communicate, creating spaces where people can act more independently, and increasing collaboration in decision-making all support the satisfaction of one or more needs, which in turn supports the satisfaction of other needs. Carer well-being remains an important area for future research to help increase well-being for dementia patients. <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}">{{Robelbox|theme=13|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg|iconwidth=48px|title=Review time!<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {You operate a dementia care live-in clinic. Two of your employees come to you with competing ideas of how to make the lives of your patients better. Employee A suggests that you should provide the patients with a larger variety of food. Employee B suggests that you should allow patients to choose what they want to eat. Assuming you can implement either option, which would you choose?} - A. Larger variety of food + B. Choosing the weekly menu </quiz> </div> {{RoundBoxBottom}} }} == External links == * [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551552/ Behavioural and psychological symptoms in dementia] (National library of medicine) * [https://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/dementia-care-study-highlights-importance-of-caregiver-self-efficacy Dementia care study highlights importance of caregiver self-efficacy] (UCLA newsroom) * [https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/scholarlywork/1753807-older-adults-using-technology-for-meaningful-activities-during-covid-19--an-analysis-through-the-lens-of-self-determination-theory Older] [https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/scholarlywork/1753807-older-adults-using-technology-for-meaningful-activities-during-covid-19--an-analysis-through-the-lens-of-self-determination-theory adults using technology for meaningful activities during COVID-19: an analysis through the lens of self-determination theory] (University of Melbourne) == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Basic psychological need theory|Basic psychological need theory]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Dementia care motivation|Dementia care motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[Dementia]] (Wikiversity) * [[wikipedia:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[Neurodegenerative disease]] (Wikiversity) == References == <div style="padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;"> Anselmo, A., Corallo, F., Pagano, M., Cardile, D., Marra, A., Maresca, G., De Luca, R., Alagna, A., Quartarone, A., Calabrò, R. S., & Cappadona, I. (2025). Beyond diagnosis: Exploring residual autonomy in dementia through a systematic review. ''Medicina, 61''(5), Article 895. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina61050895</nowiki> Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to student motivation: A meta-analysis of antecedents of autonomous and controlled motivations. ''Review of Educational Research, 92''(1), 46–72. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426</nowiki> Cipriani, G., Danti, S., Picchi, L., Nuti, A., & Fiorino, M. D. (2020). Daily functioning and dementia. ''Dementia & Neuropsychologia, 14''(2), 93–102. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-57642020dn14-020001</nowiki> Colclough, C., Perach, R., Harris, P., Rusted, J., Banerjee, S., & Miles, E. (2026). Decision-making involvement and quality of life in people with dementia: The mediating role of psychological needs. ''Aging & Mental Health, 30''(2), 267–276. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2025.2541188</nowiki> Custers, A. F. J., Kuin, Y., Riksen-Walraven, M., & Westerhof, G. J. (2011). Need support and wellbeing during morning care activities: An observational study on resident–staff interaction in nursing homes. ''Ageing and Society, 31''(8), 1425–1442. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X10001522</nowiki> Dombestein, H., Norheim, A., & Lunde Husebø, A. M. (2020). Understanding informal caregivers’ motivation from the perspective of self‐determination theory: An integrative review. ''Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 34''(2), 267–279. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/scs.12735</nowiki> Döpp, C. M. E., Drenth, H., Verkade, P.-J., Francke, A. F., & van der Heide, I. (2021). Interventions for improving self-direction in people with dementia: ''A systematic review. BMC Geriatrics, 21''(1), Article 195. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-021-02133-w</nowiki> Estrada, R. (2021). Listen and you will see the person through the dementia. ''Journal for Person-Oriented Research, 7''(2), 88–97. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.17505/jpor.2021.23891</nowiki> Giebel, C., Robertson, S., Beaulen, A., Zwakhalen, S., Allen, D., & Verbeek, H. (2021). “Nobody seems to know where to even turn to”: Barriers in accessing and utilising dementia care services in England and the Netherlands. International Journal of ''Environmental Research and Public Health, 18''(22), 12233. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182212233</nowiki> Hoel, K.-A., Rokstad, A. M. M., Feiring, I. H., Lichtwarck, B., Selbæk, G., & Bergh, S. (2021). Person-centred dementia care in home care services – highly recommended but still challenging to obtain: A qualitative interview study. ''BMC Health Services Research, 21''(1), Article 723. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-021-06722-8</nowiki> Lämås, K., Bölenius, K., Sandman, P.-O., Lindkvist, M., & Edvardsson, D. (2021). Effects of a person-centred and health-promoting intervention in home care services– a non-randomized controlled trial. ''BMC Geriatrics, 21''(1), Article 720. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-021-02661-5</nowiki> Maclin, J. M. A., Wang, T., & Xiao, S. (2019). Biomarkers for the diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease, dementia Lewy body, frontotemporal dementia and vascular dementia. ''General Psychiatry, 32''(1), e100054-n/a. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1136/gpsych-2019-100054</nowiki> Rapaport, P., Burton, A., Leverton, M., Herat-Gunaratne, R., Beresford-Dent, J., Lord, K., Downs, M., Boex, S., Horsley, R., Giebel, C., & Cooper, C. (2020). “I just keep thinking that I don’t want to rely on people.” a qualitative study of how people living with dementia achieve and maintain independence at home: Stakeholder perspectives. ''BMC Geriatrics, 20''(1), Article 5. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-019-1406-6</nowiki> Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61'', Article 101860. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860</nowiki> Shiells, K., Pivodic, L., Holmerová, I., & Van den Block, L. (2020). Self-reported needs and experiences of people with dementia living in nursing homes: ''A scoping review. Aging & Mental Health, 24''(10), 1553–1568. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2019.1625303</nowiki> Serbser-Koal, J., Rommerskirch-Manietta, M., Purwins, D., & Roes, M. (2024). Person-centredness in dementia care: An integrative review of theoretical approaches. ''BMJ Open, 14''(6), e085051. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2024-085051</nowiki> Singh, P., Hussain, R., Khan, A., Irwin, L., & Foskey, R. (2014). Dementia Care: Intersecting informal family care and formal care systems. ''Journal of Aging Research'', 109–117. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/486521</nowiki> Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Personality and ''Social Psychology, 127''(5), 1012–1037. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459</nowiki> Stumpf, A. D. H., McKenzie, E., & Beavers, A. (2025). An account of personal autonomy for people living with dementia. ''The Gerontologist, 65''(11), 1. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnaf210</nowiki> Van Andel, S., & Holkenborg, A. (2024). From the perspective of people with dementia: Using creative qualitative measures to assess the values and opinions on freedom and safety among people living with dementia. ''Healthcare,12''(14), 1412. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12141412</nowiki> Van Der Weide, H., Lovink, M. H., Luijkx, K. G., & Gerritsen, D. L. (2023). Supporting autonomy for people with dementia living in nursing homes: A rapid realist review. ''International Journal of Nursing Studies'',137, Article 104382. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2022.104382</nowiki> Van Den Broeck, A., Howard, J. L., Van Vaerenbergh, Y., Leroy, H., & Gagné, M. (2021). Beyond intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: A meta-analysis on self-determination theory’s multidimensional conceptualization of work motivation. ''Organizational Psychology Review, 11''(3), 240–273. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/20413866211006173</nowiki> Vassbø, T. K., Bergland, Å., Kirkevold, M., Lindkvist, M., Lood, Q., Sandman, P., Sjögren, K., & Edvardsson, D. (2020). Effects of a person‐centred and thriving‐promoting intervention on nursing home staff job satisfaction: A multi‐centre, non‐equivalent controlled before–after study. ''Nursing Open, 7''(6), 1787–1797. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1002/nop2.565</nowiki> Wammes, J. D., Labrie, N. H. M., Agogo, G. O., Monin, J. K., Bekker‐Grob, E. W., & MacNeil Vroomen, J. L. (2021). Persons with dementia and informal caregivers prioritizing care: A mixed‐methods study. Alzheimer’s & Dementia : ''Translational Research & Clinical Interventions, 7''(1), Article e12193 <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1002/trc2.12193</nowiki> World Health Organisation. (2026). Dementia <nowiki>https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/dementia</nowiki> Zou, W., Meadows, C. C. Z., Huang, L., & Wang, B. (2026). Psychological determinants of menstrual product preferences: Applying self-determination theory to women’s reproductive health decision-making. J''ournal of Health Psychology, 31''(9), 3512–3527. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/13591053251407843</nowiki> </div> jed9vfl5cqjhrjjv57r7wy86d3da9ek 2840797 2840796 2026-10-17T02:04:19Z Ella Kay244 3107007 /* Relatedness */ 2840797 wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] {{title|Self-determination theory and dementia care:<br>How can autonomy, competence, and relatedness be supported in people living with dementia?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Wolf Creek NFH nursing home fishing event October 2024.png|thumb|'''Figure 1:''' Residence of an aged care home enjoying an outside activity ]] ;Imagine this ... Imagine you are an elderly resident with dementia living in a psychogeriatric ward in the beautiful Dutch countryside. On the walk from your bedroom to the communal dining room, you pass many people; staff, other residents and resident’s family members, but you do not recognise any of them. You take your breakfast to a table overlooking the garden and imagine walking outside, feeling the sun and smelling the flowers. Despite your longing to enjoy the garden, whether you get outside today is not up to you. You have been told it is unsafe, and you may only go out when a staff member has time to take you. How would this scenario make you feel? Trapped? Unsafe? {{RoundBoxBottom}} This scenario draws on experiences that residents of a Dutch psychogeriatric ward shared with researchers studying what gives residents a sense of freedom and safety. They identified that time in nature, knowing the staff and spending time with others all contributed positively to a sense of personal freedom and safety in the ward (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024). Scenarios like this are common within aged care homes for residents living with dementia. A review of 1158 articles published between 2000 and 2018 found that residents felt a lack of freedom, belonging, and connection, with some residents even describing their living situation as “living in a prison camp” (Shiells et al., 2020, p 1563). Many residents describe their well-being as low with reports of poor self-esteem, connection, value and independence (Shiells et al., 2020). This chapter asks how Self-Determination Theory (SDT) can help understand and support the psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness (ACR) in people with dementia. It begins with an overview of dementia and models of care, introduces SDT as a framework for understanding motivation and well-being, then examines how ACR can be supported for people living with dementia and highlights where the evidence is still limited. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus Questions''' # What is dementia, and what care options exist to support people living with it? # What does SDT propose about human motivation and well-being, and why is it a useful framework for understanding dementia care? # What interventions increase well-being for dementia patients? # How does person-centred care impact psychological well-being? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding dementia and models of care == '''Addresses focus question 1''' Dementia is a neurodegenerative disease (Cipriani et al., 2020). 57 million people across the globe live with dementia as of 2021, making it the seventh most common cause of death globally (World Health Organisation, 2026). Dementia disproportionately affects women as they are both more likely to get dementia and more likely to look after people with it (World Health Organisation, 2026). There are four types of dementia: Alzheimer’s disease, [https://www.dementia.org.au/about-dementia/vascular-dementia vascular dementia], frontotemporal dementia and dementia Lewy body (Maclin et al., 2019). Alzheimer’s is the most common type of dementia, occurring in 69% of the population over 75. Alzheimer’s involves gradual memory and cognitive loss that impairs daily activities. The second most common is frontotemporal dementia and is distinguished by a distorted personality, along with loss of social and executive function, including in some cases the loss of speech (Maclin et al., 2019). Vascular dementia affects cognition from blood vessels in the brain becoming blocked resulting in deficits in the sensory and motor systems. Lewy bodies is characterised by [[wikipedia:Lewy_body|cellular inclusions]] in the brain that cause fluctuations in [[Cognition|cognitive function]], hallucinations and behavioural problems. Support is often needed for people with dementia in the early stages for complex daily activities such as organising transportation. As the disease progresses, help with basic activities like getting dressed is needed too (Cipriani et al., 2020). Providing care and support for people living with dementia comes in many forms including in-home and institutionalised care. Families and patients choose between models based on a number of factors, including cultural values, knowledge of dementia, access to services, financial position and geographic location (Singh et al., 2014; Giebel et al., 2021). People receiving in-home care may be looked after by informal caregivers such as family members, formal caregivers or a mix of both, who are able to provide services at the home of the patient (Singh et al., 2014). Institutionalised care refers to the model of care where patients move into a facility where they can be monitored and looked after entirely by professionals or formal caregivers. In Australia, most people living with dementia choose in-home care. However, there are still over one million people living in institutionalised settings (Singh et al., 2014). == Self-Determination theory == '''Addresses focus question 2''' Self-determination Theory (SDT) is a theory of motivation. SDT predicts motivation by explaining why people are intrinsically or extrinsically motivated to perform a behaviour (Dombestein et at, 2020; Ryan & Deci, 2020). If someone is intrinsically motivated to perform a behaviour it means they find motivation from internal factors with no influence from the environment. This could be learning to [[Portal:Dance|dance]] purely for the enjoyment of it. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation is when someone behaves in response to environmental factors (Ryan & Deci, 2020). This could be learning to dance because all of their friends are dancing. People are very rarely motivated entirely for internal or external reasons therefore, extrinsic motivation is considered to be a continuum, starting with external regulation and finishing at integration: * External regulation - behaviours are regulated from environmental cues, rewards and punishments. * Introjection - environmental cues are being injected internally for instance the “punishment” of doing something wrong is feeling guilty. * Identified - you identify with your behaviours for example you identify with being a good student, so you show up to class but do not enjoy class. * Integration - there is less conflict between your identity and your behaviour. For example, you show up to class because you value being a good student and think it’s the right thing to do (Dombestein et al, 2020). Motivation is multidimensional, as people often have several forms of motivation for the same task (Ryan & Deci, 2020). For example, someone might run because their doctor advised it (identified) and because they enjoy seeing friends there (intrinsic). SDT offers an explanation as to where on the motivation continuum people operate. SDT says that for people to be intrinsically motivated or on the upper end of the extrinsic motivation scale you must satisfy all three critical psychological needs. These needs are:   * Autonomy - feeling ownership over actions and life circumstances * Competence - a sense of confidence or mastery over performing tasks * Relatedness - the need to feel like you belong to a group, that you are supported by others and in return people feel supported by you. Achievement of these three psychological needs is not automatic, and people often require support to achieve these needs. Organismic SDT states that people have a natural drive towards obtaining the critical psychological needs (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Zou et al. (2026) found that Chinese girls chose menstrual products that increased bodily autonomy, confidence in areas they identified with, and closeness to family and media figures, but could only do so if they could afford them. This reflects the theory that people have a natural desire to achieve the three psychological needs but need support from their environment. There is some debate in motivation research as to whether the different types of motivation describe distinct qualitative forms of motivation or if they point to different quantitative points along a scale of motivation (Van den Broeck et al., 2021). SDT theorists view motivation as a continuum, supported by findings that students with higher ACR have better wellbeing, higher grades and more intrinsic motivation. (Bureau et al., 2022; Ryan & Deci, 2020). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Key points''' * SDT is a theory of motivation. Extrinsic motivation sits on a continuum: external regulation, introjection, identified and integration. * Autonomy, competence and relatedness must all be met for people to be intrinsically motivated or at the upper end of the continuum. * People have a natural drive towards these needs but require support from their environment. * Higher need satisfaction is linked to better wellbeing. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Putting Self-Determination Theory into Practice: Meeting Psychological Needs in Dementia Patients == '''Addresses focus questions 3''' SDT proposes that supporting ACR in people living with dementia leads to better well-being, but these needs cannot just be given directly to a person. Therefore, the strategies discussed below are best understood as shaping conditions rather than delivering outcomes. One of the most well-documented examples of SDT in practice is the process of facilitating patient decision-making. Colclough et al. (2026) found that it did not improve well-being directly but did so by separately increasing satisfaction levels of all three needs, which is consistent with SDT’s claim that need satisfaction underlies well-being. However, decision-making is not the only pathway to increase ACR. [[File:Self-determination_theory_diagrame.png|thumb|347x347px|'''Figure 2.''' Self-determination theory diagram]] === '''Competency''' === Competency has been seen to be supported by carers assisting or allowing patients were possible to perform tasks independently (Custers et al., 2011). When adults with dementia cannot perform simple tasks by themselves like eating, they report feeling ashamed and embarrassed (Estrada, 2021). The ability to perform tasks independently is one reason most people prefer to stay in their home (Wammes et al., 2021). Both formal and informal caregivers help people with dementia feel competent and safe in their own home with patients reporting that their informal caregivers help them with daily living tasks, navigating the health system and organising social activities (Wammes et al., 2021). Similar sentiments have been shared around formal caregivers helping with medical information and daily tasks (Hoel et al., 2021). Aides for everyday activities are also cited as supporting competence (Rapaport et al., 2020; Wammes et al., 2021). The importance of the environment for allowing psychological needs to flourish is evident in respect to competency as people living in aged care homes are less likely to complete tasks independently as cognitive decline progresses, compared to people receiving informal care (Anselmo et al., 2025). Residents often report having little control over daily routines, such as what they eat or when they shower (Shiells et al., 2020). Assisting dementia patients to identify personal strengths and meaningful activities have been seen to increase self-direction (Döpp et al., 2021). Although the correlations are unclear, these studies suggest that helping residents identify personal strengths and meaningful activities could show caregivers where to allow more independence, such as control over daily routines. === Autonomy === Supporting autonomy in people with dementia is best understood through SDT’s definition of autonomy which is having a sense of agency over one’s life rather than the physical ability to act independently (Ryan & Deci, 2020). A study by Stumpf et al. (2025) found that people with dementia did not mind if they did not contribute much to decision making, as long as they were included in the process. 90% of people living with mild forms of dementia can articulate preferences and provide reasons for their preferences based on their [https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/values#google_vignette values] (Stumpf et al., 2025). Despite this, healthcare professionals will often defer all questions to patient’s family members (Stumpf et al., 2025). People with dementia generally accept the gradual loss of independence that comes with the progression of the disease if the decisions they do make around everyday things like going for a walk or dyeing their hair are respected (Estrada, 2021). Interventions that help to increase decision-making capacity by applying advance care planning to everyday situations, simplifying and visualising options, and staff knowing the residents have all helped increase autonomy (Van Der Weide et al., 2023). Van Der Weide et al. (2023) did warn that offering fewer choices increases the risk of staff accidently letting their preferences dictate the options available to residents. They also found autonomy interventions only appeared valuable within trusting relationships with family and staff (Van Der Weide et al., 2023). === Relatedness === The need for relatedness is often clearly expressed by people living in aged care homes with many residents reporting love and connection as important values (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024). Shiells et al. (2020) have discovered that reading groups, exercising, and helping other residents with problems have all been linked to feeling valued. The provision of in-home care by formal caregivers has been seen to increase feelings of relatedness, as people report appreciating the conversation and liking when they had regular contact with the same carer, as that carer better understood their preferences (Hoel et al., 2021).  Lastly, decision-making has also been seen to increase relatedness if ideas are heard and respected (Stumpf et al., 2025).  Estrada (2021) offers a richer understanding as to why decision-making might increase relatedness through the principles of [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6465833/ person-centred care], by which you can develop a deeper connection through conversation. Many of these strategies depend on carers having the time, energy and support to deliver them. Therefore, Person-centred care has also been explored as an intervention to help increase the well-being of carers. == Person-centred care impacts on promoting psychological well-being == '''Addresses focus question 4''' Person or client-centred care is an approach to care that focuses on maintaining a person’s sense of self by putting them and their needs at the forefront of importance when delivering care (Serbser-Koal et al., 2024). Person-centred care has been investigated for solutions to increase staff satisfaction in aged care homes and in-home services and to help to increase well-being in people with dementia. One of the principles of person-centred care is to ‘enter the person’s world’ through communication to develop a better connection (Serbser-Koal et al., 2024). Estrada (2021) revealed that one way you can increase connection with dementia patients is by simply allowing more time for conversations. People with dementia need more time to communicate because as their disease progresses their processing speed and [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19672843/ short-term memory] capacity decreases (Estrada, 2021). Allowing enough time for communicating is important as many people express frustrations when they feel rushed (Estrada, 2021). Even in people with non-fluent dementia, communication can increase relatedness through the encouragement of non-verbal communication like smiling, waving or touch (Estrada, 2021). Although it is well established that increased and better-quality communication between nursing, home staff and residents is needed, nursing staff report not having enough time to get to know residents (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024) and therefore place more importance on basic survival needs over psychological needs (Estrada, 2021). In-home care staff have also reported that the lack of time to addresses patients’ needs is also a reason for high staff turnover (Lämås et al., 2021). Lämås et al. (2021) tested person-centred care in home care services. Thriving rose among people with dementia, but self-determination fell and formal caregivers did not benefit. However, the caregiver [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19672843/ sample] was too small to detect an effect, and the self-determination measure captured only autonomy, whereas the thriving measure (attitudes to home, care and relationships) likely reflected all three needs better. A study with a larger sample size by Vassbø et al. (2020) looked at the effects of a person-centred intervention over 14 months and also found no effect on job satisfaction. Person-centred care therefore does not appear to be a solution to increase staff satisfaction. However, there are promising sings it may increase well-being dementia patients. == Increasing the well-being on informal caregivers == The psychological well-being of informal caregivers also affects the well-being of the people they care for. Informal caregivers report needing more emotional support, finding caring increasingly difficult as they become older, and report navigating the healthcare system on their own as challenging (Wammes et al., 2021). Interventions, based on SDT, that focus on increasing coping skills, communication skills and improving relationships made carers more intrinsically motivated to care for their loved one, which led to increased wellbeing (Dombestein et al., 2020). Carers also reported that being able to drop their loved ones off at [https://agedcare.salvos.org.au/residential-aged-care/carpenter-court-aged-care-centre/ day-care centres] allowed them to socialise with others, thereby increasing relatedness, and provision of at-home aides that helped them complete domestic tasks helped them feel competent (Wammes et al., 2021). ==Conclusion== Dementia makes independent living challenging, but it does not mean that agency should be taken away. As shown above, dementia patients are capable of decision-making even in severe cases.  SDT seeks to explain well-being through the prism of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. To become intrinsically motivated an individual must satisfy all three psychological needs. The strategies for increasing psychology well-being discussed in this paper are most successful when the interconnected nature of the needs are understood (Slemp et al., 2024). Interventions aimed at one need often support others. For example, feeling genuinely listened-to and respected increases both relatedness and autonomy (Stumpf et al., 2025; Estrada, 2021). Because these needs overlap and cannot be supplied directly, the most effective interventions are those that change the environment to allow them to develop. Allowing more time to communicate, creating spaces where people can act more independently, and increasing collaboration in decision-making all support the satisfaction of one or more needs, which in turn supports the satisfaction of other needs. Carer well-being remains an important area for future research to help increase well-being for dementia patients. <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}">{{Robelbox|theme=13|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg|iconwidth=48px|title=Review time!<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {You operate a dementia care live-in clinic. Two of your employees come to you with competing ideas of how to make the lives of your patients better. Employee A suggests that you should provide the patients with a larger variety of food. Employee B suggests that you should allow patients to choose what they want to eat. Assuming you can implement either option, which would you choose?} - A. Larger variety of food + B. Choosing the weekly menu </quiz> </div> {{RoundBoxBottom}} }} == External links == * [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551552/ Behavioural and psychological symptoms in dementia] (National library of medicine) * [https://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/dementia-care-study-highlights-importance-of-caregiver-self-efficacy Dementia care study highlights importance of caregiver self-efficacy] (UCLA newsroom) * [https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/scholarlywork/1753807-older-adults-using-technology-for-meaningful-activities-during-covid-19--an-analysis-through-the-lens-of-self-determination-theory Older] [https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/scholarlywork/1753807-older-adults-using-technology-for-meaningful-activities-during-covid-19--an-analysis-through-the-lens-of-self-determination-theory adults using technology for meaningful activities during COVID-19: an analysis through the lens of self-determination theory] (University of Melbourne) == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Basic psychological need theory|Basic psychological need theory]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Dementia care motivation|Dementia care motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[Dementia]] (Wikiversity) * [[wikipedia:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[Neurodegenerative disease]] (Wikiversity) == References == <div style="padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;"> Anselmo, A., Corallo, F., Pagano, M., Cardile, D., Marra, A., Maresca, G., De Luca, R., Alagna, A., Quartarone, A., Calabrò, R. S., & Cappadona, I. (2025). Beyond diagnosis: Exploring residual autonomy in dementia through a systematic review. ''Medicina, 61''(5), Article 895. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina61050895</nowiki> Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to student motivation: A meta-analysis of antecedents of autonomous and controlled motivations. ''Review of Educational Research, 92''(1), 46–72. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426</nowiki> Cipriani, G., Danti, S., Picchi, L., Nuti, A., & Fiorino, M. D. (2020). Daily functioning and dementia. ''Dementia & Neuropsychologia, 14''(2), 93–102. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-57642020dn14-020001</nowiki> Colclough, C., Perach, R., Harris, P., Rusted, J., Banerjee, S., & Miles, E. (2026). Decision-making involvement and quality of life in people with dementia: The mediating role of psychological needs. ''Aging & Mental Health, 30''(2), 267–276. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2025.2541188</nowiki> Custers, A. F. J., Kuin, Y., Riksen-Walraven, M., & Westerhof, G. J. (2011). Need support and wellbeing during morning care activities: An observational study on resident–staff interaction in nursing homes. ''Ageing and Society, 31''(8), 1425–1442. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X10001522</nowiki> Dombestein, H., Norheim, A., & Lunde Husebø, A. M. (2020). Understanding informal caregivers’ motivation from the perspective of self‐determination theory: An integrative review. ''Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 34''(2), 267–279. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/scs.12735</nowiki> Döpp, C. M. E., Drenth, H., Verkade, P.-J., Francke, A. F., & van der Heide, I. (2021). Interventions for improving self-direction in people with dementia: ''A systematic review. BMC Geriatrics, 21''(1), Article 195. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-021-02133-w</nowiki> Estrada, R. (2021). Listen and you will see the person through the dementia. ''Journal for Person-Oriented Research, 7''(2), 88–97. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.17505/jpor.2021.23891</nowiki> Giebel, C., Robertson, S., Beaulen, A., Zwakhalen, S., Allen, D., & Verbeek, H. (2021). “Nobody seems to know where to even turn to”: Barriers in accessing and utilising dementia care services in England and the Netherlands. International Journal of ''Environmental Research and Public Health, 18''(22), 12233. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182212233</nowiki> Hoel, K.-A., Rokstad, A. M. M., Feiring, I. H., Lichtwarck, B., Selbæk, G., & Bergh, S. (2021). Person-centred dementia care in home care services – highly recommended but still challenging to obtain: A qualitative interview study. ''BMC Health Services Research, 21''(1), Article 723. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-021-06722-8</nowiki> Lämås, K., Bölenius, K., Sandman, P.-O., Lindkvist, M., & Edvardsson, D. (2021). Effects of a person-centred and health-promoting intervention in home care services– a non-randomized controlled trial. ''BMC Geriatrics, 21''(1), Article 720. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-021-02661-5</nowiki> Maclin, J. M. A., Wang, T., & Xiao, S. (2019). Biomarkers for the diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease, dementia Lewy body, frontotemporal dementia and vascular dementia. ''General Psychiatry, 32''(1), e100054-n/a. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1136/gpsych-2019-100054</nowiki> Rapaport, P., Burton, A., Leverton, M., Herat-Gunaratne, R., Beresford-Dent, J., Lord, K., Downs, M., Boex, S., Horsley, R., Giebel, C., & Cooper, C. (2020). “I just keep thinking that I don’t want to rely on people.” a qualitative study of how people living with dementia achieve and maintain independence at home: Stakeholder perspectives. ''BMC Geriatrics, 20''(1), Article 5. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-019-1406-6</nowiki> Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61'', Article 101860. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860</nowiki> Shiells, K., Pivodic, L., Holmerová, I., & Van den Block, L. (2020). Self-reported needs and experiences of people with dementia living in nursing homes: ''A scoping review. Aging & Mental Health, 24''(10), 1553–1568. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2019.1625303</nowiki> Serbser-Koal, J., Rommerskirch-Manietta, M., Purwins, D., & Roes, M. (2024). Person-centredness in dementia care: An integrative review of theoretical approaches. ''BMJ Open, 14''(6), e085051. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2024-085051</nowiki> Singh, P., Hussain, R., Khan, A., Irwin, L., & Foskey, R. (2014). Dementia Care: Intersecting informal family care and formal care systems. ''Journal of Aging Research'', 109–117. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/486521</nowiki> Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Personality and ''Social Psychology, 127''(5), 1012–1037. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459</nowiki> Stumpf, A. D. H., McKenzie, E., & Beavers, A. (2025). An account of personal autonomy for people living with dementia. ''The Gerontologist, 65''(11), 1. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnaf210</nowiki> Van Andel, S., & Holkenborg, A. (2024). From the perspective of people with dementia: Using creative qualitative measures to assess the values and opinions on freedom and safety among people living with dementia. ''Healthcare,12''(14), 1412. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12141412</nowiki> Van Der Weide, H., Lovink, M. H., Luijkx, K. G., & Gerritsen, D. L. (2023). Supporting autonomy for people with dementia living in nursing homes: A rapid realist review. ''International Journal of Nursing Studies'',137, Article 104382. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2022.104382</nowiki> Van Den Broeck, A., Howard, J. L., Van Vaerenbergh, Y., Leroy, H., & Gagné, M. (2021). Beyond intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: A meta-analysis on self-determination theory’s multidimensional conceptualization of work motivation. ''Organizational Psychology Review, 11''(3), 240–273. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/20413866211006173</nowiki> Vassbø, T. K., Bergland, Å., Kirkevold, M., Lindkvist, M., Lood, Q., Sandman, P., Sjögren, K., & Edvardsson, D. (2020). Effects of a person‐centred and thriving‐promoting intervention on nursing home staff job satisfaction: A multi‐centre, non‐equivalent controlled before–after study. ''Nursing Open, 7''(6), 1787–1797. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1002/nop2.565</nowiki> Wammes, J. D., Labrie, N. H. M., Agogo, G. O., Monin, J. K., Bekker‐Grob, E. W., & MacNeil Vroomen, J. L. (2021). Persons with dementia and informal caregivers prioritizing care: A mixed‐methods study. Alzheimer’s & Dementia : ''Translational Research & Clinical Interventions, 7''(1), Article e12193 <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1002/trc2.12193</nowiki> World Health Organisation. (2026). Dementia <nowiki>https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/dementia</nowiki> Zou, W., Meadows, C. C. Z., Huang, L., & Wang, B. (2026). Psychological determinants of menstrual product preferences: Applying self-determination theory to women’s reproductive health decision-making. J''ournal of Health Psychology, 31''(9), 3512–3527. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/13591053251407843</nowiki> </div> kwpg3gl1ok5oa0m3unw5ir13nxmhbmp 2840798 2840797 2026-10-17T02:06:08Z Ella Kay244 3107007 /* Person-centred care impacts on promoting psychological well-being */ 2840798 wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] {{title|Self-determination theory and dementia care:<br>How can autonomy, competence, and relatedness be supported in people living with dementia?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Wolf Creek NFH nursing home fishing event October 2024.png|thumb|'''Figure 1:''' Residence of an aged care home enjoying an outside activity ]] ;Imagine this ... Imagine you are an elderly resident with dementia living in a psychogeriatric ward in the beautiful Dutch countryside. On the walk from your bedroom to the communal dining room, you pass many people; staff, other residents and resident’s family members, but you do not recognise any of them. You take your breakfast to a table overlooking the garden and imagine walking outside, feeling the sun and smelling the flowers. Despite your longing to enjoy the garden, whether you get outside today is not up to you. You have been told it is unsafe, and you may only go out when a staff member has time to take you. How would this scenario make you feel? Trapped? Unsafe? {{RoundBoxBottom}} This scenario draws on experiences that residents of a Dutch psychogeriatric ward shared with researchers studying what gives residents a sense of freedom and safety. They identified that time in nature, knowing the staff and spending time with others all contributed positively to a sense of personal freedom and safety in the ward (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024). Scenarios like this are common within aged care homes for residents living with dementia. A review of 1158 articles published between 2000 and 2018 found that residents felt a lack of freedom, belonging, and connection, with some residents even describing their living situation as “living in a prison camp” (Shiells et al., 2020, p 1563). Many residents describe their well-being as low with reports of poor self-esteem, connection, value and independence (Shiells et al., 2020). This chapter asks how Self-Determination Theory (SDT) can help understand and support the psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness (ACR) in people with dementia. It begins with an overview of dementia and models of care, introduces SDT as a framework for understanding motivation and well-being, then examines how ACR can be supported for people living with dementia and highlights where the evidence is still limited. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus Questions''' # What is dementia, and what care options exist to support people living with it? # What does SDT propose about human motivation and well-being, and why is it a useful framework for understanding dementia care? # What interventions increase well-being for dementia patients? # How does person-centred care impact psychological well-being? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding dementia and models of care == '''Addresses focus question 1''' Dementia is a neurodegenerative disease (Cipriani et al., 2020). 57 million people across the globe live with dementia as of 2021, making it the seventh most common cause of death globally (World Health Organisation, 2026). Dementia disproportionately affects women as they are both more likely to get dementia and more likely to look after people with it (World Health Organisation, 2026). There are four types of dementia: Alzheimer’s disease, [https://www.dementia.org.au/about-dementia/vascular-dementia vascular dementia], frontotemporal dementia and dementia Lewy body (Maclin et al., 2019). Alzheimer’s is the most common type of dementia, occurring in 69% of the population over 75. Alzheimer’s involves gradual memory and cognitive loss that impairs daily activities. The second most common is frontotemporal dementia and is distinguished by a distorted personality, along with loss of social and executive function, including in some cases the loss of speech (Maclin et al., 2019). Vascular dementia affects cognition from blood vessels in the brain becoming blocked resulting in deficits in the sensory and motor systems. Lewy bodies is characterised by [[wikipedia:Lewy_body|cellular inclusions]] in the brain that cause fluctuations in [[Cognition|cognitive function]], hallucinations and behavioural problems. Support is often needed for people with dementia in the early stages for complex daily activities such as organising transportation. As the disease progresses, help with basic activities like getting dressed is needed too (Cipriani et al., 2020). Providing care and support for people living with dementia comes in many forms including in-home and institutionalised care. Families and patients choose between models based on a number of factors, including cultural values, knowledge of dementia, access to services, financial position and geographic location (Singh et al., 2014; Giebel et al., 2021). People receiving in-home care may be looked after by informal caregivers such as family members, formal caregivers or a mix of both, who are able to provide services at the home of the patient (Singh et al., 2014). Institutionalised care refers to the model of care where patients move into a facility where they can be monitored and looked after entirely by professionals or formal caregivers. In Australia, most people living with dementia choose in-home care. However, there are still over one million people living in institutionalised settings (Singh et al., 2014). == Self-Determination theory == '''Addresses focus question 2''' Self-determination Theory (SDT) is a theory of motivation. SDT predicts motivation by explaining why people are intrinsically or extrinsically motivated to perform a behaviour (Dombestein et at, 2020; Ryan & Deci, 2020). If someone is intrinsically motivated to perform a behaviour it means they find motivation from internal factors with no influence from the environment. This could be learning to [[Portal:Dance|dance]] purely for the enjoyment of it. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation is when someone behaves in response to environmental factors (Ryan & Deci, 2020). This could be learning to dance because all of their friends are dancing. People are very rarely motivated entirely for internal or external reasons therefore, extrinsic motivation is considered to be a continuum, starting with external regulation and finishing at integration: * External regulation - behaviours are regulated from environmental cues, rewards and punishments. * Introjection - environmental cues are being injected internally for instance the “punishment” of doing something wrong is feeling guilty. * Identified - you identify with your behaviours for example you identify with being a good student, so you show up to class but do not enjoy class. * Integration - there is less conflict between your identity and your behaviour. For example, you show up to class because you value being a good student and think it’s the right thing to do (Dombestein et al, 2020). Motivation is multidimensional, as people often have several forms of motivation for the same task (Ryan & Deci, 2020). For example, someone might run because their doctor advised it (identified) and because they enjoy seeing friends there (intrinsic). SDT offers an explanation as to where on the motivation continuum people operate. SDT says that for people to be intrinsically motivated or on the upper end of the extrinsic motivation scale you must satisfy all three critical psychological needs. These needs are:   * Autonomy - feeling ownership over actions and life circumstances * Competence - a sense of confidence or mastery over performing tasks * Relatedness - the need to feel like you belong to a group, that you are supported by others and in return people feel supported by you. Achievement of these three psychological needs is not automatic, and people often require support to achieve these needs. Organismic SDT states that people have a natural drive towards obtaining the critical psychological needs (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Zou et al. (2026) found that Chinese girls chose menstrual products that increased bodily autonomy, confidence in areas they identified with, and closeness to family and media figures, but could only do so if they could afford them. This reflects the theory that people have a natural desire to achieve the three psychological needs but need support from their environment. There is some debate in motivation research as to whether the different types of motivation describe distinct qualitative forms of motivation or if they point to different quantitative points along a scale of motivation (Van den Broeck et al., 2021). SDT theorists view motivation as a continuum, supported by findings that students with higher ACR have better wellbeing, higher grades and more intrinsic motivation. (Bureau et al., 2022; Ryan & Deci, 2020). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Key points''' * SDT is a theory of motivation. Extrinsic motivation sits on a continuum: external regulation, introjection, identified and integration. * Autonomy, competence and relatedness must all be met for people to be intrinsically motivated or at the upper end of the continuum. * People have a natural drive towards these needs but require support from their environment. * Higher need satisfaction is linked to better wellbeing. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Putting Self-Determination Theory into Practice: Meeting Psychological Needs in Dementia Patients == '''Addresses focus questions 3''' SDT proposes that supporting ACR in people living with dementia leads to better well-being, but these needs cannot just be given directly to a person. Therefore, the strategies discussed below are best understood as shaping conditions rather than delivering outcomes. One of the most well-documented examples of SDT in practice is the process of facilitating patient decision-making. Colclough et al. (2026) found that it did not improve well-being directly but did so by separately increasing satisfaction levels of all three needs, which is consistent with SDT’s claim that need satisfaction underlies well-being. However, decision-making is not the only pathway to increase ACR. [[File:Self-determination_theory_diagrame.png|thumb|347x347px|'''Figure 2.''' Self-determination theory diagram]] === '''Competency''' === Competency has been seen to be supported by carers assisting or allowing patients were possible to perform tasks independently (Custers et al., 2011). When adults with dementia cannot perform simple tasks by themselves like eating, they report feeling ashamed and embarrassed (Estrada, 2021). The ability to perform tasks independently is one reason most people prefer to stay in their home (Wammes et al., 2021). Both formal and informal caregivers help people with dementia feel competent and safe in their own home with patients reporting that their informal caregivers help them with daily living tasks, navigating the health system and organising social activities (Wammes et al., 2021). Similar sentiments have been shared around formal caregivers helping with medical information and daily tasks (Hoel et al., 2021). Aides for everyday activities are also cited as supporting competence (Rapaport et al., 2020; Wammes et al., 2021). The importance of the environment for allowing psychological needs to flourish is evident in respect to competency as people living in aged care homes are less likely to complete tasks independently as cognitive decline progresses, compared to people receiving informal care (Anselmo et al., 2025). Residents often report having little control over daily routines, such as what they eat or when they shower (Shiells et al., 2020). Assisting dementia patients to identify personal strengths and meaningful activities have been seen to increase self-direction (Döpp et al., 2021). Although the correlations are unclear, these studies suggest that helping residents identify personal strengths and meaningful activities could show caregivers where to allow more independence, such as control over daily routines. === Autonomy === Supporting autonomy in people with dementia is best understood through SDT’s definition of autonomy which is having a sense of agency over one’s life rather than the physical ability to act independently (Ryan & Deci, 2020). A study by Stumpf et al. (2025) found that people with dementia did not mind if they did not contribute much to decision making, as long as they were included in the process. 90% of people living with mild forms of dementia can articulate preferences and provide reasons for their preferences based on their [https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/values#google_vignette values] (Stumpf et al., 2025). Despite this, healthcare professionals will often defer all questions to patient’s family members (Stumpf et al., 2025). People with dementia generally accept the gradual loss of independence that comes with the progression of the disease if the decisions they do make around everyday things like going for a walk or dyeing their hair are respected (Estrada, 2021). Interventions that help to increase decision-making capacity by applying advance care planning to everyday situations, simplifying and visualising options, and staff knowing the residents have all helped increase autonomy (Van Der Weide et al., 2023). Van Der Weide et al. (2023) did warn that offering fewer choices increases the risk of staff accidently letting their preferences dictate the options available to residents. They also found autonomy interventions only appeared valuable within trusting relationships with family and staff (Van Der Weide et al., 2023). === Relatedness === The need for relatedness is often clearly expressed by people living in aged care homes with many residents reporting love and connection as important values (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024). Shiells et al. (2020) have discovered that reading groups, exercising, and helping other residents with problems have all been linked to feeling valued. The provision of in-home care by formal caregivers has been seen to increase feelings of relatedness, as people report appreciating the conversation and liking when they had regular contact with the same carer, as that carer better understood their preferences (Hoel et al., 2021).  Lastly, decision-making has also been seen to increase relatedness if ideas are heard and respected (Stumpf et al., 2025).  Estrada (2021) offers a richer understanding as to why decision-making might increase relatedness through the principles of [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6465833/ person-centred care], by which you can develop a deeper connection through conversation. Many of these strategies depend on carers having the time, energy and support to deliver them. Therefore, person-centred care has also been explored as an intervention to help increase the well-being of carers. == Person-centred care impacts on promoting psychological well-being == '''Addresses focus question 4''' Person or client-centred care is an approach to care that focuses on maintaining a person’s sense of self by putting them and their needs at the forefront of importance when delivering care (Serbser-Koal et al., 2024). Person-centred care has been investigated for solutions to increase staff satisfaction in aged care homes and in-home services and to help to increase well-being in people with dementia. One of the principles of person-centred care is to ‘enter the person’s world’ through communication to develop a better connection (Serbser-Koal et al., 2024). Estrada (2021) revealed that one way you can increase connection with dementia patients is by simply allowing more time for conversations. People with dementia need more time to communicate because as their disease progresses their processing speed and [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19672843/ short-term memory] capacity decreases (Estrada, 2021). Allowing enough time for communicating is important as many people express frustrations when they feel rushed (Estrada, 2021). Even in people with non-fluent dementia, communication can increase relatedness through the encouragement of non-verbal communication like smiling, waving or touch (Estrada, 2021). Although it is well established that increased and better-quality communication between nursing, home staff and residents is needed, nursing staff report not having enough time to get to know residents (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024) and therefore place more importance on basic survival needs over psychological needs (Estrada, 2021). In-home care staff have also reported that the lack of time to addresses patients’ needs is also a reason for high staff turnover (Lämås et al., 2021). Lämås et al. (2021) tested person-centred care in home care services. Thriving rose among people with dementia, but self-determination fell and formal caregivers did not benefit. However, the caregiver [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19672843/ sample] was too small to detect an effect, and the self-determination measure captured only autonomy, whereas the thriving measure (attitudes to home, care and relationships) likely reflected all three needs better. A study with a larger sample size by Vassbø et al. (2020) looked at the effects of a person-centred intervention over 14 months and also found no effect on job satisfaction. Person-centred care therefore does not appear to be a solution to increase staff satisfaction. However, there are promising sings it may increase well-being dementia patients. == Increasing the well-being on informal caregivers == The psychological well-being of informal caregivers also affects the well-being of the people they care for. Informal caregivers report needing more emotional support, finding caring increasingly difficult as they become older, and report navigating the healthcare system on their own as challenging (Wammes et al., 2021). Interventions, based on SDT, that focus on increasing coping skills, communication skills and improving relationships made carers more intrinsically motivated to care for their loved one, which led to increased wellbeing (Dombestein et al., 2020). Carers also reported that being able to drop their loved ones off at [https://agedcare.salvos.org.au/residential-aged-care/carpenter-court-aged-care-centre/ day-care centres] allowed them to socialise with others, thereby increasing relatedness, and provision of at-home aides that helped them complete domestic tasks helped them feel competent (Wammes et al., 2021). ==Conclusion== Dementia makes independent living challenging, but it does not mean that agency should be taken away. As shown above, dementia patients are capable of decision-making even in severe cases.  SDT seeks to explain well-being through the prism of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. To become intrinsically motivated an individual must satisfy all three psychological needs. The strategies for increasing psychology well-being discussed in this paper are most successful when the interconnected nature of the needs are understood (Slemp et al., 2024). Interventions aimed at one need often support others. For example, feeling genuinely listened-to and respected increases both relatedness and autonomy (Stumpf et al., 2025; Estrada, 2021). Because these needs overlap and cannot be supplied directly, the most effective interventions are those that change the environment to allow them to develop. Allowing more time to communicate, creating spaces where people can act more independently, and increasing collaboration in decision-making all support the satisfaction of one or more needs, which in turn supports the satisfaction of other needs. Carer well-being remains an important area for future research to help increase well-being for dementia patients. <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}">{{Robelbox|theme=13|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg|iconwidth=48px|title=Review time!<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {You operate a dementia care live-in clinic. Two of your employees come to you with competing ideas of how to make the lives of your patients better. Employee A suggests that you should provide the patients with a larger variety of food. Employee B suggests that you should allow patients to choose what they want to eat. Assuming you can implement either option, which would you choose?} - A. Larger variety of food + B. Choosing the weekly menu </quiz> </div> {{RoundBoxBottom}} }} == External links == * [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551552/ Behavioural and psychological symptoms in dementia] (National library of medicine) * [https://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/dementia-care-study-highlights-importance-of-caregiver-self-efficacy Dementia care study highlights importance of caregiver self-efficacy] (UCLA newsroom) * [https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/scholarlywork/1753807-older-adults-using-technology-for-meaningful-activities-during-covid-19--an-analysis-through-the-lens-of-self-determination-theory Older] [https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/scholarlywork/1753807-older-adults-using-technology-for-meaningful-activities-during-covid-19--an-analysis-through-the-lens-of-self-determination-theory adults using technology for meaningful activities during COVID-19: an analysis through the lens of self-determination theory] (University of Melbourne) == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Basic psychological need theory|Basic psychological need theory]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Dementia care motivation|Dementia care motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[Dementia]] (Wikiversity) * [[wikipedia:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[Neurodegenerative disease]] (Wikiversity) == References == <div style="padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;"> Anselmo, A., Corallo, F., Pagano, M., Cardile, D., Marra, A., Maresca, G., De Luca, R., Alagna, A., Quartarone, A., Calabrò, R. S., & Cappadona, I. (2025). Beyond diagnosis: Exploring residual autonomy in dementia through a systematic review. ''Medicina, 61''(5), Article 895. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina61050895</nowiki> Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to student motivation: A meta-analysis of antecedents of autonomous and controlled motivations. ''Review of Educational Research, 92''(1), 46–72. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426</nowiki> Cipriani, G., Danti, S., Picchi, L., Nuti, A., & Fiorino, M. D. (2020). Daily functioning and dementia. ''Dementia & Neuropsychologia, 14''(2), 93–102. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-57642020dn14-020001</nowiki> Colclough, C., Perach, R., Harris, P., Rusted, J., Banerjee, S., & Miles, E. (2026). Decision-making involvement and quality of life in people with dementia: The mediating role of psychological needs. ''Aging & Mental Health, 30''(2), 267–276. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2025.2541188</nowiki> Custers, A. F. J., Kuin, Y., Riksen-Walraven, M., & Westerhof, G. J. (2011). Need support and wellbeing during morning care activities: An observational study on resident–staff interaction in nursing homes. ''Ageing and Society, 31''(8), 1425–1442. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X10001522</nowiki> Dombestein, H., Norheim, A., & Lunde Husebø, A. M. (2020). Understanding informal caregivers’ motivation from the perspective of self‐determination theory: An integrative review. ''Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 34''(2), 267–279. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/scs.12735</nowiki> Döpp, C. M. E., Drenth, H., Verkade, P.-J., Francke, A. F., & van der Heide, I. (2021). Interventions for improving self-direction in people with dementia: ''A systematic review. BMC Geriatrics, 21''(1), Article 195. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-021-02133-w</nowiki> Estrada, R. (2021). Listen and you will see the person through the dementia. ''Journal for Person-Oriented Research, 7''(2), 88–97. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.17505/jpor.2021.23891</nowiki> Giebel, C., Robertson, S., Beaulen, A., Zwakhalen, S., Allen, D., & Verbeek, H. (2021). “Nobody seems to know where to even turn to”: Barriers in accessing and utilising dementia care services in England and the Netherlands. International Journal of ''Environmental Research and Public Health, 18''(22), 12233. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182212233</nowiki> Hoel, K.-A., Rokstad, A. M. M., Feiring, I. H., Lichtwarck, B., Selbæk, G., & Bergh, S. (2021). Person-centred dementia care in home care services – highly recommended but still challenging to obtain: A qualitative interview study. ''BMC Health Services Research, 21''(1), Article 723. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-021-06722-8</nowiki> Lämås, K., Bölenius, K., Sandman, P.-O., Lindkvist, M., & Edvardsson, D. (2021). Effects of a person-centred and health-promoting intervention in home care services– a non-randomized controlled trial. ''BMC Geriatrics, 21''(1), Article 720. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-021-02661-5</nowiki> Maclin, J. M. A., Wang, T., & Xiao, S. (2019). Biomarkers for the diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease, dementia Lewy body, frontotemporal dementia and vascular dementia. ''General Psychiatry, 32''(1), e100054-n/a. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1136/gpsych-2019-100054</nowiki> Rapaport, P., Burton, A., Leverton, M., Herat-Gunaratne, R., Beresford-Dent, J., Lord, K., Downs, M., Boex, S., Horsley, R., Giebel, C., & Cooper, C. (2020). “I just keep thinking that I don’t want to rely on people.” a qualitative study of how people living with dementia achieve and maintain independence at home: Stakeholder perspectives. ''BMC Geriatrics, 20''(1), Article 5. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-019-1406-6</nowiki> Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61'', Article 101860. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860</nowiki> Shiells, K., Pivodic, L., Holmerová, I., & Van den Block, L. (2020). Self-reported needs and experiences of people with dementia living in nursing homes: ''A scoping review. Aging & Mental Health, 24''(10), 1553–1568. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2019.1625303</nowiki> Serbser-Koal, J., Rommerskirch-Manietta, M., Purwins, D., & Roes, M. (2024). Person-centredness in dementia care: An integrative review of theoretical approaches. ''BMJ Open, 14''(6), e085051. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2024-085051</nowiki> Singh, P., Hussain, R., Khan, A., Irwin, L., & Foskey, R. (2014). Dementia Care: Intersecting informal family care and formal care systems. ''Journal of Aging Research'', 109–117. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/486521</nowiki> Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Personality and ''Social Psychology, 127''(5), 1012–1037. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459</nowiki> Stumpf, A. D. H., McKenzie, E., & Beavers, A. (2025). An account of personal autonomy for people living with dementia. ''The Gerontologist, 65''(11), 1. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnaf210</nowiki> Van Andel, S., & Holkenborg, A. (2024). From the perspective of people with dementia: Using creative qualitative measures to assess the values and opinions on freedom and safety among people living with dementia. ''Healthcare,12''(14), 1412. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12141412</nowiki> Van Der Weide, H., Lovink, M. H., Luijkx, K. G., & Gerritsen, D. L. (2023). Supporting autonomy for people with dementia living in nursing homes: A rapid realist review. ''International Journal of Nursing Studies'',137, Article 104382. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2022.104382</nowiki> Van Den Broeck, A., Howard, J. L., Van Vaerenbergh, Y., Leroy, H., & Gagné, M. (2021). Beyond intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: A meta-analysis on self-determination theory’s multidimensional conceptualization of work motivation. ''Organizational Psychology Review, 11''(3), 240–273. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/20413866211006173</nowiki> Vassbø, T. K., Bergland, Å., Kirkevold, M., Lindkvist, M., Lood, Q., Sandman, P., Sjögren, K., & Edvardsson, D. (2020). Effects of a person‐centred and thriving‐promoting intervention on nursing home staff job satisfaction: A multi‐centre, non‐equivalent controlled before–after study. ''Nursing Open, 7''(6), 1787–1797. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1002/nop2.565</nowiki> Wammes, J. D., Labrie, N. H. M., Agogo, G. O., Monin, J. K., Bekker‐Grob, E. W., & MacNeil Vroomen, J. L. (2021). Persons with dementia and informal caregivers prioritizing care: A mixed‐methods study. Alzheimer’s & Dementia : ''Translational Research & Clinical Interventions, 7''(1), Article e12193 <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1002/trc2.12193</nowiki> World Health Organisation. (2026). Dementia <nowiki>https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/dementia</nowiki> Zou, W., Meadows, C. C. Z., Huang, L., & Wang, B. (2026). Psychological determinants of menstrual product preferences: Applying self-determination theory to women’s reproductive health decision-making. J''ournal of Health Psychology, 31''(9), 3512–3527. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/13591053251407843</nowiki> </div> dhxj01dyzk6rsm6rmk93r3hddr54g51 2840800 2840798 2026-10-17T02:08:46Z Ella Kay244 3107007 /* Person-centred care impacts on promoting psychological well-being */ 2840800 wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] {{title|Self-determination theory and dementia care:<br>How can autonomy, competence, and relatedness be supported in people living with dementia?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Wolf Creek NFH nursing home fishing event October 2024.png|thumb|'''Figure 1:''' Residence of an aged care home enjoying an outside activity ]] ;Imagine this ... Imagine you are an elderly resident with dementia living in a psychogeriatric ward in the beautiful Dutch countryside. On the walk from your bedroom to the communal dining room, you pass many people; staff, other residents and resident’s family members, but you do not recognise any of them. You take your breakfast to a table overlooking the garden and imagine walking outside, feeling the sun and smelling the flowers. Despite your longing to enjoy the garden, whether you get outside today is not up to you. You have been told it is unsafe, and you may only go out when a staff member has time to take you. How would this scenario make you feel? Trapped? Unsafe? {{RoundBoxBottom}} This scenario draws on experiences that residents of a Dutch psychogeriatric ward shared with researchers studying what gives residents a sense of freedom and safety. They identified that time in nature, knowing the staff and spending time with others all contributed positively to a sense of personal freedom and safety in the ward (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024). Scenarios like this are common within aged care homes for residents living with dementia. A review of 1158 articles published between 2000 and 2018 found that residents felt a lack of freedom, belonging, and connection, with some residents even describing their living situation as “living in a prison camp” (Shiells et al., 2020, p 1563). Many residents describe their well-being as low with reports of poor self-esteem, connection, value and independence (Shiells et al., 2020). This chapter asks how Self-Determination Theory (SDT) can help understand and support the psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness (ACR) in people with dementia. It begins with an overview of dementia and models of care, introduces SDT as a framework for understanding motivation and well-being, then examines how ACR can be supported for people living with dementia and highlights where the evidence is still limited. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus Questions''' # What is dementia, and what care options exist to support people living with it? # What does SDT propose about human motivation and well-being, and why is it a useful framework for understanding dementia care? # What interventions increase well-being for dementia patients? # How does person-centred care impact psychological well-being? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding dementia and models of care == '''Addresses focus question 1''' Dementia is a neurodegenerative disease (Cipriani et al., 2020). 57 million people across the globe live with dementia as of 2021, making it the seventh most common cause of death globally (World Health Organisation, 2026). Dementia disproportionately affects women as they are both more likely to get dementia and more likely to look after people with it (World Health Organisation, 2026). There are four types of dementia: Alzheimer’s disease, [https://www.dementia.org.au/about-dementia/vascular-dementia vascular dementia], frontotemporal dementia and dementia Lewy body (Maclin et al., 2019). Alzheimer’s is the most common type of dementia, occurring in 69% of the population over 75. Alzheimer’s involves gradual memory and cognitive loss that impairs daily activities. The second most common is frontotemporal dementia and is distinguished by a distorted personality, along with loss of social and executive function, including in some cases the loss of speech (Maclin et al., 2019). Vascular dementia affects cognition from blood vessels in the brain becoming blocked resulting in deficits in the sensory and motor systems. Lewy bodies is characterised by [[wikipedia:Lewy_body|cellular inclusions]] in the brain that cause fluctuations in [[Cognition|cognitive function]], hallucinations and behavioural problems. Support is often needed for people with dementia in the early stages for complex daily activities such as organising transportation. As the disease progresses, help with basic activities like getting dressed is needed too (Cipriani et al., 2020). Providing care and support for people living with dementia comes in many forms including in-home and institutionalised care. Families and patients choose between models based on a number of factors, including cultural values, knowledge of dementia, access to services, financial position and geographic location (Singh et al., 2014; Giebel et al., 2021). People receiving in-home care may be looked after by informal caregivers such as family members, formal caregivers or a mix of both, who are able to provide services at the home of the patient (Singh et al., 2014). Institutionalised care refers to the model of care where patients move into a facility where they can be monitored and looked after entirely by professionals or formal caregivers. In Australia, most people living with dementia choose in-home care. However, there are still over one million people living in institutionalised settings (Singh et al., 2014). == Self-Determination theory == '''Addresses focus question 2''' Self-determination Theory (SDT) is a theory of motivation. SDT predicts motivation by explaining why people are intrinsically or extrinsically motivated to perform a behaviour (Dombestein et at, 2020; Ryan & Deci, 2020). If someone is intrinsically motivated to perform a behaviour it means they find motivation from internal factors with no influence from the environment. This could be learning to [[Portal:Dance|dance]] purely for the enjoyment of it. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation is when someone behaves in response to environmental factors (Ryan & Deci, 2020). This could be learning to dance because all of their friends are dancing. People are very rarely motivated entirely for internal or external reasons therefore, extrinsic motivation is considered to be a continuum, starting with external regulation and finishing at integration: * External regulation - behaviours are regulated from environmental cues, rewards and punishments. * Introjection - environmental cues are being injected internally for instance the “punishment” of doing something wrong is feeling guilty. * Identified - you identify with your behaviours for example you identify with being a good student, so you show up to class but do not enjoy class. * Integration - there is less conflict between your identity and your behaviour. For example, you show up to class because you value being a good student and think it’s the right thing to do (Dombestein et al, 2020). Motivation is multidimensional, as people often have several forms of motivation for the same task (Ryan & Deci, 2020). For example, someone might run because their doctor advised it (identified) and because they enjoy seeing friends there (intrinsic). SDT offers an explanation as to where on the motivation continuum people operate. SDT says that for people to be intrinsically motivated or on the upper end of the extrinsic motivation scale you must satisfy all three critical psychological needs. These needs are:   * Autonomy - feeling ownership over actions and life circumstances * Competence - a sense of confidence or mastery over performing tasks * Relatedness - the need to feel like you belong to a group, that you are supported by others and in return people feel supported by you. Achievement of these three psychological needs is not automatic, and people often require support to achieve these needs. Organismic SDT states that people have a natural drive towards obtaining the critical psychological needs (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Zou et al. (2026) found that Chinese girls chose menstrual products that increased bodily autonomy, confidence in areas they identified with, and closeness to family and media figures, but could only do so if they could afford them. This reflects the theory that people have a natural desire to achieve the three psychological needs but need support from their environment. There is some debate in motivation research as to whether the different types of motivation describe distinct qualitative forms of motivation or if they point to different quantitative points along a scale of motivation (Van den Broeck et al., 2021). SDT theorists view motivation as a continuum, supported by findings that students with higher ACR have better wellbeing, higher grades and more intrinsic motivation. (Bureau et al., 2022; Ryan & Deci, 2020). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Key points''' * SDT is a theory of motivation. Extrinsic motivation sits on a continuum: external regulation, introjection, identified and integration. * Autonomy, competence and relatedness must all be met for people to be intrinsically motivated or at the upper end of the continuum. * People have a natural drive towards these needs but require support from their environment. * Higher need satisfaction is linked to better wellbeing. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Putting Self-Determination Theory into Practice: Meeting Psychological Needs in Dementia Patients == '''Addresses focus questions 3''' SDT proposes that supporting ACR in people living with dementia leads to better well-being, but these needs cannot just be given directly to a person. Therefore, the strategies discussed below are best understood as shaping conditions rather than delivering outcomes. One of the most well-documented examples of SDT in practice is the process of facilitating patient decision-making. Colclough et al. (2026) found that it did not improve well-being directly but did so by separately increasing satisfaction levels of all three needs, which is consistent with SDT’s claim that need satisfaction underlies well-being. However, decision-making is not the only pathway to increase ACR. [[File:Self-determination_theory_diagrame.png|thumb|347x347px|'''Figure 2.''' Self-determination theory diagram]] === '''Competency''' === Competency has been seen to be supported by carers assisting or allowing patients were possible to perform tasks independently (Custers et al., 2011). When adults with dementia cannot perform simple tasks by themselves like eating, they report feeling ashamed and embarrassed (Estrada, 2021). The ability to perform tasks independently is one reason most people prefer to stay in their home (Wammes et al., 2021). Both formal and informal caregivers help people with dementia feel competent and safe in their own home with patients reporting that their informal caregivers help them with daily living tasks, navigating the health system and organising social activities (Wammes et al., 2021). Similar sentiments have been shared around formal caregivers helping with medical information and daily tasks (Hoel et al., 2021). Aides for everyday activities are also cited as supporting competence (Rapaport et al., 2020; Wammes et al., 2021). The importance of the environment for allowing psychological needs to flourish is evident in respect to competency as people living in aged care homes are less likely to complete tasks independently as cognitive decline progresses, compared to people receiving informal care (Anselmo et al., 2025). Residents often report having little control over daily routines, such as what they eat or when they shower (Shiells et al., 2020). Assisting dementia patients to identify personal strengths and meaningful activities have been seen to increase self-direction (Döpp et al., 2021). Although the correlations are unclear, these studies suggest that helping residents identify personal strengths and meaningful activities could show caregivers where to allow more independence, such as control over daily routines. === Autonomy === Supporting autonomy in people with dementia is best understood through SDT’s definition of autonomy which is having a sense of agency over one’s life rather than the physical ability to act independently (Ryan & Deci, 2020). A study by Stumpf et al. (2025) found that people with dementia did not mind if they did not contribute much to decision making, as long as they were included in the process. 90% of people living with mild forms of dementia can articulate preferences and provide reasons for their preferences based on their [https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/values#google_vignette values] (Stumpf et al., 2025). Despite this, healthcare professionals will often defer all questions to patient’s family members (Stumpf et al., 2025). People with dementia generally accept the gradual loss of independence that comes with the progression of the disease if the decisions they do make around everyday things like going for a walk or dyeing their hair are respected (Estrada, 2021). Interventions that help to increase decision-making capacity by applying advance care planning to everyday situations, simplifying and visualising options, and staff knowing the residents have all helped increase autonomy (Van Der Weide et al., 2023). Van Der Weide et al. (2023) did warn that offering fewer choices increases the risk of staff accidently letting their preferences dictate the options available to residents. They also found autonomy interventions only appeared valuable within trusting relationships with family and staff (Van Der Weide et al., 2023). === Relatedness === The need for relatedness is often clearly expressed by people living in aged care homes with many residents reporting love and connection as important values (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024). Shiells et al. (2020) have discovered that reading groups, exercising, and helping other residents with problems have all been linked to feeling valued. The provision of in-home care by formal caregivers has been seen to increase feelings of relatedness, as people report appreciating the conversation and liking when they had regular contact with the same carer, as that carer better understood their preferences (Hoel et al., 2021).  Lastly, decision-making has also been seen to increase relatedness if ideas are heard and respected (Stumpf et al., 2025).  Estrada (2021) offers a richer understanding as to why decision-making might increase relatedness through the principles of [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6465833/ person-centred care], by which you can develop a deeper connection through conversation. Many of these strategies depend on carers having the time, energy and support to deliver them. Therefore, person-centred care has also been explored as an intervention to help increase the well-being of carers. == Person-centred care impacts on promoting psychological well-being == '''Addresses focus question 4''' Person or client-centred care is an approach to care that focuses on maintaining a person’s sense of self by putting them and their needs at the forefront of importance when delivering care (Serbser-Koal et al., 2024). Person-centred care has been investigated for solutions to increase staff satisfaction in aged care homes and in-home services and to help to increase well-being in people with dementia. One of the principles of person-centred care is to ‘enter the person’s world’ through communication to develop a better connection (Serbser-Koal et al., 2024). Estrada (2021) revealed that one way you can increase connection with dementia patients is by simply allowing more time for conversations. People with dementia need more time to communicate because as their disease progresses their processing speed and [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19672843/ short-term memory] capacity decreases (Estrada, 2021). Allowing enough time for communicating is important as many people express frustrations when they feel rushed (Estrada, 2021). Even in people with non-fluent dementia, communication can increase relatedness through the encouragement of non-verbal communication like smiling, waving or touch (Estrada, 2021). Although it is well established that increased and better-quality communication between nursing, home staff and residents is needed, nursing staff report not having enough time to get to know residents (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024) and therefore place more importance on basic survival needs over psychological needs (Estrada, 2021). In-home care staff have also reported that the lack of time to address patient needs is also a reason for high staff turnover (Lämås et al., 2021). Lämås et al. (2021) tested person-centred care in home care services. Thriving rose among people with dementia, but self-determination fell and formal caregivers did not benefit. However, the caregiver [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19672843/ sample] was too small to detect an effect, and the self-determination measure captured only autonomy, whereas the thriving measure (attitudes to home, care and relationships) likely reflected all three needs better. A study with a larger sample size by Vassbø et al. (2020) looked at the effects of a person-centred intervention over 14 months and also found no effect on job satisfaction. Person-centred care therefore does not appear to be a solution to increase staff satisfaction. However, there are promising sings it may increase well-being dementia patients. == Increasing the well-being on informal caregivers == The psychological well-being of informal caregivers also affects the well-being of the people they care for. Informal caregivers report needing more emotional support, finding caring increasingly difficult as they become older, and report navigating the healthcare system on their own as challenging (Wammes et al., 2021). Interventions, based on SDT, that focus on increasing coping skills, communication skills and improving relationships made carers more intrinsically motivated to care for their loved one, which led to increased wellbeing (Dombestein et al., 2020). Carers also reported that being able to drop their loved ones off at [https://agedcare.salvos.org.au/residential-aged-care/carpenter-court-aged-care-centre/ day-care centres] allowed them to socialise with others, thereby increasing relatedness, and provision of at-home aides that helped them complete domestic tasks helped them feel competent (Wammes et al., 2021). ==Conclusion== Dementia makes independent living challenging, but it does not mean that agency should be taken away. As shown above, dementia patients are capable of decision-making even in severe cases.  SDT seeks to explain well-being through the prism of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. To become intrinsically motivated an individual must satisfy all three psychological needs. The strategies for increasing psychology well-being discussed in this paper are most successful when the interconnected nature of the needs are understood (Slemp et al., 2024). Interventions aimed at one need often support others. For example, feeling genuinely listened-to and respected increases both relatedness and autonomy (Stumpf et al., 2025; Estrada, 2021). Because these needs overlap and cannot be supplied directly, the most effective interventions are those that change the environment to allow them to develop. Allowing more time to communicate, creating spaces where people can act more independently, and increasing collaboration in decision-making all support the satisfaction of one or more needs, which in turn supports the satisfaction of other needs. Carer well-being remains an important area for future research to help increase well-being for dementia patients. <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}">{{Robelbox|theme=13|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg|iconwidth=48px|title=Review time!<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {You operate a dementia care live-in clinic. Two of your employees come to you with competing ideas of how to make the lives of your patients better. Employee A suggests that you should provide the patients with a larger variety of food. Employee B suggests that you should allow patients to choose what they want to eat. Assuming you can implement either option, which would you choose?} - A. Larger variety of food + B. Choosing the weekly menu </quiz> </div> {{RoundBoxBottom}} }} == External links == * [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551552/ Behavioural and psychological symptoms in dementia] (National library of medicine) * [https://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/dementia-care-study-highlights-importance-of-caregiver-self-efficacy Dementia care study highlights importance of caregiver self-efficacy] (UCLA newsroom) * [https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/scholarlywork/1753807-older-adults-using-technology-for-meaningful-activities-during-covid-19--an-analysis-through-the-lens-of-self-determination-theory Older] [https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/scholarlywork/1753807-older-adults-using-technology-for-meaningful-activities-during-covid-19--an-analysis-through-the-lens-of-self-determination-theory adults using technology for meaningful activities during COVID-19: an analysis through the lens of self-determination theory] (University of Melbourne) == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Basic psychological need theory|Basic psychological need theory]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Dementia care motivation|Dementia care motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[Dementia]] (Wikiversity) * [[wikipedia:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[Neurodegenerative disease]] (Wikiversity) == References == <div style="padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;"> Anselmo, A., Corallo, F., Pagano, M., Cardile, D., Marra, A., Maresca, G., De Luca, R., Alagna, A., Quartarone, A., Calabrò, R. S., & Cappadona, I. (2025). Beyond diagnosis: Exploring residual autonomy in dementia through a systematic review. ''Medicina, 61''(5), Article 895. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina61050895</nowiki> Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to student motivation: A meta-analysis of antecedents of autonomous and controlled motivations. ''Review of Educational Research, 92''(1), 46–72. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426</nowiki> Cipriani, G., Danti, S., Picchi, L., Nuti, A., & Fiorino, M. D. (2020). Daily functioning and dementia. ''Dementia & Neuropsychologia, 14''(2), 93–102. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-57642020dn14-020001</nowiki> Colclough, C., Perach, R., Harris, P., Rusted, J., Banerjee, S., & Miles, E. (2026). Decision-making involvement and quality of life in people with dementia: The mediating role of psychological needs. ''Aging & Mental Health, 30''(2), 267–276. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2025.2541188</nowiki> Custers, A. F. J., Kuin, Y., Riksen-Walraven, M., & Westerhof, G. J. (2011). Need support and wellbeing during morning care activities: An observational study on resident–staff interaction in nursing homes. ''Ageing and Society, 31''(8), 1425–1442. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X10001522</nowiki> Dombestein, H., Norheim, A., & Lunde Husebø, A. M. (2020). Understanding informal caregivers’ motivation from the perspective of self‐determination theory: An integrative review. ''Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 34''(2), 267–279. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/scs.12735</nowiki> Döpp, C. M. E., Drenth, H., Verkade, P.-J., Francke, A. F., & van der Heide, I. (2021). Interventions for improving self-direction in people with dementia: ''A systematic review. BMC Geriatrics, 21''(1), Article 195. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-021-02133-w</nowiki> Estrada, R. (2021). Listen and you will see the person through the dementia. ''Journal for Person-Oriented Research, 7''(2), 88–97. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.17505/jpor.2021.23891</nowiki> Giebel, C., Robertson, S., Beaulen, A., Zwakhalen, S., Allen, D., & Verbeek, H. (2021). “Nobody seems to know where to even turn to”: Barriers in accessing and utilising dementia care services in England and the Netherlands. International Journal of ''Environmental Research and Public Health, 18''(22), 12233. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182212233</nowiki> Hoel, K.-A., Rokstad, A. M. M., Feiring, I. H., Lichtwarck, B., Selbæk, G., & Bergh, S. (2021). Person-centred dementia care in home care services – highly recommended but still challenging to obtain: A qualitative interview study. ''BMC Health Services Research, 21''(1), Article 723. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-021-06722-8</nowiki> Lämås, K., Bölenius, K., Sandman, P.-O., Lindkvist, M., & Edvardsson, D. (2021). Effects of a person-centred and health-promoting intervention in home care services– a non-randomized controlled trial. ''BMC Geriatrics, 21''(1), Article 720. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-021-02661-5</nowiki> Maclin, J. M. A., Wang, T., & Xiao, S. (2019). Biomarkers for the diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease, dementia Lewy body, frontotemporal dementia and vascular dementia. ''General Psychiatry, 32''(1), e100054-n/a. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1136/gpsych-2019-100054</nowiki> Rapaport, P., Burton, A., Leverton, M., Herat-Gunaratne, R., Beresford-Dent, J., Lord, K., Downs, M., Boex, S., Horsley, R., Giebel, C., & Cooper, C. (2020). “I just keep thinking that I don’t want to rely on people.” a qualitative study of how people living with dementia achieve and maintain independence at home: Stakeholder perspectives. ''BMC Geriatrics, 20''(1), Article 5. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-019-1406-6</nowiki> Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61'', Article 101860. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860</nowiki> Shiells, K., Pivodic, L., Holmerová, I., & Van den Block, L. (2020). Self-reported needs and experiences of people with dementia living in nursing homes: ''A scoping review. Aging & Mental Health, 24''(10), 1553–1568. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2019.1625303</nowiki> Serbser-Koal, J., Rommerskirch-Manietta, M., Purwins, D., & Roes, M. (2024). Person-centredness in dementia care: An integrative review of theoretical approaches. ''BMJ Open, 14''(6), e085051. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2024-085051</nowiki> Singh, P., Hussain, R., Khan, A., Irwin, L., & Foskey, R. (2014). Dementia Care: Intersecting informal family care and formal care systems. ''Journal of Aging Research'', 109–117. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/486521</nowiki> Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Personality and ''Social Psychology, 127''(5), 1012–1037. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459</nowiki> Stumpf, A. D. H., McKenzie, E., & Beavers, A. (2025). An account of personal autonomy for people living with dementia. ''The Gerontologist, 65''(11), 1. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnaf210</nowiki> Van Andel, S., & Holkenborg, A. (2024). From the perspective of people with dementia: Using creative qualitative measures to assess the values and opinions on freedom and safety among people living with dementia. ''Healthcare,12''(14), 1412. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12141412</nowiki> Van Der Weide, H., Lovink, M. H., Luijkx, K. G., & Gerritsen, D. L. (2023). Supporting autonomy for people with dementia living in nursing homes: A rapid realist review. ''International Journal of Nursing Studies'',137, Article 104382. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2022.104382</nowiki> Van Den Broeck, A., Howard, J. L., Van Vaerenbergh, Y., Leroy, H., & Gagné, M. (2021). Beyond intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: A meta-analysis on self-determination theory’s multidimensional conceptualization of work motivation. ''Organizational Psychology Review, 11''(3), 240–273. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/20413866211006173</nowiki> Vassbø, T. K., Bergland, Å., Kirkevold, M., Lindkvist, M., Lood, Q., Sandman, P., Sjögren, K., & Edvardsson, D. (2020). Effects of a person‐centred and thriving‐promoting intervention on nursing home staff job satisfaction: A multi‐centre, non‐equivalent controlled before–after study. ''Nursing Open, 7''(6), 1787–1797. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1002/nop2.565</nowiki> Wammes, J. D., Labrie, N. H. M., Agogo, G. O., Monin, J. K., Bekker‐Grob, E. W., & MacNeil Vroomen, J. L. (2021). Persons with dementia and informal caregivers prioritizing care: A mixed‐methods study. Alzheimer’s & Dementia : ''Translational Research & Clinical Interventions, 7''(1), Article e12193 <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1002/trc2.12193</nowiki> World Health Organisation. (2026). Dementia <nowiki>https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/dementia</nowiki> Zou, W., Meadows, C. C. Z., Huang, L., & Wang, B. (2026). Psychological determinants of menstrual product preferences: Applying self-determination theory to women’s reproductive health decision-making. J''ournal of Health Psychology, 31''(9), 3512–3527. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/13591053251407843</nowiki> </div> 4emqv72pijod7085myw7wcd10ekcbyy 2840801 2840800 2026-10-17T02:09:40Z Ella Kay244 3107007 /* Person-centred care impacts on promoting psychological well-being */ 2840801 wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] {{title|Self-determination theory and dementia care:<br>How can autonomy, competence, and relatedness be supported in people living with dementia?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Wolf Creek NFH nursing home fishing event October 2024.png|thumb|'''Figure 1:''' Residence of an aged care home enjoying an outside activity ]] ;Imagine this ... Imagine you are an elderly resident with dementia living in a psychogeriatric ward in the beautiful Dutch countryside. On the walk from your bedroom to the communal dining room, you pass many people; staff, other residents and resident’s family members, but you do not recognise any of them. You take your breakfast to a table overlooking the garden and imagine walking outside, feeling the sun and smelling the flowers. Despite your longing to enjoy the garden, whether you get outside today is not up to you. You have been told it is unsafe, and you may only go out when a staff member has time to take you. How would this scenario make you feel? Trapped? Unsafe? {{RoundBoxBottom}} This scenario draws on experiences that residents of a Dutch psychogeriatric ward shared with researchers studying what gives residents a sense of freedom and safety. They identified that time in nature, knowing the staff and spending time with others all contributed positively to a sense of personal freedom and safety in the ward (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024). Scenarios like this are common within aged care homes for residents living with dementia. A review of 1158 articles published between 2000 and 2018 found that residents felt a lack of freedom, belonging, and connection, with some residents even describing their living situation as “living in a prison camp” (Shiells et al., 2020, p 1563). Many residents describe their well-being as low with reports of poor self-esteem, connection, value and independence (Shiells et al., 2020). This chapter asks how Self-Determination Theory (SDT) can help understand and support the psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness (ACR) in people with dementia. It begins with an overview of dementia and models of care, introduces SDT as a framework for understanding motivation and well-being, then examines how ACR can be supported for people living with dementia and highlights where the evidence is still limited. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus Questions''' # What is dementia, and what care options exist to support people living with it? # What does SDT propose about human motivation and well-being, and why is it a useful framework for understanding dementia care? # What interventions increase well-being for dementia patients? # How does person-centred care impact psychological well-being? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding dementia and models of care == '''Addresses focus question 1''' Dementia is a neurodegenerative disease (Cipriani et al., 2020). 57 million people across the globe live with dementia as of 2021, making it the seventh most common cause of death globally (World Health Organisation, 2026). Dementia disproportionately affects women as they are both more likely to get dementia and more likely to look after people with it (World Health Organisation, 2026). There are four types of dementia: Alzheimer’s disease, [https://www.dementia.org.au/about-dementia/vascular-dementia vascular dementia], frontotemporal dementia and dementia Lewy body (Maclin et al., 2019). Alzheimer’s is the most common type of dementia, occurring in 69% of the population over 75. Alzheimer’s involves gradual memory and cognitive loss that impairs daily activities. The second most common is frontotemporal dementia and is distinguished by a distorted personality, along with loss of social and executive function, including in some cases the loss of speech (Maclin et al., 2019). Vascular dementia affects cognition from blood vessels in the brain becoming blocked resulting in deficits in the sensory and motor systems. Lewy bodies is characterised by [[wikipedia:Lewy_body|cellular inclusions]] in the brain that cause fluctuations in [[Cognition|cognitive function]], hallucinations and behavioural problems. Support is often needed for people with dementia in the early stages for complex daily activities such as organising transportation. As the disease progresses, help with basic activities like getting dressed is needed too (Cipriani et al., 2020). Providing care and support for people living with dementia comes in many forms including in-home and institutionalised care. Families and patients choose between models based on a number of factors, including cultural values, knowledge of dementia, access to services, financial position and geographic location (Singh et al., 2014; Giebel et al., 2021). People receiving in-home care may be looked after by informal caregivers such as family members, formal caregivers or a mix of both, who are able to provide services at the home of the patient (Singh et al., 2014). Institutionalised care refers to the model of care where patients move into a facility where they can be monitored and looked after entirely by professionals or formal caregivers. In Australia, most people living with dementia choose in-home care. However, there are still over one million people living in institutionalised settings (Singh et al., 2014). == Self-Determination theory == '''Addresses focus question 2''' Self-determination Theory (SDT) is a theory of motivation. SDT predicts motivation by explaining why people are intrinsically or extrinsically motivated to perform a behaviour (Dombestein et at, 2020; Ryan & Deci, 2020). If someone is intrinsically motivated to perform a behaviour it means they find motivation from internal factors with no influence from the environment. This could be learning to [[Portal:Dance|dance]] purely for the enjoyment of it. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation is when someone behaves in response to environmental factors (Ryan & Deci, 2020). This could be learning to dance because all of their friends are dancing. People are very rarely motivated entirely for internal or external reasons therefore, extrinsic motivation is considered to be a continuum, starting with external regulation and finishing at integration: * External regulation - behaviours are regulated from environmental cues, rewards and punishments. * Introjection - environmental cues are being injected internally for instance the “punishment” of doing something wrong is feeling guilty. * Identified - you identify with your behaviours for example you identify with being a good student, so you show up to class but do not enjoy class. * Integration - there is less conflict between your identity and your behaviour. For example, you show up to class because you value being a good student and think it’s the right thing to do (Dombestein et al, 2020). Motivation is multidimensional, as people often have several forms of motivation for the same task (Ryan & Deci, 2020). For example, someone might run because their doctor advised it (identified) and because they enjoy seeing friends there (intrinsic). SDT offers an explanation as to where on the motivation continuum people operate. SDT says that for people to be intrinsically motivated or on the upper end of the extrinsic motivation scale you must satisfy all three critical psychological needs. These needs are:   * Autonomy - feeling ownership over actions and life circumstances * Competence - a sense of confidence or mastery over performing tasks * Relatedness - the need to feel like you belong to a group, that you are supported by others and in return people feel supported by you. Achievement of these three psychological needs is not automatic, and people often require support to achieve these needs. Organismic SDT states that people have a natural drive towards obtaining the critical psychological needs (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Zou et al. (2026) found that Chinese girls chose menstrual products that increased bodily autonomy, confidence in areas they identified with, and closeness to family and media figures, but could only do so if they could afford them. This reflects the theory that people have a natural desire to achieve the three psychological needs but need support from their environment. There is some debate in motivation research as to whether the different types of motivation describe distinct qualitative forms of motivation or if they point to different quantitative points along a scale of motivation (Van den Broeck et al., 2021). SDT theorists view motivation as a continuum, supported by findings that students with higher ACR have better wellbeing, higher grades and more intrinsic motivation. (Bureau et al., 2022; Ryan & Deci, 2020). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Key points''' * SDT is a theory of motivation. Extrinsic motivation sits on a continuum: external regulation, introjection, identified and integration. * Autonomy, competence and relatedness must all be met for people to be intrinsically motivated or at the upper end of the continuum. * People have a natural drive towards these needs but require support from their environment. * Higher need satisfaction is linked to better wellbeing. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Putting Self-Determination Theory into Practice: Meeting Psychological Needs in Dementia Patients == '''Addresses focus questions 3''' SDT proposes that supporting ACR in people living with dementia leads to better well-being, but these needs cannot just be given directly to a person. Therefore, the strategies discussed below are best understood as shaping conditions rather than delivering outcomes. One of the most well-documented examples of SDT in practice is the process of facilitating patient decision-making. Colclough et al. (2026) found that it did not improve well-being directly but did so by separately increasing satisfaction levels of all three needs, which is consistent with SDT’s claim that need satisfaction underlies well-being. However, decision-making is not the only pathway to increase ACR. [[File:Self-determination_theory_diagrame.png|thumb|347x347px|'''Figure 2.''' Self-determination theory diagram]] === '''Competency''' === Competency has been seen to be supported by carers assisting or allowing patients were possible to perform tasks independently (Custers et al., 2011). When adults with dementia cannot perform simple tasks by themselves like eating, they report feeling ashamed and embarrassed (Estrada, 2021). The ability to perform tasks independently is one reason most people prefer to stay in their home (Wammes et al., 2021). Both formal and informal caregivers help people with dementia feel competent and safe in their own home with patients reporting that their informal caregivers help them with daily living tasks, navigating the health system and organising social activities (Wammes et al., 2021). Similar sentiments have been shared around formal caregivers helping with medical information and daily tasks (Hoel et al., 2021). Aides for everyday activities are also cited as supporting competence (Rapaport et al., 2020; Wammes et al., 2021). The importance of the environment for allowing psychological needs to flourish is evident in respect to competency as people living in aged care homes are less likely to complete tasks independently as cognitive decline progresses, compared to people receiving informal care (Anselmo et al., 2025). Residents often report having little control over daily routines, such as what they eat or when they shower (Shiells et al., 2020). Assisting dementia patients to identify personal strengths and meaningful activities have been seen to increase self-direction (Döpp et al., 2021). Although the correlations are unclear, these studies suggest that helping residents identify personal strengths and meaningful activities could show caregivers where to allow more independence, such as control over daily routines. === Autonomy === Supporting autonomy in people with dementia is best understood through SDT’s definition of autonomy which is having a sense of agency over one’s life rather than the physical ability to act independently (Ryan & Deci, 2020). A study by Stumpf et al. (2025) found that people with dementia did not mind if they did not contribute much to decision making, as long as they were included in the process. 90% of people living with mild forms of dementia can articulate preferences and provide reasons for their preferences based on their [https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/values#google_vignette values] (Stumpf et al., 2025). Despite this, healthcare professionals will often defer all questions to patient’s family members (Stumpf et al., 2025). People with dementia generally accept the gradual loss of independence that comes with the progression of the disease if the decisions they do make around everyday things like going for a walk or dyeing their hair are respected (Estrada, 2021). Interventions that help to increase decision-making capacity by applying advance care planning to everyday situations, simplifying and visualising options, and staff knowing the residents have all helped increase autonomy (Van Der Weide et al., 2023). Van Der Weide et al. (2023) did warn that offering fewer choices increases the risk of staff accidently letting their preferences dictate the options available to residents. They also found autonomy interventions only appeared valuable within trusting relationships with family and staff (Van Der Weide et al., 2023). === Relatedness === The need for relatedness is often clearly expressed by people living in aged care homes with many residents reporting love and connection as important values (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024). Shiells et al. (2020) have discovered that reading groups, exercising, and helping other residents with problems have all been linked to feeling valued. The provision of in-home care by formal caregivers has been seen to increase feelings of relatedness, as people report appreciating the conversation and liking when they had regular contact with the same carer, as that carer better understood their preferences (Hoel et al., 2021).  Lastly, decision-making has also been seen to increase relatedness if ideas are heard and respected (Stumpf et al., 2025).  Estrada (2021) offers a richer understanding as to why decision-making might increase relatedness through the principles of [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6465833/ person-centred care], by which you can develop a deeper connection through conversation. Many of these strategies depend on carers having the time, energy and support to deliver them. Therefore, person-centred care has also been explored as an intervention to help increase the well-being of carers. == Person-centred care impacts on promoting psychological well-being == '''Addresses focus question 4''' Person or client-centred care is an approach to care that focuses on maintaining a person’s sense of self by putting them and their needs at the forefront of importance when delivering care (Serbser-Koal et al., 2024). Person-centred care has been investigated for solutions to increase staff satisfaction in aged care homes and in-home services and to help to increase well-being in people with dementia. One of the principles of person-centred care is to ‘enter the person’s world’ through communication to develop a better connection (Serbser-Koal et al., 2024). Estrada (2021) revealed that one way you can increase connection with dementia patients is by simply allowing more time for conversations. People with dementia need more time to communicate because as their disease progresses their processing speed and [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19672843/ short-term memory] capacity decreases (Estrada, 2021). Allowing enough time for communicating is important as many people express frustrations when they feel rushed (Estrada, 2021). Even in people with non-fluent dementia, communication can increase relatedness through the encouragement of non-verbal communication like smiling, waving or touch (Estrada, 2021). Although it is well established that increased and better-quality communication between nursing, home staff and residents is needed, nursing staff report not having enough time to get to know residents (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024) and therefore place more importance on basic survival needs over psychological needs (Estrada, 2021). In-home care staff have also reported that the lack of time to address patient needs is also a reason for high staff turnover (Lämås et al., 2021). Lämås et al. (2021) tested person-centred care in home care services. 'Thriving' rose among people with dementia, but self-determination fell and formal caregivers did not benefit. However, the caregiver [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19672843/ sample] was too small to detect an effect, and the self-determination measure captured only autonomy, whereas the thriving measure (attitudes to home, care and relationships) likely reflected all three needs better. A study with a larger sample size by Vassbø et al. (2020) looked at the effects of a person-centred intervention over 14 months and also found no effect on job satisfaction. Person-centred care therefore does not appear to be a solution to increase staff satisfaction. However, there are promising sings it may increase well-being dementia patients. == Increasing the well-being on informal caregivers == The psychological well-being of informal caregivers also affects the well-being of the people they care for. Informal caregivers report needing more emotional support, finding caring increasingly difficult as they become older, and report navigating the healthcare system on their own as challenging (Wammes et al., 2021). Interventions, based on SDT, that focus on increasing coping skills, communication skills and improving relationships made carers more intrinsically motivated to care for their loved one, which led to increased wellbeing (Dombestein et al., 2020). Carers also reported that being able to drop their loved ones off at [https://agedcare.salvos.org.au/residential-aged-care/carpenter-court-aged-care-centre/ day-care centres] allowed them to socialise with others, thereby increasing relatedness, and provision of at-home aides that helped them complete domestic tasks helped them feel competent (Wammes et al., 2021). ==Conclusion== Dementia makes independent living challenging, but it does not mean that agency should be taken away. As shown above, dementia patients are capable of decision-making even in severe cases.  SDT seeks to explain well-being through the prism of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. To become intrinsically motivated an individual must satisfy all three psychological needs. The strategies for increasing psychology well-being discussed in this paper are most successful when the interconnected nature of the needs are understood (Slemp et al., 2024). Interventions aimed at one need often support others. For example, feeling genuinely listened-to and respected increases both relatedness and autonomy (Stumpf et al., 2025; Estrada, 2021). Because these needs overlap and cannot be supplied directly, the most effective interventions are those that change the environment to allow them to develop. Allowing more time to communicate, creating spaces where people can act more independently, and increasing collaboration in decision-making all support the satisfaction of one or more needs, which in turn supports the satisfaction of other needs. Carer well-being remains an important area for future research to help increase well-being for dementia patients. <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}">{{Robelbox|theme=13|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg|iconwidth=48px|title=Review time!<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {You operate a dementia care live-in clinic. Two of your employees come to you with competing ideas of how to make the lives of your patients better. Employee A suggests that you should provide the patients with a larger variety of food. Employee B suggests that you should allow patients to choose what they want to eat. Assuming you can implement either option, which would you choose?} - A. Larger variety of food + B. Choosing the weekly menu </quiz> </div> {{RoundBoxBottom}} }} == External links == * [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551552/ Behavioural and psychological symptoms in dementia] (National library of medicine) * [https://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/dementia-care-study-highlights-importance-of-caregiver-self-efficacy Dementia care study highlights importance of caregiver self-efficacy] (UCLA newsroom) * [https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/scholarlywork/1753807-older-adults-using-technology-for-meaningful-activities-during-covid-19--an-analysis-through-the-lens-of-self-determination-theory Older] [https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/scholarlywork/1753807-older-adults-using-technology-for-meaningful-activities-during-covid-19--an-analysis-through-the-lens-of-self-determination-theory adults using technology for meaningful activities during COVID-19: an analysis through the lens of self-determination theory] (University of Melbourne) == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Basic psychological need theory|Basic psychological need theory]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Dementia care motivation|Dementia care motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[Dementia]] (Wikiversity) * [[wikipedia:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[Neurodegenerative disease]] (Wikiversity) == References == <div style="padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;"> Anselmo, A., Corallo, F., Pagano, M., Cardile, D., Marra, A., Maresca, G., De Luca, R., Alagna, A., Quartarone, A., Calabrò, R. S., & Cappadona, I. (2025). Beyond diagnosis: Exploring residual autonomy in dementia through a systematic review. ''Medicina, 61''(5), Article 895. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina61050895</nowiki> Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to student motivation: A meta-analysis of antecedents of autonomous and controlled motivations. ''Review of Educational Research, 92''(1), 46–72. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426</nowiki> Cipriani, G., Danti, S., Picchi, L., Nuti, A., & Fiorino, M. D. (2020). Daily functioning and dementia. ''Dementia & Neuropsychologia, 14''(2), 93–102. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-57642020dn14-020001</nowiki> Colclough, C., Perach, R., Harris, P., Rusted, J., Banerjee, S., & Miles, E. (2026). Decision-making involvement and quality of life in people with dementia: The mediating role of psychological needs. ''Aging & Mental Health, 30''(2), 267–276. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2025.2541188</nowiki> Custers, A. F. J., Kuin, Y., Riksen-Walraven, M., & Westerhof, G. J. (2011). Need support and wellbeing during morning care activities: An observational study on resident–staff interaction in nursing homes. ''Ageing and Society, 31''(8), 1425–1442. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X10001522</nowiki> Dombestein, H., Norheim, A., & Lunde Husebø, A. M. (2020). Understanding informal caregivers’ motivation from the perspective of self‐determination theory: An integrative review. ''Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 34''(2), 267–279. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/scs.12735</nowiki> Döpp, C. M. E., Drenth, H., Verkade, P.-J., Francke, A. F., & van der Heide, I. (2021). Interventions for improving self-direction in people with dementia: ''A systematic review. BMC Geriatrics, 21''(1), Article 195. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-021-02133-w</nowiki> Estrada, R. (2021). Listen and you will see the person through the dementia. ''Journal for Person-Oriented Research, 7''(2), 88–97. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.17505/jpor.2021.23891</nowiki> Giebel, C., Robertson, S., Beaulen, A., Zwakhalen, S., Allen, D., & Verbeek, H. (2021). “Nobody seems to know where to even turn to”: Barriers in accessing and utilising dementia care services in England and the Netherlands. International Journal of ''Environmental Research and Public Health, 18''(22), 12233. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182212233</nowiki> Hoel, K.-A., Rokstad, A. M. M., Feiring, I. H., Lichtwarck, B., Selbæk, G., & Bergh, S. (2021). Person-centred dementia care in home care services – highly recommended but still challenging to obtain: A qualitative interview study. ''BMC Health Services Research, 21''(1), Article 723. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-021-06722-8</nowiki> Lämås, K., Bölenius, K., Sandman, P.-O., Lindkvist, M., & Edvardsson, D. (2021). Effects of a person-centred and health-promoting intervention in home care services– a non-randomized controlled trial. ''BMC Geriatrics, 21''(1), Article 720. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-021-02661-5</nowiki> Maclin, J. M. A., Wang, T., & Xiao, S. (2019). Biomarkers for the diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease, dementia Lewy body, frontotemporal dementia and vascular dementia. ''General Psychiatry, 32''(1), e100054-n/a. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1136/gpsych-2019-100054</nowiki> Rapaport, P., Burton, A., Leverton, M., Herat-Gunaratne, R., Beresford-Dent, J., Lord, K., Downs, M., Boex, S., Horsley, R., Giebel, C., & Cooper, C. (2020). “I just keep thinking that I don’t want to rely on people.” a qualitative study of how people living with dementia achieve and maintain independence at home: Stakeholder perspectives. ''BMC Geriatrics, 20''(1), Article 5. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-019-1406-6</nowiki> Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61'', Article 101860. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860</nowiki> Shiells, K., Pivodic, L., Holmerová, I., & Van den Block, L. (2020). Self-reported needs and experiences of people with dementia living in nursing homes: ''A scoping review. Aging & Mental Health, 24''(10), 1553–1568. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2019.1625303</nowiki> Serbser-Koal, J., Rommerskirch-Manietta, M., Purwins, D., & Roes, M. (2024). Person-centredness in dementia care: An integrative review of theoretical approaches. ''BMJ Open, 14''(6), e085051. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2024-085051</nowiki> Singh, P., Hussain, R., Khan, A., Irwin, L., & Foskey, R. (2014). Dementia Care: Intersecting informal family care and formal care systems. ''Journal of Aging Research'', 109–117. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/486521</nowiki> Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Personality and ''Social Psychology, 127''(5), 1012–1037. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459</nowiki> Stumpf, A. D. H., McKenzie, E., & Beavers, A. (2025). An account of personal autonomy for people living with dementia. ''The Gerontologist, 65''(11), 1. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnaf210</nowiki> Van Andel, S., & Holkenborg, A. (2024). From the perspective of people with dementia: Using creative qualitative measures to assess the values and opinions on freedom and safety among people living with dementia. ''Healthcare,12''(14), 1412. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12141412</nowiki> Van Der Weide, H., Lovink, M. H., Luijkx, K. G., & Gerritsen, D. L. (2023). Supporting autonomy for people with dementia living in nursing homes: A rapid realist review. ''International Journal of Nursing Studies'',137, Article 104382. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2022.104382</nowiki> Van Den Broeck, A., Howard, J. L., Van Vaerenbergh, Y., Leroy, H., & Gagné, M. (2021). Beyond intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: A meta-analysis on self-determination theory’s multidimensional conceptualization of work motivation. ''Organizational Psychology Review, 11''(3), 240–273. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/20413866211006173</nowiki> Vassbø, T. K., Bergland, Å., Kirkevold, M., Lindkvist, M., Lood, Q., Sandman, P., Sjögren, K., & Edvardsson, D. (2020). Effects of a person‐centred and thriving‐promoting intervention on nursing home staff job satisfaction: A multi‐centre, non‐equivalent controlled before–after study. ''Nursing Open, 7''(6), 1787–1797. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1002/nop2.565</nowiki> Wammes, J. D., Labrie, N. H. M., Agogo, G. O., Monin, J. K., Bekker‐Grob, E. W., & MacNeil Vroomen, J. L. (2021). Persons with dementia and informal caregivers prioritizing care: A mixed‐methods study. Alzheimer’s & Dementia : ''Translational Research & Clinical Interventions, 7''(1), Article e12193 <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1002/trc2.12193</nowiki> World Health Organisation. (2026). Dementia <nowiki>https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/dementia</nowiki> Zou, W., Meadows, C. C. Z., Huang, L., & Wang, B. (2026). Psychological determinants of menstrual product preferences: Applying self-determination theory to women’s reproductive health decision-making. J''ournal of Health Psychology, 31''(9), 3512–3527. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/13591053251407843</nowiki> </div> fh5qn3iqmsi9j3fyg2xvjw5c4no1j1d 2840803 2840801 2026-10-17T02:10:51Z Ella Kay244 3107007 /* Person-centred care impacts on promoting psychological well-being */ 2840803 wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] {{title|Self-determination theory and dementia care:<br>How can autonomy, competence, and relatedness be supported in people living with dementia?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Wolf Creek NFH nursing home fishing event October 2024.png|thumb|'''Figure 1:''' Residence of an aged care home enjoying an outside activity ]] ;Imagine this ... Imagine you are an elderly resident with dementia living in a psychogeriatric ward in the beautiful Dutch countryside. On the walk from your bedroom to the communal dining room, you pass many people; staff, other residents and resident’s family members, but you do not recognise any of them. You take your breakfast to a table overlooking the garden and imagine walking outside, feeling the sun and smelling the flowers. Despite your longing to enjoy the garden, whether you get outside today is not up to you. You have been told it is unsafe, and you may only go out when a staff member has time to take you. How would this scenario make you feel? Trapped? Unsafe? {{RoundBoxBottom}} This scenario draws on experiences that residents of a Dutch psychogeriatric ward shared with researchers studying what gives residents a sense of freedom and safety. They identified that time in nature, knowing the staff and spending time with others all contributed positively to a sense of personal freedom and safety in the ward (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024). Scenarios like this are common within aged care homes for residents living with dementia. A review of 1158 articles published between 2000 and 2018 found that residents felt a lack of freedom, belonging, and connection, with some residents even describing their living situation as “living in a prison camp” (Shiells et al., 2020, p 1563). Many residents describe their well-being as low with reports of poor self-esteem, connection, value and independence (Shiells et al., 2020). This chapter asks how Self-Determination Theory (SDT) can help understand and support the psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness (ACR) in people with dementia. It begins with an overview of dementia and models of care, introduces SDT as a framework for understanding motivation and well-being, then examines how ACR can be supported for people living with dementia and highlights where the evidence is still limited. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus Questions''' # What is dementia, and what care options exist to support people living with it? # What does SDT propose about human motivation and well-being, and why is it a useful framework for understanding dementia care? # What interventions increase well-being for dementia patients? # How does person-centred care impact psychological well-being? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding dementia and models of care == '''Addresses focus question 1''' Dementia is a neurodegenerative disease (Cipriani et al., 2020). 57 million people across the globe live with dementia as of 2021, making it the seventh most common cause of death globally (World Health Organisation, 2026). Dementia disproportionately affects women as they are both more likely to get dementia and more likely to look after people with it (World Health Organisation, 2026). There are four types of dementia: Alzheimer’s disease, [https://www.dementia.org.au/about-dementia/vascular-dementia vascular dementia], frontotemporal dementia and dementia Lewy body (Maclin et al., 2019). Alzheimer’s is the most common type of dementia, occurring in 69% of the population over 75. Alzheimer’s involves gradual memory and cognitive loss that impairs daily activities. The second most common is frontotemporal dementia and is distinguished by a distorted personality, along with loss of social and executive function, including in some cases the loss of speech (Maclin et al., 2019). Vascular dementia affects cognition from blood vessels in the brain becoming blocked resulting in deficits in the sensory and motor systems. Lewy bodies is characterised by [[wikipedia:Lewy_body|cellular inclusions]] in the brain that cause fluctuations in [[Cognition|cognitive function]], hallucinations and behavioural problems. Support is often needed for people with dementia in the early stages for complex daily activities such as organising transportation. As the disease progresses, help with basic activities like getting dressed is needed too (Cipriani et al., 2020). Providing care and support for people living with dementia comes in many forms including in-home and institutionalised care. Families and patients choose between models based on a number of factors, including cultural values, knowledge of dementia, access to services, financial position and geographic location (Singh et al., 2014; Giebel et al., 2021). People receiving in-home care may be looked after by informal caregivers such as family members, formal caregivers or a mix of both, who are able to provide services at the home of the patient (Singh et al., 2014). Institutionalised care refers to the model of care where patients move into a facility where they can be monitored and looked after entirely by professionals or formal caregivers. In Australia, most people living with dementia choose in-home care. However, there are still over one million people living in institutionalised settings (Singh et al., 2014). == Self-Determination theory == '''Addresses focus question 2''' Self-determination Theory (SDT) is a theory of motivation. SDT predicts motivation by explaining why people are intrinsically or extrinsically motivated to perform a behaviour (Dombestein et at, 2020; Ryan & Deci, 2020). If someone is intrinsically motivated to perform a behaviour it means they find motivation from internal factors with no influence from the environment. This could be learning to [[Portal:Dance|dance]] purely for the enjoyment of it. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation is when someone behaves in response to environmental factors (Ryan & Deci, 2020). This could be learning to dance because all of their friends are dancing. People are very rarely motivated entirely for internal or external reasons therefore, extrinsic motivation is considered to be a continuum, starting with external regulation and finishing at integration: * External regulation - behaviours are regulated from environmental cues, rewards and punishments. * Introjection - environmental cues are being injected internally for instance the “punishment” of doing something wrong is feeling guilty. * Identified - you identify with your behaviours for example you identify with being a good student, so you show up to class but do not enjoy class. * Integration - there is less conflict between your identity and your behaviour. For example, you show up to class because you value being a good student and think it’s the right thing to do (Dombestein et al, 2020). Motivation is multidimensional, as people often have several forms of motivation for the same task (Ryan & Deci, 2020). For example, someone might run because their doctor advised it (identified) and because they enjoy seeing friends there (intrinsic). SDT offers an explanation as to where on the motivation continuum people operate. SDT says that for people to be intrinsically motivated or on the upper end of the extrinsic motivation scale you must satisfy all three critical psychological needs. These needs are:   * Autonomy - feeling ownership over actions and life circumstances * Competence - a sense of confidence or mastery over performing tasks * Relatedness - the need to feel like you belong to a group, that you are supported by others and in return people feel supported by you. Achievement of these three psychological needs is not automatic, and people often require support to achieve these needs. Organismic SDT states that people have a natural drive towards obtaining the critical psychological needs (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Zou et al. (2026) found that Chinese girls chose menstrual products that increased bodily autonomy, confidence in areas they identified with, and closeness to family and media figures, but could only do so if they could afford them. This reflects the theory that people have a natural desire to achieve the three psychological needs but need support from their environment. There is some debate in motivation research as to whether the different types of motivation describe distinct qualitative forms of motivation or if they point to different quantitative points along a scale of motivation (Van den Broeck et al., 2021). SDT theorists view motivation as a continuum, supported by findings that students with higher ACR have better wellbeing, higher grades and more intrinsic motivation. (Bureau et al., 2022; Ryan & Deci, 2020). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Key points''' * SDT is a theory of motivation. Extrinsic motivation sits on a continuum: external regulation, introjection, identified and integration. * Autonomy, competence and relatedness must all be met for people to be intrinsically motivated or at the upper end of the continuum. * People have a natural drive towards these needs but require support from their environment. * Higher need satisfaction is linked to better wellbeing. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Putting Self-Determination Theory into Practice: Meeting Psychological Needs in Dementia Patients == '''Addresses focus questions 3''' SDT proposes that supporting ACR in people living with dementia leads to better well-being, but these needs cannot just be given directly to a person. Therefore, the strategies discussed below are best understood as shaping conditions rather than delivering outcomes. One of the most well-documented examples of SDT in practice is the process of facilitating patient decision-making. Colclough et al. (2026) found that it did not improve well-being directly but did so by separately increasing satisfaction levels of all three needs, which is consistent with SDT’s claim that need satisfaction underlies well-being. However, decision-making is not the only pathway to increase ACR. [[File:Self-determination_theory_diagrame.png|thumb|347x347px|'''Figure 2.''' Self-determination theory diagram]] === '''Competency''' === Competency has been seen to be supported by carers assisting or allowing patients were possible to perform tasks independently (Custers et al., 2011). When adults with dementia cannot perform simple tasks by themselves like eating, they report feeling ashamed and embarrassed (Estrada, 2021). The ability to perform tasks independently is one reason most people prefer to stay in their home (Wammes et al., 2021). Both formal and informal caregivers help people with dementia feel competent and safe in their own home with patients reporting that their informal caregivers help them with daily living tasks, navigating the health system and organising social activities (Wammes et al., 2021). Similar sentiments have been shared around formal caregivers helping with medical information and daily tasks (Hoel et al., 2021). Aides for everyday activities are also cited as supporting competence (Rapaport et al., 2020; Wammes et al., 2021). The importance of the environment for allowing psychological needs to flourish is evident in respect to competency as people living in aged care homes are less likely to complete tasks independently as cognitive decline progresses, compared to people receiving informal care (Anselmo et al., 2025). Residents often report having little control over daily routines, such as what they eat or when they shower (Shiells et al., 2020). Assisting dementia patients to identify personal strengths and meaningful activities have been seen to increase self-direction (Döpp et al., 2021). Although the correlations are unclear, these studies suggest that helping residents identify personal strengths and meaningful activities could show caregivers where to allow more independence, such as control over daily routines. === Autonomy === Supporting autonomy in people with dementia is best understood through SDT’s definition of autonomy which is having a sense of agency over one’s life rather than the physical ability to act independently (Ryan & Deci, 2020). A study by Stumpf et al. (2025) found that people with dementia did not mind if they did not contribute much to decision making, as long as they were included in the process. 90% of people living with mild forms of dementia can articulate preferences and provide reasons for their preferences based on their [https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/values#google_vignette values] (Stumpf et al., 2025). Despite this, healthcare professionals will often defer all questions to patient’s family members (Stumpf et al., 2025). People with dementia generally accept the gradual loss of independence that comes with the progression of the disease if the decisions they do make around everyday things like going for a walk or dyeing their hair are respected (Estrada, 2021). Interventions that help to increase decision-making capacity by applying advance care planning to everyday situations, simplifying and visualising options, and staff knowing the residents have all helped increase autonomy (Van Der Weide et al., 2023). Van Der Weide et al. (2023) did warn that offering fewer choices increases the risk of staff accidently letting their preferences dictate the options available to residents. They also found autonomy interventions only appeared valuable within trusting relationships with family and staff (Van Der Weide et al., 2023). === Relatedness === The need for relatedness is often clearly expressed by people living in aged care homes with many residents reporting love and connection as important values (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024). Shiells et al. (2020) have discovered that reading groups, exercising, and helping other residents with problems have all been linked to feeling valued. The provision of in-home care by formal caregivers has been seen to increase feelings of relatedness, as people report appreciating the conversation and liking when they had regular contact with the same carer, as that carer better understood their preferences (Hoel et al., 2021).  Lastly, decision-making has also been seen to increase relatedness if ideas are heard and respected (Stumpf et al., 2025).  Estrada (2021) offers a richer understanding as to why decision-making might increase relatedness through the principles of [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6465833/ person-centred care], by which you can develop a deeper connection through conversation. Many of these strategies depend on carers having the time, energy and support to deliver them. Therefore, person-centred care has also been explored as an intervention to help increase the well-being of carers. == Person-centred care impacts on promoting psychological well-being == '''Addresses focus question 4''' Person or client-centred care is an approach to care that focuses on maintaining a person’s sense of self by putting them and their needs at the forefront of importance when delivering care (Serbser-Koal et al., 2024). Person-centred care has been investigated for solutions to increase staff satisfaction in aged care homes and in-home services and to help to increase well-being in people with dementia. One of the principles of person-centred care is to ‘enter the person’s world’ through communication to develop a better connection (Serbser-Koal et al., 2024). Estrada (2021) revealed that one way you can increase connection with dementia patients is by simply allowing more time for conversations. People with dementia need more time to communicate because as their disease progresses their processing speed and [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19672843/ short-term memory] capacity decreases (Estrada, 2021). Allowing enough time for communicating is important as many people express frustrations when they feel rushed (Estrada, 2021). Even in people with non-fluent dementia, communication can increase relatedness through the encouragement of non-verbal communication like smiling, waving or touch (Estrada, 2021). Although it is well established that increased and better-quality communication between nursing, home staff and residents is needed, nursing staff report not having enough time to get to know residents (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024) and therefore place more importance on basic survival needs over psychological needs (Estrada, 2021). In-home care staff have also reported that the lack of time to address patient needs is also a reason for high staff turnover (Lämås et al., 2021). Lämås et al. (2021) tested person-centred care in home care services. 'Thriving' rose among people with dementia, but self-determination fell and formal caregivers did not benefit. However, the caregiver [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19672843/ sample] was too small to detect an effect, and the self-determination measure captured only autonomy, whereas the thriving measure (attitudes to home, care and relationships) likely reflected all three needs better. A study with a larger sample size by Vassbø et al. (2020) looked at the effects of a person-centred intervention over 14 months and also found no effect on job satisfaction. Person-centred care therefore does not appear to be a solution to increase staff satisfaction. However, there are promising signs it may increase well-being in dementia patients. == Increasing the well-being on informal caregivers == The psychological well-being of informal caregivers also affects the well-being of the people they care for. Informal caregivers report needing more emotional support, finding caring increasingly difficult as they become older, and report navigating the healthcare system on their own as challenging (Wammes et al., 2021). Interventions, based on SDT, that focus on increasing coping skills, communication skills and improving relationships made carers more intrinsically motivated to care for their loved one, which led to increased wellbeing (Dombestein et al., 2020). Carers also reported that being able to drop their loved ones off at [https://agedcare.salvos.org.au/residential-aged-care/carpenter-court-aged-care-centre/ day-care centres] allowed them to socialise with others, thereby increasing relatedness, and provision of at-home aides that helped them complete domestic tasks helped them feel competent (Wammes et al., 2021). ==Conclusion== Dementia makes independent living challenging, but it does not mean that agency should be taken away. As shown above, dementia patients are capable of decision-making even in severe cases.  SDT seeks to explain well-being through the prism of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. To become intrinsically motivated an individual must satisfy all three psychological needs. The strategies for increasing psychology well-being discussed in this paper are most successful when the interconnected nature of the needs are understood (Slemp et al., 2024). Interventions aimed at one need often support others. For example, feeling genuinely listened-to and respected increases both relatedness and autonomy (Stumpf et al., 2025; Estrada, 2021). Because these needs overlap and cannot be supplied directly, the most effective interventions are those that change the environment to allow them to develop. Allowing more time to communicate, creating spaces where people can act more independently, and increasing collaboration in decision-making all support the satisfaction of one or more needs, which in turn supports the satisfaction of other needs. Carer well-being remains an important area for future research to help increase well-being for dementia patients. <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}">{{Robelbox|theme=13|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg|iconwidth=48px|title=Review time!<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {You operate a dementia care live-in clinic. Two of your employees come to you with competing ideas of how to make the lives of your patients better. Employee A suggests that you should provide the patients with a larger variety of food. Employee B suggests that you should allow patients to choose what they want to eat. Assuming you can implement either option, which would you choose?} - A. Larger variety of food + B. Choosing the weekly menu </quiz> </div> {{RoundBoxBottom}} }} == External links == * [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551552/ Behavioural and psychological symptoms in dementia] (National library of medicine) * [https://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/dementia-care-study-highlights-importance-of-caregiver-self-efficacy Dementia care study highlights importance of caregiver self-efficacy] (UCLA newsroom) * [https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/scholarlywork/1753807-older-adults-using-technology-for-meaningful-activities-during-covid-19--an-analysis-through-the-lens-of-self-determination-theory Older] [https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/scholarlywork/1753807-older-adults-using-technology-for-meaningful-activities-during-covid-19--an-analysis-through-the-lens-of-self-determination-theory adults using technology for meaningful activities during COVID-19: an analysis through the lens of self-determination theory] (University of Melbourne) == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Basic psychological need theory|Basic psychological need theory]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Dementia care motivation|Dementia care motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[Dementia]] (Wikiversity) * [[wikipedia:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[Neurodegenerative disease]] (Wikiversity) == References == <div style="padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;"> Anselmo, A., Corallo, F., Pagano, M., Cardile, D., Marra, A., Maresca, G., De Luca, R., Alagna, A., Quartarone, A., Calabrò, R. S., & Cappadona, I. (2025). Beyond diagnosis: Exploring residual autonomy in dementia through a systematic review. ''Medicina, 61''(5), Article 895. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina61050895</nowiki> Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to student motivation: A meta-analysis of antecedents of autonomous and controlled motivations. ''Review of Educational Research, 92''(1), 46–72. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426</nowiki> Cipriani, G., Danti, S., Picchi, L., Nuti, A., & Fiorino, M. D. (2020). Daily functioning and dementia. ''Dementia & Neuropsychologia, 14''(2), 93–102. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-57642020dn14-020001</nowiki> Colclough, C., Perach, R., Harris, P., Rusted, J., Banerjee, S., & Miles, E. (2026). Decision-making involvement and quality of life in people with dementia: The mediating role of psychological needs. ''Aging & Mental Health, 30''(2), 267–276. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2025.2541188</nowiki> Custers, A. F. J., Kuin, Y., Riksen-Walraven, M., & Westerhof, G. J. (2011). Need support and wellbeing during morning care activities: An observational study on resident–staff interaction in nursing homes. ''Ageing and Society, 31''(8), 1425–1442. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X10001522</nowiki> Dombestein, H., Norheim, A., & Lunde Husebø, A. M. (2020). Understanding informal caregivers’ motivation from the perspective of self‐determination theory: An integrative review. ''Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 34''(2), 267–279. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/scs.12735</nowiki> Döpp, C. M. E., Drenth, H., Verkade, P.-J., Francke, A. F., & van der Heide, I. (2021). Interventions for improving self-direction in people with dementia: ''A systematic review. BMC Geriatrics, 21''(1), Article 195. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-021-02133-w</nowiki> Estrada, R. (2021). Listen and you will see the person through the dementia. ''Journal for Person-Oriented Research, 7''(2), 88–97. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.17505/jpor.2021.23891</nowiki> Giebel, C., Robertson, S., Beaulen, A., Zwakhalen, S., Allen, D., & Verbeek, H. (2021). “Nobody seems to know where to even turn to”: Barriers in accessing and utilising dementia care services in England and the Netherlands. International Journal of ''Environmental Research and Public Health, 18''(22), 12233. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182212233</nowiki> Hoel, K.-A., Rokstad, A. M. M., Feiring, I. H., Lichtwarck, B., Selbæk, G., & Bergh, S. (2021). Person-centred dementia care in home care services – highly recommended but still challenging to obtain: A qualitative interview study. ''BMC Health Services Research, 21''(1), Article 723. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-021-06722-8</nowiki> Lämås, K., Bölenius, K., Sandman, P.-O., Lindkvist, M., & Edvardsson, D. (2021). Effects of a person-centred and health-promoting intervention in home care services– a non-randomized controlled trial. ''BMC Geriatrics, 21''(1), Article 720. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-021-02661-5</nowiki> Maclin, J. M. A., Wang, T., & Xiao, S. (2019). Biomarkers for the diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease, dementia Lewy body, frontotemporal dementia and vascular dementia. ''General Psychiatry, 32''(1), e100054-n/a. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1136/gpsych-2019-100054</nowiki> Rapaport, P., Burton, A., Leverton, M., Herat-Gunaratne, R., Beresford-Dent, J., Lord, K., Downs, M., Boex, S., Horsley, R., Giebel, C., & Cooper, C. (2020). “I just keep thinking that I don’t want to rely on people.” a qualitative study of how people living with dementia achieve and maintain independence at home: Stakeholder perspectives. ''BMC Geriatrics, 20''(1), Article 5. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-019-1406-6</nowiki> Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61'', Article 101860. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860</nowiki> Shiells, K., Pivodic, L., Holmerová, I., & Van den Block, L. (2020). Self-reported needs and experiences of people with dementia living in nursing homes: ''A scoping review. Aging & Mental Health, 24''(10), 1553–1568. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2019.1625303</nowiki> Serbser-Koal, J., Rommerskirch-Manietta, M., Purwins, D., & Roes, M. (2024). Person-centredness in dementia care: An integrative review of theoretical approaches. ''BMJ Open, 14''(6), e085051. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2024-085051</nowiki> Singh, P., Hussain, R., Khan, A., Irwin, L., & Foskey, R. (2014). Dementia Care: Intersecting informal family care and formal care systems. ''Journal of Aging Research'', 109–117. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/486521</nowiki> Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Personality and ''Social Psychology, 127''(5), 1012–1037. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459</nowiki> Stumpf, A. D. H., McKenzie, E., & Beavers, A. (2025). An account of personal autonomy for people living with dementia. ''The Gerontologist, 65''(11), 1. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnaf210</nowiki> Van Andel, S., & Holkenborg, A. (2024). From the perspective of people with dementia: Using creative qualitative measures to assess the values and opinions on freedom and safety among people living with dementia. ''Healthcare,12''(14), 1412. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12141412</nowiki> Van Der Weide, H., Lovink, M. H., Luijkx, K. G., & Gerritsen, D. L. (2023). Supporting autonomy for people with dementia living in nursing homes: A rapid realist review. ''International Journal of Nursing Studies'',137, Article 104382. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2022.104382</nowiki> Van Den Broeck, A., Howard, J. L., Van Vaerenbergh, Y., Leroy, H., & Gagné, M. (2021). Beyond intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: A meta-analysis on self-determination theory’s multidimensional conceptualization of work motivation. ''Organizational Psychology Review, 11''(3), 240–273. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/20413866211006173</nowiki> Vassbø, T. K., Bergland, Å., Kirkevold, M., Lindkvist, M., Lood, Q., Sandman, P., Sjögren, K., & Edvardsson, D. (2020). Effects of a person‐centred and thriving‐promoting intervention on nursing home staff job satisfaction: A multi‐centre, non‐equivalent controlled before–after study. ''Nursing Open, 7''(6), 1787–1797. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1002/nop2.565</nowiki> Wammes, J. D., Labrie, N. H. M., Agogo, G. O., Monin, J. K., Bekker‐Grob, E. W., & MacNeil Vroomen, J. L. (2021). Persons with dementia and informal caregivers prioritizing care: A mixed‐methods study. Alzheimer’s & Dementia : ''Translational Research & Clinical Interventions, 7''(1), Article e12193 <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1002/trc2.12193</nowiki> World Health Organisation. (2026). Dementia <nowiki>https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/dementia</nowiki> Zou, W., Meadows, C. C. Z., Huang, L., & Wang, B. (2026). Psychological determinants of menstrual product preferences: Applying self-determination theory to women’s reproductive health decision-making. J''ournal of Health Psychology, 31''(9), 3512–3527. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/13591053251407843</nowiki> </div> bpj610p409lob8xlmc1y56ol1424rxu 2840806 2840803 2026-10-17T02:12:24Z Ella Kay244 3107007 /* Increasing the well-being on informal caregivers */ 2840806 wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] {{title|Self-determination theory and dementia care:<br>How can autonomy, competence, and relatedness be supported in people living with dementia?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Wolf Creek NFH nursing home fishing event October 2024.png|thumb|'''Figure 1:''' Residence of an aged care home enjoying an outside activity ]] ;Imagine this ... Imagine you are an elderly resident with dementia living in a psychogeriatric ward in the beautiful Dutch countryside. On the walk from your bedroom to the communal dining room, you pass many people; staff, other residents and resident’s family members, but you do not recognise any of them. You take your breakfast to a table overlooking the garden and imagine walking outside, feeling the sun and smelling the flowers. Despite your longing to enjoy the garden, whether you get outside today is not up to you. You have been told it is unsafe, and you may only go out when a staff member has time to take you. How would this scenario make you feel? Trapped? Unsafe? {{RoundBoxBottom}} This scenario draws on experiences that residents of a Dutch psychogeriatric ward shared with researchers studying what gives residents a sense of freedom and safety. They identified that time in nature, knowing the staff and spending time with others all contributed positively to a sense of personal freedom and safety in the ward (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024). Scenarios like this are common within aged care homes for residents living with dementia. A review of 1158 articles published between 2000 and 2018 found that residents felt a lack of freedom, belonging, and connection, with some residents even describing their living situation as “living in a prison camp” (Shiells et al., 2020, p 1563). Many residents describe their well-being as low with reports of poor self-esteem, connection, value and independence (Shiells et al., 2020). This chapter asks how Self-Determination Theory (SDT) can help understand and support the psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness (ACR) in people with dementia. It begins with an overview of dementia and models of care, introduces SDT as a framework for understanding motivation and well-being, then examines how ACR can be supported for people living with dementia and highlights where the evidence is still limited. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus Questions''' # What is dementia, and what care options exist to support people living with it? # What does SDT propose about human motivation and well-being, and why is it a useful framework for understanding dementia care? # What interventions increase well-being for dementia patients? # How does person-centred care impact psychological well-being? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding dementia and models of care == '''Addresses focus question 1''' Dementia is a neurodegenerative disease (Cipriani et al., 2020). 57 million people across the globe live with dementia as of 2021, making it the seventh most common cause of death globally (World Health Organisation, 2026). Dementia disproportionately affects women as they are both more likely to get dementia and more likely to look after people with it (World Health Organisation, 2026). There are four types of dementia: Alzheimer’s disease, [https://www.dementia.org.au/about-dementia/vascular-dementia vascular dementia], frontotemporal dementia and dementia Lewy body (Maclin et al., 2019). Alzheimer’s is the most common type of dementia, occurring in 69% of the population over 75. Alzheimer’s involves gradual memory and cognitive loss that impairs daily activities. The second most common is frontotemporal dementia and is distinguished by a distorted personality, along with loss of social and executive function, including in some cases the loss of speech (Maclin et al., 2019). Vascular dementia affects cognition from blood vessels in the brain becoming blocked resulting in deficits in the sensory and motor systems. Lewy bodies is characterised by [[wikipedia:Lewy_body|cellular inclusions]] in the brain that cause fluctuations in [[Cognition|cognitive function]], hallucinations and behavioural problems. Support is often needed for people with dementia in the early stages for complex daily activities such as organising transportation. As the disease progresses, help with basic activities like getting dressed is needed too (Cipriani et al., 2020). Providing care and support for people living with dementia comes in many forms including in-home and institutionalised care. Families and patients choose between models based on a number of factors, including cultural values, knowledge of dementia, access to services, financial position and geographic location (Singh et al., 2014; Giebel et al., 2021). People receiving in-home care may be looked after by informal caregivers such as family members, formal caregivers or a mix of both, who are able to provide services at the home of the patient (Singh et al., 2014). Institutionalised care refers to the model of care where patients move into a facility where they can be monitored and looked after entirely by professionals or formal caregivers. In Australia, most people living with dementia choose in-home care. However, there are still over one million people living in institutionalised settings (Singh et al., 2014). == Self-Determination theory == '''Addresses focus question 2''' Self-determination Theory (SDT) is a theory of motivation. SDT predicts motivation by explaining why people are intrinsically or extrinsically motivated to perform a behaviour (Dombestein et at, 2020; Ryan & Deci, 2020). If someone is intrinsically motivated to perform a behaviour it means they find motivation from internal factors with no influence from the environment. This could be learning to [[Portal:Dance|dance]] purely for the enjoyment of it. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation is when someone behaves in response to environmental factors (Ryan & Deci, 2020). This could be learning to dance because all of their friends are dancing. People are very rarely motivated entirely for internal or external reasons therefore, extrinsic motivation is considered to be a continuum, starting with external regulation and finishing at integration: * External regulation - behaviours are regulated from environmental cues, rewards and punishments. * Introjection - environmental cues are being injected internally for instance the “punishment” of doing something wrong is feeling guilty. * Identified - you identify with your behaviours for example you identify with being a good student, so you show up to class but do not enjoy class. * Integration - there is less conflict between your identity and your behaviour. For example, you show up to class because you value being a good student and think it’s the right thing to do (Dombestein et al, 2020). Motivation is multidimensional, as people often have several forms of motivation for the same task (Ryan & Deci, 2020). For example, someone might run because their doctor advised it (identified) and because they enjoy seeing friends there (intrinsic). SDT offers an explanation as to where on the motivation continuum people operate. SDT says that for people to be intrinsically motivated or on the upper end of the extrinsic motivation scale you must satisfy all three critical psychological needs. These needs are:   * Autonomy - feeling ownership over actions and life circumstances * Competence - a sense of confidence or mastery over performing tasks * Relatedness - the need to feel like you belong to a group, that you are supported by others and in return people feel supported by you. Achievement of these three psychological needs is not automatic, and people often require support to achieve these needs. Organismic SDT states that people have a natural drive towards obtaining the critical psychological needs (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Zou et al. (2026) found that Chinese girls chose menstrual products that increased bodily autonomy, confidence in areas they identified with, and closeness to family and media figures, but could only do so if they could afford them. This reflects the theory that people have a natural desire to achieve the three psychological needs but need support from their environment. There is some debate in motivation research as to whether the different types of motivation describe distinct qualitative forms of motivation or if they point to different quantitative points along a scale of motivation (Van den Broeck et al., 2021). SDT theorists view motivation as a continuum, supported by findings that students with higher ACR have better wellbeing, higher grades and more intrinsic motivation. (Bureau et al., 2022; Ryan & Deci, 2020). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Key points''' * SDT is a theory of motivation. Extrinsic motivation sits on a continuum: external regulation, introjection, identified and integration. * Autonomy, competence and relatedness must all be met for people to be intrinsically motivated or at the upper end of the continuum. * People have a natural drive towards these needs but require support from their environment. * Higher need satisfaction is linked to better wellbeing. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Putting Self-Determination Theory into Practice: Meeting Psychological Needs in Dementia Patients == '''Addresses focus questions 3''' SDT proposes that supporting ACR in people living with dementia leads to better well-being, but these needs cannot just be given directly to a person. Therefore, the strategies discussed below are best understood as shaping conditions rather than delivering outcomes. One of the most well-documented examples of SDT in practice is the process of facilitating patient decision-making. Colclough et al. (2026) found that it did not improve well-being directly but did so by separately increasing satisfaction levels of all three needs, which is consistent with SDT’s claim that need satisfaction underlies well-being. However, decision-making is not the only pathway to increase ACR. [[File:Self-determination_theory_diagrame.png|thumb|347x347px|'''Figure 2.''' Self-determination theory diagram]] === '''Competency''' === Competency has been seen to be supported by carers assisting or allowing patients were possible to perform tasks independently (Custers et al., 2011). When adults with dementia cannot perform simple tasks by themselves like eating, they report feeling ashamed and embarrassed (Estrada, 2021). The ability to perform tasks independently is one reason most people prefer to stay in their home (Wammes et al., 2021). Both formal and informal caregivers help people with dementia feel competent and safe in their own home with patients reporting that their informal caregivers help them with daily living tasks, navigating the health system and organising social activities (Wammes et al., 2021). Similar sentiments have been shared around formal caregivers helping with medical information and daily tasks (Hoel et al., 2021). Aides for everyday activities are also cited as supporting competence (Rapaport et al., 2020; Wammes et al., 2021). The importance of the environment for allowing psychological needs to flourish is evident in respect to competency as people living in aged care homes are less likely to complete tasks independently as cognitive decline progresses, compared to people receiving informal care (Anselmo et al., 2025). Residents often report having little control over daily routines, such as what they eat or when they shower (Shiells et al., 2020). Assisting dementia patients to identify personal strengths and meaningful activities have been seen to increase self-direction (Döpp et al., 2021). Although the correlations are unclear, these studies suggest that helping residents identify personal strengths and meaningful activities could show caregivers where to allow more independence, such as control over daily routines. === Autonomy === Supporting autonomy in people with dementia is best understood through SDT’s definition of autonomy which is having a sense of agency over one’s life rather than the physical ability to act independently (Ryan & Deci, 2020). A study by Stumpf et al. (2025) found that people with dementia did not mind if they did not contribute much to decision making, as long as they were included in the process. 90% of people living with mild forms of dementia can articulate preferences and provide reasons for their preferences based on their [https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/values#google_vignette values] (Stumpf et al., 2025). Despite this, healthcare professionals will often defer all questions to patient’s family members (Stumpf et al., 2025). People with dementia generally accept the gradual loss of independence that comes with the progression of the disease if the decisions they do make around everyday things like going for a walk or dyeing their hair are respected (Estrada, 2021). Interventions that help to increase decision-making capacity by applying advance care planning to everyday situations, simplifying and visualising options, and staff knowing the residents have all helped increase autonomy (Van Der Weide et al., 2023). Van Der Weide et al. (2023) did warn that offering fewer choices increases the risk of staff accidently letting their preferences dictate the options available to residents. They also found autonomy interventions only appeared valuable within trusting relationships with family and staff (Van Der Weide et al., 2023). === Relatedness === The need for relatedness is often clearly expressed by people living in aged care homes with many residents reporting love and connection as important values (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024). Shiells et al. (2020) have discovered that reading groups, exercising, and helping other residents with problems have all been linked to feeling valued. The provision of in-home care by formal caregivers has been seen to increase feelings of relatedness, as people report appreciating the conversation and liking when they had regular contact with the same carer, as that carer better understood their preferences (Hoel et al., 2021).  Lastly, decision-making has also been seen to increase relatedness if ideas are heard and respected (Stumpf et al., 2025).  Estrada (2021) offers a richer understanding as to why decision-making might increase relatedness through the principles of [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6465833/ person-centred care], by which you can develop a deeper connection through conversation. Many of these strategies depend on carers having the time, energy and support to deliver them. Therefore, person-centred care has also been explored as an intervention to help increase the well-being of carers. == Person-centred care impacts on promoting psychological well-being == '''Addresses focus question 4''' Person or client-centred care is an approach to care that focuses on maintaining a person’s sense of self by putting them and their needs at the forefront of importance when delivering care (Serbser-Koal et al., 2024). Person-centred care has been investigated for solutions to increase staff satisfaction in aged care homes and in-home services and to help to increase well-being in people with dementia. One of the principles of person-centred care is to ‘enter the person’s world’ through communication to develop a better connection (Serbser-Koal et al., 2024). Estrada (2021) revealed that one way you can increase connection with dementia patients is by simply allowing more time for conversations. People with dementia need more time to communicate because as their disease progresses their processing speed and [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19672843/ short-term memory] capacity decreases (Estrada, 2021). Allowing enough time for communicating is important as many people express frustrations when they feel rushed (Estrada, 2021). Even in people with non-fluent dementia, communication can increase relatedness through the encouragement of non-verbal communication like smiling, waving or touch (Estrada, 2021). Although it is well established that increased and better-quality communication between nursing, home staff and residents is needed, nursing staff report not having enough time to get to know residents (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024) and therefore place more importance on basic survival needs over psychological needs (Estrada, 2021). In-home care staff have also reported that the lack of time to address patient needs is also a reason for high staff turnover (Lämås et al., 2021). Lämås et al. (2021) tested person-centred care in home care services. 'Thriving' rose among people with dementia, but self-determination fell and formal caregivers did not benefit. However, the caregiver [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19672843/ sample] was too small to detect an effect, and the self-determination measure captured only autonomy, whereas the thriving measure (attitudes to home, care and relationships) likely reflected all three needs better. A study with a larger sample size by Vassbø et al. (2020) looked at the effects of a person-centred intervention over 14 months and also found no effect on job satisfaction. Person-centred care therefore does not appear to be a solution to increase staff satisfaction. However, there are promising signs it may increase well-being in dementia patients. == Increasing the well-being on informal caregivers == The psychological well-being of informal caregivers also affects the well-being of the people they care for. Informal caregivers report needing more emotional support, finding caring increasingly difficult as they become older, and report navigating the healthcare system on their own as challenging (Wammes et al., 2021). Interventions, based on SDT, that focus on increasing coping skills, communication skills and improving relationships made carers more intrinsically motivated to care for their loved ones, which led to increased wellbeing (Dombestein et al., 2020). Carers also reported that being able to drop their loved ones off at [https://agedcare.salvos.org.au/residential-aged-care/carpenter-court-aged-care-centre/ day-care centres] allowed them to socialise with others, thereby increasing relatedness, and provision of at-home aides that helped them complete domestic tasks helped them feel competent (Wammes et al., 2021). ==Conclusion== Dementia makes independent living challenging, but it does not mean that agency should be taken away. As shown above, dementia patients are capable of decision-making even in severe cases.  SDT seeks to explain well-being through the prism of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. To become intrinsically motivated an individual must satisfy all three psychological needs. The strategies for increasing psychology well-being discussed in this paper are most successful when the interconnected nature of the needs are understood (Slemp et al., 2024). Interventions aimed at one need often support others. For example, feeling genuinely listened-to and respected increases both relatedness and autonomy (Stumpf et al., 2025; Estrada, 2021). Because these needs overlap and cannot be supplied directly, the most effective interventions are those that change the environment to allow them to develop. Allowing more time to communicate, creating spaces where people can act more independently, and increasing collaboration in decision-making all support the satisfaction of one or more needs, which in turn supports the satisfaction of other needs. Carer well-being remains an important area for future research to help increase well-being for dementia patients. <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}">{{Robelbox|theme=13|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg|iconwidth=48px|title=Review time!<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {You operate a dementia care live-in clinic. Two of your employees come to you with competing ideas of how to make the lives of your patients better. Employee A suggests that you should provide the patients with a larger variety of food. Employee B suggests that you should allow patients to choose what they want to eat. Assuming you can implement either option, which would you choose?} - A. Larger variety of food + B. Choosing the weekly menu </quiz> </div> {{RoundBoxBottom}} }} == External links == * [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551552/ Behavioural and psychological symptoms in dementia] (National library of medicine) * [https://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/dementia-care-study-highlights-importance-of-caregiver-self-efficacy Dementia care study highlights importance of caregiver self-efficacy] (UCLA newsroom) * [https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/scholarlywork/1753807-older-adults-using-technology-for-meaningful-activities-during-covid-19--an-analysis-through-the-lens-of-self-determination-theory Older] [https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/scholarlywork/1753807-older-adults-using-technology-for-meaningful-activities-during-covid-19--an-analysis-through-the-lens-of-self-determination-theory adults using technology for meaningful activities during COVID-19: an analysis through the lens of self-determination theory] (University of Melbourne) == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Basic psychological need theory|Basic psychological need theory]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Dementia care motivation|Dementia care motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[Dementia]] (Wikiversity) * [[wikipedia:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[Neurodegenerative disease]] (Wikiversity) == References == <div style="padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;"> Anselmo, A., Corallo, F., Pagano, M., Cardile, D., Marra, A., Maresca, G., De Luca, R., Alagna, A., Quartarone, A., Calabrò, R. S., & Cappadona, I. (2025). Beyond diagnosis: Exploring residual autonomy in dementia through a systematic review. ''Medicina, 61''(5), Article 895. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina61050895</nowiki> Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to student motivation: A meta-analysis of antecedents of autonomous and controlled motivations. ''Review of Educational Research, 92''(1), 46–72. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426</nowiki> Cipriani, G., Danti, S., Picchi, L., Nuti, A., & Fiorino, M. D. (2020). Daily functioning and dementia. ''Dementia & Neuropsychologia, 14''(2), 93–102. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-57642020dn14-020001</nowiki> Colclough, C., Perach, R., Harris, P., Rusted, J., Banerjee, S., & Miles, E. (2026). Decision-making involvement and quality of life in people with dementia: The mediating role of psychological needs. 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D., Labrie, N. H. M., Agogo, G. O., Monin, J. K., Bekker‐Grob, E. W., & MacNeil Vroomen, J. L. (2021). Persons with dementia and informal caregivers prioritizing care: A mixed‐methods study. Alzheimer’s & Dementia : ''Translational Research & Clinical Interventions, 7''(1), Article e12193 <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1002/trc2.12193</nowiki> World Health Organisation. (2026). Dementia <nowiki>https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/dementia</nowiki> Zou, W., Meadows, C. C. Z., Huang, L., & Wang, B. (2026). Psychological determinants of menstrual product preferences: Applying self-determination theory to women’s reproductive health decision-making. J''ournal of Health Psychology, 31''(9), 3512–3527. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/13591053251407843</nowiki> </div> m3o63r51hfavmojr0y2mwfsfhpdlxjp 0 331434 2840895 2837810 2026-10-17T10:25:34Z Jtneill 10242 Copyediting 2840895 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Feedback literacy:<br>What is feedback literacy, why is it important, and how can it be developed?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Young Man Pondering - Tangier - Morocco.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Self-reflection is one of humanity's greatest powers; actively engaging with past failures lead to success. {{ic|Connect this to feedback literacy}}]] ; Food for thought Who remembers being told that they possess potential but are too unserious to step up and wield it? Maybe it wasn't a universal experience and just the author's, but the point remains; knowledge is more effectively learned if the individual is actively engaged with it, rather than being a passive participant to potential experiences (see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} Feedback literacy refers to the knowledge and skills that enable individuals to understand, evaluate, and utilise feedback to improve their current and future performance and is important as it promotes learning agency/independence and [[wikipedia:Emotional_self-regulation|emotional self-regulation]] through developing capacity in [[wikipedia:Judgement|evaluative judgement]]. This benefits not only academic performance but is transferrable to future professional and future life-skills development (Carless & Boud, 2018; Molloy et al., 2020). Feedback literacy can be developed through purposeful curriculum design. Effective strategies include analysing exemplars, engaging in peer-reviews, incorporating feedback dialogues (feedback during the drafting phase), and self-revision (Boud & Molloy, 2013). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * What is feedback literacy? * Why does it matter? * How can it be developed? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is feedback literacy?== Feedback literacy is an integral component of broader [[wikipedia:Literacy|academic literacy]] and refers to the knowledge, attitudes, and skills that learners possess to enable effective evaluation and understanding of feedback, enhancing learning and future performance. Feedback literacy is developed both individually and rationally {{explain}} through peer, teacher, assessment interactions, and disciplinary standards; it involves '''actively engaging with feedback, judging relevance, managing emotional affect, and applying it practically''' (Carless & Boud, 2018; Sutton, 2012). === Review on major literature === Chi (1996) posits that feedback is either corrective, didactic, or suggestive. [[wikipedia:Corrective_feedback|Corrective feedback]] is the most frequent as it is essential, yet does not address conceptual issues and overlooks learner thought processes, therefore enabling 'over-correcting'. Didactic feedback provides deeper conceptual explanation but has no theoretical basis in improvement as it is considered 'lecturing' instead of active engagement. Suggestive feedback is given when a learner provides a response that is not incorrect but lack {{g}} conceptual depth. Feedback in this form is subtle, and guides students in the right direction without being overly corrective or didactic (Cano García et al., 2024). [[File:Feedback process.png|thumb|200px|'''Figure 2.''' Simplified diagram of what feedback looks like; subtle, active nudging and the correct tools for emotional processing are crucial for good feedback literacy]] Nieminen & Carless (2022) emphasises Popkewitz' (2008, 2013) conceptual studies on ''fabrication'' to critically analyse implications between student and teacher empowerment. Fabrication, unlike what is commonly referred to as [[wikipedia:Data_fabrication|fraudulent research]] in psychological terms, is the "grid of historical practices that makes the object of research possible to 'see' and act on" (Popkewitz, 2013, p. 440). <u>In layman's terms, it{{what}} allows individuals to see how {{how}} research on feedback literacy influences students and teachers - therefore constructing effective interventions. {{rewrite}}</u> From this study was identified a conceptual shift from analysing external feedback to feedback literacy as an intrinsic, psychological construct that can be utilised to reconceptualise higher-educational feedback. However, it was noted that excessive feedback literacy in assessment and grading policies runs the risk of psychologising student/teacher behaviours {{f}}. Feedback literacy is a broadly highlighted field, but research in the area of teacher feedback literacy (TFL) remain underdeveloped and are often diverse in what is conceptualised and measured. [[wikipedia:Systematic_review#Scoping_reviews|Scoping reviews]] focalising previous research conceptualisation and assessment across micro-, meso-, and macro- levels identified strong micro-level instructional support through a (mainly) multi-faceted, relational, and situational capacity; however, is limited by weak meso- and macro-level, geographical, disciplinary, and longitudinal backing (Hyldahl & Gamlem, 2026; Istencioglu et al., 2026). <u>Simply put, a majority of current TFL research focuses on micro-level practices (e.g. face to face feedback) and lacks larger scale meso- and macro-level research and interventions.</u> As existing TFL frameworks are tailored toward specific educational levels or disciplines, generalisability is limited despite massive advancements (Aydi-Vallois & Vígh, 2026). Svenja et al. (2023) addresses this gap in an initial scale validation study and posit that two components are interchangeably crucial in improving feedback literacy: # students can be subtly guided toward more comprehensive feedback frameworks through education of feedback literacy and reflective activities {{example}} # students need to be given appropriate tools that promote emotional processing and decoding of feedback. {{example}} === Appreciating feedback === Feedback-literate individuals recognise that feedback is not just an explanation of grades, a correction of mistakes, or a judgement of ability, but rather as information that identifies strengths and weaknesses in ability, academic and/or professional standards, and the gap between current and desired performance (Carless & Boud, 2018). Critical feedback is more effective if students perceive it from a dialogic perspective and should emphasise the purpose, context, and source of feedback rather than being passive recipients to what could be considered harsh criticism (Sutton, 2012). For example, feedback-literate students may ask: ''what is this feedback helping me learn? Which assessment criterion does this relate to? How might I apply this advice to another task?'' {{f}} Self-reflection and peer-reflective activities are vital tools in feedback literacy, with several studies denoting its efficacy in demonstrated developing presence through pedagogic (educational theory/practice) and dialogic approaches (Chinpakdee, 2025; Hoo et al., 2021). Integrating feedback dialogues into academic courses allow teachers to reduce time and focus that is required for feedback meanwhile cultivating literacy within the drafting process; TFL is directly correlated to student feedback literacy (Frattarola et al., 2024; Malecka et al., 2020). Furthermore, dialogic feedback fosters student motivation through active and ongoing participation in feedback dialogue, promoting the sense of belonging and improving evaluative judgement capacity (Chinpakdee, 2025). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} '''Scenario''' Jane Doe didn't have many friends and always felt left out in class. But when a group assignment was handed out and she was assigned to a group to work on it together, they began discussing which topic to do and asked her for her opinion. After working on their section, the group proofread each section together, allowing each member to give and receive feedback. This made Jane happy and feel included, motivating her to do better with the feedback given about her section. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Making judgements === Making judgements is the ability to determine: * what constitutes as high-quality work * how well an individual's work meets the relevant criteria * what specific improvements are required (Carless & Boud, 2018) This is intimately associated with evaluative judgement, which is the capacity to make educated decisions about an individual and other's quality of work (Tai et al., 2017). Academic judgement is dynamic in evaluation as competent students should consider whether feedback is accurate, relevant and consistent with the assessment criteria, and applicable to their learning goals (Boud & Molloy, 2012). Malecka et al. (2020) define the importance of judgement (A.K.A. eliciting {{huh}}) as, although not necessarily considered a factor in the feedback process, significant as self-feedback through consulting physical/digital texts and sources - and teachers or peers when non-human resources aren't enough - requires similar active learning disposition as dialogic feedback {{rewrite}}. Feedback loops can influence performance in a surprisingly short period of time. Francis et al. (2026) used 'flipped feedback' to investigate student academic performance and evaluative judgement pre- and post- submission. Flipped feedback is an inversion of the traditional feedback process where students are given generic feedback (often from previous cohort-common errors and strengths) before any self/dialogic reflection is conducted. This way, a student can identify weaknesses in their work prior to submission, theoretically leading to more refined work which can then be further improved upon by individualised teacher feedback. Academic improvement between the pre- and post-intervention groups was identified, proving the robustness of the flipped feedback approach {{f}}. Students in this study {{f}} highlighted the usefulness of the flipped feedback approach (89%), with a majority of students classifying two strengths: 'opportunities for iterative learning' and 'clarity and guidance from feedback information'. However, this study raised concerns as some students found that the generic feedback was not clear enough to be specified into their use-case, as well as feeling rushed to write the initial draft in a short period of time. Such overwhelmingly positive opinions solidify how vital iterative learning promotes student engagement despite the lack of clarity from generic feedback. This is further reinforced through Cano García et al.'s (2024) intervention study based on a didactic approach that showed the quality of constructive comments between pre- and post-intervention increased significantly, which subsequently positively-influences evaluative literacy and indirectly, evaluative judgement {{simplify}}. === Managing affect === Emotional regulation is vaguely defined as the internalisation of social expectations in conjunction with regulatory functioning of internal processes (Attention, memory, uptake, etc.) that allows an individual to monitor, delay, and adjust spontaneous reactions to meet the required demands (Cole et al., 1994). Regulation of emotion entails intitiating, inhibiting, and/or modulating one's/other's mental state and can functionally refer to the ability to focus on a given task while suppressing innapropriate behaviour (Niven et al., 2009). The ability to modulate emotion is predisposed by an individual's 'affective traits' which can dictate whether emotions are more likely to be pronounced (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996); Charmine et al. (2008) discuss the theoretical importance of emotional regulation in service-related work-staff and identify a initial correlation between emotional needs and performance, arguing that emotional climate is just as crucial as self-regulation in affecting appraisal and emotional response to demands. Managing emotional affect from criticism is a vital capacity in feedback literacy. Emotions such as anxiety, embarrassment, disappointment, defensiveness, and/or frustration are common emotions involved with receiving criticism; remaining conscious and regulating these emotions is key to engaging with useful feedback (Winstone et al., 2017; Carless & Boud, 2018). Crucially, individuals must remove self-identity and worth from criticism to their work, as inability to manage emotions often lead to "avoidance strategies" such as ignoring feedback entirely (Winstone et al., 2017). It should be noted that socialisation processes that work in specific environments may not be cross-contextual to other situations (Thompson, 1991). For example, removing self-identity and worth in a humanitarian environment may lead to desensitisation and disassociation from the less fortunate. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} ;Did you know? A case study conducted by Baron (1988) studied the effects of destructive and constructive criticism and found that destructive criticism lead to greater anger and tension, indicating that future disagreements were likely to be handled with resistance and/or avoidance rather than collaboration and compromise. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Taking action === Often referred to as "uptake", taking action is the process of translating feedback into observable improvements in performance (Carless & Boud, 2018). The hardest part of uptake is the "implementation gap" - the difficulty of knowing how to act on specific comments, as taking action requires the ability to convert general advice into actionable and specific strategies (Winstone & Carless, 2019; Boud & Molloy, 2013). Highly adept individuals can translate specific criticism into broader unrelated tasks, thereby demonstrating "transfer" of knowledge (Molloy et al., 2020). Student feedback literacy and social constructivist perspectives are interrelated concepts; feedback literacy fosters engagement in social constructivist feedback processes and social constructivist feedback approaches '''potentially''' facilitates developing student feedback literacy (Carless & Boud, 2018; Carless & Young, 2024). Carless & Young (2024) analysed processes of feedback literacy using these intertwining concepts to draw inferences about student feedback literacy development and found that, in line with many studies discussed in this chapter, '''feedback uptake is not solely individual, but develops through dialogue, collaboration, and reflection'''. It is essential that in order for feedback uptake to be effective, students need to successfully utilise feedback to develop self-efficacy/motivation (Carless & Boud, 2018; Molloy et al. 2020). ==== Technology and artificial intelligence ==== Wood (2021) argues that technology-mediated dialogic feedback supports navigational processes in uptake through co-development of actionable feedback and socio-affective/relational processing relevant in feedback engagement {{simplify}}. He further posits that technology can mediate barriers of time and space common in physical dialogic collaborative learning environments; students in the {{what}} study perceived technology-mediated mediums as practical, quick, and convenient, meanwhile capable of facilitating extended discussion during commutes, lessons, or transition times (Wood, 2021). Liu & Deris (2025) draw on motivational theory (self-determination, cost-value models, etc.) to analyse and predict whether automated feedback was effective in student uptake, and if AI feedback literacy plays a role in its efficacy. Results found that AI feedback literacy significantly predicted indirect and direct uptake in AI-automated feedback. This study is vital as it discerns the generic use of AI does not guarantee meaningful learning; the rise of AI use in higher education is predicated on the idea that access alone is learning. This study challenges the notion by providing evidence that effective AI feedback depends on students' readiness to interact with it intentionally and analytically. == Why is feedback literacy important? == Feedback literacy is a core academic competency as it allows individuals to transform feedback from a transactional interaction into a self-sustainable learning process. Aside from facilitating self-regulated learning, feedback literacy develops fundamental understanding in '''evaluative judgement''', mitigates the '''"feedback gap"''', improves '''emotional regulation and academic wellbeing''', and '''supports professional learning''' - many of which have been identified in the previous section. Feedback literacy is a pillar of professional identity through the constant negotiation between self-concept and external appraisals. Advanced feedback-literate individuals can differentiate between criticism that is targeted to their worth or work; mature psychological separation is crucial to maintaining long-term motivation and avoiding burnout (Molloy et al., 2020). Skills developed in higher education are transferrable and a crucial component in continuous incremental improvements. Understanding the theoretical underpinnings of feedback literacy allow researchers to identify key underdeveloped sectors and create discipline-specific and generalisable frameworks that foster student feedback literacy. In order to use these frameworks effectively, teacher feedback literacy is paramount. In order for feedback to be successful, the one providing the feedback must understand the theoretical implications of how it is given. Feedback literacy allows an individual to appropriately engage with criticism in a constructive manner while promoting social constructivism through collaboration, positive dialogic and reflective feedback (Carless & Boud, 2018; Molloy et al., 2020). The desensitisation of receiving (what could be considered) harsh criticism of character from others enables positive inter- and intra-personal development, impacting social, occupational, and personal affect as individuals are challenged to acknowledge that expertise as a construct is not fixed (Molloy et al., 2020). == How can feedback literacy be developed? == Feedback literacy can be pedagogically developed through '''peer review, use of exemplars, feedback dialogues,''' and '''meta-cognitive reflection''', all requiring structured opportunities so that individuals can actively engage with feedback and calibrate judgement processes (Carless & Boud, 2018; Shute, 2008). Furthermore, it is paramount that teachers manage student perceptions and attitudes to promote confidence and agency in the feedback process (Little et al., 2024). This can be obtained and preserved through participation of said {{awkward}} literacy interventions. A core feature of feedback is the meta-cognitive and dialogic reflection between student-student and student-teacher. The opportunity to discuss feedback with educators encourages students to readjust feedback expectations through nuanced integration of processes and strategies of assessments and feedback (Carless & Boud, 2018; Ducasse & Hill, 2019). For example, based on student-teacher feedback interactions, de Kleijn (2021) proposes an instructional model that prompts students to elicit, process, and enact on feedback provided through practical tools and teacher-guided scaffolds. This {{what}} model is disposed on the concept that when teachers and students use the model, their feedback literacy will grow in interplay (Carless & Winstone, 2020). Peer review and analysing exemplars {{explain}} are intercorrelated in feedback literacy framework. As students produce and receive draft assignments to be criticised, the same can be done with exemplars. Exemplars are invaluable in defining expectations for quality and clarity in criteria and can reduce student anxiety about assessment requirements (Carless & Chan, 2017; Carless & Boud, 2018). Exemplars show quality instead of telling, allowing students to refine their process of discrimination between different levels of work. {{example}} This {{what}} directly contributes to toward peer review in how students can use their capacity for judgement in providing unbiased, criteria-driven reflection (Tai et al., 2017). ==Conclusion== Feedback literacy is a vital learning competency that enables individuals to interpret, evaluate, and transform transactional feedback into self-cultivating improvements; learners become lifelong active participants of their feedback through developing evaluative judgement and managing emotional affects to take effective and intentional action (Nieminen & Carless, 2022; Carless & Boud, 2018; Svenja et al., 2023). Strategies such as peer-review, use of exemplars, feedback dialogues, and self-reflection strengthen student independence and self-regulation, ultimately leading to an ongoing process supporting continuous improvement (Carless & Boud, 2018; Tai et al., 2017; Molloy et al., 2020). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Take home message''' Feedback literacy is a core competency in formal education that allows students to appraise and uptake criticism in further professional and personal life. Its benefits are maximised when teachers understand the theoretical implications within their scaffolds, and feedback practices are complemented with technological advancements and dialogic opportunities. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|Extended process model of emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[wikipedia:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Aydi-Vallois, S., & Vígh, T. (2026). Exploring teacher feedback literacy: A scoping review of frameworks and instruments. ''Cogent Education, 13''(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2026.2674324 Baron, R. A. (1998). Negative effects of destructive criticism: Impact on conflict, self-efficacy, and task performance. ''Journal of Applied Psychology, 73''(2), 199–207. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.73.2.199 Boud, D., & Molloy, E. (2013). Rethinking models of feedback for learning: The challenge of design. ''Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 38''(6), 698–712. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2012.691462 Cano García, E., Jardí Ferré, A., Lluch Molins, L., & Martins Gironelli, L. (2024). Improvement in the quality of feedback as an indication of the development of evaluative judgement. ''Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 49''(6), 824–837. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/02602938.2024.2329170 Carless, D., & Boud, D. (2018). The development of student feedback literacy: Enabling uptake of feedback. ''Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 43''(8), 1315–1325. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2018.1463354 Carless, D., & Chan, K. K. H. (2017). Managing dialogic use of exemplars. ''Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 42''(6), 930–941. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/02602938.2016.1211246 Carless, D., & Young, S. (2025). Towards an idealized model of feedback uptake: Longitudinal development of feedback literacy from a social constructivist perspective. ''Studies in Higher Education, 50''(8), 1641–1653. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/03075079.2024.2389436 Carless, D., & Winstone, N. (2023). Teacher feedback literacy and its interplay with student feedback literacy. ''Teaching in Higher Education, 28''(1), 150–163. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/13562517.2020.1782372 Chi, M. (1996). Constructing self-explanations and scaffolded explanations in tutoring. ''Applied Cognitive Psychology, 10''(7), 33–49. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-0720(199611)10:7<33::AID-ACP436>3.0.CO;2-E. Chinpakdee, M. (2026). Talking feedback: Fostering student feedback literacy through a dialogic approach. ''RELC Journal, 57''(1), 158-171. https://doi.org/10.1177/00336882251346206 Cole, P. M., Michel, M. K., & O’Donnell Teti, L. (1994). The development of emotion regulation and dysregulation: A clinical perspective. ''Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59''(2/3), 73–100. https://doi.org/10.2307/1166139 Ducasse, A. M., & Hill, K. (2019). Developing student feedback literacy using educational technology and the reflective feedback conversation. ''Practitioner Research in Higher Education, 12'', 24-37. https://library.canberra.edu.au/permalink/61ARL_CNB/1hgt791/cdi_eric_primary_EJ1212986 Frattarola, A., Leong, A. P., & Hsieh, Y.-C. (2026). Designing curriculum for student feedback literacy: Student appreciation for and engagement with teacher feedback. ''RELC Journal, 57''(1), 172-185. https://doi.org/10.1177/00336882241269632 Härtel, C. E. J., Gough, H., & Härtel, G. F. (2008), Work-group emotional climate, emotion management skills, and service attitudes and performance. ''Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 46'', 21-37. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1177/1038411107086541 Hoo, H. T., Deneen, C., & Boud, D. (2022). Developing student feedback literacy through self and peer assessment interventions. ''Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 47''(3), 444–457. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/02602938.2021.1925871 Hyldahl, K., & Gamlem, S. M. (2026). Through the lens of feedback literacy: A scoping review of empirical research on teacher educators' feedback practices in initial teacher education. ''Studies in Educational Evaluation, 90''. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1016/j.stueduc.2026.101646 Istencioglu, T., Boud, D., Dawson, P., & Yang, L. (2026). Teacher feedback literacy as an emerging field: A scoping review. ''Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education'', 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2026.2631533 de Kleijn, R. A. M. (2023). Supporting student and teacher feedback literacy: An instructional model for student feedback processes. ''Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 48''(2), 186–200. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2021.1967283 Little, T., Dawson, P., Boud, D., & Tai, J. (2024). Can students’ feedback literacy be improved? A scoping review of interventions. ''Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 49''(1), 39–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2023.2177613 Liu, K., & Deris, F. D. (2025). AI feedback literacy in higher education: Understanding, measuring, and predicting student feedback uptake. ''Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education'', 1–15. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/02602938.2025.2587924 Molloy, E., Boud, D., & Henderson, M. (2020). Developing a learning-centred framework for feedback literacy.'' Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 45''(4), 527–540. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2019.1667955 Nieminen, J. H., & Carless, D. (2022). Feedback literacy: A critical review of an emerging concept. ''Higher Education, 85''(6), 1381-1400. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-022-00895-9 Niven, K., Totterdell, P., & Holman, D. (2009). A classification of controlled interpersonal affect regulation strategies. ''Emotion, 9''(4), 498–509. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015962 Popkewitz, T. S. (2008). The social, psychological, and education sciences: From educationalization to pedagogicalization of the family and the child. ''Educational Research: The Educationalization of Social Problems''. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-9724-9_12 Popkewitz, T. S. (2012). Cosmopolitanism and the age of school reform: Science, education, and making society by making the child. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203938812 Popkewitz, T. S. (2013). The sociology of education as the history of the present: Fabrication, difference and abjection. ''Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 34''(3), 439–456. https://doi.org/10.1080/01596306.2012.717195 Shute, V. J. (2008). Focus on formative feedback. ''Review of Educational Research, 78''(1), 153–189. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40071124 Sutton, P. (2012). Conceptualizing feedback literacy: Knowing, being, and acting. ''Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 49''(1), 31–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2012.647781 Tai, J., Ajjawi, R., Boud, D., Dawson, P., & Panadero, E. (2018). Developing evaluative judgement: Enabling students to make decisions about the quality of work. ''Higher Education, 76''(3), 467–481. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10734-017-0220-3 Thompson, R. A. (1991). Emotional regulation and emotional development. ''Educational Psychology Review, 3''(4), 269–297. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01319934 Winstone, N. E., & Carless, D. (2019). Designing effective feedback processes in higher education: A learning-focused approach. ''Routledge''. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351115940 Weiss, H., & Cropanzano, R. (1996). Affective events theory: A theoretical discussion of the structure, cause and consequences of affective experiences at work. ''Research in Organizational Behavior''. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228079335_Affective_Events_Theory_A_Theoretical_Discussion_of_The_Structure_Cause_and_Consequences_of_Affective_Experiences_at_Work Winstone, N. E., Nash, R. A., Parker, M., & Rowntree, J. (2017). Supporting learners’ agentic engagement with feedback: A systematic review and a taxonomy of recipience processes. ''Educational Psychologist, 52''(1), 17–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2016.1207538 Woitt, S., Weidlich, J., Jivet, I., Orhan Göksün, D., Drachsler, H., & Kalz, M. (2025). Students’ feedback literacy in higher education: An initial scale validation study. ''Teaching in Higher Education, 30''(1), 257–276. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/13562517.2023.2263838 Wood, J. (2022). Making peer feedback work: The contribution of technology-mediated dialogic peer feedback to feedback uptake and literacy. ''Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 47''(3), 327–346. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/02602938.2021.1914544 }} ==External links== * [https://www.centerforengagedlearning.org/assessing-student-feedback-literacy/ Assessing Student Feedback Literacy] (centreforengagedlearning.org) * [https://www.gla.ac.uk/myglasgow/learningandteaching/afresourceshub/iterative/feedbackliteracy/ Feedback Literacy] (University of Glasgow) * [https://www.feedbackliteracy.org/ Feedback literacy] (feebackliteracy.org) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Feedback]] jp7zdt59qaly8v4zwrjo1pbfwmptgki 1 331466 2840896 2837183 2026-10-17T10:28:42Z Jtneill 10242 Book chapter feedback 2840896 wikitext text/x-wiki == Reference == Hi. I know you are just starting this page, so you might find this reference, which is a critical review, helpful in assembling some thoughts. good luck. Nieminen, J.H., Carless, D. Feedback literacy: a critical review of an emerging concept. ''High Educ'' '''85''', 1381–1400 (2023). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-022-00895-9</nowiki> [[User:StretchBeyond|StretchBeyond]] ([[User talk:StretchBeyond|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/StretchBeyond|contribs]]) 22:29, 24 August 2026 (UTC) == Great chapter structure! == <nowiki>Hi! Your chapter is really easy to read, and I love how you broke down the "Taking Action" section. Since this is for the Motivation and Emotion unit, maybe you could add a brief note about how a student's motivation (like wanting a good grade) affects whether they actually use the feedback. Great start! ~~~~</nowiki> [[User:U3239431|U3239431]] ([[User talk:U3239431|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3239431|contribs]]) 13:33, 27 August 2026 (UTC) == Heading casing == {| style="float: center; background:transparent;color:inherit;" |- | [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|48px|left]] | {{#if:WonderfulKitten3|Hi [[User:WonderfulKitten3|WonderfulKitten3]].|}} FYI, the recommended [[Wikiversity]] heading style uses [[w:Letter case#Sentence_case|sentence casing]]. For example:<br> <big><big>Self-determination theory</big></big> rather than <big><big>Self-Determination Theory</big></big> Here's an example chapter with correct heading casing: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Growth mindset development|Growth mindset development]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 03:12, 31 August 2026 (UTC) |} <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and/or subtitle not correctly worded and/or didn't use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] (fixed) |2= <!-- Headings --> # See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|heading casing]] # There is a strong tendency to overcapitalise throughout <!-- Heading structure --> <!-- 2-level --> # Well developed [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]]. Meaningful headings clearly relate directly to the core topic. # Consider using subheadings in the other main sections <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Clear alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure |3= <!-- Overview--> # Scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions # Explain who is using first person in the scenario # Keep the description user-friendly; consider moving the bulk of the citations into subsequent sections <!-- Focus questions --> # Focus questions are aligned with sub-title and top-level headings # Remove overcapitalisation (use sentence casing) |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Promising development # Provide more detailed edit summaries <!-- Scope --> # Select the best theories about this topic # Select the best research about this topic # Connect to motivation <!-- GenAI ---> # Do these key points include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion is underway # Connect to motivation # What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions) |5= <!-- Figure --> # The relevance of the figure to the topic is unclear |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Add in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Weak use of scenario; consider using a more real-world example <!-- Quiz --> # Consider including quiz question(s) about the take-home messages <!-- Tables --> # Also consider using tables to summarise key information |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Very good <!-- Systematic reviews --> # At least one relevant systematic review and/or meta-analysis has been identified <!-- Citations --> # Only include references which have been accessed and read <!-- APA style --> # Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]: ## capitalisation ## use dois where available instead of other links |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## Excellent ## Use alphabetical order <!-- External links --> # External links ## Excellent |9= <!-- User page --> # Good # Description about self provided <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # Add link to book chapter |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # None summarised on user page with direct link(s) to evidence (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing#Social contributions|Tutorial 2]]). Looking ahead to the book chapter, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Socialcontribution|social contributions]]. # To add direct links to evidence of Wikiversity edits or comments: view the page history, select the version of the page before and after your contributions, click "compare selected revisions", and paste the comparison URL on your user page. For more info, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising social contributions|Making and summarising social contributions]]. This was demonstrated in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing#Social contributions|Tutorial 2]]. }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 03:12, 31 August 2026 (UTC) == Feedback == Hi there, This chapter is looking really interesting, keep up the good work! I have left a few comments throughout and made some corrections, just remember to use APA-7 consistent headings (sentence case) and reference your claims throughout. Good luck! [[User:U3254168|U3254168]] ([[User talk:U3254168|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3254168|contribs]]) 05:56, 9 October 2026 (UTC) <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is a basic to reasonably good chapter # The chapter demonstrates a solid understanding of key principles of FL # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* connect/embed FL in relation to relevant psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics # Ironically, there is little evidence of engagement with the feedback provided on this page during the chapter drafting process <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Good use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FFeedback_literacy&diff=2840895&oldid=2837810 these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Rewrite the scenario to remove "author" (e.g., write a case study about a hypothetical person) because this is a collaboratively edited work, so "author" is unclear <!-- Overview – Scenario - Figure --> # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature box --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are clear and relevant |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Consider connecting FL to corrective motivation # Consider connected FL to fixed-growth mindsets <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Reasonably good depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # Consider connecting FL to broader motivational concepts such as fixed-growth mindsets, negative emotion regulation, meta-cognition etc. <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Basic review of relevant research # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Basic integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Very good summary and conclusion <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is reasonably good <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar ## The grammar for some sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Well captioned <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use good [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] ## Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ## List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use very good APA style: ### Some details (e.g., volume number) are missing from some references |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Basic use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Reasonably good use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Basic use of figure(s) # No use of table(s) # No use of feature boxes other than the opening scenario # No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples, other than opening scenario <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Basic use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use alphabetical order <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Very good use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Add more links |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~4 logged, useful, mostly moderate contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 10:28, 17 October 2026 (UTC) 1g6bhadbgi5mvzmrbkuh3j2w0tebj9f 1 331471 2840814 2838564 2026-10-17T03:27:43Z Jtneill 10242 2840814 wikitext text/x-wiki == Feedback on topic development == Hi, I really like how you have explained both the positive and negative effects that growth mindsets can have. Your discussion of growth mindsets gives the chapter a balanced perspective. I also found your comparison table helpful because it clearly shows the differences between fixed and growth mindsets. One suggestion would be to go over some of the wording and spelling throughout the chapter to improve clarity. Overall, your headings and key points provide a clear structure for developing the final chapter. [[User:U3253354|U3253354]] ([[User talk:U3253354|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3253354|contribs]]) 02:17, 25 August 2026 (UTC) <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and/or subtitle not correctly worded and/or didn't use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] (fixed) |2= <!-- Headings --> <!-- 2-level --> # Excellent – Well developed [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]]. Meaningful headings clearly relate directly to the core topic. <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Excellent alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure |3= <!-- Overview--> # Excellent – Scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions <!-- Scenario --> # A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box with an image at the start of this section <!-- Description --> # A clear description of the problem/topic is planned or presented <!-- Focus questions --> # Focus questions are aligned with sub-title and top-level headings |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Excellent – key points are well developed for each section # Provide more detailed edit summaries <!-- Scope --> # The scope is excellent (i.e., not too little/narrow or too big/broad) <!-- Writing style --> # The writing style is clear and easy to follow <!-- Theory and research --> # Good balance of theory and research <!-- Citations --> # Promising use of citations <!-- Other --> # Do these key points include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion is well underway |5= <!-- Figure --> # Excellent - Relevant figure(s) presented, captioned, and cited # Expand the size of Figure 2 <!-- Caption --> # Figure caption(s) provide(s) a clear, appropriately detailed description that is meaningfully connected with the main text <!-- Cite --> # Figure(s) are cited at least once in the main text # Use APA style (e.g., see Figure 2) |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Two in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]]. Also embed links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Promising use of scenarios/examples/case studies <!-- Quiz --> # Consider including quiz question(s) about the take-home messages <!-- Tables --> # Promising use of table(s) # Include citations to support claims in Table 1 # Add Table 1 caption # Cite each table at least once in the text # Also consider using tables to summarise key information |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Excellent <!-- Systematic reviews --> # What are the most relevant systematic reviews/meta-analyses about this topic? |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## Excellent <!-- External links --> # External links ## To be developed (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- User page --> # Excellent <!-- Description about self --> # Excellent description about self provided <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # A link to the book chapter is provided <!-- Social contribution --> # Good – two out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other type of contribution is making: #* comments on the [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s of other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]] - the link provided didn't go to evidence of your contribution }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 04:44, 29 August 2026 (UTC) == Suggestion for 'External links' section == Hey there, Well done on your topic development, I have enjoyed reading the work you have done thus far! I noticed that you hadn't yet included external links to related resources on your topic. You should check out these resources on growth mindsets, I think that they could potentially be a valuable addition to your chapter! * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KUWn_TJTrnU Growth mindset vs. fixed mindset] (Sprouts) * [https://theconversation.com/you-can-do-it-a-growth-mindset-helps-us-learn-127710 You can do it! A ‘growth mindset’ helps us learn] (The Conversation) Best regards. [[User:U3285438|U3285438]] ([[User talk:U3285438|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3285438|contribs]]) 05:45, 25 September 2026 (UTC) == Feedback on theory integration == Hi! I think the way you've shown that growth mindsets aren't always positive is really interesting, especially the idea that believing someone can change could sometimes lead to more blame if they don't change. One thing that could be useful is making this contrast even clearer throughout the chapter. For example, you could directly compare the pathway where a growth mindset reduces essentialism and stigma with the pathway where changeability gets interpreted as personal control and increases blame. I think that would make the "double-edged sword" idea really easy for the reader to understand. You could also bring Emma from your opening scenario back into this section. For example, her colleague could recognise that recovery is possible while also understanding that treatment access, social support and other circumstances can affect someone's ability to change. I think that would connect your opening scenario to the main argument of the chapter really well. Great work so far! [[User:U3260591|U3260591]] ([[User talk:U3260591|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3260591|contribs]]) 00:21, 6 October 2026 (UTC) == Reference checking == Hey, really enjoyed reading this chapter! The Emma example at the start was a good way to show how growth beliefs can lead to both compassion and blame, and I liked that you came back to her in the follow-up. It also helped that you didn't just treat growth mindset as automatically good. The stigma-asymmetry model and the point about changeability not being the same as controllability made the argument feel balanced. A couple of things that might help tidy it up. A few in-text citations (Levy et al., 1998, Link & Phelan, 2001 and Burnette et al., 2017) don't seem to be in the reference list, and the Kvaale et al. (2013) one might need fixing for APA 7. Really enjoyed reading your chapter [[User:U3286962|U3286962]] ([[User talk:U3286962|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3286962|contribs]]) 06:34, 11 October 2026 (UTC) == Social Contribution == <u>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development#c-U3275909-20261010234800-Recommendations :)</u> - Overall feedback on this book chapter to assist in flow whilst also giving credit for engaging content and research. The short paragraph commented on the enjoyment of reading the discussion of positive risk taking that links back smoothly to avoiding presenting adolescent reward sensitivity as a deficit. Some of the recommendations included ensuring the presentation of the book chapter was clean and organised to enable the reader to smoothly read the chapter and acknowledge the flow in between research points. And a quick reminder of checking grammar and ensuring the reference list has the correct APA citation format. <u><nowiki>https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php</nowiki>title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FFalling_in_love&diff=2838029&oldid=2837853</u> - Changed a grammatically incorrect sentence to help with the flow of the context of the paragraph. This included changing a sentence from "may me more likely to show greater empathy for the partner." to "may be more associated with greater empathy towards a partner." <u>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Lifelong learning motivation#c-U3275909- 20261011000700-Recommendations</u> - Provided a thorough section of recommending and commending the author of this book chapter. The recommendation discussed acknowledging the importance of gender socialisation and how it may shape achievement motivation. However, the recommendations also mentioned adding more peer-reviewed research to consider different elements of cultural differences, additional learning features etc. Whilst also just a reminder to do some cleaning up of the book chapter {{unsigned}} lgzde49rzvjxxff67xf8fbcmra4qkaz 2840832 2840814 2026-10-17T05:04:41Z Jtneill 10242 Book chapter feedback 2840832 wikitext text/x-wiki == Feedback on topic development == Hi, I really like how you have explained both the positive and negative effects that growth mindsets can have. Your discussion of growth mindsets gives the chapter a balanced perspective. I also found your comparison table helpful because it clearly shows the differences between fixed and growth mindsets. One suggestion would be to go over some of the wording and spelling throughout the chapter to improve clarity. Overall, your headings and key points provide a clear structure for developing the final chapter. [[User:U3253354|U3253354]] ([[User talk:U3253354|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3253354|contribs]]) 02:17, 25 August 2026 (UTC) <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and/or subtitle not correctly worded and/or didn't use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] (fixed) |2= <!-- Headings --> <!-- 2-level --> # Excellent – Well developed [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]]. Meaningful headings clearly relate directly to the core topic. <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Excellent alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure |3= <!-- Overview--> # Excellent – Scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions <!-- Scenario --> # A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box with an image at the start of this section <!-- Description --> # A clear description of the problem/topic is planned or presented <!-- Focus questions --> # Focus questions are aligned with sub-title and top-level headings |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Excellent – key points are well developed for each section # Provide more detailed edit summaries <!-- Scope --> # The scope is excellent (i.e., not too little/narrow or too big/broad) <!-- Writing style --> # The writing style is clear and easy to follow <!-- Theory and research --> # Good balance of theory and research <!-- Citations --> # Promising use of citations <!-- Other --> # Do these key points include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion is well underway |5= <!-- Figure --> # Excellent - Relevant figure(s) presented, captioned, and cited # Expand the size of Figure 2 <!-- Caption --> # Figure caption(s) provide(s) a clear, appropriately detailed description that is meaningfully connected with the main text <!-- Cite --> # Figure(s) are cited at least once in the main text # Use APA style (e.g., see Figure 2) |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Two in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]]. Also embed links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Promising use of scenarios/examples/case studies <!-- Quiz --> # Consider including quiz question(s) about the take-home messages <!-- Tables --> # Promising use of table(s) # Include citations to support claims in Table 1 # Add Table 1 caption # Cite each table at least once in the text # Also consider using tables to summarise key information |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Excellent <!-- Systematic reviews --> # What are the most relevant systematic reviews/meta-analyses about this topic? |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## Excellent <!-- External links --> # External links ## To be developed (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- User page --> # Excellent <!-- Description about self --> # Excellent description about self provided <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # A link to the book chapter is provided <!-- Social contribution --> # Good – two out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other type of contribution is making: #* comments on the [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s of other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]] - the link provided didn't go to evidence of your contribution }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 04:44, 29 August 2026 (UTC) == Suggestion for 'External links' section == Hey there, Well done on your topic development, I have enjoyed reading the work you have done thus far! I noticed that you hadn't yet included external links to related resources on your topic. You should check out these resources on growth mindsets, I think that they could potentially be a valuable addition to your chapter! * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KUWn_TJTrnU Growth mindset vs. fixed mindset] (Sprouts) * [https://theconversation.com/you-can-do-it-a-growth-mindset-helps-us-learn-127710 You can do it! A ‘growth mindset’ helps us learn] (The Conversation) Best regards. [[User:U3285438|U3285438]] ([[User talk:U3285438|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3285438|contribs]]) 05:45, 25 September 2026 (UTC) == Feedback on theory integration == Hi! I think the way you've shown that growth mindsets aren't always positive is really interesting, especially the idea that believing someone can change could sometimes lead to more blame if they don't change. One thing that could be useful is making this contrast even clearer throughout the chapter. For example, you could directly compare the pathway where a growth mindset reduces essentialism and stigma with the pathway where changeability gets interpreted as personal control and increases blame. I think that would make the "double-edged sword" idea really easy for the reader to understand. You could also bring Emma from your opening scenario back into this section. For example, her colleague could recognise that recovery is possible while also understanding that treatment access, social support and other circumstances can affect someone's ability to change. I think that would connect your opening scenario to the main argument of the chapter really well. Great work so far! [[User:U3260591|U3260591]] ([[User talk:U3260591|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3260591|contribs]]) 00:21, 6 October 2026 (UTC) == Reference checking == Hey, really enjoyed reading this chapter! The Emma example at the start was a good way to show how growth beliefs can lead to both compassion and blame, and I liked that you came back to her in the follow-up. It also helped that you didn't just treat growth mindset as automatically good. The stigma-asymmetry model and the point about changeability not being the same as controllability made the argument feel balanced. A couple of things that might help tidy it up. A few in-text citations (Levy et al., 1998, Link & Phelan, 2001 and Burnette et al., 2017) don't seem to be in the reference list, and the Kvaale et al. (2013) one might need fixing for APA 7. Really enjoyed reading your chapter [[User:U3286962|U3286962]] ([[User talk:U3286962|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3286962|contribs]]) 06:34, 11 October 2026 (UTC) == Social Contribution == <u>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development#c-U3275909-20261010234800-Recommendations :)</u> - Overall feedback on this book chapter to assist in flow whilst also giving credit for engaging content and research. The short paragraph commented on the enjoyment of reading the discussion of positive risk taking that links back smoothly to avoiding presenting adolescent reward sensitivity as a deficit. Some of the recommendations included ensuring the presentation of the book chapter was clean and organised to enable the reader to smoothly read the chapter and acknowledge the flow in between research points. And a quick reminder of checking grammar and ensuring the reference list has the correct APA citation format. <u><nowiki>https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php</nowiki>title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FFalling_in_love&diff=2838029&oldid=2837853</u> - Changed a grammatically incorrect sentence to help with the flow of the context of the paragraph. This included changing a sentence from "may me more likely to show greater empathy for the partner." to "may be more associated with greater empathy towards a partner." <u>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Lifelong learning motivation#c-U3275909- 20261011000700-Recommendations</u> - Provided a thorough section of recommending and commending the author of this book chapter. The recommendation discussed acknowledging the importance of gender socialisation and how it may shape achievement motivation. However, the recommendations also mentioned adding more peer-reviewed research to consider different elements of cultural differences, additional learning features etc. Whilst also just a reminder to do some cleaning up of the book chapter {{unsigned}} <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # Overall, this is a promising, but basic chapter # It provides a strong theoretical explanation of fixed-growth mindset theory and stigma, support by a review of research # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* overuse of unacknowledged genAI—express more in your own words; be wary of skipping the human learning process and violating academic integrity principles #* provide more methodological details about key research studies to help understand how helpful theoretical principles are #* quality of written expression for the human-written content can be improved; e.g., use Studiosity to get specific feedback on how to improve #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* Use [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to briefly describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources despite previous feedback about this issue. Unacknowledged use of GenAI-generated content raises concerns about compliance with academic integrity principles and assessment requirements and [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence|Wikiversity's artificial intelligence policy]]. <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Basic use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Very good <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Promising scenario # I edited the scenario to more clearly illustrate each of the mindsets # Instead of a diagram, use an image which illustrates the scenario taking a place; use the diagram in a subsequent section # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are very good # The grammar for the focus questions needs improvement |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # I think it could be helpful to explain what stigma is # Fixed-growth mindset theory is well explained # The nuanced relationship with stigma is also well explained <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Basic review of relevant research # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # In many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Reasonably good [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations # The chapter does: ## point out critiques/counterarguments ## suggest ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Reasonably good integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Basic summary and conclusion # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Add practical, take-home message(s) |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The overall quality of written expression is basic ## This chapter appears to contain significant chunks of unacknowledgedd raw genAI output interspersed with some human-written content ## Some sections are well-written, but many sections consist of rehashed, repetitious content typical of basically prompted genAI output <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## There are some bold text-only lines that should be changed into headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar ## The grammar for some sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Reasonably well captioned ### Figure 3 was incorrectly captioned (fixed) ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) (fixed) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Basic caption <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use good [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses # Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use good APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Use alphabetical order |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Reasonably good use of figure(s) # Good use of table(s) # No use of feature boxes other than the opening scenario # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of scenarios, case studies, or examples # No/minimal use of scenarios, case studies, or examples, other than opening scenario <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # How were these quiz questions generated? # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Very good use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Add more links <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Basic use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section (fixed) |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~2 logged moderate contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~1 logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 05:04, 17 October 2026 (UTC) eanzjxczjmlbu63zen443c91dx71tzl 0 331552 2840833 2832862 2026-10-17T05:16:32Z Karabi Tasneem 3109802 /* Conclusion */ rewritten 2840833 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Warm-glow giving:<br>Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Charity donation box, Hong Kong International Airport (2018).jpg|thumb|190px|'''Figure 1'''. A public donation box illustrates an everyday opportunity to engage in charitable giving. Such situations can benefit recipients while also generating emotional responses in donors.]] '''Imagine this...''' You are buying groceries when the checkout screen asks whether you would like to add $2 to support a charity. You had not planned to donate and you briefly hesitate. Two dollars will not make a noticeable difference to your own finances, so you select '''yes'''. As you leave the supermarket, you feel unexpectedly pleased about having helped someone else. A week later, you encounter another request for a small donation. You remember the positive feeling from the previous experience and again consider giving. Why can giving money away make a person feel good, and could this pleasant emotional response encourage them to behave generously again? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * '''Warm-glow giving''' describes the internal satisfaction or emotional reward that people can experience from helping others. Andreoni's (1990) theory proposes that people can be motivated simultaneously by concern for beneficiaries and by the personal satisfaction they receive from giving. * Research suggests that giving is associated with positive emotional experiences and psychological well-being. For example, charitable donation and volunteering have been positively associated with psychological well-being among university students (Geng et al., 2022). * However, giving does not always produce purely positive emotions. Charitable requests can also produce anxiety, guilt, anger, pressure, or mixed emotional reactions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023; Hepworth et al., 2021). * Understanding these processes is important because emotional experiences may influence not only an immediate decision to donate but also whether people continue engaging in prosocial behaviour in the future (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} What is warm-glow giving and how does it explain people's motivation to help others? Why can giving produce positive emotional and rewarding experiences? How do positive and negative emotions influence charitable giving decisions? How can the emotional consequences of giving influence future and wider prosocial behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is warm-glow giving?== Warm-glow giving was formally developed through Andreoni's (1990) theory of impure altruism. Pure altruism assumes that a person gives because they value improvements in another person's welfare, whereas impure altruism proposes that donors can also obtain utility from the act of giving itself. Warm glow therefore provides a way of understanding why apparently selfless behaviour may also contain a personally rewarding component. Experiencing satisfaction from helping does not necessarily mean that genuine concern for others is absent; self-oriented and other-oriented motives can coexist (Andreoni, 1990). The theory is particularly useful because it connects motivation and emotion: the expectation or experience of a positive internal reward can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. Evidence shows that warm-glow processes extend beyond conventional charitable donations. Xing et al. (2024) found that consumers' feelings of warm glow helped explain the greater success of poverty-alleviation crowdfunding campaigns compared with ordinary crowdfunding campaigns. Chen (2025) extended warm-glow theory to pro-environmental gamification. Among 525 Ant Forest users, perceived warm glow was one of the positive predictors of continued engagement, alongside altruistic, egoistic, and pragmatic motivational factors. These findings suggest that warm glow can help explain multiple forms of prosocial participation, including donating, crowdfunding, and sustained environmentally beneficial behaviour. '''Key points:''' * Warm-glow giving is explained by Andreoni's (1990) theory of '''impure altruism''', in which concern for others and personal satisfaction from giving can coexist. * The emotional reward associated with helping can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. * Warm-glow processes can extend beyond charitable donations to other forms of prosocial participation, including crowdfunding and environmentally beneficial behaviour (Xing et al., 2024; Chen, 2025). ==Why does giving feel good?== One explanation is that giving generates positive affect. Genevsky et al. (2025) found across behavioural and neuroimaging experiments that charitable appeals containing affectively congruent features generated greater donations than incongruent appeals. Importantly, the relationship between affective congruence and giving was mediated by positive aroused affect. This suggests that positive emotional experience was not simply associated with donation—it helped explain why particular appeals increased giving (Genevsky et al., 2025). Genevsky et al. (2025) also found greater activity in the nucleus accumbens, a brain region associated with positive affect and reward processing, in response to affectively congruent charitable requests. Increased activity subsequently predicted donation decisions. These findings provide a useful psychological and neuroaffective extension of warm-glow theory: charitable giving can engage emotional and reward processes that make helping psychologically reinforcing. Psychological benefits are also evident outside laboratory donation tasks. Geng et al. (2022), using data from 1,871 Chinese university students, found that both volunteering time and the amount donated to charity were positively associated with psychological well-being. However, Geng et al. (2022) used observational data, so the association should not automatically be interpreted as proof that charitable giving directly causes greater well-being. People with greater psychological well-being may also be more inclined or able to participate in prosocial activities. Chen's (2025) findings similarly demonstrate that perceived warm glow can contribute to continued prosocial engagement. Participants in the Ant Forest platform were motivated by a combination of altruistic, self-related, and practical motives rather than a single source of motivation. '''Key points:''' * Positive emotional arousal can contribute to charitable donation decisions (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Giving can engage positive affect and reward-related processes, helping to explain why prosocial behaviour may feel psychologically rewarding (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Charitable giving and volunteering are associated with psychological well-being, although correlational findings should not be interpreted as proof of causation (Geng et al., 2022). Planned Figure 2 for the final book chapter A simple original diagram could illustrate the proposed motivational cycle: Opportunity to help → Giving → Positive affect/warm glow → Emotional reward → Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. As illustrated in '''Figure 2''', an opportunity to help may lead to giving, positive affect or warm glow, emotional reward, and greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. {| style="margin:15px auto; border-collapse:separate; border-spacing:4px; text-align:center;" | style="border:1px solid #4f81bd;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#eef5fc; width:110px;" | '''Opportunity to help''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #548235;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f0f7ed; width:70px;" | '''Giving''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #d6a000;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#fff7dc; width:135px;" | '''Positive affect / warm glow''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #8064a2;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f5f0fa; width:110px;" | '''Emotional reward''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #31859b;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#edf8fa; width:175px;" | '''Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour''' |} '''''Figure 2.'' Proposed motivational cycle of warm-glow giving.''' ==How do emotions influence charitable giving?== Emotions can affect how people evaluate charitable need, not merely whether they feel good afterwards. Hasford et al. (2015) found that consumers were more insensitive to the scope of a charitable problem when their donations were based on emotional rather than calculative valuation. This finding provides an important limitation to a simple "emotion improves giving" explanation. Emotional motivation may stimulate generosity while simultaneously making donors less responsive to information such as the number of beneficiaries (Hasford et al., 2015). Genevsky et al. (2025) showed that the emotional construction of a charitable appeal also matters. Affectively congruent combinations of appeal features increased positive affect and donations, regardless of whether the matched features themselves were positively or negatively valenced. Emotional responses to charitable requests are not necessarily pleasant. Hepworth et al. (2021), across four studies, found that checkout-charity solicitations could create customer anxiety, which subsequently reduced evaluations of the service encounter. Interestingly, Hepworth et al. (2021) also found that anxiety could decrease when customers agreed to donate in employee-led solicitation situations. Therefore, some giving may potentially involve reducing an uncomfortable emotional state rather than simply seeking positive warm glow. Coleman and Peasley (2023) similarly found that checkout charity can produce ambivalent emotional experiences. Consumers may experience positive emotions such as pride and joy alongside negative emotions such as guilt and anger. Their findings suggest that high positive and high negative affect can occur simultaneously, and this emotional incongruence may actually reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Together, these studies demonstrate that emotion has a complex role in charitable behaviour. Warm glow, pride, positive arousal, anxiety, guilt, and anger can each influence donation decisions under different circumstances. '''Key points:''' * Emotional responses can encourage charitable giving, but emotional decision-making may also reduce sensitivity to the scope of need (Hasford et al., 2015). * Charitable requests can generate negative emotional reactions such as anxiety, and donating may sometimes reduce this discomfort (Hepworth et al., 2021). * Positive and negative emotions can occur simultaneously during charitable requests, and emotional ambivalence may reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Table 1. Emotional processes associated with giving and their possible influence on prosocial behaviour''' |- ! Process ! Emotional or motivational experience ! Possible behavioural effect ! Key evidence |- | '''Warm glow''' | Satisfaction from personally helping | Increases motivation to give or participate | Andreoni (1990); Xing et al. (2024) |- | '''Positive aroused affect''' | Positive emotional arousal during an appeal | Greater charitable donations | Genevsky et al. (2025) |- | '''Psychological well-being''' | Positive functioning associated with helping | May reinforce participation in prosocial activity | Geng et al. (2022) |- | '''Emotional valuation''' | Giving based mainly on feelings | Can promote donations but reduce sensitivity to scope | Hasford et al. (2015) |- | '''Checkout anxiety''' | Anxiety following a donation request | May reduce service evaluations and can sometimes encourage donating to reduce discomfort | Hepworth et al. (2021) |- | '''Emotional ambivalence''' | Simultaneous pride/joy and guilt/anger | Mixed affect can complicate or reduce donation intentions | Coleman & Peasley (2023) |- | '''Perceived warm glow''' | Personal satisfaction from environmental contribution | Encourages continued engagement | Chen (2025) |- | '''Moral elevation''' | Feeling inspired by another person's generosity | Encourages prosocial contagion | Yin et al. (2026) |} As summarised in Table 1, charitable behaviour cannot be explained by one emotion alone. Giving involves interacting positive and negative emotional processes, and these processes can either encourage or inhibit prosocial action. ==How can warm glow influence future and wider prosocial behaviour?== If giving produces an emotional reward, that feeling may act as feedback which shapes later choices. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) examined how feelings following previous donation decisions predicted subsequent decisions. They found that feeling good about a previous decision whether that decision was to give or not give—predicted a tendency to make a similar choice later. In contrast, feeling bad about the previous decision increased the likelihood of changing the next decision (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). This provides an important mechanism for explaining repeated prosocial behaviour. If donating creates a warm-glow response, people may learn from this positive emotional feedback and become more motivated to donate again. Chen (2025) provides complementary evidence about sustained engagement in a different prosocial context. Perceived warm glow positively contributed to users' intentions to continue engaging with Ant Forest, suggesting that emotional benefits can support persistence over time. Warm-glow processes may also influence behaviour between people, not just within a single donor. Yin et al. (2026) examined prosocial contagion across nine experiments and investigated responses to observing generosity from benefactors with different income levels. Observing generosity from lower-income benefactors produced stronger perceptions of altruistic motivation and greater moral elevation, which subsequently encouraged prosocial responses among observers (Yin et al., 2026). The finding demonstrates how emotional responses to another person's generosity can spread prosocial behaviour. People do not necessarily need to experience the initial act of giving themselves; witnessing meaningful generosity can also motivate helping. Xing et al. (2024) further illustrates the social and practical application of warm glow. In poverty-alleviation crowdfunding, consumer warm glow helped account for the greater success of poverty-focused campaigns, demonstrating that the emotional reward attached to helping can influence marketplace behaviour. Thus, emotional rewards may create two reinforcing pathways: personal reinforcement, where feeling good after giving encourages future giving, and social contagion, where observing generosity inspires prosocial behaviour in other people.{{anchor|Scenarios}} '''Key points:''' * Emotional reactions to previous donation decisions can act as feedback that influences later giving behaviour (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). * Perceived warm glow can support continued engagement in prosocial activities over time (Chen, 2025). * Prosocial behaviour can spread socially because observing another person's generosity may produce moral elevation and encourage further helping behaviour (Yin et al., 2026). ;Quiz Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Warm-glow giving suggests that people can care about helping others while also experiencing personal emotional satisfaction from the act of giving: |type="()"} + True - False {Charitable requests always make people feel positive emotions: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== Warm-glow giving explains why helping can be emotionally rewarding without implying that generosity is entirely self-interested. Andreoni's (1990) account of impure altruism establishes how concern for others and satisfaction from personally helping can coexist. Psychological research further indicates that perceived impact, autonomous choice, positive affect and feelings of meaning help explain when giving is rewarding (Weinstein & Ryan, 2010; Aknin, Dunn, et al., 2013; Regan et al., 2023). Nevertheless, emotional benefits are not guaranteed. Larger replications have produced positive, null and small effects (Aknin et al., 2020), while requests for donations can elicit guilt, anxiety and ambivalence (Hepworth et al., 2021; Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Emotional satisfaction also differs from demonstrable effectiveness: feeling pleased by a donation does not establish that it meets recipients' needs particularly well. Warm glow may reinforce repeated giving through emotional feedback, while observing generosity can inspire related but distinct feelings of moral elevation (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021; Yin et al., 2026). In everyday life, informed and voluntary donations, accompanied by meaningful feedback about impact, offer a practical way to support donors' well-being without losing sight of those who receive help. == See also == {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Altruism and empathy|Altruism and empathy]] (Book chapter, 2024) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Empathy-altruism hypothesis|Empathy-altruism hypothesis]] (Book chapter, 2021) [[w|Altruism]] (Wikipedia) [[w behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Andreoni, J. (1990). Impure altruism and donations to public goods: A theory of warm-glow giving. The Economic Journal, 100(401), 464–477. https://doi.org/10.2307/2234133 Chen, Y. (2025). Gaining in giving: Unveiling continuous engagement intentions with the Chinese pro-environmental gamification Ant Forest. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 41(13), 8447–8463. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2024.2410053 Coleman, J. T., & Peasley, M. C. (2023). Wounding pride and infusing affect: The ambivalent emotional experience of checkout charity. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 40(6), 785–797. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-07-2021-4750 Genevsky, A., Yoon, C., Lin, T.-Y., Shaw, S. D., & Knutson, B. (2025). The impact of affective congruence on charitable giving. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 20(1), nsaf086. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsaf086 Geng, Y., Chen, Y., Huang, C., Tan, Y., Zhang, C., & Zhu, S. (2022). Volunteering, charitable donation, and psychological well-being of college students in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 790528. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.790528 Hasford, J., Farmer, A., & Waites, S. F. (2015). Thinking, feeling, and giving: The effects of scope and valuation on consumer donations. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 32(4), 435–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2015.05.006 Hepworth, A., Lee, N. Y., & Zablah, A. R. (2021). Feeling anxious: The dark side of checkout charity solicitations. Journal of Business Research, 136, 330–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.07.050 Shlefer, S., & Kogut, T. (2021). How did it feel? Affect as a feedback system in repeated donation decisions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 97, 104203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104203 Xing, C., Zhang, Y., & Tripe, D. (2024). Ethical consumers and low-income sellers on China's reward-based crowdfunding platforms: Are poverty alleviation campaigns more successful? Journal of Business Ethics, 191(4), 793–810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-024-05666-3 Yin, B. M., Olson, J. G., & Li, Y. J. (2026). When having less elevates more: Benefactor income, moral elevation, and prosocial contagion among observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000493 }} ==External links== * [https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/how_to_make_giving_feel_good How to make giving feel good] (Greater Good Science Center) * [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/publications/observer/obsonline/the-warm-glow-of-giving-may-overshadow-doing-the-greatest-good.html The “Warm Glow” of Giving May Overshadow Doing the Greatest Good] (Association for Psychological Science) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Prosocial]] i7llr0syj46i8sgz7e9z2gq5h0nfkzu 2840834 2840833 2026-10-17T05:22:48Z Karabi Tasneem 3109802 /* What is warm-glow giving? */ added info 2840834 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Warm-glow giving:<br>Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Charity donation box, Hong Kong International Airport (2018).jpg|thumb|190px|'''Figure 1'''. A public donation box illustrates an everyday opportunity to engage in charitable giving. Such situations can benefit recipients while also generating emotional responses in donors.]] '''Imagine this...''' You are buying groceries when the checkout screen asks whether you would like to add $2 to support a charity. You had not planned to donate and you briefly hesitate. Two dollars will not make a noticeable difference to your own finances, so you select '''yes'''. As you leave the supermarket, you feel unexpectedly pleased about having helped someone else. A week later, you encounter another request for a small donation. You remember the positive feeling from the previous experience and again consider giving. Why can giving money away make a person feel good, and could this pleasant emotional response encourage them to behave generously again? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * '''Warm-glow giving''' describes the internal satisfaction or emotional reward that people can experience from helping others. Andreoni's (1990) theory proposes that people can be motivated simultaneously by concern for beneficiaries and by the personal satisfaction they receive from giving. * Research suggests that giving is associated with positive emotional experiences and psychological well-being. For example, charitable donation and volunteering have been positively associated with psychological well-being among university students (Geng et al., 2022). * However, giving does not always produce purely positive emotions. Charitable requests can also produce anxiety, guilt, anger, pressure, or mixed emotional reactions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023; Hepworth et al., 2021). * Understanding these processes is important because emotional experiences may influence not only an immediate decision to donate but also whether people continue engaging in prosocial behaviour in the future (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} What is warm-glow giving and how does it explain people's motivation to help others? Why can giving produce positive emotional and rewarding experiences? How do positive and negative emotions influence charitable giving decisions? How can the emotional consequences of giving influence future and wider prosocial behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is warm-glow giving?== Warm-glow giving was formally developed through Andreoni's (1990) theory of impure altruism. Pure altruism assumes that a person gives because they value improvements in another person's welfare, whereas impure altruism proposes that donors can also obtain utility from the act of giving itself. Warm glow therefore provides a way of understanding why apparently selfless behaviour may also contain a personally rewarding component. Experiencing satisfaction from helping does not necessarily mean that genuine concern for others is absent; self-oriented and other-oriented motives can coexist (Andreoni, 1990). The theory is particularly useful because it connects motivation and emotion: the expectation or experience of a positive internal reward can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. Evidence shows that warm-glow processes extend beyond conventional charitable donations. Xing et al. (2024) found that consumers' feelings of warm glow helped explain the greater success of poverty-alleviation crowdfunding campaigns compared with ordinary crowdfunding campaigns. Chen (2025) extended warm-glow theory to pro-environmental gamification. Among 525 Ant Forest users, perceived warm glow was one of the positive predictors of continued engagement, alongside altruistic, egoistic, and pragmatic motivational factors. These findings suggest that warm glow can help explain multiple forms of prosocial participation, including donating, crowdfunding, and sustained environmentally beneficial behaviour. Evidence from a motivation-focused journal provides a useful psychological qualification to the economic account. Wiwad and Aknin (2017) conducted three experiments comparing the emotional consequences of recalling self-focused and other-focused helpful acts. Recalling other-focused acts produced greater positive affect, with perceived morality helping to explain the difference. Because the studies relied on remembered behaviour, the results do not establish that every other-focused act produces more happiness at the time it occurs. '''Key points:''' * Warm-glow giving is explained by Andreoni's (1990) theory of '''impure altruism''', in which concern for others and personal satisfaction from giving can coexist. * The emotional reward associated with helping can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. * Warm-glow processes can extend beyond charitable donations to other forms of prosocial participation, including crowdfunding and environmentally beneficial behaviour (Xing et al., 2024; Chen, 2025). ==Why does giving feel good?== Andreoni’s theory explains why a donor might value the act of giving, but it does not itself establish that a donation will improve emotional well-being. Dunn et al. (2008) provided initial experimental evidence that spending on others can increase happiness; Aknin, Barrington-Leigh, et al. (2013) extended the finding to a range of cultural contexts. However, Aknin et al. (2020) obtained mixed results in large preregistered replications, suggesting that any average emotional benefit depends partly on how prosocial spending is enacted and measured. One explanation is that giving generates positive affect. Genevsky et al. (2025) found across behavioural and neuroimaging experiments that charitable appeals containing affectively congruent features generated greater donations than incongruent appeals. Importantly, the relationship between affective congruence and giving was mediated by positive aroused affect. This suggests that positive emotional experience was not simply associated with donation—it helped explain why particular appeals increased giving (Genevsky et al., 2025). Genevsky et al. (2025) also found greater activity in the nucleus accumbens, a brain region associated with positive affect and reward processing, in response to affectively congruent charitable requests. Increased activity subsequently predicted donation decisions. These findings provide a useful psychological and neuroaffective extension of warm-glow theory: charitable giving can engage emotional and reward processes that make helping psychologically reinforcing. Psychological benefits are also evident outside laboratory donation tasks. Geng et al. (2022), using data from 1,871 Chinese university students, found that both volunteering time and the amount donated to charity were positively associated with psychological well-being. However, Geng et al. (2022) used observational data, so the association should not automatically be interpreted as proof that charitable giving directly causes greater well-being. People with greater psychological well-being may also be more inclined or able to participate in prosocial activities. Chen's (2025) findings similarly demonstrate that perceived warm glow can contribute to continued prosocial engagement. Participants in the Ant Forest platform were motivated by a combination of altruistic, self-related, and practical motives rather than a single source of motivation. '''Key points:''' * Positive emotional arousal can contribute to charitable donation decisions (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Giving can engage positive affect and reward-related processes, helping to explain why prosocial behaviour may feel psychologically rewarding (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Charitable giving and volunteering are associated with psychological well-being, although correlational findings should not be interpreted as proof of causation (Geng et al., 2022). Planned Figure 2 for the final book chapter A simple original diagram could illustrate the proposed motivational cycle: Opportunity to help → Giving → Positive affect/warm glow → Emotional reward → Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. As illustrated in '''Figure 2''', an opportunity to help may lead to giving, positive affect or warm glow, emotional reward, and greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. {| style="margin:15px auto; border-collapse:separate; border-spacing:4px; text-align:center;" | style="border:1px solid #4f81bd;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#eef5fc; width:110px;" | '''Opportunity to help''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #548235;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f0f7ed; width:70px;" | '''Giving''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #d6a000;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#fff7dc; width:135px;" | '''Positive affect / warm glow''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #8064a2;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f5f0fa; width:110px;" | '''Emotional reward''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #31859b;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#edf8fa; width:175px;" | '''Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour''' |} '''''Figure 2.'' Proposed motivational cycle of warm-glow giving.''' ==How do emotions influence charitable giving?== Emotions can affect how people evaluate charitable need, not merely whether they feel good afterwards. Hasford et al. (2015) found that consumers were more insensitive to the scope of a charitable problem when their donations were based on emotional rather than calculative valuation. This finding provides an important limitation to a simple "emotion improves giving" explanation. Emotional motivation may stimulate generosity while simultaneously making donors less responsive to information such as the number of beneficiaries (Hasford et al., 2015). Genevsky et al. (2025) showed that the emotional construction of a charitable appeal also matters. Affectively congruent combinations of appeal features increased positive affect and donations, regardless of whether the matched features themselves were positively or negatively valenced. Emotional responses to charitable requests are not necessarily pleasant. Hepworth et al. (2021), across four studies, found that checkout-charity solicitations could create customer anxiety, which subsequently reduced evaluations of the service encounter. Interestingly, Hepworth et al. (2021) also found that anxiety could decrease when customers agreed to donate in employee-led solicitation situations. Therefore, some giving may potentially involve reducing an uncomfortable emotional state rather than simply seeking positive warm glow. Coleman and Peasley (2023) similarly found that checkout charity can produce ambivalent emotional experiences. Consumers may experience positive emotions such as pride and joy alongside negative emotions such as guilt and anger. Their findings suggest that high positive and high negative affect can occur simultaneously, and this emotional incongruence may actually reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Together, these studies demonstrate that emotion has a complex role in charitable behaviour. Warm glow, pride, positive arousal, anxiety, guilt, and anger can each influence donation decisions under different circumstances. '''Key points:''' * Emotional responses can encourage charitable giving, but emotional decision-making may also reduce sensitivity to the scope of need (Hasford et al., 2015). * Charitable requests can generate negative emotional reactions such as anxiety, and donating may sometimes reduce this discomfort (Hepworth et al., 2021). * Positive and negative emotions can occur simultaneously during charitable requests, and emotional ambivalence may reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Table 1. Emotional processes associated with giving and their possible influence on prosocial behaviour''' |- ! Process ! Emotional or motivational experience ! Possible behavioural effect ! Key evidence |- | '''Warm glow''' | Satisfaction from personally helping | Increases motivation to give or participate | Andreoni (1990); Xing et al. (2024) |- | '''Positive aroused affect''' | Positive emotional arousal during an appeal | Greater charitable donations | Genevsky et al. (2025) |- | '''Psychological well-being''' | Positive functioning associated with helping | May reinforce participation in prosocial activity | Geng et al. (2022) |- | '''Emotional valuation''' | Giving based mainly on feelings | Can promote donations but reduce sensitivity to scope | Hasford et al. (2015) |- | '''Checkout anxiety''' | Anxiety following a donation request | May reduce service evaluations and can sometimes encourage donating to reduce discomfort | Hepworth et al. (2021) |- | '''Emotional ambivalence''' | Simultaneous pride/joy and guilt/anger | Mixed affect can complicate or reduce donation intentions | Coleman & Peasley (2023) |- | '''Perceived warm glow''' | Personal satisfaction from environmental contribution | Encourages continued engagement | Chen (2025) |- | '''Moral elevation''' | Feeling inspired by another person's generosity | Encourages prosocial contagion | Yin et al. (2026) |} As summarised in Table 1, charitable behaviour cannot be explained by one emotion alone. Giving involves interacting positive and negative emotional processes, and these processes can either encourage or inhibit prosocial action. ==How can warm glow influence future and wider prosocial behaviour?== If giving produces an emotional reward, that feeling may act as feedback which shapes later choices. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) examined how feelings following previous donation decisions predicted subsequent decisions. They found that feeling good about a previous decision whether that decision was to give or not give—predicted a tendency to make a similar choice later. In contrast, feeling bad about the previous decision increased the likelihood of changing the next decision (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). This provides an important mechanism for explaining repeated prosocial behaviour. If donating creates a warm-glow response, people may learn from this positive emotional feedback and become more motivated to donate again. Chen (2025) provides complementary evidence about sustained engagement in a different prosocial context. Perceived warm glow positively contributed to users' intentions to continue engaging with Ant Forest, suggesting that emotional benefits can support persistence over time. Warm-glow processes may also influence behaviour between people, not just within a single donor. Yin et al. (2026) examined prosocial contagion across nine experiments and investigated responses to observing generosity from benefactors with different income levels. Observing generosity from lower-income benefactors produced stronger perceptions of altruistic motivation and greater moral elevation, which subsequently encouraged prosocial responses among observers (Yin et al., 2026). The finding demonstrates how emotional responses to another person's generosity can spread prosocial behaviour. People do not necessarily need to experience the initial act of giving themselves; witnessing meaningful generosity can also motivate helping. Xing et al. (2024) further illustrates the social and practical application of warm glow. In poverty-alleviation crowdfunding, consumer warm glow helped account for the greater success of poverty-focused campaigns, demonstrating that the emotional reward attached to helping can influence marketplace behaviour. Thus, emotional rewards may create two reinforcing pathways: personal reinforcement, where feeling good after giving encourages future giving, and social contagion, where observing generosity inspires prosocial behaviour in other people.{{anchor|Scenarios}} '''Key points:''' * Emotional reactions to previous donation decisions can act as feedback that influences later giving behaviour (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). * Perceived warm glow can support continued engagement in prosocial activities over time (Chen, 2025). * Prosocial behaviour can spread socially because observing another person's generosity may produce moral elevation and encourage further helping behaviour (Yin et al., 2026). ;Quiz Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Warm-glow giving suggests that people can care about helping others while also experiencing personal emotional satisfaction from the act of giving: |type="()"} + True - False {Charitable requests always make people feel positive emotions: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== Warm-glow giving explains why helping can be emotionally rewarding without implying that generosity is entirely self-interested. Andreoni's (1990) account of impure altruism establishes how concern for others and satisfaction from personally helping can coexist. Psychological research further indicates that perceived impact, autonomous choice, positive affect and feelings of meaning help explain when giving is rewarding (Weinstein & Ryan, 2010; Aknin, Dunn, et al., 2013; Regan et al., 2023). Nevertheless, emotional benefits are not guaranteed. Larger replications have produced positive, null and small effects (Aknin et al., 2020), while requests for donations can elicit guilt, anxiety and ambivalence (Hepworth et al., 2021; Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Emotional satisfaction also differs from demonstrable effectiveness: feeling pleased by a donation does not establish that it meets recipients' needs particularly well. Warm glow may reinforce repeated giving through emotional feedback, while observing generosity can inspire related but distinct feelings of moral elevation (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021; Yin et al., 2026). In everyday life, informed and voluntary donations, accompanied by meaningful feedback about impact, offer a practical way to support donors' well-being without losing sight of those who receive help. == See also == {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Altruism and empathy|Altruism and empathy]] (Book chapter, 2024) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Empathy-altruism hypothesis|Empathy-altruism hypothesis]] (Book chapter, 2021) [[w|Altruism]] (Wikipedia) [[w behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Andreoni, J. (1990). Impure altruism and donations to public goods: A theory of warm-glow giving. The Economic Journal, 100(401), 464–477. https://doi.org/10.2307/2234133 Chen, Y. (2025). Gaining in giving: Unveiling continuous engagement intentions with the Chinese pro-environmental gamification Ant Forest. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 41(13), 8447–8463. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2024.2410053 Coleman, J. T., & Peasley, M. C. (2023). Wounding pride and infusing affect: The ambivalent emotional experience of checkout charity. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 40(6), 785–797. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-07-2021-4750 Genevsky, A., Yoon, C., Lin, T.-Y., Shaw, S. D., & Knutson, B. (2025). The impact of affective congruence on charitable giving. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 20(1), nsaf086. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsaf086 Geng, Y., Chen, Y., Huang, C., Tan, Y., Zhang, C., & Zhu, S. (2022). Volunteering, charitable donation, and psychological well-being of college students in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 790528. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.790528 Hasford, J., Farmer, A., & Waites, S. F. (2015). Thinking, feeling, and giving: The effects of scope and valuation on consumer donations. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 32(4), 435–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2015.05.006 Hepworth, A., Lee, N. Y., & Zablah, A. R. (2021). Feeling anxious: The dark side of checkout charity solicitations. Journal of Business Research, 136, 330–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.07.050 Shlefer, S., & Kogut, T. (2021). How did it feel? Affect as a feedback system in repeated donation decisions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 97, 104203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104203 Xing, C., Zhang, Y., & Tripe, D. (2024). Ethical consumers and low-income sellers on China's reward-based crowdfunding platforms: Are poverty alleviation campaigns more successful? Journal of Business Ethics, 191(4), 793–810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-024-05666-3 Yin, B. M., Olson, J. G., & Li, Y. J. (2026). When having less elevates more: Benefactor income, moral elevation, and prosocial contagion among observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000493 }} ==External links== * [https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/how_to_make_giving_feel_good How to make giving feel good] (Greater Good Science Center) * [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/publications/observer/obsonline/the-warm-glow-of-giving-may-overshadow-doing-the-greatest-good.html The “Warm Glow” of Giving May Overshadow Doing the Greatest Good] (Association for Psychological Science) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Prosocial]] 3n5zwxpfwpbldq0iusq5remoam8801v 2840835 2840834 2026-10-17T05:23:57Z Karabi Tasneem 3109802 /* Why does giving feel good? */ added new info 2840835 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Warm-glow giving:<br>Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Charity donation box, Hong Kong International Airport (2018).jpg|thumb|190px|'''Figure 1'''. A public donation box illustrates an everyday opportunity to engage in charitable giving. Such situations can benefit recipients while also generating emotional responses in donors.]] '''Imagine this...''' You are buying groceries when the checkout screen asks whether you would like to add $2 to support a charity. You had not planned to donate and you briefly hesitate. Two dollars will not make a noticeable difference to your own finances, so you select '''yes'''. As you leave the supermarket, you feel unexpectedly pleased about having helped someone else. A week later, you encounter another request for a small donation. You remember the positive feeling from the previous experience and again consider giving. Why can giving money away make a person feel good, and could this pleasant emotional response encourage them to behave generously again? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * '''Warm-glow giving''' describes the internal satisfaction or emotional reward that people can experience from helping others. Andreoni's (1990) theory proposes that people can be motivated simultaneously by concern for beneficiaries and by the personal satisfaction they receive from giving. * Research suggests that giving is associated with positive emotional experiences and psychological well-being. For example, charitable donation and volunteering have been positively associated with psychological well-being among university students (Geng et al., 2022). * However, giving does not always produce purely positive emotions. Charitable requests can also produce anxiety, guilt, anger, pressure, or mixed emotional reactions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023; Hepworth et al., 2021). * Understanding these processes is important because emotional experiences may influence not only an immediate decision to donate but also whether people continue engaging in prosocial behaviour in the future (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} What is warm-glow giving and how does it explain people's motivation to help others? Why can giving produce positive emotional and rewarding experiences? How do positive and negative emotions influence charitable giving decisions? How can the emotional consequences of giving influence future and wider prosocial behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is warm-glow giving?== Warm-glow giving was formally developed through Andreoni's (1990) theory of impure altruism. Pure altruism assumes that a person gives because they value improvements in another person's welfare, whereas impure altruism proposes that donors can also obtain utility from the act of giving itself. Warm glow therefore provides a way of understanding why apparently selfless behaviour may also contain a personally rewarding component. Experiencing satisfaction from helping does not necessarily mean that genuine concern for others is absent; self-oriented and other-oriented motives can coexist (Andreoni, 1990). The theory is particularly useful because it connects motivation and emotion: the expectation or experience of a positive internal reward can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. Evidence shows that warm-glow processes extend beyond conventional charitable donations. Xing et al. (2024) found that consumers' feelings of warm glow helped explain the greater success of poverty-alleviation crowdfunding campaigns compared with ordinary crowdfunding campaigns. Chen (2025) extended warm-glow theory to pro-environmental gamification. Among 525 Ant Forest users, perceived warm glow was one of the positive predictors of continued engagement, alongside altruistic, egoistic, and pragmatic motivational factors. These findings suggest that warm glow can help explain multiple forms of prosocial participation, including donating, crowdfunding, and sustained environmentally beneficial behaviour. Evidence from a motivation-focused journal provides a useful psychological qualification to the economic account. Wiwad and Aknin (2017) conducted three experiments comparing the emotional consequences of recalling self-focused and other-focused helpful acts. Recalling other-focused acts produced greater positive affect, with perceived morality helping to explain the difference. Because the studies relied on remembered behaviour, the results do not establish that every other-focused act produces more happiness at the time it occurs. '''Key points:''' * Warm-glow giving is explained by Andreoni's (1990) theory of '''impure altruism''', in which concern for others and personal satisfaction from giving can coexist. * The emotional reward associated with helping can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. * Warm-glow processes can extend beyond charitable donations to other forms of prosocial participation, including crowdfunding and environmentally beneficial behaviour (Xing et al., 2024; Chen, 2025). ==Why does giving feel good?== Andreoni’s theory explains why a donor might value the act of giving, but it does not itself establish that a donation will improve emotional well-being. Dunn et al. (2008) provided initial experimental evidence that spending on others can increase happiness; Aknin, Barrington-Leigh, et al. (2013) extended the finding to a range of cultural contexts. However, Aknin et al. (2020) obtained mixed results in large preregistered replications, suggesting that any average emotional benefit depends partly on how prosocial spending is enacted and measured. One explanation is that giving generates positive affect. Genevsky et al. (2025) found across behavioural and neuroimaging experiments that charitable appeals containing affectively congruent features generated greater donations than incongruent appeals. Importantly, the relationship between affective congruence and giving was mediated by positive aroused affect. This suggests that positive emotional experience was not simply associated with donation—it helped explain why particular appeals increased giving (Genevsky et al., 2025). Genevsky et al. (2025) also found greater activity in the nucleus accumbens, a brain region associated with positive affect and reward processing, in response to affectively congruent charitable requests. Increased activity subsequently predicted donation decisions. These findings provide a useful psychological and neuroaffective extension of warm-glow theory: charitable giving can engage emotional and reward processes that make helping psychologically reinforcing. Giving can also produce a sense of meaning rather than pleasure alone. Regan et al. (2023), writing in Affective Science, experimentally compared kindness towards others with kindness towards oneself and other positive activities. Other-directed kindness was linked to relatively stronger feelings of competence, self-confidence and meaning. These findings complement self-determination theory, but the intervention concerned kindness generally rather than charitable spending specifically. Psychological benefits are also evident outside laboratory donation tasks. Geng et al. (2022), using data from 1,871 Chinese university students, found that both volunteering time and the amount donated to charity were positively associated with psychological well-being. However, Geng et al. (2022) used observational data, so the association should not automatically be interpreted as proof that charitable giving directly causes greater well-being. People with greater psychological well-being may also be more inclined or able to participate in prosocial activities. Chen's (2025) findings similarly demonstrate that perceived warm glow can contribute to continued prosocial engagement. Participants in the Ant Forest platform were motivated by a combination of altruistic, self-related, and practical motives rather than a single source of motivation. '''Key points:''' * Positive emotional arousal can contribute to charitable donation decisions (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Giving can engage positive affect and reward-related processes, helping to explain why prosocial behaviour may feel psychologically rewarding (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Charitable giving and volunteering are associated with psychological well-being, although correlational findings should not be interpreted as proof of causation (Geng et al., 2022). Planned Figure 2 for the final book chapter A simple original diagram could illustrate the proposed motivational cycle: Opportunity to help → Giving → Positive affect/warm glow → Emotional reward → Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. As illustrated in '''Figure 2''', an opportunity to help may lead to giving, positive affect or warm glow, emotional reward, and greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. {| style="margin:15px auto; border-collapse:separate; border-spacing:4px; text-align:center;" | style="border:1px solid #4f81bd;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#eef5fc; width:110px;" | '''Opportunity to help''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #548235;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f0f7ed; width:70px;" | '''Giving''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #d6a000;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#fff7dc; width:135px;" | '''Positive affect / warm glow''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #8064a2;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f5f0fa; width:110px;" | '''Emotional reward''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #31859b;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#edf8fa; width:175px;" | '''Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour''' |} '''''Figure 2.'' Proposed motivational cycle of warm-glow giving.''' ==How do emotions influence charitable giving?== Emotions can affect how people evaluate charitable need, not merely whether they feel good afterwards. Hasford et al. (2015) found that consumers were more insensitive to the scope of a charitable problem when their donations were based on emotional rather than calculative valuation. This finding provides an important limitation to a simple "emotion improves giving" explanation. Emotional motivation may stimulate generosity while simultaneously making donors less responsive to information such as the number of beneficiaries (Hasford et al., 2015). Genevsky et al. (2025) showed that the emotional construction of a charitable appeal also matters. Affectively congruent combinations of appeal features increased positive affect and donations, regardless of whether the matched features themselves were positively or negatively valenced. Emotional responses to charitable requests are not necessarily pleasant. Hepworth et al. (2021), across four studies, found that checkout-charity solicitations could create customer anxiety, which subsequently reduced evaluations of the service encounter. Interestingly, Hepworth et al. (2021) also found that anxiety could decrease when customers agreed to donate in employee-led solicitation situations. Therefore, some giving may potentially involve reducing an uncomfortable emotional state rather than simply seeking positive warm glow. Coleman and Peasley (2023) similarly found that checkout charity can produce ambivalent emotional experiences. Consumers may experience positive emotions such as pride and joy alongside negative emotions such as guilt and anger. Their findings suggest that high positive and high negative affect can occur simultaneously, and this emotional incongruence may actually reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Together, these studies demonstrate that emotion has a complex role in charitable behaviour. Warm glow, pride, positive arousal, anxiety, guilt, and anger can each influence donation decisions under different circumstances. '''Key points:''' * Emotional responses can encourage charitable giving, but emotional decision-making may also reduce sensitivity to the scope of need (Hasford et al., 2015). * Charitable requests can generate negative emotional reactions such as anxiety, and donating may sometimes reduce this discomfort (Hepworth et al., 2021). * Positive and negative emotions can occur simultaneously during charitable requests, and emotional ambivalence may reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Table 1. Emotional processes associated with giving and their possible influence on prosocial behaviour''' |- ! Process ! Emotional or motivational experience ! Possible behavioural effect ! Key evidence |- | '''Warm glow''' | Satisfaction from personally helping | Increases motivation to give or participate | Andreoni (1990); Xing et al. (2024) |- | '''Positive aroused affect''' | Positive emotional arousal during an appeal | Greater charitable donations | Genevsky et al. (2025) |- | '''Psychological well-being''' | Positive functioning associated with helping | May reinforce participation in prosocial activity | Geng et al. (2022) |- | '''Emotional valuation''' | Giving based mainly on feelings | Can promote donations but reduce sensitivity to scope | Hasford et al. (2015) |- | '''Checkout anxiety''' | Anxiety following a donation request | May reduce service evaluations and can sometimes encourage donating to reduce discomfort | Hepworth et al. (2021) |- | '''Emotional ambivalence''' | Simultaneous pride/joy and guilt/anger | Mixed affect can complicate or reduce donation intentions | Coleman & Peasley (2023) |- | '''Perceived warm glow''' | Personal satisfaction from environmental contribution | Encourages continued engagement | Chen (2025) |- | '''Moral elevation''' | Feeling inspired by another person's generosity | Encourages prosocial contagion | Yin et al. (2026) |} As summarised in Table 1, charitable behaviour cannot be explained by one emotion alone. Giving involves interacting positive and negative emotional processes, and these processes can either encourage or inhibit prosocial action. ==How can warm glow influence future and wider prosocial behaviour?== If giving produces an emotional reward, that feeling may act as feedback which shapes later choices. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) examined how feelings following previous donation decisions predicted subsequent decisions. They found that feeling good about a previous decision whether that decision was to give or not give—predicted a tendency to make a similar choice later. In contrast, feeling bad about the previous decision increased the likelihood of changing the next decision (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). This provides an important mechanism for explaining repeated prosocial behaviour. If donating creates a warm-glow response, people may learn from this positive emotional feedback and become more motivated to donate again. Chen (2025) provides complementary evidence about sustained engagement in a different prosocial context. Perceived warm glow positively contributed to users' intentions to continue engaging with Ant Forest, suggesting that emotional benefits can support persistence over time. Warm-glow processes may also influence behaviour between people, not just within a single donor. Yin et al. (2026) examined prosocial contagion across nine experiments and investigated responses to observing generosity from benefactors with different income levels. Observing generosity from lower-income benefactors produced stronger perceptions of altruistic motivation and greater moral elevation, which subsequently encouraged prosocial responses among observers (Yin et al., 2026). The finding demonstrates how emotional responses to another person's generosity can spread prosocial behaviour. People do not necessarily need to experience the initial act of giving themselves; witnessing meaningful generosity can also motivate helping. Xing et al. (2024) further illustrates the social and practical application of warm glow. In poverty-alleviation crowdfunding, consumer warm glow helped account for the greater success of poverty-focused campaigns, demonstrating that the emotional reward attached to helping can influence marketplace behaviour. Thus, emotional rewards may create two reinforcing pathways: personal reinforcement, where feeling good after giving encourages future giving, and social contagion, where observing generosity inspires prosocial behaviour in other people.{{anchor|Scenarios}} '''Key points:''' * Emotional reactions to previous donation decisions can act as feedback that influences later giving behaviour (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). * Perceived warm glow can support continued engagement in prosocial activities over time (Chen, 2025). * Prosocial behaviour can spread socially because observing another person's generosity may produce moral elevation and encourage further helping behaviour (Yin et al., 2026). ;Quiz Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Warm-glow giving suggests that people can care about helping others while also experiencing personal emotional satisfaction from the act of giving: |type="()"} + True - False {Charitable requests always make people feel positive emotions: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== Warm-glow giving explains why helping can be emotionally rewarding without implying that generosity is entirely self-interested. Andreoni's (1990) account of impure altruism establishes how concern for others and satisfaction from personally helping can coexist. Psychological research further indicates that perceived impact, autonomous choice, positive affect and feelings of meaning help explain when giving is rewarding (Weinstein & Ryan, 2010; Aknin, Dunn, et al., 2013; Regan et al., 2023). Nevertheless, emotional benefits are not guaranteed. Larger replications have produced positive, null and small effects (Aknin et al., 2020), while requests for donations can elicit guilt, anxiety and ambivalence (Hepworth et al., 2021; Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Emotional satisfaction also differs from demonstrable effectiveness: feeling pleased by a donation does not establish that it meets recipients' needs particularly well. Warm glow may reinforce repeated giving through emotional feedback, while observing generosity can inspire related but distinct feelings of moral elevation (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021; Yin et al., 2026). In everyday life, informed and voluntary donations, accompanied by meaningful feedback about impact, offer a practical way to support donors' well-being without losing sight of those who receive help. == See also == {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Altruism and empathy|Altruism and empathy]] (Book chapter, 2024) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Empathy-altruism hypothesis|Empathy-altruism hypothesis]] (Book chapter, 2021) [[w|Altruism]] (Wikipedia) [[w behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Andreoni, J. (1990). Impure altruism and donations to public goods: A theory of warm-glow giving. The Economic Journal, 100(401), 464–477. https://doi.org/10.2307/2234133 Chen, Y. (2025). Gaining in giving: Unveiling continuous engagement intentions with the Chinese pro-environmental gamification Ant Forest. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 41(13), 8447–8463. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2024.2410053 Coleman, J. T., & Peasley, M. C. (2023). Wounding pride and infusing affect: The ambivalent emotional experience of checkout charity. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 40(6), 785–797. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-07-2021-4750 Genevsky, A., Yoon, C., Lin, T.-Y., Shaw, S. D., & Knutson, B. (2025). The impact of affective congruence on charitable giving. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 20(1), nsaf086. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsaf086 Geng, Y., Chen, Y., Huang, C., Tan, Y., Zhang, C., & Zhu, S. (2022). Volunteering, charitable donation, and psychological well-being of college students in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 790528. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.790528 Hasford, J., Farmer, A., & Waites, S. F. (2015). Thinking, feeling, and giving: The effects of scope and valuation on consumer donations. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 32(4), 435–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2015.05.006 Hepworth, A., Lee, N. Y., & Zablah, A. R. (2021). Feeling anxious: The dark side of checkout charity solicitations. Journal of Business Research, 136, 330–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.07.050 Shlefer, S., & Kogut, T. (2021). How did it feel? Affect as a feedback system in repeated donation decisions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 97, 104203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104203 Xing, C., Zhang, Y., & Tripe, D. (2024). Ethical consumers and low-income sellers on China's reward-based crowdfunding platforms: Are poverty alleviation campaigns more successful? Journal of Business Ethics, 191(4), 793–810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-024-05666-3 Yin, B. M., Olson, J. G., & Li, Y. J. (2026). When having less elevates more: Benefactor income, moral elevation, and prosocial contagion among observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000493 }} ==External links== * [https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/how_to_make_giving_feel_good How to make giving feel good] (Greater Good Science Center) * [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/publications/observer/obsonline/the-warm-glow-of-giving-may-overshadow-doing-the-greatest-good.html The “Warm Glow” of Giving May Overshadow Doing the Greatest Good] (Association for Psychological Science) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Prosocial]] 833cfysj2lbgd8wl204hucs5rnut66f 2840836 2840835 2026-10-17T05:24:44Z Karabi Tasneem 3109802 /* How do emotions influence charitable giving? */ added info 2840836 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Warm-glow giving:<br>Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Charity donation box, Hong Kong International Airport (2018).jpg|thumb|190px|'''Figure 1'''. A public donation box illustrates an everyday opportunity to engage in charitable giving. Such situations can benefit recipients while also generating emotional responses in donors.]] '''Imagine this...''' You are buying groceries when the checkout screen asks whether you would like to add $2 to support a charity. You had not planned to donate and you briefly hesitate. Two dollars will not make a noticeable difference to your own finances, so you select '''yes'''. As you leave the supermarket, you feel unexpectedly pleased about having helped someone else. A week later, you encounter another request for a small donation. You remember the positive feeling from the previous experience and again consider giving. Why can giving money away make a person feel good, and could this pleasant emotional response encourage them to behave generously again? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * '''Warm-glow giving''' describes the internal satisfaction or emotional reward that people can experience from helping others. Andreoni's (1990) theory proposes that people can be motivated simultaneously by concern for beneficiaries and by the personal satisfaction they receive from giving. * Research suggests that giving is associated with positive emotional experiences and psychological well-being. For example, charitable donation and volunteering have been positively associated with psychological well-being among university students (Geng et al., 2022). * However, giving does not always produce purely positive emotions. Charitable requests can also produce anxiety, guilt, anger, pressure, or mixed emotional reactions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023; Hepworth et al., 2021). * Understanding these processes is important because emotional experiences may influence not only an immediate decision to donate but also whether people continue engaging in prosocial behaviour in the future (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} What is warm-glow giving and how does it explain people's motivation to help others? Why can giving produce positive emotional and rewarding experiences? How do positive and negative emotions influence charitable giving decisions? How can the emotional consequences of giving influence future and wider prosocial behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is warm-glow giving?== Warm-glow giving was formally developed through Andreoni's (1990) theory of impure altruism. Pure altruism assumes that a person gives because they value improvements in another person's welfare, whereas impure altruism proposes that donors can also obtain utility from the act of giving itself. Warm glow therefore provides a way of understanding why apparently selfless behaviour may also contain a personally rewarding component. Experiencing satisfaction from helping does not necessarily mean that genuine concern for others is absent; self-oriented and other-oriented motives can coexist (Andreoni, 1990). The theory is particularly useful because it connects motivation and emotion: the expectation or experience of a positive internal reward can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. Evidence shows that warm-glow processes extend beyond conventional charitable donations. Xing et al. (2024) found that consumers' feelings of warm glow helped explain the greater success of poverty-alleviation crowdfunding campaigns compared with ordinary crowdfunding campaigns. Chen (2025) extended warm-glow theory to pro-environmental gamification. Among 525 Ant Forest users, perceived warm glow was one of the positive predictors of continued engagement, alongside altruistic, egoistic, and pragmatic motivational factors. These findings suggest that warm glow can help explain multiple forms of prosocial participation, including donating, crowdfunding, and sustained environmentally beneficial behaviour. Evidence from a motivation-focused journal provides a useful psychological qualification to the economic account. Wiwad and Aknin (2017) conducted three experiments comparing the emotional consequences of recalling self-focused and other-focused helpful acts. Recalling other-focused acts produced greater positive affect, with perceived morality helping to explain the difference. Because the studies relied on remembered behaviour, the results do not establish that every other-focused act produces more happiness at the time it occurs. '''Key points:''' * Warm-glow giving is explained by Andreoni's (1990) theory of '''impure altruism''', in which concern for others and personal satisfaction from giving can coexist. * The emotional reward associated with helping can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. * Warm-glow processes can extend beyond charitable donations to other forms of prosocial participation, including crowdfunding and environmentally beneficial behaviour (Xing et al., 2024; Chen, 2025). ==Why does giving feel good?== Andreoni’s theory explains why a donor might value the act of giving, but it does not itself establish that a donation will improve emotional well-being. Dunn et al. (2008) provided initial experimental evidence that spending on others can increase happiness; Aknin, Barrington-Leigh, et al. (2013) extended the finding to a range of cultural contexts. However, Aknin et al. (2020) obtained mixed results in large preregistered replications, suggesting that any average emotional benefit depends partly on how prosocial spending is enacted and measured. One explanation is that giving generates positive affect. Genevsky et al. (2025) found across behavioural and neuroimaging experiments that charitable appeals containing affectively congruent features generated greater donations than incongruent appeals. Importantly, the relationship between affective congruence and giving was mediated by positive aroused affect. This suggests that positive emotional experience was not simply associated with donation—it helped explain why particular appeals increased giving (Genevsky et al., 2025). Genevsky et al. (2025) also found greater activity in the nucleus accumbens, a brain region associated with positive affect and reward processing, in response to affectively congruent charitable requests. Increased activity subsequently predicted donation decisions. These findings provide a useful psychological and neuroaffective extension of warm-glow theory: charitable giving can engage emotional and reward processes that make helping psychologically reinforcing. Giving can also produce a sense of meaning rather than pleasure alone. Regan et al. (2023), writing in Affective Science, experimentally compared kindness towards others with kindness towards oneself and other positive activities. Other-directed kindness was linked to relatively stronger feelings of competence, self-confidence and meaning. These findings complement self-determination theory, but the intervention concerned kindness generally rather than charitable spending specifically. Psychological benefits are also evident outside laboratory donation tasks. Geng et al. (2022), using data from 1,871 Chinese university students, found that both volunteering time and the amount donated to charity were positively associated with psychological well-being. However, Geng et al. (2022) used observational data, so the association should not automatically be interpreted as proof that charitable giving directly causes greater well-being. People with greater psychological well-being may also be more inclined or able to participate in prosocial activities. Chen's (2025) findings similarly demonstrate that perceived warm glow can contribute to continued prosocial engagement. Participants in the Ant Forest platform were motivated by a combination of altruistic, self-related, and practical motives rather than a single source of motivation. '''Key points:''' * Positive emotional arousal can contribute to charitable donation decisions (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Giving can engage positive affect and reward-related processes, helping to explain why prosocial behaviour may feel psychologically rewarding (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Charitable giving and volunteering are associated with psychological well-being, although correlational findings should not be interpreted as proof of causation (Geng et al., 2022). Planned Figure 2 for the final book chapter A simple original diagram could illustrate the proposed motivational cycle: Opportunity to help → Giving → Positive affect/warm glow → Emotional reward → Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. As illustrated in '''Figure 2''', an opportunity to help may lead to giving, positive affect or warm glow, emotional reward, and greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. {| style="margin:15px auto; border-collapse:separate; border-spacing:4px; text-align:center;" | style="border:1px solid #4f81bd;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#eef5fc; width:110px;" | '''Opportunity to help''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #548235;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f0f7ed; width:70px;" | '''Giving''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #d6a000;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#fff7dc; width:135px;" | '''Positive affect / warm glow''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #8064a2;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f5f0fa; width:110px;" | '''Emotional reward''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #31859b;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#edf8fa; width:175px;" | '''Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour''' |} '''''Figure 2.'' Proposed motivational cycle of warm-glow giving.''' ==How do emotions influence charitable giving?== Self-determination theory provides a useful framework for distinguishing voluntary generosity from helping under pressure. Ryan and Deci (2000) identify autonomy, competence and relatedness as psychological needs, while Weinstein and Ryan (2010) found more favourable helper and recipient outcomes when helping was autonomously motivated. Aknin, Dunn, et al. (2013) further showed the importance of understanding a donation’s impact. These findings suggest that the rewarding quality of giving depends on circumstances and motives rather than on monetary transfer alone. Emotions can affect how people evaluate charitable need, not merely whether they feel good afterwards. Hasford et al. (2015) found that consumers were more insensitive to the scope of a charitable problem when their donations were based on emotional rather than calculative valuation. This finding provides an important limitation to a simple "emotion improves giving" explanation. Emotional motivation may stimulate generosity while simultaneously making donors less responsive to information such as the number of beneficiaries (Hasford et al., 2015). Genevsky et al. (2025) showed that the emotional construction of a charitable appeal also matters. Affectively congruent combinations of appeal features increased positive affect and donations, regardless of whether the matched features themselves were positively or negatively valenced. Emotional responses to charitable requests are not necessarily pleasant. Hepworth et al. (2021), across four studies, found that checkout-charity solicitations could create customer anxiety, which subsequently reduced evaluations of the service encounter. Interestingly, Hepworth et al. (2021) also found that anxiety could decrease when customers agreed to donate in employee-led solicitation situations. Therefore, some giving may potentially involve reducing an uncomfortable emotional state rather than simply seeking positive warm glow. Coleman and Peasley (2023) similarly found that checkout charity can produce ambivalent emotional experiences. Consumers may experience positive emotions such as pride and joy alongside negative emotions such as guilt and anger. Their findings suggest that high positive and high negative affect can occur simultaneously, and this emotional incongruence may actually reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Together, these studies demonstrate that emotion has a complex role in charitable behaviour. Warm glow, pride, positive arousal, anxiety, guilt, and anger can each influence donation decisions under different circumstances. '''Key points:''' * Emotional responses can encourage charitable giving, but emotional decision-making may also reduce sensitivity to the scope of need (Hasford et al., 2015). * Charitable requests can generate negative emotional reactions such as anxiety, and donating may sometimes reduce this discomfort (Hepworth et al., 2021). * Positive and negative emotions can occur simultaneously during charitable requests, and emotional ambivalence may reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Table 1. Emotional processes associated with giving and their possible influence on prosocial behaviour''' |- ! Process ! Emotional or motivational experience ! Possible behavioural effect ! Key evidence |- | '''Warm glow''' | Satisfaction from personally helping | Increases motivation to give or participate | Andreoni (1990); Xing et al. (2024) |- | '''Positive aroused affect''' | Positive emotional arousal during an appeal | Greater charitable donations | Genevsky et al. (2025) |- | '''Psychological well-being''' | Positive functioning associated with helping | May reinforce participation in prosocial activity | Geng et al. (2022) |- | '''Emotional valuation''' | Giving based mainly on feelings | Can promote donations but reduce sensitivity to scope | Hasford et al. (2015) |- | '''Checkout anxiety''' | Anxiety following a donation request | May reduce service evaluations and can sometimes encourage donating to reduce discomfort | Hepworth et al. (2021) |- | '''Emotional ambivalence''' | Simultaneous pride/joy and guilt/anger | Mixed affect can complicate or reduce donation intentions | Coleman & Peasley (2023) |- | '''Perceived warm glow''' | Personal satisfaction from environmental contribution | Encourages continued engagement | Chen (2025) |- | '''Moral elevation''' | Feeling inspired by another person's generosity | Encourages prosocial contagion | Yin et al. (2026) |} As summarised in Table 1, charitable behaviour cannot be explained by one emotion alone. Giving involves interacting positive and negative emotional processes, and these processes can either encourage or inhibit prosocial action. ==How can warm glow influence future and wider prosocial behaviour?== If giving produces an emotional reward, that feeling may act as feedback which shapes later choices. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) examined how feelings following previous donation decisions predicted subsequent decisions. They found that feeling good about a previous decision whether that decision was to give or not give—predicted a tendency to make a similar choice later. In contrast, feeling bad about the previous decision increased the likelihood of changing the next decision (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). This provides an important mechanism for explaining repeated prosocial behaviour. If donating creates a warm-glow response, people may learn from this positive emotional feedback and become more motivated to donate again. Chen (2025) provides complementary evidence about sustained engagement in a different prosocial context. Perceived warm glow positively contributed to users' intentions to continue engaging with Ant Forest, suggesting that emotional benefits can support persistence over time. Warm-glow processes may also influence behaviour between people, not just within a single donor. Yin et al. (2026) examined prosocial contagion across nine experiments and investigated responses to observing generosity from benefactors with different income levels. Observing generosity from lower-income benefactors produced stronger perceptions of altruistic motivation and greater moral elevation, which subsequently encouraged prosocial responses among observers (Yin et al., 2026). The finding demonstrates how emotional responses to another person's generosity can spread prosocial behaviour. People do not necessarily need to experience the initial act of giving themselves; witnessing meaningful generosity can also motivate helping. Xing et al. (2024) further illustrates the social and practical application of warm glow. In poverty-alleviation crowdfunding, consumer warm glow helped account for the greater success of poverty-focused campaigns, demonstrating that the emotional reward attached to helping can influence marketplace behaviour. Thus, emotional rewards may create two reinforcing pathways: personal reinforcement, where feeling good after giving encourages future giving, and social contagion, where observing generosity inspires prosocial behaviour in other people.{{anchor|Scenarios}} '''Key points:''' * Emotional reactions to previous donation decisions can act as feedback that influences later giving behaviour (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). * Perceived warm glow can support continued engagement in prosocial activities over time (Chen, 2025). * Prosocial behaviour can spread socially because observing another person's generosity may produce moral elevation and encourage further helping behaviour (Yin et al., 2026). ;Quiz Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Warm-glow giving suggests that people can care about helping others while also experiencing personal emotional satisfaction from the act of giving: |type="()"} + True - False {Charitable requests always make people feel positive emotions: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== Warm-glow giving explains why helping can be emotionally rewarding without implying that generosity is entirely self-interested. Andreoni's (1990) account of impure altruism establishes how concern for others and satisfaction from personally helping can coexist. Psychological research further indicates that perceived impact, autonomous choice, positive affect and feelings of meaning help explain when giving is rewarding (Weinstein & Ryan, 2010; Aknin, Dunn, et al., 2013; Regan et al., 2023). Nevertheless, emotional benefits are not guaranteed. Larger replications have produced positive, null and small effects (Aknin et al., 2020), while requests for donations can elicit guilt, anxiety and ambivalence (Hepworth et al., 2021; Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Emotional satisfaction also differs from demonstrable effectiveness: feeling pleased by a donation does not establish that it meets recipients' needs particularly well. Warm glow may reinforce repeated giving through emotional feedback, while observing generosity can inspire related but distinct feelings of moral elevation (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021; Yin et al., 2026). In everyday life, informed and voluntary donations, accompanied by meaningful feedback about impact, offer a practical way to support donors' well-being without losing sight of those who receive help. == See also == {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Altruism and empathy|Altruism and empathy]] (Book chapter, 2024) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Empathy-altruism hypothesis|Empathy-altruism hypothesis]] (Book chapter, 2021) [[w|Altruism]] (Wikipedia) [[w behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Andreoni, J. (1990). Impure altruism and donations to public goods: A theory of warm-glow giving. The Economic Journal, 100(401), 464–477. https://doi.org/10.2307/2234133 Chen, Y. (2025). Gaining in giving: Unveiling continuous engagement intentions with the Chinese pro-environmental gamification Ant Forest. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 41(13), 8447–8463. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2024.2410053 Coleman, J. T., & Peasley, M. C. (2023). Wounding pride and infusing affect: The ambivalent emotional experience of checkout charity. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 40(6), 785–797. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-07-2021-4750 Genevsky, A., Yoon, C., Lin, T.-Y., Shaw, S. D., & Knutson, B. (2025). The impact of affective congruence on charitable giving. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 20(1), nsaf086. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsaf086 Geng, Y., Chen, Y., Huang, C., Tan, Y., Zhang, C., & Zhu, S. (2022). Volunteering, charitable donation, and psychological well-being of college students in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 790528. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.790528 Hasford, J., Farmer, A., & Waites, S. F. (2015). Thinking, feeling, and giving: The effects of scope and valuation on consumer donations. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 32(4), 435–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2015.05.006 Hepworth, A., Lee, N. Y., & Zablah, A. R. (2021). Feeling anxious: The dark side of checkout charity solicitations. Journal of Business Research, 136, 330–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.07.050 Shlefer, S., & Kogut, T. (2021). How did it feel? Affect as a feedback system in repeated donation decisions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 97, 104203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104203 Xing, C., Zhang, Y., & Tripe, D. (2024). Ethical consumers and low-income sellers on China's reward-based crowdfunding platforms: Are poverty alleviation campaigns more successful? Journal of Business Ethics, 191(4), 793–810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-024-05666-3 Yin, B. M., Olson, J. G., & Li, Y. J. (2026). When having less elevates more: Benefactor income, moral elevation, and prosocial contagion among observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000493 }} ==External links== * [https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/how_to_make_giving_feel_good How to make giving feel good] (Greater Good Science Center) * [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/publications/observer/obsonline/the-warm-glow-of-giving-may-overshadow-doing-the-greatest-good.html The “Warm Glow” of Giving May Overshadow Doing the Greatest Good] (Association for Psychological Science) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Prosocial]] l65fkn7q4krlu5klby33192x7agsvfa 2840837 2840836 2026-10-17T05:25:38Z Karabi Tasneem 3109802 /* How can warm glow influence future and wider prosocial behaviour? */ added information 2840837 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Warm-glow giving:<br>Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Charity donation box, Hong Kong International Airport (2018).jpg|thumb|190px|'''Figure 1'''. A public donation box illustrates an everyday opportunity to engage in charitable giving. Such situations can benefit recipients while also generating emotional responses in donors.]] '''Imagine this...''' You are buying groceries when the checkout screen asks whether you would like to add $2 to support a charity. You had not planned to donate and you briefly hesitate. Two dollars will not make a noticeable difference to your own finances, so you select '''yes'''. As you leave the supermarket, you feel unexpectedly pleased about having helped someone else. A week later, you encounter another request for a small donation. You remember the positive feeling from the previous experience and again consider giving. Why can giving money away make a person feel good, and could this pleasant emotional response encourage them to behave generously again? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * '''Warm-glow giving''' describes the internal satisfaction or emotional reward that people can experience from helping others. Andreoni's (1990) theory proposes that people can be motivated simultaneously by concern for beneficiaries and by the personal satisfaction they receive from giving. * Research suggests that giving is associated with positive emotional experiences and psychological well-being. For example, charitable donation and volunteering have been positively associated with psychological well-being among university students (Geng et al., 2022). * However, giving does not always produce purely positive emotions. Charitable requests can also produce anxiety, guilt, anger, pressure, or mixed emotional reactions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023; Hepworth et al., 2021). * Understanding these processes is important because emotional experiences may influence not only an immediate decision to donate but also whether people continue engaging in prosocial behaviour in the future (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} What is warm-glow giving and how does it explain people's motivation to help others? Why can giving produce positive emotional and rewarding experiences? How do positive and negative emotions influence charitable giving decisions? How can the emotional consequences of giving influence future and wider prosocial behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is warm-glow giving?== Warm-glow giving was formally developed through Andreoni's (1990) theory of impure altruism. Pure altruism assumes that a person gives because they value improvements in another person's welfare, whereas impure altruism proposes that donors can also obtain utility from the act of giving itself. Warm glow therefore provides a way of understanding why apparently selfless behaviour may also contain a personally rewarding component. Experiencing satisfaction from helping does not necessarily mean that genuine concern for others is absent; self-oriented and other-oriented motives can coexist (Andreoni, 1990). The theory is particularly useful because it connects motivation and emotion: the expectation or experience of a positive internal reward can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. Evidence shows that warm-glow processes extend beyond conventional charitable donations. Xing et al. (2024) found that consumers' feelings of warm glow helped explain the greater success of poverty-alleviation crowdfunding campaigns compared with ordinary crowdfunding campaigns. Chen (2025) extended warm-glow theory to pro-environmental gamification. Among 525 Ant Forest users, perceived warm glow was one of the positive predictors of continued engagement, alongside altruistic, egoistic, and pragmatic motivational factors. These findings suggest that warm glow can help explain multiple forms of prosocial participation, including donating, crowdfunding, and sustained environmentally beneficial behaviour. Evidence from a motivation-focused journal provides a useful psychological qualification to the economic account. Wiwad and Aknin (2017) conducted three experiments comparing the emotional consequences of recalling self-focused and other-focused helpful acts. Recalling other-focused acts produced greater positive affect, with perceived morality helping to explain the difference. Because the studies relied on remembered behaviour, the results do not establish that every other-focused act produces more happiness at the time it occurs. '''Key points:''' * Warm-glow giving is explained by Andreoni's (1990) theory of '''impure altruism''', in which concern for others and personal satisfaction from giving can coexist. * The emotional reward associated with helping can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. * Warm-glow processes can extend beyond charitable donations to other forms of prosocial participation, including crowdfunding and environmentally beneficial behaviour (Xing et al., 2024; Chen, 2025). ==Why does giving feel good?== Andreoni’s theory explains why a donor might value the act of giving, but it does not itself establish that a donation will improve emotional well-being. Dunn et al. (2008) provided initial experimental evidence that spending on others can increase happiness; Aknin, Barrington-Leigh, et al. (2013) extended the finding to a range of cultural contexts. However, Aknin et al. (2020) obtained mixed results in large preregistered replications, suggesting that any average emotional benefit depends partly on how prosocial spending is enacted and measured. One explanation is that giving generates positive affect. Genevsky et al. (2025) found across behavioural and neuroimaging experiments that charitable appeals containing affectively congruent features generated greater donations than incongruent appeals. Importantly, the relationship between affective congruence and giving was mediated by positive aroused affect. This suggests that positive emotional experience was not simply associated with donation—it helped explain why particular appeals increased giving (Genevsky et al., 2025). Genevsky et al. (2025) also found greater activity in the nucleus accumbens, a brain region associated with positive affect and reward processing, in response to affectively congruent charitable requests. Increased activity subsequently predicted donation decisions. These findings provide a useful psychological and neuroaffective extension of warm-glow theory: charitable giving can engage emotional and reward processes that make helping psychologically reinforcing. Giving can also produce a sense of meaning rather than pleasure alone. Regan et al. (2023), writing in Affective Science, experimentally compared kindness towards others with kindness towards oneself and other positive activities. Other-directed kindness was linked to relatively stronger feelings of competence, self-confidence and meaning. These findings complement self-determination theory, but the intervention concerned kindness generally rather than charitable spending specifically. Psychological benefits are also evident outside laboratory donation tasks. Geng et al. (2022), using data from 1,871 Chinese university students, found that both volunteering time and the amount donated to charity were positively associated with psychological well-being. However, Geng et al. (2022) used observational data, so the association should not automatically be interpreted as proof that charitable giving directly causes greater well-being. People with greater psychological well-being may also be more inclined or able to participate in prosocial activities. Chen's (2025) findings similarly demonstrate that perceived warm glow can contribute to continued prosocial engagement. Participants in the Ant Forest platform were motivated by a combination of altruistic, self-related, and practical motives rather than a single source of motivation. '''Key points:''' * Positive emotional arousal can contribute to charitable donation decisions (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Giving can engage positive affect and reward-related processes, helping to explain why prosocial behaviour may feel psychologically rewarding (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Charitable giving and volunteering are associated with psychological well-being, although correlational findings should not be interpreted as proof of causation (Geng et al., 2022). Planned Figure 2 for the final book chapter A simple original diagram could illustrate the proposed motivational cycle: Opportunity to help → Giving → Positive affect/warm glow → Emotional reward → Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. As illustrated in '''Figure 2''', an opportunity to help may lead to giving, positive affect or warm glow, emotional reward, and greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. {| style="margin:15px auto; border-collapse:separate; border-spacing:4px; text-align:center;" | style="border:1px solid #4f81bd;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#eef5fc; width:110px;" | '''Opportunity to help''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #548235;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f0f7ed; width:70px;" | '''Giving''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #d6a000;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#fff7dc; width:135px;" | '''Positive affect / warm glow''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #8064a2;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f5f0fa; width:110px;" | '''Emotional reward''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #31859b;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#edf8fa; width:175px;" | '''Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour''' |} '''''Figure 2.'' Proposed motivational cycle of warm-glow giving.''' ==How do emotions influence charitable giving?== Self-determination theory provides a useful framework for distinguishing voluntary generosity from helping under pressure. Ryan and Deci (2000) identify autonomy, competence and relatedness as psychological needs, while Weinstein and Ryan (2010) found more favourable helper and recipient outcomes when helping was autonomously motivated. Aknin, Dunn, et al. (2013) further showed the importance of understanding a donation’s impact. These findings suggest that the rewarding quality of giving depends on circumstances and motives rather than on monetary transfer alone. Emotions can affect how people evaluate charitable need, not merely whether they feel good afterwards. Hasford et al. (2015) found that consumers were more insensitive to the scope of a charitable problem when their donations were based on emotional rather than calculative valuation. This finding provides an important limitation to a simple "emotion improves giving" explanation. Emotional motivation may stimulate generosity while simultaneously making donors less responsive to information such as the number of beneficiaries (Hasford et al., 2015). Genevsky et al. (2025) showed that the emotional construction of a charitable appeal also matters. Affectively congruent combinations of appeal features increased positive affect and donations, regardless of whether the matched features themselves were positively or negatively valenced. Emotional responses to charitable requests are not necessarily pleasant. Hepworth et al. (2021), across four studies, found that checkout-charity solicitations could create customer anxiety, which subsequently reduced evaluations of the service encounter. Interestingly, Hepworth et al. (2021) also found that anxiety could decrease when customers agreed to donate in employee-led solicitation situations. Therefore, some giving may potentially involve reducing an uncomfortable emotional state rather than simply seeking positive warm glow. Coleman and Peasley (2023) similarly found that checkout charity can produce ambivalent emotional experiences. Consumers may experience positive emotions such as pride and joy alongside negative emotions such as guilt and anger. Their findings suggest that high positive and high negative affect can occur simultaneously, and this emotional incongruence may actually reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Together, these studies demonstrate that emotion has a complex role in charitable behaviour. Warm glow, pride, positive arousal, anxiety, guilt, and anger can each influence donation decisions under different circumstances. '''Key points:''' * Emotional responses can encourage charitable giving, but emotional decision-making may also reduce sensitivity to the scope of need (Hasford et al., 2015). * Charitable requests can generate negative emotional reactions such as anxiety, and donating may sometimes reduce this discomfort (Hepworth et al., 2021). * Positive and negative emotions can occur simultaneously during charitable requests, and emotional ambivalence may reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Table 1. Emotional processes associated with giving and their possible influence on prosocial behaviour''' |- ! Process ! Emotional or motivational experience ! Possible behavioural effect ! Key evidence |- | '''Warm glow''' | Satisfaction from personally helping | Increases motivation to give or participate | Andreoni (1990); Xing et al. (2024) |- | '''Positive aroused affect''' | Positive emotional arousal during an appeal | Greater charitable donations | Genevsky et al. (2025) |- | '''Psychological well-being''' | Positive functioning associated with helping | May reinforce participation in prosocial activity | Geng et al. (2022) |- | '''Emotional valuation''' | Giving based mainly on feelings | Can promote donations but reduce sensitivity to scope | Hasford et al. (2015) |- | '''Checkout anxiety''' | Anxiety following a donation request | May reduce service evaluations and can sometimes encourage donating to reduce discomfort | Hepworth et al. (2021) |- | '''Emotional ambivalence''' | Simultaneous pride/joy and guilt/anger | Mixed affect can complicate or reduce donation intentions | Coleman & Peasley (2023) |- | '''Perceived warm glow''' | Personal satisfaction from environmental contribution | Encourages continued engagement | Chen (2025) |- | '''Moral elevation''' | Feeling inspired by another person's generosity | Encourages prosocial contagion | Yin et al. (2026) |} As summarised in Table 1, charitable behaviour cannot be explained by one emotion alone. Giving involves interacting positive and negative emotional processes, and these processes can either encourage or inhibit prosocial action. ==How can warm glow influence future and wider prosocial behaviour?== A useful distinction is between evidence of feeling good after giving and evidence of a later behavioural effect. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) tested repeated donation decisions, whereas Chen (2025) examined intentions to continue a digital environmental activity. The former more directly informs choice repetition; the latter helps explain sustained intentions but cannot by itself establish long-term action. This distinction limits overly simple claims that warm glow always produces future generosity. If giving produces an emotional reward, that feeling may act as feedback which shapes later choices. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) examined how feelings following previous donation decisions predicted subsequent decisions. They found that feeling good about a previous decision whether that decision was to give or not give—predicted a tendency to make a similar choice later. In contrast, feeling bad about the previous decision increased the likelihood of changing the next decision (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). This provides an important mechanism for explaining repeated prosocial behaviour. If donating creates a warm-glow response, people may learn from this positive emotional feedback and become more motivated to donate again. Chen (2025) provides complementary evidence about sustained engagement in a different prosocial context. Perceived warm glow positively contributed to users' intentions to continue engaging with Ant Forest, suggesting that emotional benefits can support persistence over time. Warm-glow processes may also influence behaviour between people, not just within a single donor. Yin et al. (2026) examined prosocial contagion across nine experiments and investigated responses to observing generosity from benefactors with different income levels. Observing generosity from lower-income benefactors produced stronger perceptions of altruistic motivation and greater moral elevation, which subsequently encouraged prosocial responses among observers (Yin et al., 2026). The finding demonstrates how emotional responses to another person's generosity can spread prosocial behaviour. People do not necessarily need to experience the initial act of giving themselves; witnessing meaningful generosity can also motivate helping. Xing et al. (2024) further illustrates the social and practical application of warm glow. In poverty-alleviation crowdfunding, consumer warm glow helped account for the greater success of poverty-focused campaigns, demonstrating that the emotional reward attached to helping can influence marketplace behaviour. Thus, emotional rewards may create two reinforcing pathways: personal reinforcement, where feeling good after giving encourages future giving, and social contagion, where observing generosity inspires prosocial behaviour in other people.{{anchor|Scenarios}} '''Key points:''' * Emotional reactions to previous donation decisions can act as feedback that influences later giving behaviour (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). * Perceived warm glow can support continued engagement in prosocial activities over time (Chen, 2025). * Prosocial behaviour can spread socially because observing another person's generosity may produce moral elevation and encourage further helping behaviour (Yin et al., 2026). ;Quiz Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Warm-glow giving suggests that people can care about helping others while also experiencing personal emotional satisfaction from the act of giving: |type="()"} + True - False {Charitable requests always make people feel positive emotions: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== Warm-glow giving explains why helping can be emotionally rewarding without implying that generosity is entirely self-interested. Andreoni's (1990) account of impure altruism establishes how concern for others and satisfaction from personally helping can coexist. Psychological research further indicates that perceived impact, autonomous choice, positive affect and feelings of meaning help explain when giving is rewarding (Weinstein & Ryan, 2010; Aknin, Dunn, et al., 2013; Regan et al., 2023). Nevertheless, emotional benefits are not guaranteed. Larger replications have produced positive, null and small effects (Aknin et al., 2020), while requests for donations can elicit guilt, anxiety and ambivalence (Hepworth et al., 2021; Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Emotional satisfaction also differs from demonstrable effectiveness: feeling pleased by a donation does not establish that it meets recipients' needs particularly well. Warm glow may reinforce repeated giving through emotional feedback, while observing generosity can inspire related but distinct feelings of moral elevation (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021; Yin et al., 2026). In everyday life, informed and voluntary donations, accompanied by meaningful feedback about impact, offer a practical way to support donors' well-being without losing sight of those who receive help. == See also == {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Altruism and empathy|Altruism and empathy]] (Book chapter, 2024) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Empathy-altruism hypothesis|Empathy-altruism hypothesis]] (Book chapter, 2021) [[w|Altruism]] (Wikipedia) [[w behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Andreoni, J. (1990). Impure altruism and donations to public goods: A theory of warm-glow giving. The Economic Journal, 100(401), 464–477. https://doi.org/10.2307/2234133 Chen, Y. (2025). Gaining in giving: Unveiling continuous engagement intentions with the Chinese pro-environmental gamification Ant Forest. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 41(13), 8447–8463. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2024.2410053 Coleman, J. T., & Peasley, M. C. (2023). Wounding pride and infusing affect: The ambivalent emotional experience of checkout charity. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 40(6), 785–797. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-07-2021-4750 Genevsky, A., Yoon, C., Lin, T.-Y., Shaw, S. D., & Knutson, B. (2025). The impact of affective congruence on charitable giving. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 20(1), nsaf086. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsaf086 Geng, Y., Chen, Y., Huang, C., Tan, Y., Zhang, C., & Zhu, S. (2022). Volunteering, charitable donation, and psychological well-being of college students in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 790528. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.790528 Hasford, J., Farmer, A., & Waites, S. F. (2015). Thinking, feeling, and giving: The effects of scope and valuation on consumer donations. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 32(4), 435–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2015.05.006 Hepworth, A., Lee, N. Y., & Zablah, A. R. (2021). Feeling anxious: The dark side of checkout charity solicitations. Journal of Business Research, 136, 330–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.07.050 Shlefer, S., & Kogut, T. (2021). How did it feel? Affect as a feedback system in repeated donation decisions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 97, 104203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104203 Xing, C., Zhang, Y., & Tripe, D. (2024). Ethical consumers and low-income sellers on China's reward-based crowdfunding platforms: Are poverty alleviation campaigns more successful? Journal of Business Ethics, 191(4), 793–810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-024-05666-3 Yin, B. M., Olson, J. G., & Li, Y. J. (2026). When having less elevates more: Benefactor income, moral elevation, and prosocial contagion among observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000493 }} ==External links== * [https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/how_to_make_giving_feel_good How to make giving feel good] (Greater Good Science Center) * [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/publications/observer/obsonline/the-warm-glow-of-giving-may-overshadow-doing-the-greatest-good.html The “Warm Glow” of Giving May Overshadow Doing the Greatest Good] (Association for Psychological Science) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Prosocial]] pkx2ruffiuvr6yo0cijwn3fro6fargx 2840838 2840837 2026-10-17T05:27:54Z Karabi Tasneem 3109802 /* References */ added extra references 2840838 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Warm-glow giving:<br>Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Charity donation box, Hong Kong International Airport (2018).jpg|thumb|190px|'''Figure 1'''. A public donation box illustrates an everyday opportunity to engage in charitable giving. Such situations can benefit recipients while also generating emotional responses in donors.]] '''Imagine this...''' You are buying groceries when the checkout screen asks whether you would like to add $2 to support a charity. You had not planned to donate and you briefly hesitate. Two dollars will not make a noticeable difference to your own finances, so you select '''yes'''. As you leave the supermarket, you feel unexpectedly pleased about having helped someone else. A week later, you encounter another request for a small donation. You remember the positive feeling from the previous experience and again consider giving. Why can giving money away make a person feel good, and could this pleasant emotional response encourage them to behave generously again? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * '''Warm-glow giving''' describes the internal satisfaction or emotional reward that people can experience from helping others. Andreoni's (1990) theory proposes that people can be motivated simultaneously by concern for beneficiaries and by the personal satisfaction they receive from giving. * Research suggests that giving is associated with positive emotional experiences and psychological well-being. For example, charitable donation and volunteering have been positively associated with psychological well-being among university students (Geng et al., 2022). * However, giving does not always produce purely positive emotions. Charitable requests can also produce anxiety, guilt, anger, pressure, or mixed emotional reactions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023; Hepworth et al., 2021). * Understanding these processes is important because emotional experiences may influence not only an immediate decision to donate but also whether people continue engaging in prosocial behaviour in the future (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} What is warm-glow giving and how does it explain people's motivation to help others? Why can giving produce positive emotional and rewarding experiences? How do positive and negative emotions influence charitable giving decisions? How can the emotional consequences of giving influence future and wider prosocial behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is warm-glow giving?== Warm-glow giving was formally developed through Andreoni's (1990) theory of impure altruism. Pure altruism assumes that a person gives because they value improvements in another person's welfare, whereas impure altruism proposes that donors can also obtain utility from the act of giving itself. Warm glow therefore provides a way of understanding why apparently selfless behaviour may also contain a personally rewarding component. Experiencing satisfaction from helping does not necessarily mean that genuine concern for others is absent; self-oriented and other-oriented motives can coexist (Andreoni, 1990). The theory is particularly useful because it connects motivation and emotion: the expectation or experience of a positive internal reward can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. Evidence shows that warm-glow processes extend beyond conventional charitable donations. Xing et al. (2024) found that consumers' feelings of warm glow helped explain the greater success of poverty-alleviation crowdfunding campaigns compared with ordinary crowdfunding campaigns. Chen (2025) extended warm-glow theory to pro-environmental gamification. Among 525 Ant Forest users, perceived warm glow was one of the positive predictors of continued engagement, alongside altruistic, egoistic, and pragmatic motivational factors. These findings suggest that warm glow can help explain multiple forms of prosocial participation, including donating, crowdfunding, and sustained environmentally beneficial behaviour. Evidence from a motivation-focused journal provides a useful psychological qualification to the economic account. Wiwad and Aknin (2017) conducted three experiments comparing the emotional consequences of recalling self-focused and other-focused helpful acts. Recalling other-focused acts produced greater positive affect, with perceived morality helping to explain the difference. Because the studies relied on remembered behaviour, the results do not establish that every other-focused act produces more happiness at the time it occurs. '''Key points:''' * Warm-glow giving is explained by Andreoni's (1990) theory of '''impure altruism''', in which concern for others and personal satisfaction from giving can coexist. * The emotional reward associated with helping can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. * Warm-glow processes can extend beyond charitable donations to other forms of prosocial participation, including crowdfunding and environmentally beneficial behaviour (Xing et al., 2024; Chen, 2025). ==Why does giving feel good?== Andreoni’s theory explains why a donor might value the act of giving, but it does not itself establish that a donation will improve emotional well-being. Dunn et al. (2008) provided initial experimental evidence that spending on others can increase happiness; Aknin, Barrington-Leigh, et al. (2013) extended the finding to a range of cultural contexts. However, Aknin et al. (2020) obtained mixed results in large preregistered replications, suggesting that any average emotional benefit depends partly on how prosocial spending is enacted and measured. One explanation is that giving generates positive affect. Genevsky et al. (2025) found across behavioural and neuroimaging experiments that charitable appeals containing affectively congruent features generated greater donations than incongruent appeals. Importantly, the relationship between affective congruence and giving was mediated by positive aroused affect. This suggests that positive emotional experience was not simply associated with donation—it helped explain why particular appeals increased giving (Genevsky et al., 2025). Genevsky et al. (2025) also found greater activity in the nucleus accumbens, a brain region associated with positive affect and reward processing, in response to affectively congruent charitable requests. Increased activity subsequently predicted donation decisions. These findings provide a useful psychological and neuroaffective extension of warm-glow theory: charitable giving can engage emotional and reward processes that make helping psychologically reinforcing. Giving can also produce a sense of meaning rather than pleasure alone. Regan et al. (2023), writing in Affective Science, experimentally compared kindness towards others with kindness towards oneself and other positive activities. Other-directed kindness was linked to relatively stronger feelings of competence, self-confidence and meaning. These findings complement self-determination theory, but the intervention concerned kindness generally rather than charitable spending specifically. Psychological benefits are also evident outside laboratory donation tasks. Geng et al. (2022), using data from 1,871 Chinese university students, found that both volunteering time and the amount donated to charity were positively associated with psychological well-being. However, Geng et al. (2022) used observational data, so the association should not automatically be interpreted as proof that charitable giving directly causes greater well-being. People with greater psychological well-being may also be more inclined or able to participate in prosocial activities. Chen's (2025) findings similarly demonstrate that perceived warm glow can contribute to continued prosocial engagement. Participants in the Ant Forest platform were motivated by a combination of altruistic, self-related, and practical motives rather than a single source of motivation. '''Key points:''' * Positive emotional arousal can contribute to charitable donation decisions (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Giving can engage positive affect and reward-related processes, helping to explain why prosocial behaviour may feel psychologically rewarding (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Charitable giving and volunteering are associated with psychological well-being, although correlational findings should not be interpreted as proof of causation (Geng et al., 2022). Planned Figure 2 for the final book chapter A simple original diagram could illustrate the proposed motivational cycle: Opportunity to help → Giving → Positive affect/warm glow → Emotional reward → Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. As illustrated in '''Figure 2''', an opportunity to help may lead to giving, positive affect or warm glow, emotional reward, and greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. {| style="margin:15px auto; border-collapse:separate; border-spacing:4px; text-align:center;" | style="border:1px solid #4f81bd;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#eef5fc; width:110px;" | '''Opportunity to help''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #548235;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f0f7ed; width:70px;" | '''Giving''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #d6a000;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#fff7dc; width:135px;" | '''Positive affect / warm glow''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #8064a2;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f5f0fa; width:110px;" | '''Emotional reward''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #31859b;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#edf8fa; width:175px;" | '''Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour''' |} '''''Figure 2.'' Proposed motivational cycle of warm-glow giving.''' ==How do emotions influence charitable giving?== Self-determination theory provides a useful framework for distinguishing voluntary generosity from helping under pressure. Ryan and Deci (2000) identify autonomy, competence and relatedness as psychological needs, while Weinstein and Ryan (2010) found more favourable helper and recipient outcomes when helping was autonomously motivated. Aknin, Dunn, et al. (2013) further showed the importance of understanding a donation’s impact. These findings suggest that the rewarding quality of giving depends on circumstances and motives rather than on monetary transfer alone. Emotions can affect how people evaluate charitable need, not merely whether they feel good afterwards. Hasford et al. (2015) found that consumers were more insensitive to the scope of a charitable problem when their donations were based on emotional rather than calculative valuation. This finding provides an important limitation to a simple "emotion improves giving" explanation. Emotional motivation may stimulate generosity while simultaneously making donors less responsive to information such as the number of beneficiaries (Hasford et al., 2015). Genevsky et al. (2025) showed that the emotional construction of a charitable appeal also matters. Affectively congruent combinations of appeal features increased positive affect and donations, regardless of whether the matched features themselves were positively or negatively valenced. Emotional responses to charitable requests are not necessarily pleasant. Hepworth et al. (2021), across four studies, found that checkout-charity solicitations could create customer anxiety, which subsequently reduced evaluations of the service encounter. Interestingly, Hepworth et al. (2021) also found that anxiety could decrease when customers agreed to donate in employee-led solicitation situations. Therefore, some giving may potentially involve reducing an uncomfortable emotional state rather than simply seeking positive warm glow. Coleman and Peasley (2023) similarly found that checkout charity can produce ambivalent emotional experiences. Consumers may experience positive emotions such as pride and joy alongside negative emotions such as guilt and anger. Their findings suggest that high positive and high negative affect can occur simultaneously, and this emotional incongruence may actually reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Together, these studies demonstrate that emotion has a complex role in charitable behaviour. Warm glow, pride, positive arousal, anxiety, guilt, and anger can each influence donation decisions under different circumstances. '''Key points:''' * Emotional responses can encourage charitable giving, but emotional decision-making may also reduce sensitivity to the scope of need (Hasford et al., 2015). * Charitable requests can generate negative emotional reactions such as anxiety, and donating may sometimes reduce this discomfort (Hepworth et al., 2021). * Positive and negative emotions can occur simultaneously during charitable requests, and emotional ambivalence may reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Table 1. Emotional processes associated with giving and their possible influence on prosocial behaviour''' |- ! Process ! Emotional or motivational experience ! Possible behavioural effect ! Key evidence |- | '''Warm glow''' | Satisfaction from personally helping | Increases motivation to give or participate | Andreoni (1990); Xing et al. (2024) |- | '''Positive aroused affect''' | Positive emotional arousal during an appeal | Greater charitable donations | Genevsky et al. (2025) |- | '''Psychological well-being''' | Positive functioning associated with helping | May reinforce participation in prosocial activity | Geng et al. (2022) |- | '''Emotional valuation''' | Giving based mainly on feelings | Can promote donations but reduce sensitivity to scope | Hasford et al. (2015) |- | '''Checkout anxiety''' | Anxiety following a donation request | May reduce service evaluations and can sometimes encourage donating to reduce discomfort | Hepworth et al. (2021) |- | '''Emotional ambivalence''' | Simultaneous pride/joy and guilt/anger | Mixed affect can complicate or reduce donation intentions | Coleman & Peasley (2023) |- | '''Perceived warm glow''' | Personal satisfaction from environmental contribution | Encourages continued engagement | Chen (2025) |- | '''Moral elevation''' | Feeling inspired by another person's generosity | Encourages prosocial contagion | Yin et al. (2026) |} As summarised in Table 1, charitable behaviour cannot be explained by one emotion alone. Giving involves interacting positive and negative emotional processes, and these processes can either encourage or inhibit prosocial action. ==How can warm glow influence future and wider prosocial behaviour?== A useful distinction is between evidence of feeling good after giving and evidence of a later behavioural effect. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) tested repeated donation decisions, whereas Chen (2025) examined intentions to continue a digital environmental activity. The former more directly informs choice repetition; the latter helps explain sustained intentions but cannot by itself establish long-term action. This distinction limits overly simple claims that warm glow always produces future generosity. If giving produces an emotional reward, that feeling may act as feedback which shapes later choices. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) examined how feelings following previous donation decisions predicted subsequent decisions. They found that feeling good about a previous decision whether that decision was to give or not give—predicted a tendency to make a similar choice later. In contrast, feeling bad about the previous decision increased the likelihood of changing the next decision (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). This provides an important mechanism for explaining repeated prosocial behaviour. If donating creates a warm-glow response, people may learn from this positive emotional feedback and become more motivated to donate again. Chen (2025) provides complementary evidence about sustained engagement in a different prosocial context. Perceived warm glow positively contributed to users' intentions to continue engaging with Ant Forest, suggesting that emotional benefits can support persistence over time. Warm-glow processes may also influence behaviour between people, not just within a single donor. Yin et al. (2026) examined prosocial contagion across nine experiments and investigated responses to observing generosity from benefactors with different income levels. Observing generosity from lower-income benefactors produced stronger perceptions of altruistic motivation and greater moral elevation, which subsequently encouraged prosocial responses among observers (Yin et al., 2026). The finding demonstrates how emotional responses to another person's generosity can spread prosocial behaviour. People do not necessarily need to experience the initial act of giving themselves; witnessing meaningful generosity can also motivate helping. Xing et al. (2024) further illustrates the social and practical application of warm glow. In poverty-alleviation crowdfunding, consumer warm glow helped account for the greater success of poverty-focused campaigns, demonstrating that the emotional reward attached to helping can influence marketplace behaviour. Thus, emotional rewards may create two reinforcing pathways: personal reinforcement, where feeling good after giving encourages future giving, and social contagion, where observing generosity inspires prosocial behaviour in other people.{{anchor|Scenarios}} '''Key points:''' * Emotional reactions to previous donation decisions can act as feedback that influences later giving behaviour (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). * Perceived warm glow can support continued engagement in prosocial activities over time (Chen, 2025). * Prosocial behaviour can spread socially because observing another person's generosity may produce moral elevation and encourage further helping behaviour (Yin et al., 2026). ;Quiz Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Warm-glow giving suggests that people can care about helping others while also experiencing personal emotional satisfaction from the act of giving: |type="()"} + True - False {Charitable requests always make people feel positive emotions: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== Warm-glow giving explains why helping can be emotionally rewarding without implying that generosity is entirely self-interested. Andreoni's (1990) account of impure altruism establishes how concern for others and satisfaction from personally helping can coexist. Psychological research further indicates that perceived impact, autonomous choice, positive affect and feelings of meaning help explain when giving is rewarding (Weinstein & Ryan, 2010; Aknin, Dunn, et al., 2013; Regan et al., 2023). Nevertheless, emotional benefits are not guaranteed. Larger replications have produced positive, null and small effects (Aknin et al., 2020), while requests for donations can elicit guilt, anxiety and ambivalence (Hepworth et al., 2021; Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Emotional satisfaction also differs from demonstrable effectiveness: feeling pleased by a donation does not establish that it meets recipients' needs particularly well. Warm glow may reinforce repeated giving through emotional feedback, while observing generosity can inspire related but distinct feelings of moral elevation (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021; Yin et al., 2026). In everyday life, informed and voluntary donations, accompanied by meaningful feedback about impact, offer a practical way to support donors' well-being without losing sight of those who receive help. == See also == {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Altruism and empathy|Altruism and empathy]] (Book chapter, 2024) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Empathy-altruism hypothesis|Empathy-altruism hypothesis]] (Book chapter, 2021) [[w|Altruism]] (Wikipedia) [[w behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Aknin, L. B., Barrington-Leigh, C. P., Dunn, E. W., Helliwell, J. F., Burns, J., Biswas-Diener, R., Kemeza, I., Nyende, P., Ashton-James, C. E., & Norton, M. I. (2013). Prosocial spending and well-being: Cross-cultural evidence for a psychological universal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(4), 635–652. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031578 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., & Whillans, A. V. (2022). The emotional rewards of prosocial spending are robust and replicable in large samples. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 31(6), 536–545. https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214221121100 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., Proulx, J., Lok, I., & Norton, M. I. (2020). Does spending money on others promote happiness? A registered replication report. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 119(2), e15–e26. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000191 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., Whillans, A. V., Grant, A. M., & Norton, M. I. (2013). Making a difference matters: Impact unlocks the emotional benefits of prosocial spending. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 88, 90–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2013.01.008 Aknin, L. B., Hamlin, J. K., & Dunn, E. W. (2012). Giving leads to happiness in young children. PLOS ONE, 7(6), Article e39211. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0039211 Andreoni, J. (1989). Giving with impure altruism: Applications to charity and Ricardian equivalence. Journal of Political Economy, 97(6), 1447–1458. https://doi.org/10.1086/261662 Andreoni, J. (1990). Impure altruism and donations to public goods: A theory of warm-glow giving. The Economic Journal, 100(401), 464–477. https://doi.org/10.2307/2234133 Bekkers, R., & Wiepking, P. (2011). A literature review of empirical studies of philanthropy: Eight mechanisms that drive charitable giving. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 40(5), 924–973. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764010380927 Bischoff, I., & Krauskopf, T. (2015). Warm glow of giving collectively—An experimental study. Journal of Economic Psychology, 51, 210–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2015.09.001 Chen, Y. (2025). Gaining in giving: Unveiling continuous engagement intentions with the Chinese pro-environmental gamification Ant Forest. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 41(13), 8447–8463. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2024.2410053 Coleman, J. T., & Peasley, M. C. (2023). Wounding pride and infusing affect: The ambivalent emotional experience of checkout charity. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 40(6), 785–797. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-07-2021-4750 Crumpler, H., & Grossman, P. J. (2008). An experimental test of warm glow giving. Journal of Public Economics, 92(5–6), 1011–1021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2007.12.014 Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2014). Prosocial spending and happiness: Using money to benefit others pays off. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(1), 41–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413512503 Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2008). Spending money on others promotes happiness. Science, 319(5870), 1687–1688. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1150952 Genevsky, A., Yoon, C., Lin, T.-Y., Shaw, S. D., & Knutson, B. (2025). The impact of affective congruence on charitable giving. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 20(1), nsaf086. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsaf086 Geng, Y., Chen, Y., Huang, C., Tan, Y., Zhang, C., & Zhu, S. (2022). Volunteering, charitable donation, and psychological well-being of college students in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 790528. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.790528 Harbaugh, W. T., Mayr, U., & Burghart, D. R. (2007). Neural responses to taxation and voluntary giving reveal motives for charitable donations. Science, 316(5831), 1622–1625. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1140738 Hasford, J., Farmer, A., & Waites, S. F. (2015). Thinking, feeling, and giving: The effects of scope and valuation on consumer donations. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 32(4), 435–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2015.05.006 Hepworth, A., Lee, N. Y., & Zablah, A. R. (2021). Feeling anxious: The dark side of checkout charity solicitations. Journal of Business Research, 136, 330–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.07.050 Luccasen, A. (2017). Warm-glow giving: Earned money and the option to take. Economic Inquiry, 55(2), 996–1006. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecin.12417 Moll, J., Krueger, F., Zahn, R., Pardini, M., de Oliveira-Souza, R., & Grafman, J. (2006). Human fronto-mesolimbic networks guide decisions about charitable donation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103(42), 15623–15628. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0604475103 Regan, A., Margolis, S., Ozer, D. J., Schwitzgebel, E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2023). What is unique about kindness? Exploring the proximal experience of prosocial acts relative to other positive behaviors. Affective Science, 4, 92–100. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-022-00143-4 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 Shlefer, S., & Kogut, T. (2021). How did it feel? Affect as a feedback system in repeated donation decisions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 97, 104203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104203 Weinstein, N., & Ryan, R. M. (2010). When helping helps: Autonomous motivation for prosocial behavior and its influence on well-being for the helper and recipient. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(2), 222–244. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016984 Wiwad, D., & Aknin, L. B. (2017). Motives matter: The emotional consequences of recalled self- and other-focused prosocial acts. Motivation and Emotion, 41(6), 730–740. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-017-9638-2 Xing, C., Zhang, Y., & Tripe, D. (2024). Ethical consumers and low-income sellers on China's reward-based crowdfunding platforms: Are poverty alleviation campaigns more successful? Journal of Business Ethics, 191(4), 793–810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-024-05666-3 Yin, B. M., Olson, J. G., & Li, Y. J. (2026). When having less elevates more: Benefactor income, moral elevation, and prosocial contagion among observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 131(4), 585–601. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000493 }} ==External links== * [https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/how_to_make_giving_feel_good How to make giving feel good] (Greater Good Science Center) * [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/publications/observer/obsonline/the-warm-glow-of-giving-may-overshadow-doing-the-greatest-good.html The “Warm Glow” of Giving May Overshadow Doing the Greatest Good] (Association for Psychological Science) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Prosocial]] f31k6t92waxykogodfpk64x326lfsgg 2840839 2840838 2026-10-17T05:32:32Z Karabi Tasneem 3109802 used bullet point 2840839 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Warm-glow giving:<br>Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Charity donation box, Hong Kong International Airport (2018).jpg|thumb|190px|'''Figure 1'''. A public donation box illustrates an everyday opportunity to engage in charitable giving. Such situations can benefit recipients while also generating emotional responses in donors.]] '''Imagine this...''' You are buying groceries when the checkout screen asks whether you would like to add $2 to support a charity. You had not planned to donate and you briefly hesitate. Two dollars will not make a noticeable difference to your own finances, so you select '''yes'''. As you leave the supermarket, you feel unexpectedly pleased about having helped someone else. A week later, you encounter another request for a small donation. You remember the positive feeling from the previous experience and again consider giving. Why can giving money away make a person feel good, and could this pleasant emotional response encourage them to behave generously again? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * '''Warm-glow giving''' describes the internal satisfaction or emotional reward that people can experience from helping others. Andreoni's (1990) theory proposes that people can be motivated simultaneously by concern for beneficiaries and by the personal satisfaction they receive from giving. * Research suggests that giving is associated with positive emotional experiences and psychological well-being. For example, charitable donation and volunteering have been positively associated with psychological well-being among university students (Geng et al., 2022). * However, giving does not always produce purely positive emotions. Charitable requests can also produce anxiety, guilt, anger, pressure, or mixed emotional reactions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023; Hepworth et al., 2021). * Understanding these processes is important because emotional experiences may influence not only an immediate decision to donate but also whether people continue engaging in prosocial behaviour in the future (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' {{ic|}}* What is warm-glow giving and how does it explain people's motivation to help others? * Why can giving produce positive emotional and rewarding experiences? * How do positive and negative emotions influence charitable giving decisions? * How can the emotional consequences of giving influence future and wider prosocial behavior? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is warm-glow giving?== Warm-glow giving was formally developed through Andreoni's (1990) theory of impure altruism. Pure altruism assumes that a person gives because they value improvements in another person's welfare, whereas impure altruism proposes that donors can also obtain utility from the act of giving itself. Warm glow therefore provides a way of understanding why apparently selfless behaviour may also contain a personally rewarding component. Experiencing satisfaction from helping does not necessarily mean that genuine concern for others is absent; self-oriented and other-oriented motives can coexist (Andreoni, 1990). The theory is particularly useful because it connects motivation and emotion: the expectation or experience of a positive internal reward can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. Evidence shows that warm-glow processes extend beyond conventional charitable donations. Xing et al. (2024) found that consumers' feelings of warm glow helped explain the greater success of poverty-alleviation crowdfunding campaigns compared with ordinary crowdfunding campaigns. Chen (2025) extended warm-glow theory to pro-environmental gamification. Among 525 Ant Forest users, perceived warm glow was one of the positive predictors of continued engagement, alongside altruistic, egoistic, and pragmatic motivational factors. These findings suggest that warm glow can help explain multiple forms of prosocial participation, including donating, crowdfunding, and sustained environmentally beneficial behaviour. Evidence from a motivation-focused journal provides a useful psychological qualification to the economic account. Wiwad and Aknin (2017) conducted three experiments comparing the emotional consequences of recalling self-focused and other-focused helpful acts. Recalling other-focused acts produced greater positive affect, with perceived morality helping to explain the difference. Because the studies relied on remembered behaviour, the results do not establish that every other-focused act produces more happiness at the time it occurs. '''Key points:''' * Warm-glow giving is explained by Andreoni's (1990) theory of '''impure altruism''', in which concern for others and personal satisfaction from giving can coexist. * The emotional reward associated with helping can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. * Warm-glow processes can extend beyond charitable donations to other forms of prosocial participation, including crowdfunding and environmentally beneficial behaviour (Xing et al., 2024; Chen, 2025). ==Why does giving feel good?== Andreoni’s theory explains why a donor might value the act of giving, but it does not itself establish that a donation will improve emotional well-being. Dunn et al. (2008) provided initial experimental evidence that spending on others can increase happiness; Aknin, Barrington-Leigh, et al. (2013) extended the finding to a range of cultural contexts. However, Aknin et al. (2020) obtained mixed results in large preregistered replications, suggesting that any average emotional benefit depends partly on how prosocial spending is enacted and measured. One explanation is that giving generates positive affect. Genevsky et al. (2025) found across behavioural and neuroimaging experiments that charitable appeals containing affectively congruent features generated greater donations than incongruent appeals. Importantly, the relationship between affective congruence and giving was mediated by positive aroused affect. This suggests that positive emotional experience was not simply associated with donation—it helped explain why particular appeals increased giving (Genevsky et al., 2025). Genevsky et al. (2025) also found greater activity in the nucleus accumbens, a brain region associated with positive affect and reward processing, in response to affectively congruent charitable requests. Increased activity subsequently predicted donation decisions. These findings provide a useful psychological and neuroaffective extension of warm-glow theory: charitable giving can engage emotional and reward processes that make helping psychologically reinforcing. Giving can also produce a sense of meaning rather than pleasure alone. Regan et al. (2023), writing in Affective Science, experimentally compared kindness towards others with kindness towards oneself and other positive activities. Other-directed kindness was linked to relatively stronger feelings of competence, self-confidence and meaning. These findings complement self-determination theory, but the intervention concerned kindness generally rather than charitable spending specifically. Psychological benefits are also evident outside laboratory donation tasks. Geng et al. (2022), using data from 1,871 Chinese university students, found that both volunteering time and the amount donated to charity were positively associated with psychological well-being. However, Geng et al. (2022) used observational data, so the association should not automatically be interpreted as proof that charitable giving directly causes greater well-being. People with greater psychological well-being may also be more inclined or able to participate in prosocial activities. Chen's (2025) findings similarly demonstrate that perceived warm glow can contribute to continued prosocial engagement. Participants in the Ant Forest platform were motivated by a combination of altruistic, self-related, and practical motives rather than a single source of motivation. '''Key points:''' * Positive emotional arousal can contribute to charitable donation decisions (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Giving can engage positive affect and reward-related processes, helping to explain why prosocial behaviour may feel psychologically rewarding (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Charitable giving and volunteering are associated with psychological well-being, although correlational findings should not be interpreted as proof of causation (Geng et al., 2022). Planned Figure 2 for the final book chapter A simple original diagram could illustrate the proposed motivational cycle: Opportunity to help → Giving → Positive affect/warm glow → Emotional reward → Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. As illustrated in '''Figure 2''', an opportunity to help may lead to giving, positive affect or warm glow, emotional reward, and greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. {| style="margin:15px auto; border-collapse:separate; border-spacing:4px; text-align:center;" | style="border:1px solid #4f81bd;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#eef5fc; width:110px;" | '''Opportunity to help''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #548235;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f0f7ed; width:70px;" | '''Giving''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #d6a000;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#fff7dc; width:135px;" | '''Positive affect / warm glow''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #8064a2;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f5f0fa; width:110px;" | '''Emotional reward''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #31859b;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#edf8fa; width:175px;" | '''Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour''' |} '''''Figure 2.'' Proposed motivational cycle of warm-glow giving.''' ==How do emotions influence charitable giving?== Self-determination theory provides a useful framework for distinguishing voluntary generosity from helping under pressure. Ryan and Deci (2000) identify autonomy, competence and relatedness as psychological needs, while Weinstein and Ryan (2010) found more favourable helper and recipient outcomes when helping was autonomously motivated. Aknin, Dunn, et al. (2013) further showed the importance of understanding a donation’s impact. These findings suggest that the rewarding quality of giving depends on circumstances and motives rather than on monetary transfer alone. Emotions can affect how people evaluate charitable need, not merely whether they feel good afterwards. Hasford et al. (2015) found that consumers were more insensitive to the scope of a charitable problem when their donations were based on emotional rather than calculative valuation. This finding provides an important limitation to a simple "emotion improves giving" explanation. Emotional motivation may stimulate generosity while simultaneously making donors less responsive to information such as the number of beneficiaries (Hasford et al., 2015). Genevsky et al. (2025) showed that the emotional construction of a charitable appeal also matters. Affectively congruent combinations of appeal features increased positive affect and donations, regardless of whether the matched features themselves were positively or negatively valenced. Emotional responses to charitable requests are not necessarily pleasant. Hepworth et al. (2021), across four studies, found that checkout-charity solicitations could create customer anxiety, which subsequently reduced evaluations of the service encounter. Interestingly, Hepworth et al. (2021) also found that anxiety could decrease when customers agreed to donate in employee-led solicitation situations. Therefore, some giving may potentially involve reducing an uncomfortable emotional state rather than simply seeking positive warm glow. Coleman and Peasley (2023) similarly found that checkout charity can produce ambivalent emotional experiences. Consumers may experience positive emotions such as pride and joy alongside negative emotions such as guilt and anger. Their findings suggest that high positive and high negative affect can occur simultaneously, and this emotional incongruence may actually reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Together, these studies demonstrate that emotion has a complex role in charitable behaviour. Warm glow, pride, positive arousal, anxiety, guilt, and anger can each influence donation decisions under different circumstances. '''Key points:''' * Emotional responses can encourage charitable giving, but emotional decision-making may also reduce sensitivity to the scope of need (Hasford et al., 2015). * Charitable requests can generate negative emotional reactions such as anxiety, and donating may sometimes reduce this discomfort (Hepworth et al., 2021). * Positive and negative emotions can occur simultaneously during charitable requests, and emotional ambivalence may reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Table 1. Emotional processes associated with giving and their possible influence on prosocial behaviour''' |- ! Process ! Emotional or motivational experience ! Possible behavioural effect ! Key evidence |- | '''Warm glow''' | Satisfaction from personally helping | Increases motivation to give or participate | Andreoni (1990); Xing et al. (2024) |- | '''Positive aroused affect''' | Positive emotional arousal during an appeal | Greater charitable donations | Genevsky et al. (2025) |- | '''Psychological well-being''' | Positive functioning associated with helping | May reinforce participation in prosocial activity | Geng et al. (2022) |- | '''Emotional valuation''' | Giving based mainly on feelings | Can promote donations but reduce sensitivity to scope | Hasford et al. (2015) |- | '''Checkout anxiety''' | Anxiety following a donation request | May reduce service evaluations and can sometimes encourage donating to reduce discomfort | Hepworth et al. (2021) |- | '''Emotional ambivalence''' | Simultaneous pride/joy and guilt/anger | Mixed affect can complicate or reduce donation intentions | Coleman & Peasley (2023) |- | '''Perceived warm glow''' | Personal satisfaction from environmental contribution | Encourages continued engagement | Chen (2025) |- | '''Moral elevation''' | Feeling inspired by another person's generosity | Encourages prosocial contagion | Yin et al. (2026) |} As summarised in Table 1, charitable behaviour cannot be explained by one emotion alone. Giving involves interacting positive and negative emotional processes, and these processes can either encourage or inhibit prosocial action. ==How can warm glow influence future and wider prosocial behaviour?== A useful distinction is between evidence of feeling good after giving and evidence of a later behavioural effect. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) tested repeated donation decisions, whereas Chen (2025) examined intentions to continue a digital environmental activity. The former more directly informs choice repetition; the latter helps explain sustained intentions but cannot by itself establish long-term action. This distinction limits overly simple claims that warm glow always produces future generosity. If giving produces an emotional reward, that feeling may act as feedback which shapes later choices. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) examined how feelings following previous donation decisions predicted subsequent decisions. They found that feeling good about a previous decision whether that decision was to give or not give—predicted a tendency to make a similar choice later. In contrast, feeling bad about the previous decision increased the likelihood of changing the next decision (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). This provides an important mechanism for explaining repeated prosocial behaviour. If donating creates a warm-glow response, people may learn from this positive emotional feedback and become more motivated to donate again. Chen (2025) provides complementary evidence about sustained engagement in a different prosocial context. Perceived warm glow positively contributed to users' intentions to continue engaging with Ant Forest, suggesting that emotional benefits can support persistence over time. Warm-glow processes may also influence behaviour between people, not just within a single donor. Yin et al. (2026) examined prosocial contagion across nine experiments and investigated responses to observing generosity from benefactors with different income levels. Observing generosity from lower-income benefactors produced stronger perceptions of altruistic motivation and greater moral elevation, which subsequently encouraged prosocial responses among observers (Yin et al., 2026). The finding demonstrates how emotional responses to another person's generosity can spread prosocial behaviour. People do not necessarily need to experience the initial act of giving themselves; witnessing meaningful generosity can also motivate helping. Xing et al. (2024) further illustrates the social and practical application of warm glow. In poverty-alleviation crowdfunding, consumer warm glow helped account for the greater success of poverty-focused campaigns, demonstrating that the emotional reward attached to helping can influence marketplace behaviour. Thus, emotional rewards may create two reinforcing pathways: personal reinforcement, where feeling good after giving encourages future giving, and social contagion, where observing generosity inspires prosocial behaviour in other people.{{anchor|Scenarios}} '''Key points:''' * Emotional reactions to previous donation decisions can act as feedback that influences later giving behaviour (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). * Perceived warm glow can support continued engagement in prosocial activities over time (Chen, 2025). * Prosocial behaviour can spread socially because observing another person's generosity may produce moral elevation and encourage further helping behaviour (Yin et al., 2026). ;Quiz Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Warm-glow giving suggests that people can care about helping others while also experiencing personal emotional satisfaction from the act of giving: |type="()"} + True - False {Charitable requests always make people feel positive emotions: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== Warm-glow giving explains why helping can be emotionally rewarding without implying that generosity is entirely self-interested. Andreoni's (1990) account of impure altruism establishes how concern for others and satisfaction from personally helping can coexist. Psychological research further indicates that perceived impact, autonomous choice, positive affect and feelings of meaning help explain when giving is rewarding (Weinstein & Ryan, 2010; Aknin, Dunn, et al., 2013; Regan et al., 2023). Nevertheless, emotional benefits are not guaranteed. Larger replications have produced positive, null and small effects (Aknin et al., 2020), while requests for donations can elicit guilt, anxiety and ambivalence (Hepworth et al., 2021; Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Emotional satisfaction also differs from demonstrable effectiveness: feeling pleased by a donation does not establish that it meets recipients' needs particularly well. Warm glow may reinforce repeated giving through emotional feedback, while observing generosity can inspire related but distinct feelings of moral elevation (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021; Yin et al., 2026). In everyday life, informed and voluntary donations, accompanied by meaningful feedback about impact, offer a practical way to support donors' well-being without losing sight of those who receive help. == See also == {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Altruism and empathy|Altruism and empathy]] (Book chapter, 2024) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Empathy-altruism hypothesis|Empathy-altruism hypothesis]] (Book chapter, 2021) [[w|Altruism]] (Wikipedia) [[w behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Aknin, L. B., Barrington-Leigh, C. P., Dunn, E. W., Helliwell, J. F., Burns, J., Biswas-Diener, R., Kemeza, I., Nyende, P., Ashton-James, C. E., & Norton, M. I. (2013). Prosocial spending and well-being: Cross-cultural evidence for a psychological universal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(4), 635–652. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031578 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., & Whillans, A. V. (2022). The emotional rewards of prosocial spending are robust and replicable in large samples. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 31(6), 536–545. https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214221121100 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., Proulx, J., Lok, I., & Norton, M. I. (2020). Does spending money on others promote happiness? A registered replication report. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 119(2), e15–e26. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000191 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., Whillans, A. V., Grant, A. M., & Norton, M. I. (2013). Making a difference matters: Impact unlocks the emotional benefits of prosocial spending. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 88, 90–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2013.01.008 Aknin, L. B., Hamlin, J. K., & Dunn, E. W. (2012). Giving leads to happiness in young children. PLOS ONE, 7(6), Article e39211. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0039211 Andreoni, J. (1989). Giving with impure altruism: Applications to charity and Ricardian equivalence. Journal of Political Economy, 97(6), 1447–1458. https://doi.org/10.1086/261662 Andreoni, J. (1990). Impure altruism and donations to public goods: A theory of warm-glow giving. The Economic Journal, 100(401), 464–477. https://doi.org/10.2307/2234133 Bekkers, R., & Wiepking, P. (2011). A literature review of empirical studies of philanthropy: Eight mechanisms that drive charitable giving. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 40(5), 924–973. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764010380927 Bischoff, I., & Krauskopf, T. (2015). Warm glow of giving collectively—An experimental study. Journal of Economic Psychology, 51, 210–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2015.09.001 Chen, Y. (2025). Gaining in giving: Unveiling continuous engagement intentions with the Chinese pro-environmental gamification Ant Forest. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 41(13), 8447–8463. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2024.2410053 Coleman, J. T., & Peasley, M. C. (2023). Wounding pride and infusing affect: The ambivalent emotional experience of checkout charity. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 40(6), 785–797. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-07-2021-4750 Crumpler, H., & Grossman, P. J. (2008). An experimental test of warm glow giving. Journal of Public Economics, 92(5–6), 1011–1021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2007.12.014 Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2014). Prosocial spending and happiness: Using money to benefit others pays off. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(1), 41–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413512503 Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2008). Spending money on others promotes happiness. Science, 319(5870), 1687–1688. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1150952 Genevsky, A., Yoon, C., Lin, T.-Y., Shaw, S. D., & Knutson, B. (2025). The impact of affective congruence on charitable giving. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 20(1), nsaf086. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsaf086 Geng, Y., Chen, Y., Huang, C., Tan, Y., Zhang, C., & Zhu, S. (2022). Volunteering, charitable donation, and psychological well-being of college students in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 790528. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.790528 Harbaugh, W. T., Mayr, U., & Burghart, D. R. (2007). Neural responses to taxation and voluntary giving reveal motives for charitable donations. Science, 316(5831), 1622–1625. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1140738 Hasford, J., Farmer, A., & Waites, S. F. (2015). Thinking, feeling, and giving: The effects of scope and valuation on consumer donations. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 32(4), 435–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2015.05.006 Hepworth, A., Lee, N. Y., & Zablah, A. R. (2021). Feeling anxious: The dark side of checkout charity solicitations. Journal of Business Research, 136, 330–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.07.050 Luccasen, A. (2017). Warm-glow giving: Earned money and the option to take. Economic Inquiry, 55(2), 996–1006. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecin.12417 Moll, J., Krueger, F., Zahn, R., Pardini, M., de Oliveira-Souza, R., & Grafman, J. (2006). Human fronto-mesolimbic networks guide decisions about charitable donation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103(42), 15623–15628. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0604475103 Regan, A., Margolis, S., Ozer, D. J., Schwitzgebel, E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2023). What is unique about kindness? Exploring the proximal experience of prosocial acts relative to other positive behaviors. Affective Science, 4, 92–100. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-022-00143-4 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 Shlefer, S., & Kogut, T. (2021). How did it feel? Affect as a feedback system in repeated donation decisions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 97, 104203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104203 Weinstein, N., & Ryan, R. M. (2010). When helping helps: Autonomous motivation for prosocial behavior and its influence on well-being for the helper and recipient. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(2), 222–244. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016984 Wiwad, D., & Aknin, L. B. (2017). Motives matter: The emotional consequences of recalled self- and other-focused prosocial acts. Motivation and Emotion, 41(6), 730–740. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-017-9638-2 Xing, C., Zhang, Y., & Tripe, D. (2024). Ethical consumers and low-income sellers on China's reward-based crowdfunding platforms: Are poverty alleviation campaigns more successful? Journal of Business Ethics, 191(4), 793–810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-024-05666-3 Yin, B. M., Olson, J. G., & Li, Y. J. (2026). When having less elevates more: Benefactor income, moral elevation, and prosocial contagion among observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 131(4), 585–601. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000493 }} ==External links== * [https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/how_to_make_giving_feel_good How to make giving feel good] (Greater Good Science Center) * [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/publications/observer/obsonline/the-warm-glow-of-giving-may-overshadow-doing-the-greatest-good.html The “Warm Glow” of Giving May Overshadow Doing the Greatest Good] (Association for Psychological Science) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Prosocial]] 4a3otok7adgdqemuyd4096mb8qleqy4 2840840 2840839 2026-10-17T05:34:56Z Karabi Tasneem 3109802 used bullet point 2840840 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Warm-glow giving:<br>Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Charity donation box, Hong Kong International Airport (2018).jpg|thumb|190px|'''Figure 1'''. A public donation box illustrates an everyday opportunity to engage in charitable giving. Such situations can benefit recipients while also generating emotional responses in donors.]] '''Imagine this...''' You are buying groceries when the checkout screen asks whether you would like to add $2 to support a charity. You had not planned to donate and you briefly hesitate. Two dollars will not make a noticeable difference to your own finances, so you select '''yes'''. As you leave the supermarket, you feel unexpectedly pleased about having helped someone else. A week later, you encounter another request for a small donation. You remember the positive feeling from the previous experience and again consider giving. Why can giving money away make a person feel good, and could this pleasant emotional response encourage them to behave generously again? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * '''Warm-glow giving''' describes the internal satisfaction or emotional reward that people can experience from helping others. Andreoni's (1990) theory proposes that people can be motivated simultaneously by concern for beneficiaries and by the personal satisfaction they receive from giving. * Research suggests that giving is associated with positive emotional experiences and psychological well-being. For example, charitable donation and volunteering have been positively associated with psychological well-being among university students (Geng et al., 2022). * However, giving does not always produce purely positive emotions. Charitable requests can also produce anxiety, guilt, anger, pressure, or mixed emotional reactions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023; Hepworth et al., 2021). * Understanding these processes is important because emotional experiences may influence not only an immediate decision to donate but also whether people continue engaging in prosocial behaviour in the future (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' {{ic|}}* What is warm-glow giving and how does it explain people's motivation to help others? * Why can giving produce positive emotional and rewarding experiences? * How do positive and negative emotions influence charitable giving decisions? * How can the emotional consequences of giving influence future and wider prosocial behavior?{{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is warm-glow giving?== Warm-glow giving was formally developed through Andreoni's (1990) theory of impure altruism. Pure altruism assumes that a person gives because they value improvements in another person's welfare, whereas impure altruism proposes that donors can also obtain utility from the act of giving itself. Warm glow therefore provides a way of understanding why apparently selfless behaviour may also contain a personally rewarding component. Experiencing satisfaction from helping does not necessarily mean that genuine concern for others is absent; self-oriented and other-oriented motives can coexist (Andreoni, 1990). The theory is particularly useful because it connects motivation and emotion: the expectation or experience of a positive internal reward can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. Evidence shows that warm-glow processes extend beyond conventional charitable donations. Xing et al. (2024) found that consumers' feelings of warm glow helped explain the greater success of poverty-alleviation crowdfunding campaigns compared with ordinary crowdfunding campaigns. Chen (2025) extended warm-glow theory to pro-environmental gamification. Among 525 Ant Forest users, perceived warm glow was one of the positive predictors of continued engagement, alongside altruistic, egoistic, and pragmatic motivational factors. These findings suggest that warm glow can help explain multiple forms of prosocial participation, including donating, crowdfunding, and sustained environmentally beneficial behaviour. Evidence from a motivation-focused journal provides a useful psychological qualification to the economic account. Wiwad and Aknin (2017) conducted three experiments comparing the emotional consequences of recalling self-focused and other-focused helpful acts. Recalling other-focused acts produced greater positive affect, with perceived morality helping to explain the difference. Because the studies relied on remembered behaviour, the results do not establish that every other-focused act produces more happiness at the time it occurs. '''Key points:''' * Warm-glow giving is explained by Andreoni's (1990) theory of '''impure altruism''', in which concern for others and personal satisfaction from giving can coexist. * The emotional reward associated with helping can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. * Warm-glow processes can extend beyond charitable donations to other forms of prosocial participation, including crowdfunding and environmentally beneficial behaviour (Xing et al., 2024; Chen, 2025). ==Why does giving feel good?== Andreoni’s theory explains why a donor might value the act of giving, but it does not itself establish that a donation will improve emotional well-being. Dunn et al. (2008) provided initial experimental evidence that spending on others can increase happiness; Aknin, Barrington-Leigh, et al. (2013) extended the finding to a range of cultural contexts. However, Aknin et al. (2020) obtained mixed results in large preregistered replications, suggesting that any average emotional benefit depends partly on how prosocial spending is enacted and measured. One explanation is that giving generates positive affect. Genevsky et al. (2025) found across behavioural and neuroimaging experiments that charitable appeals containing affectively congruent features generated greater donations than incongruent appeals. Importantly, the relationship between affective congruence and giving was mediated by positive aroused affect. This suggests that positive emotional experience was not simply associated with donation—it helped explain why particular appeals increased giving (Genevsky et al., 2025). Genevsky et al. (2025) also found greater activity in the nucleus accumbens, a brain region associated with positive affect and reward processing, in response to affectively congruent charitable requests. Increased activity subsequently predicted donation decisions. These findings provide a useful psychological and neuroaffective extension of warm-glow theory: charitable giving can engage emotional and reward processes that make helping psychologically reinforcing. Giving can also produce a sense of meaning rather than pleasure alone. Regan et al. (2023), writing in Affective Science, experimentally compared kindness towards others with kindness towards oneself and other positive activities. Other-directed kindness was linked to relatively stronger feelings of competence, self-confidence and meaning. These findings complement self-determination theory, but the intervention concerned kindness generally rather than charitable spending specifically. Psychological benefits are also evident outside laboratory donation tasks. Geng et al. (2022), using data from 1,871 Chinese university students, found that both volunteering time and the amount donated to charity were positively associated with psychological well-being. However, Geng et al. (2022) used observational data, so the association should not automatically be interpreted as proof that charitable giving directly causes greater well-being. People with greater psychological well-being may also be more inclined or able to participate in prosocial activities. Chen's (2025) findings similarly demonstrate that perceived warm glow can contribute to continued prosocial engagement. Participants in the Ant Forest platform were motivated by a combination of altruistic, self-related, and practical motives rather than a single source of motivation. '''Key points:''' * Positive emotional arousal can contribute to charitable donation decisions (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Giving can engage positive affect and reward-related processes, helping to explain why prosocial behaviour may feel psychologically rewarding (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Charitable giving and volunteering are associated with psychological well-being, although correlational findings should not be interpreted as proof of causation (Geng et al., 2022). Planned Figure 2 for the final book chapter A simple original diagram could illustrate the proposed motivational cycle: Opportunity to help → Giving → Positive affect/warm glow → Emotional reward → Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. As illustrated in '''Figure 2''', an opportunity to help may lead to giving, positive affect or warm glow, emotional reward, and greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. {| style="margin:15px auto; border-collapse:separate; border-spacing:4px; text-align:center;" | style="border:1px solid #4f81bd;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#eef5fc; width:110px;" | '''Opportunity to help''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #548235;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f0f7ed; width:70px;" | '''Giving''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #d6a000;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#fff7dc; width:135px;" | '''Positive affect / warm glow''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #8064a2;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f5f0fa; width:110px;" | '''Emotional reward''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #31859b;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#edf8fa; width:175px;" | '''Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour''' |} '''''Figure 2.'' Proposed motivational cycle of warm-glow giving.''' ==How do emotions influence charitable giving?== Self-determination theory provides a useful framework for distinguishing voluntary generosity from helping under pressure. Ryan and Deci (2000) identify autonomy, competence and relatedness as psychological needs, while Weinstein and Ryan (2010) found more favourable helper and recipient outcomes when helping was autonomously motivated. Aknin, Dunn, et al. (2013) further showed the importance of understanding a donation’s impact. These findings suggest that the rewarding quality of giving depends on circumstances and motives rather than on monetary transfer alone. Emotions can affect how people evaluate charitable need, not merely whether they feel good afterwards. Hasford et al. (2015) found that consumers were more insensitive to the scope of a charitable problem when their donations were based on emotional rather than calculative valuation. This finding provides an important limitation to a simple "emotion improves giving" explanation. Emotional motivation may stimulate generosity while simultaneously making donors less responsive to information such as the number of beneficiaries (Hasford et al., 2015). Genevsky et al. (2025) showed that the emotional construction of a charitable appeal also matters. Affectively congruent combinations of appeal features increased positive affect and donations, regardless of whether the matched features themselves were positively or negatively valenced. Emotional responses to charitable requests are not necessarily pleasant. Hepworth et al. (2021), across four studies, found that checkout-charity solicitations could create customer anxiety, which subsequently reduced evaluations of the service encounter. Interestingly, Hepworth et al. (2021) also found that anxiety could decrease when customers agreed to donate in employee-led solicitation situations. Therefore, some giving may potentially involve reducing an uncomfortable emotional state rather than simply seeking positive warm glow. Coleman and Peasley (2023) similarly found that checkout charity can produce ambivalent emotional experiences. Consumers may experience positive emotions such as pride and joy alongside negative emotions such as guilt and anger. Their findings suggest that high positive and high negative affect can occur simultaneously, and this emotional incongruence may actually reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Together, these studies demonstrate that emotion has a complex role in charitable behaviour. Warm glow, pride, positive arousal, anxiety, guilt, and anger can each influence donation decisions under different circumstances. '''Key points:''' * Emotional responses can encourage charitable giving, but emotional decision-making may also reduce sensitivity to the scope of need (Hasford et al., 2015). * Charitable requests can generate negative emotional reactions such as anxiety, and donating may sometimes reduce this discomfort (Hepworth et al., 2021). * Positive and negative emotions can occur simultaneously during charitable requests, and emotional ambivalence may reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Table 1. Emotional processes associated with giving and their possible influence on prosocial behaviour''' |- ! Process ! Emotional or motivational experience ! Possible behavioural effect ! Key evidence |- | '''Warm glow''' | Satisfaction from personally helping | Increases motivation to give or participate | Andreoni (1990); Xing et al. (2024) |- | '''Positive aroused affect''' | Positive emotional arousal during an appeal | Greater charitable donations | Genevsky et al. (2025) |- | '''Psychological well-being''' | Positive functioning associated with helping | May reinforce participation in prosocial activity | Geng et al. (2022) |- | '''Emotional valuation''' | Giving based mainly on feelings | Can promote donations but reduce sensitivity to scope | Hasford et al. (2015) |- | '''Checkout anxiety''' | Anxiety following a donation request | May reduce service evaluations and can sometimes encourage donating to reduce discomfort | Hepworth et al. (2021) |- | '''Emotional ambivalence''' | Simultaneous pride/joy and guilt/anger | Mixed affect can complicate or reduce donation intentions | Coleman & Peasley (2023) |- | '''Perceived warm glow''' | Personal satisfaction from environmental contribution | Encourages continued engagement | Chen (2025) |- | '''Moral elevation''' | Feeling inspired by another person's generosity | Encourages prosocial contagion | Yin et al. (2026) |} As summarised in Table 1, charitable behaviour cannot be explained by one emotion alone. Giving involves interacting positive and negative emotional processes, and these processes can either encourage or inhibit prosocial action. ==How can warm glow influence future and wider prosocial behaviour?== A useful distinction is between evidence of feeling good after giving and evidence of a later behavioural effect. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) tested repeated donation decisions, whereas Chen (2025) examined intentions to continue a digital environmental activity. The former more directly informs choice repetition; the latter helps explain sustained intentions but cannot by itself establish long-term action. This distinction limits overly simple claims that warm glow always produces future generosity. If giving produces an emotional reward, that feeling may act as feedback which shapes later choices. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) examined how feelings following previous donation decisions predicted subsequent decisions. They found that feeling good about a previous decision whether that decision was to give or not give—predicted a tendency to make a similar choice later. In contrast, feeling bad about the previous decision increased the likelihood of changing the next decision (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). This provides an important mechanism for explaining repeated prosocial behaviour. If donating creates a warm-glow response, people may learn from this positive emotional feedback and become more motivated to donate again. Chen (2025) provides complementary evidence about sustained engagement in a different prosocial context. Perceived warm glow positively contributed to users' intentions to continue engaging with Ant Forest, suggesting that emotional benefits can support persistence over time. Warm-glow processes may also influence behaviour between people, not just within a single donor. Yin et al. (2026) examined prosocial contagion across nine experiments and investigated responses to observing generosity from benefactors with different income levels. Observing generosity from lower-income benefactors produced stronger perceptions of altruistic motivation and greater moral elevation, which subsequently encouraged prosocial responses among observers (Yin et al., 2026). The finding demonstrates how emotional responses to another person's generosity can spread prosocial behaviour. People do not necessarily need to experience the initial act of giving themselves; witnessing meaningful generosity can also motivate helping. Xing et al. (2024) further illustrates the social and practical application of warm glow. In poverty-alleviation crowdfunding, consumer warm glow helped account for the greater success of poverty-focused campaigns, demonstrating that the emotional reward attached to helping can influence marketplace behaviour. Thus, emotional rewards may create two reinforcing pathways: personal reinforcement, where feeling good after giving encourages future giving, and social contagion, where observing generosity inspires prosocial behaviour in other people.{{anchor|Scenarios}} '''Key points:''' * Emotional reactions to previous donation decisions can act as feedback that influences later giving behaviour (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). * Perceived warm glow can support continued engagement in prosocial activities over time (Chen, 2025). * Prosocial behaviour can spread socially because observing another person's generosity may produce moral elevation and encourage further helping behaviour (Yin et al., 2026). ;Quiz Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Warm-glow giving suggests that people can care about helping others while also experiencing personal emotional satisfaction from the act of giving: |type="()"} + True - False {Charitable requests always make people feel positive emotions: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== Warm-glow giving explains why helping can be emotionally rewarding without implying that generosity is entirely self-interested. Andreoni's (1990) account of impure altruism establishes how concern for others and satisfaction from personally helping can coexist. Psychological research further indicates that perceived impact, autonomous choice, positive affect and feelings of meaning help explain when giving is rewarding (Weinstein & Ryan, 2010; Aknin, Dunn, et al., 2013; Regan et al., 2023). Nevertheless, emotional benefits are not guaranteed. Larger replications have produced positive, null and small effects (Aknin et al., 2020), while requests for donations can elicit guilt, anxiety and ambivalence (Hepworth et al., 2021; Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Emotional satisfaction also differs from demonstrable effectiveness: feeling pleased by a donation does not establish that it meets recipients' needs particularly well. Warm glow may reinforce repeated giving through emotional feedback, while observing generosity can inspire related but distinct feelings of moral elevation (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021; Yin et al., 2026). In everyday life, informed and voluntary donations, accompanied by meaningful feedback about impact, offer a practical way to support donors' well-being without losing sight of those who receive help. == See also == {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Altruism and empathy|Altruism and empathy]] (Book chapter, 2024) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Empathy-altruism hypothesis|Empathy-altruism hypothesis]] (Book chapter, 2021) [[w|Altruism]] (Wikipedia) [[w behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Aknin, L. B., Barrington-Leigh, C. P., Dunn, E. W., Helliwell, J. F., Burns, J., Biswas-Diener, R., Kemeza, I., Nyende, P., Ashton-James, C. E., & Norton, M. I. (2013). Prosocial spending and well-being: Cross-cultural evidence for a psychological universal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(4), 635–652. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031578 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., & Whillans, A. V. (2022). The emotional rewards of prosocial spending are robust and replicable in large samples. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 31(6), 536–545. https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214221121100 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., Proulx, J., Lok, I., & Norton, M. I. (2020). Does spending money on others promote happiness? A registered replication report. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 119(2), e15–e26. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000191 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., Whillans, A. V., Grant, A. M., & Norton, M. I. (2013). Making a difference matters: Impact unlocks the emotional benefits of prosocial spending. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 88, 90–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2013.01.008 Aknin, L. B., Hamlin, J. K., & Dunn, E. W. (2012). Giving leads to happiness in young children. PLOS ONE, 7(6), Article e39211. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0039211 Andreoni, J. (1989). Giving with impure altruism: Applications to charity and Ricardian equivalence. Journal of Political Economy, 97(6), 1447–1458. https://doi.org/10.1086/261662 Andreoni, J. (1990). Impure altruism and donations to public goods: A theory of warm-glow giving. The Economic Journal, 100(401), 464–477. https://doi.org/10.2307/2234133 Bekkers, R., & Wiepking, P. (2011). A literature review of empirical studies of philanthropy: Eight mechanisms that drive charitable giving. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 40(5), 924–973. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764010380927 Bischoff, I., & Krauskopf, T. (2015). Warm glow of giving collectively—An experimental study. Journal of Economic Psychology, 51, 210–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2015.09.001 Chen, Y. (2025). Gaining in giving: Unveiling continuous engagement intentions with the Chinese pro-environmental gamification Ant Forest. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 41(13), 8447–8463. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2024.2410053 Coleman, J. T., & Peasley, M. C. (2023). Wounding pride and infusing affect: The ambivalent emotional experience of checkout charity. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 40(6), 785–797. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-07-2021-4750 Crumpler, H., & Grossman, P. J. (2008). An experimental test of warm glow giving. Journal of Public Economics, 92(5–6), 1011–1021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2007.12.014 Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2014). Prosocial spending and happiness: Using money to benefit others pays off. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(1), 41–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413512503 Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2008). Spending money on others promotes happiness. Science, 319(5870), 1687–1688. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1150952 Genevsky, A., Yoon, C., Lin, T.-Y., Shaw, S. D., & Knutson, B. (2025). The impact of affective congruence on charitable giving. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 20(1), nsaf086. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsaf086 Geng, Y., Chen, Y., Huang, C., Tan, Y., Zhang, C., & Zhu, S. (2022). Volunteering, charitable donation, and psychological well-being of college students in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 790528. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.790528 Harbaugh, W. T., Mayr, U., & Burghart, D. R. (2007). Neural responses to taxation and voluntary giving reveal motives for charitable donations. Science, 316(5831), 1622–1625. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1140738 Hasford, J., Farmer, A., & Waites, S. F. (2015). Thinking, feeling, and giving: The effects of scope and valuation on consumer donations. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 32(4), 435–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2015.05.006 Hepworth, A., Lee, N. Y., & Zablah, A. R. (2021). Feeling anxious: The dark side of checkout charity solicitations. Journal of Business Research, 136, 330–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.07.050 Luccasen, A. (2017). Warm-glow giving: Earned money and the option to take. Economic Inquiry, 55(2), 996–1006. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecin.12417 Moll, J., Krueger, F., Zahn, R., Pardini, M., de Oliveira-Souza, R., & Grafman, J. (2006). Human fronto-mesolimbic networks guide decisions about charitable donation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103(42), 15623–15628. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0604475103 Regan, A., Margolis, S., Ozer, D. J., Schwitzgebel, E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2023). What is unique about kindness? Exploring the proximal experience of prosocial acts relative to other positive behaviors. Affective Science, 4, 92–100. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-022-00143-4 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 Shlefer, S., & Kogut, T. (2021). How did it feel? Affect as a feedback system in repeated donation decisions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 97, 104203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104203 Weinstein, N., & Ryan, R. M. (2010). When helping helps: Autonomous motivation for prosocial behavior and its influence on well-being for the helper and recipient. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(2), 222–244. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016984 Wiwad, D., & Aknin, L. B. (2017). Motives matter: The emotional consequences of recalled self- and other-focused prosocial acts. Motivation and Emotion, 41(6), 730–740. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-017-9638-2 Xing, C., Zhang, Y., & Tripe, D. (2024). Ethical consumers and low-income sellers on China's reward-based crowdfunding platforms: Are poverty alleviation campaigns more successful? Journal of Business Ethics, 191(4), 793–810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-024-05666-3 Yin, B. M., Olson, J. G., & Li, Y. J. (2026). When having less elevates more: Benefactor income, moral elevation, and prosocial contagion among observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 131(4), 585–601. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000493 }} ==External links== * [https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/how_to_make_giving_feel_good How to make giving feel good] (Greater Good Science Center) * [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/publications/observer/obsonline/the-warm-glow-of-giving-may-overshadow-doing-the-greatest-good.html The “Warm Glow” of Giving May Overshadow Doing the Greatest Good] (Association for Psychological Science) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Prosocial]] i7qw01myxsmfmq03tq5kgrcmgan8nhl 2840841 2840840 2026-10-17T05:39:22Z Karabi Tasneem 3109802 edited 2840841 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Warm-glow giving:<br>Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Charity donation box, Hong Kong International Airport (2018).jpg|thumb|190px|'''Figure 1'''. A public donation box illustrates an everyday opportunity to engage in charitable giving. Such situations can benefit recipients while also generating emotional responses in donors.]] '''Imagine this...''' You are buying groceries when the checkout screen asks whether you would like to add $2 to support a charity. You had not planned to donate and you briefly hesitate. Two dollars will not make a noticeable difference to your own finances, so you select '''yes'''. As you leave the supermarket, you feel unexpectedly pleased about having helped someone else. A week later, you encounter another request for a small donation. You remember the positive feeling from the previous experience and again consider giving. Why can giving money away make a person feel good, and could this pleasant emotional response encourage them to behave generously again? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * '''Warm-glow giving''' describes the internal satisfaction or emotional reward that people can experience from helping others. Andreoni's (1990) theory proposes that people can be motivated simultaneously by concern for beneficiaries and by the personal satisfaction they receive from giving. * Research suggests that giving is associated with positive emotional experiences and psychological well-being. For example, charitable donation and volunteering have been positively associated with psychological well-being among university students (Geng et al., 2022). * However, giving does not always produce purely positive emotions. Charitable requests can also produce anxiety, guilt, anger, pressure, or mixed emotional reactions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023; Hepworth et al., 2021). * Understanding these processes is important because emotional experiences may influence not only an immediate decision to donate but also whether people continue engaging in prosocial behaviour in the future (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions''' * What is warm-glow giving and how does it explain people's motivation to help others? * Why can giving produce positive emotional and rewarding experiences? * How do positive and negative emotions influence charitable giving decisions? * How can the emotional consequences of giving influence future and wider prosocial behavior?{{ic|}}{{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is warm-glow giving?== Warm-glow giving was formally developed through Andreoni's (1990) theory of impure altruism. Pure altruism assumes that a person gives because they value improvements in another person's welfare, whereas impure altruism proposes that donors can also obtain utility from the act of giving itself. Warm glow therefore provides a way of understanding why apparently selfless behaviour may also contain a personally rewarding component. Experiencing satisfaction from helping does not necessarily mean that genuine concern for others is absent; self-oriented and other-oriented motives can coexist (Andreoni, 1990). The theory is particularly useful because it connects motivation and emotion: the expectation or experience of a positive internal reward can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. Evidence shows that warm-glow processes extend beyond conventional charitable donations. Xing et al. (2024) found that consumers' feelings of warm glow helped explain the greater success of poverty-alleviation crowdfunding campaigns compared with ordinary crowdfunding campaigns. Chen (2025) extended warm-glow theory to pro-environmental gamification. Among 525 Ant Forest users, perceived warm glow was one of the positive predictors of continued engagement, alongside altruistic, egoistic, and pragmatic motivational factors. These findings suggest that warm glow can help explain multiple forms of prosocial participation, including donating, crowdfunding, and sustained environmentally beneficial behaviour. Evidence from a motivation-focused journal provides a useful psychological qualification to the economic account. Wiwad and Aknin (2017) conducted three experiments comparing the emotional consequences of recalling self-focused and other-focused helpful acts. Recalling other-focused acts produced greater positive affect, with perceived morality helping to explain the difference. Because the studies relied on remembered behaviour, the results do not establish that every other-focused act produces more happiness at the time it occurs. '''Key points:''' * Warm-glow giving is explained by Andreoni's (1990) theory of '''impure altruism''', in which concern for others and personal satisfaction from giving can coexist. * The emotional reward associated with helping can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. * Warm-glow processes can extend beyond charitable donations to other forms of prosocial participation, including crowdfunding and environmentally beneficial behaviour (Xing et al., 2024; Chen, 2025). ==Why does giving feel good?== Andreoni’s theory explains why a donor might value the act of giving, but it does not itself establish that a donation will improve emotional well-being. Dunn et al. (2008) provided initial experimental evidence that spending on others can increase happiness; Aknin, Barrington-Leigh, et al. (2013) extended the finding to a range of cultural contexts. However, Aknin et al. (2020) obtained mixed results in large preregistered replications, suggesting that any average emotional benefit depends partly on how prosocial spending is enacted and measured. One explanation is that giving generates positive affect. Genevsky et al. (2025) found across behavioural and neuroimaging experiments that charitable appeals containing affectively congruent features generated greater donations than incongruent appeals. Importantly, the relationship between affective congruence and giving was mediated by positive aroused affect. This suggests that positive emotional experience was not simply associated with donation—it helped explain why particular appeals increased giving (Genevsky et al., 2025). Genevsky et al. (2025) also found greater activity in the nucleus accumbens, a brain region associated with positive affect and reward processing, in response to affectively congruent charitable requests. Increased activity subsequently predicted donation decisions. These findings provide a useful psychological and neuroaffective extension of warm-glow theory: charitable giving can engage emotional and reward processes that make helping psychologically reinforcing. Giving can also produce a sense of meaning rather than pleasure alone. Regan et al. (2023), writing in Affective Science, experimentally compared kindness towards others with kindness towards oneself and other positive activities. Other-directed kindness was linked to relatively stronger feelings of competence, self-confidence and meaning. These findings complement self-determination theory, but the intervention concerned kindness generally rather than charitable spending specifically. Psychological benefits are also evident outside laboratory donation tasks. Geng et al. (2022), using data from 1,871 Chinese university students, found that both volunteering time and the amount donated to charity were positively associated with psychological well-being. However, Geng et al. (2022) used observational data, so the association should not automatically be interpreted as proof that charitable giving directly causes greater well-being. People with greater psychological well-being may also be more inclined or able to participate in prosocial activities. Chen's (2025) findings similarly demonstrate that perceived warm glow can contribute to continued prosocial engagement. Participants in the Ant Forest platform were motivated by a combination of altruistic, self-related, and practical motives rather than a single source of motivation. '''Key points:''' * Positive emotional arousal can contribute to charitable donation decisions (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Giving can engage positive affect and reward-related processes, helping to explain why prosocial behaviour may feel psychologically rewarding (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Charitable giving and volunteering are associated with psychological well-being, although correlational findings should not be interpreted as proof of causation (Geng et al., 2022). Planned Figure 2 for the final book chapter A simple original diagram could illustrate the proposed motivational cycle: Opportunity to help → Giving → Positive affect/warm glow → Emotional reward → Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. As illustrated in '''Figure 2''', an opportunity to help may lead to giving, positive affect or warm glow, emotional reward, and greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. {| style="margin:15px auto; border-collapse:separate; border-spacing:4px; text-align:center;" | style="border:1px solid #4f81bd;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#eef5fc; width:110px;" | '''Opportunity to help''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #548235;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f0f7ed; width:70px;" | '''Giving''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #d6a000;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#fff7dc; width:135px;" | '''Positive affect / warm glow''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #8064a2;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f5f0fa; width:110px;" | '''Emotional reward''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #31859b;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#edf8fa; width:175px;" | '''Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour''' |} '''''Figure 2.'' Proposed motivational cycle of warm-glow giving.''' ==How do emotions influence charitable giving?== Self-determination theory provides a useful framework for distinguishing voluntary generosity from helping under pressure. Ryan and Deci (2000) identify autonomy, competence and relatedness as psychological needs, while Weinstein and Ryan (2010) found more favourable helper and recipient outcomes when helping was autonomously motivated. Aknin, Dunn, et al. (2013) further showed the importance of understanding a donation’s impact. These findings suggest that the rewarding quality of giving depends on circumstances and motives rather than on monetary transfer alone. Emotions can affect how people evaluate charitable need, not merely whether they feel good afterwards. Hasford et al. (2015) found that consumers were more insensitive to the scope of a charitable problem when their donations were based on emotional rather than calculative valuation. This finding provides an important limitation to a simple "emotion improves giving" explanation. Emotional motivation may stimulate generosity while simultaneously making donors less responsive to information such as the number of beneficiaries (Hasford et al., 2015). Genevsky et al. (2025) showed that the emotional construction of a charitable appeal also matters. Affectively congruent combinations of appeal features increased positive affect and donations, regardless of whether the matched features themselves were positively or negatively valenced. Emotional responses to charitable requests are not necessarily pleasant. Hepworth et al. (2021), across four studies, found that checkout-charity solicitations could create customer anxiety, which subsequently reduced evaluations of the service encounter. Interestingly, Hepworth et al. (2021) also found that anxiety could decrease when customers agreed to donate in employee-led solicitation situations. Therefore, some giving may potentially involve reducing an uncomfortable emotional state rather than simply seeking positive warm glow. Coleman and Peasley (2023) similarly found that checkout charity can produce ambivalent emotional experiences. Consumers may experience positive emotions such as pride and joy alongside negative emotions such as guilt and anger. Their findings suggest that high positive and high negative affect can occur simultaneously, and this emotional incongruence may actually reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Together, these studies demonstrate that emotion has a complex role in charitable behaviour. Warm glow, pride, positive arousal, anxiety, guilt, and anger can each influence donation decisions under different circumstances. '''Key points:''' * Emotional responses can encourage charitable giving, but emotional decision-making may also reduce sensitivity to the scope of need (Hasford et al., 2015). * Charitable requests can generate negative emotional reactions such as anxiety, and donating may sometimes reduce this discomfort (Hepworth et al., 2021). * Positive and negative emotions can occur simultaneously during charitable requests, and emotional ambivalence may reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Table 1. Emotional processes associated with giving and their possible influence on prosocial behaviour''' |- ! Process ! Emotional or motivational experience ! Possible behavioural effect ! Key evidence |- | '''Warm glow''' | Satisfaction from personally helping | Increases motivation to give or participate | Andreoni (1990); Xing et al. (2024) |- | '''Positive aroused affect''' | Positive emotional arousal during an appeal | Greater charitable donations | Genevsky et al. (2025) |- | '''Psychological well-being''' | Positive functioning associated with helping | May reinforce participation in prosocial activity | Geng et al. (2022) |- | '''Emotional valuation''' | Giving based mainly on feelings | Can promote donations but reduce sensitivity to scope | Hasford et al. (2015) |- | '''Checkout anxiety''' | Anxiety following a donation request | May reduce service evaluations and can sometimes encourage donating to reduce discomfort | Hepworth et al. (2021) |- | '''Emotional ambivalence''' | Simultaneous pride/joy and guilt/anger | Mixed affect can complicate or reduce donation intentions | Coleman & Peasley (2023) |- | '''Perceived warm glow''' | Personal satisfaction from environmental contribution | Encourages continued engagement | Chen (2025) |- | '''Moral elevation''' | Feeling inspired by another person's generosity | Encourages prosocial contagion | Yin et al. (2026) |} As summarised in Table 1, charitable behaviour cannot be explained by one emotion alone. Giving involves interacting positive and negative emotional processes, and these processes can either encourage or inhibit prosocial action. ==How can warm glow influence future and wider prosocial behaviour?== A useful distinction is between evidence of feeling good after giving and evidence of a later behavioural effect. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) tested repeated donation decisions, whereas Chen (2025) examined intentions to continue a digital environmental activity. The former more directly informs choice repetition; the latter helps explain sustained intentions but cannot by itself establish long-term action. This distinction limits overly simple claims that warm glow always produces future generosity. If giving produces an emotional reward, that feeling may act as feedback which shapes later choices. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) examined how feelings following previous donation decisions predicted subsequent decisions. They found that feeling good about a previous decision whether that decision was to give or not give—predicted a tendency to make a similar choice later. In contrast, feeling bad about the previous decision increased the likelihood of changing the next decision (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). This provides an important mechanism for explaining repeated prosocial behaviour. If donating creates a warm-glow response, people may learn from this positive emotional feedback and become more motivated to donate again. Chen (2025) provides complementary evidence about sustained engagement in a different prosocial context. Perceived warm glow positively contributed to users' intentions to continue engaging with Ant Forest, suggesting that emotional benefits can support persistence over time. Warm-glow processes may also influence behaviour between people, not just within a single donor. Yin et al. (2026) examined prosocial contagion across nine experiments and investigated responses to observing generosity from benefactors with different income levels. Observing generosity from lower-income benefactors produced stronger perceptions of altruistic motivation and greater moral elevation, which subsequently encouraged prosocial responses among observers (Yin et al., 2026). The finding demonstrates how emotional responses to another person's generosity can spread prosocial behaviour. People do not necessarily need to experience the initial act of giving themselves; witnessing meaningful generosity can also motivate helping. Xing et al. (2024) further illustrates the social and practical application of warm glow. In poverty-alleviation crowdfunding, consumer warm glow helped account for the greater success of poverty-focused campaigns, demonstrating that the emotional reward attached to helping can influence marketplace behaviour. Thus, emotional rewards may create two reinforcing pathways: personal reinforcement, where feeling good after giving encourages future giving, and social contagion, where observing generosity inspires prosocial behaviour in other people.{{anchor|Scenarios}} '''Key points:''' * Emotional reactions to previous donation decisions can act as feedback that influences later giving behaviour (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). * Perceived warm glow can support continued engagement in prosocial activities over time (Chen, 2025). * Prosocial behaviour can spread socially because observing another person's generosity may produce moral elevation and encourage further helping behaviour (Yin et al., 2026). ;Quiz Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Warm-glow giving suggests that people can care about helping others while also experiencing personal emotional satisfaction from the act of giving: |type="()"} + True - False {Charitable requests always make people feel positive emotions: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== Warm-glow giving explains why helping can be emotionally rewarding without implying that generosity is entirely self-interested. Andreoni's (1990) account of impure altruism establishes how concern for others and satisfaction from personally helping can coexist. Psychological research further indicates that perceived impact, autonomous choice, positive affect and feelings of meaning help explain when giving is rewarding (Weinstein & Ryan, 2010; Aknin, Dunn, et al., 2013; Regan et al., 2023). Nevertheless, emotional benefits are not guaranteed. Larger replications have produced positive, null and small effects (Aknin et al., 2020), while requests for donations can elicit guilt, anxiety and ambivalence (Hepworth et al., 2021; Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Emotional satisfaction also differs from demonstrable effectiveness: feeling pleased by a donation does not establish that it meets recipients' needs particularly well. Warm glow may reinforce repeated giving through emotional feedback, while observing generosity can inspire related but distinct feelings of moral elevation (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021; Yin et al., 2026). In everyday life, informed and voluntary donations, accompanied by meaningful feedback about impact, offer a practical way to support donors' well-being without losing sight of those who receive help. == See also == {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Altruism and empathy|Altruism and empathy]] (Book chapter, 2024) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Empathy-altruism hypothesis|Empathy-altruism hypothesis]] (Book chapter, 2021) [[w|Altruism]] (Wikipedia) [[w behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Aknin, L. B., Barrington-Leigh, C. P., Dunn, E. W., Helliwell, J. F., Burns, J., Biswas-Diener, R., Kemeza, I., Nyende, P., Ashton-James, C. E., & Norton, M. I. (2013). Prosocial spending and well-being: Cross-cultural evidence for a psychological universal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(4), 635–652. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031578 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., & Whillans, A. V. (2022). The emotional rewards of prosocial spending are robust and replicable in large samples. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 31(6), 536–545. https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214221121100 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., Proulx, J., Lok, I., & Norton, M. I. (2020). Does spending money on others promote happiness? A registered replication report. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 119(2), e15–e26. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000191 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., Whillans, A. V., Grant, A. M., & Norton, M. I. (2013). Making a difference matters: Impact unlocks the emotional benefits of prosocial spending. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 88, 90–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2013.01.008 Aknin, L. B., Hamlin, J. K., & Dunn, E. W. (2012). Giving leads to happiness in young children. PLOS ONE, 7(6), Article e39211. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0039211 Andreoni, J. (1989). Giving with impure altruism: Applications to charity and Ricardian equivalence. Journal of Political Economy, 97(6), 1447–1458. https://doi.org/10.1086/261662 Andreoni, J. (1990). Impure altruism and donations to public goods: A theory of warm-glow giving. The Economic Journal, 100(401), 464–477. https://doi.org/10.2307/2234133 Bekkers, R., & Wiepking, P. (2011). A literature review of empirical studies of philanthropy: Eight mechanisms that drive charitable giving. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 40(5), 924–973. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764010380927 Bischoff, I., & Krauskopf, T. (2015). Warm glow of giving collectively—An experimental study. Journal of Economic Psychology, 51, 210–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2015.09.001 Chen, Y. (2025). Gaining in giving: Unveiling continuous engagement intentions with the Chinese pro-environmental gamification Ant Forest. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 41(13), 8447–8463. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2024.2410053 Coleman, J. T., & Peasley, M. C. (2023). Wounding pride and infusing affect: The ambivalent emotional experience of checkout charity. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 40(6), 785–797. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-07-2021-4750 Crumpler, H., & Grossman, P. J. (2008). An experimental test of warm glow giving. Journal of Public Economics, 92(5–6), 1011–1021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2007.12.014 Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2014). Prosocial spending and happiness: Using money to benefit others pays off. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(1), 41–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413512503 Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2008). Spending money on others promotes happiness. Science, 319(5870), 1687–1688. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1150952 Genevsky, A., Yoon, C., Lin, T.-Y., Shaw, S. D., & Knutson, B. (2025). The impact of affective congruence on charitable giving. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 20(1), nsaf086. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsaf086 Geng, Y., Chen, Y., Huang, C., Tan, Y., Zhang, C., & Zhu, S. (2022). Volunteering, charitable donation, and psychological well-being of college students in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 790528. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.790528 Harbaugh, W. T., Mayr, U., & Burghart, D. R. (2007). Neural responses to taxation and voluntary giving reveal motives for charitable donations. Science, 316(5831), 1622–1625. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1140738 Hasford, J., Farmer, A., & Waites, S. F. (2015). Thinking, feeling, and giving: The effects of scope and valuation on consumer donations. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 32(4), 435–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2015.05.006 Hepworth, A., Lee, N. Y., & Zablah, A. R. (2021). Feeling anxious: The dark side of checkout charity solicitations. Journal of Business Research, 136, 330–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.07.050 Luccasen, A. (2017). Warm-glow giving: Earned money and the option to take. Economic Inquiry, 55(2), 996–1006. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecin.12417 Moll, J., Krueger, F., Zahn, R., Pardini, M., de Oliveira-Souza, R., & Grafman, J. (2006). Human fronto-mesolimbic networks guide decisions about charitable donation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103(42), 15623–15628. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0604475103 Regan, A., Margolis, S., Ozer, D. J., Schwitzgebel, E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2023). What is unique about kindness? Exploring the proximal experience of prosocial acts relative to other positive behaviors. Affective Science, 4, 92–100. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-022-00143-4 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 Shlefer, S., & Kogut, T. (2021). How did it feel? Affect as a feedback system in repeated donation decisions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 97, 104203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104203 Weinstein, N., & Ryan, R. M. (2010). When helping helps: Autonomous motivation for prosocial behavior and its influence on well-being for the helper and recipient. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(2), 222–244. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016984 Wiwad, D., & Aknin, L. B. (2017). Motives matter: The emotional consequences of recalled self- and other-focused prosocial acts. Motivation and Emotion, 41(6), 730–740. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-017-9638-2 Xing, C., Zhang, Y., & Tripe, D. (2024). Ethical consumers and low-income sellers on China's reward-based crowdfunding platforms: Are poverty alleviation campaigns more successful? Journal of Business Ethics, 191(4), 793–810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-024-05666-3 Yin, B. M., Olson, J. G., & Li, Y. J. (2026). When having less elevates more: Benefactor income, moral elevation, and prosocial contagion among observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 131(4), 585–601. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000493 }} ==External links== * [https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/how_to_make_giving_feel_good How to make giving feel good] (Greater Good Science Center) * [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/publications/observer/obsonline/the-warm-glow-of-giving-may-overshadow-doing-the-greatest-good.html The “Warm Glow” of Giving May Overshadow Doing the Greatest Good] (Association for Psychological Science) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Prosocial]] rqofbcvofyfo93c7b0t05p7odsacpgs 2840843 2840841 2026-10-17T05:43:25Z Karabi Tasneem 3109802 /* How can warm glow influence future and wider prosocial behaviour? */ added quiz 2840843 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Warm-glow giving:<br>Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Charity donation box, Hong Kong International Airport (2018).jpg|thumb|190px|'''Figure 1'''. A public donation box illustrates an everyday opportunity to engage in charitable giving. Such situations can benefit recipients while also generating emotional responses in donors.]] '''Imagine this...''' You are buying groceries when the checkout screen asks whether you would like to add $2 to support a charity. You had not planned to donate and you briefly hesitate. Two dollars will not make a noticeable difference to your own finances, so you select '''yes'''. As you leave the supermarket, you feel unexpectedly pleased about having helped someone else. A week later, you encounter another request for a small donation. You remember the positive feeling from the previous experience and again consider giving. Why can giving money away make a person feel good, and could this pleasant emotional response encourage them to behave generously again? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * '''Warm-glow giving''' describes the internal satisfaction or emotional reward that people can experience from helping others. Andreoni's (1990) theory proposes that people can be motivated simultaneously by concern for beneficiaries and by the personal satisfaction they receive from giving. * Research suggests that giving is associated with positive emotional experiences and psychological well-being. For example, charitable donation and volunteering have been positively associated with psychological well-being among university students (Geng et al., 2022). * However, giving does not always produce purely positive emotions. Charitable requests can also produce anxiety, guilt, anger, pressure, or mixed emotional reactions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023; Hepworth et al., 2021). * Understanding these processes is important because emotional experiences may influence not only an immediate decision to donate but also whether people continue engaging in prosocial behaviour in the future (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions''' * What is warm-glow giving and how does it explain people's motivation to help others? * Why can giving produce positive emotional and rewarding experiences? * How do positive and negative emotions influence charitable giving decisions? * How can the emotional consequences of giving influence future and wider prosocial behavior?{{ic|}}{{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is warm-glow giving?== Warm-glow giving was formally developed through Andreoni's (1990) theory of impure altruism. Pure altruism assumes that a person gives because they value improvements in another person's welfare, whereas impure altruism proposes that donors can also obtain utility from the act of giving itself. Warm glow therefore provides a way of understanding why apparently selfless behaviour may also contain a personally rewarding component. Experiencing satisfaction from helping does not necessarily mean that genuine concern for others is absent; self-oriented and other-oriented motives can coexist (Andreoni, 1990). The theory is particularly useful because it connects motivation and emotion: the expectation or experience of a positive internal reward can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. Evidence shows that warm-glow processes extend beyond conventional charitable donations. Xing et al. (2024) found that consumers' feelings of warm glow helped explain the greater success of poverty-alleviation crowdfunding campaigns compared with ordinary crowdfunding campaigns. Chen (2025) extended warm-glow theory to pro-environmental gamification. Among 525 Ant Forest users, perceived warm glow was one of the positive predictors of continued engagement, alongside altruistic, egoistic, and pragmatic motivational factors. These findings suggest that warm glow can help explain multiple forms of prosocial participation, including donating, crowdfunding, and sustained environmentally beneficial behaviour. Evidence from a motivation-focused journal provides a useful psychological qualification to the economic account. Wiwad and Aknin (2017) conducted three experiments comparing the emotional consequences of recalling self-focused and other-focused helpful acts. Recalling other-focused acts produced greater positive affect, with perceived morality helping to explain the difference. Because the studies relied on remembered behaviour, the results do not establish that every other-focused act produces more happiness at the time it occurs. '''Key points:''' * Warm-glow giving is explained by Andreoni's (1990) theory of '''impure altruism''', in which concern for others and personal satisfaction from giving can coexist. * The emotional reward associated with helping can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. * Warm-glow processes can extend beyond charitable donations to other forms of prosocial participation, including crowdfunding and environmentally beneficial behaviour (Xing et al., 2024; Chen, 2025). ==Why does giving feel good?== Andreoni’s theory explains why a donor might value the act of giving, but it does not itself establish that a donation will improve emotional well-being. Dunn et al. (2008) provided initial experimental evidence that spending on others can increase happiness; Aknin, Barrington-Leigh, et al. (2013) extended the finding to a range of cultural contexts. However, Aknin et al. (2020) obtained mixed results in large preregistered replications, suggesting that any average emotional benefit depends partly on how prosocial spending is enacted and measured. One explanation is that giving generates positive affect. Genevsky et al. (2025) found across behavioural and neuroimaging experiments that charitable appeals containing affectively congruent features generated greater donations than incongruent appeals. Importantly, the relationship between affective congruence and giving was mediated by positive aroused affect. This suggests that positive emotional experience was not simply associated with donation—it helped explain why particular appeals increased giving (Genevsky et al., 2025). Genevsky et al. (2025) also found greater activity in the nucleus accumbens, a brain region associated with positive affect and reward processing, in response to affectively congruent charitable requests. Increased activity subsequently predicted donation decisions. These findings provide a useful psychological and neuroaffective extension of warm-glow theory: charitable giving can engage emotional and reward processes that make helping psychologically reinforcing. Giving can also produce a sense of meaning rather than pleasure alone. Regan et al. (2023), writing in Affective Science, experimentally compared kindness towards others with kindness towards oneself and other positive activities. Other-directed kindness was linked to relatively stronger feelings of competence, self-confidence and meaning. These findings complement self-determination theory, but the intervention concerned kindness generally rather than charitable spending specifically. Psychological benefits are also evident outside laboratory donation tasks. Geng et al. (2022), using data from 1,871 Chinese university students, found that both volunteering time and the amount donated to charity were positively associated with psychological well-being. However, Geng et al. (2022) used observational data, so the association should not automatically be interpreted as proof that charitable giving directly causes greater well-being. People with greater psychological well-being may also be more inclined or able to participate in prosocial activities. Chen's (2025) findings similarly demonstrate that perceived warm glow can contribute to continued prosocial engagement. Participants in the Ant Forest platform were motivated by a combination of altruistic, self-related, and practical motives rather than a single source of motivation. '''Key points:''' * Positive emotional arousal can contribute to charitable donation decisions (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Giving can engage positive affect and reward-related processes, helping to explain why prosocial behaviour may feel psychologically rewarding (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Charitable giving and volunteering are associated with psychological well-being, although correlational findings should not be interpreted as proof of causation (Geng et al., 2022). Planned Figure 2 for the final book chapter A simple original diagram could illustrate the proposed motivational cycle: Opportunity to help → Giving → Positive affect/warm glow → Emotional reward → Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. As illustrated in '''Figure 2''', an opportunity to help may lead to giving, positive affect or warm glow, emotional reward, and greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. {| style="margin:15px auto; border-collapse:separate; border-spacing:4px; text-align:center;" | style="border:1px solid #4f81bd;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#eef5fc; width:110px;" | '''Opportunity to help''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #548235;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f0f7ed; width:70px;" | '''Giving''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #d6a000;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#fff7dc; width:135px;" | '''Positive affect / warm glow''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #8064a2;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f5f0fa; width:110px;" | '''Emotional reward''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #31859b;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#edf8fa; width:175px;" | '''Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour''' |} '''''Figure 2.'' Proposed motivational cycle of warm-glow giving.''' ==How do emotions influence charitable giving?== Self-determination theory provides a useful framework for distinguishing voluntary generosity from helping under pressure. Ryan and Deci (2000) identify autonomy, competence and relatedness as psychological needs, while Weinstein and Ryan (2010) found more favourable helper and recipient outcomes when helping was autonomously motivated. Aknin, Dunn, et al. (2013) further showed the importance of understanding a donation’s impact. These findings suggest that the rewarding quality of giving depends on circumstances and motives rather than on monetary transfer alone. Emotions can affect how people evaluate charitable need, not merely whether they feel good afterwards. Hasford et al. (2015) found that consumers were more insensitive to the scope of a charitable problem when their donations were based on emotional rather than calculative valuation. This finding provides an important limitation to a simple "emotion improves giving" explanation. Emotional motivation may stimulate generosity while simultaneously making donors less responsive to information such as the number of beneficiaries (Hasford et al., 2015). Genevsky et al. (2025) showed that the emotional construction of a charitable appeal also matters. Affectively congruent combinations of appeal features increased positive affect and donations, regardless of whether the matched features themselves were positively or negatively valenced. Emotional responses to charitable requests are not necessarily pleasant. Hepworth et al. (2021), across four studies, found that checkout-charity solicitations could create customer anxiety, which subsequently reduced evaluations of the service encounter. Interestingly, Hepworth et al. (2021) also found that anxiety could decrease when customers agreed to donate in employee-led solicitation situations. Therefore, some giving may potentially involve reducing an uncomfortable emotional state rather than simply seeking positive warm glow. Coleman and Peasley (2023) similarly found that checkout charity can produce ambivalent emotional experiences. Consumers may experience positive emotions such as pride and joy alongside negative emotions such as guilt and anger. Their findings suggest that high positive and high negative affect can occur simultaneously, and this emotional incongruence may actually reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Together, these studies demonstrate that emotion has a complex role in charitable behaviour. Warm glow, pride, positive arousal, anxiety, guilt, and anger can each influence donation decisions under different circumstances. '''Key points:''' * Emotional responses can encourage charitable giving, but emotional decision-making may also reduce sensitivity to the scope of need (Hasford et al., 2015). * Charitable requests can generate negative emotional reactions such as anxiety, and donating may sometimes reduce this discomfort (Hepworth et al., 2021). * Positive and negative emotions can occur simultaneously during charitable requests, and emotional ambivalence may reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Table 1. Emotional processes associated with giving and their possible influence on prosocial behaviour''' |- ! Process ! Emotional or motivational experience ! Possible behavioural effect ! Key evidence |- | '''Warm glow''' | Satisfaction from personally helping | Increases motivation to give or participate | Andreoni (1990); Xing et al. (2024) |- | '''Positive aroused affect''' | Positive emotional arousal during an appeal | Greater charitable donations | Genevsky et al. (2025) |- | '''Psychological well-being''' | Positive functioning associated with helping | May reinforce participation in prosocial activity | Geng et al. (2022) |- | '''Emotional valuation''' | Giving based mainly on feelings | Can promote donations but reduce sensitivity to scope | Hasford et al. (2015) |- | '''Checkout anxiety''' | Anxiety following a donation request | May reduce service evaluations and can sometimes encourage donating to reduce discomfort | Hepworth et al. (2021) |- | '''Emotional ambivalence''' | Simultaneous pride/joy and guilt/anger | Mixed affect can complicate or reduce donation intentions | Coleman & Peasley (2023) |- | '''Perceived warm glow''' | Personal satisfaction from environmental contribution | Encourages continued engagement | Chen (2025) |- | '''Moral elevation''' | Feeling inspired by another person's generosity | Encourages prosocial contagion | Yin et al. (2026) |} As summarised in Table 1, charitable behaviour cannot be explained by one emotion alone. Giving involves interacting positive and negative emotional processes, and these processes can either encourage or inhibit prosocial action. ==How can warm glow influence future and wider prosocial behaviour?== A useful distinction is between evidence of feeling good after giving and evidence of a later behavioural effect. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) tested repeated donation decisions, whereas Chen (2025) examined intentions to continue a digital environmental activity. The former more directly informs choice repetition; the latter helps explain sustained intentions but cannot by itself establish long-term action. This distinction limits overly simple claims that warm glow always produces future generosity. If giving produces an emotional reward, that feeling may act as feedback which shapes later choices. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) examined how feelings following previous donation decisions predicted subsequent decisions. They found that feeling good about a previous decision whether that decision was to give or not give—predicted a tendency to make a similar choice later. In contrast, feeling bad about the previous decision increased the likelihood of changing the next decision (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). This provides an important mechanism for explaining repeated prosocial behaviour. If donating creates a warm-glow response, people may learn from this positive emotional feedback and become more motivated to donate again. Chen (2025) provides complementary evidence about sustained engagement in a different prosocial context. Perceived warm glow positively contributed to users' intentions to continue engaging with Ant Forest, suggesting that emotional benefits can support persistence over time. Warm-glow processes may also influence behaviour between people, not just within a single donor. Yin et al. (2026) examined prosocial contagion across nine experiments and investigated responses to observing generosity from benefactors with different income levels. Observing generosity from lower-income benefactors produced stronger perceptions of altruistic motivation and greater moral elevation, which subsequently encouraged prosocial responses among observers (Yin et al., 2026). The finding demonstrates how emotional responses to another person's generosity can spread prosocial behaviour. People do not necessarily need to experience the initial act of giving themselves; witnessing meaningful generosity can also motivate helping. Xing et al. (2024) further illustrates the social and practical application of warm glow. In poverty-alleviation crowdfunding, consumer warm glow helped account for the greater success of poverty-focused campaigns, demonstrating that the emotional reward attached to helping can influence marketplace behaviour. Thus, emotional rewards may create two reinforcing pathways: personal reinforcement, where feeling good after giving encourages future giving, and social contagion, where observing generosity inspires prosocial behaviour in other people.{{anchor|Scenarios}} '''Key points:''' * Emotional reactions to previous donation decisions can act as feedback that influences later giving behaviour (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). * Perceived warm glow can support continued engagement in prosocial activities over time (Chen, 2025). * Prosocial behaviour can spread socially because observing another person's generosity may produce moral elevation and encourage further helping behaviour (Yin et al., 2026). ;Quiz Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {Warm-glow giving suggests that people can care about helping others while also experiencing personal emotional satisfaction from the act of giving: |type="()"} + True - False {Charitable requests always make people feel positive emotions: |type="()"} - True + False {Why can giving produce positive emotional rewards? |type="()"} - Because all charitable donations guarantee happiness. + Because helping others can generate positive affect, personal satisfaction, and a sense of meaning. - Because people only donate to receive financial rewards. {According to Shlefer and Kogut (2021), how can emotions following a donation decision influence future giving? |type="()"} - Positive emotions always cause people to increase their donations. + Feeling good about a previous decision can encourage people to repeat a similar decision. - Emotional reactions have no influence on subsequent donation decisions. </quiz> ==Conclusion== Warm-glow giving explains why helping can be emotionally rewarding without implying that generosity is entirely self-interested. Andreoni's (1990) account of impure altruism establishes how concern for others and satisfaction from personally helping can coexist. Psychological research further indicates that perceived impact, autonomous choice, positive affect and feelings of meaning help explain when giving is rewarding (Weinstein & Ryan, 2010; Aknin, Dunn, et al., 2013; Regan et al., 2023). Nevertheless, emotional benefits are not guaranteed. Larger replications have produced positive, null and small effects (Aknin et al., 2020), while requests for donations can elicit guilt, anxiety and ambivalence (Hepworth et al., 2021; Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Emotional satisfaction also differs from demonstrable effectiveness: feeling pleased by a donation does not establish that it meets recipients' needs particularly well. Warm glow may reinforce repeated giving through emotional feedback, while observing generosity can inspire related but distinct feelings of moral elevation (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021; Yin et al., 2026). In everyday life, informed and voluntary donations, accompanied by meaningful feedback about impact, offer a practical way to support donors' well-being without losing sight of those who receive help. == See also == {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Altruism and empathy|Altruism and empathy]] (Book chapter, 2024) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Empathy-altruism hypothesis|Empathy-altruism hypothesis]] (Book chapter, 2021) [[w|Altruism]] (Wikipedia) [[w behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Aknin, L. B., Barrington-Leigh, C. P., Dunn, E. W., Helliwell, J. F., Burns, J., Biswas-Diener, R., Kemeza, I., Nyende, P., Ashton-James, C. E., & Norton, M. I. (2013). Prosocial spending and well-being: Cross-cultural evidence for a psychological universal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(4), 635–652. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031578 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., & Whillans, A. V. (2022). The emotional rewards of prosocial spending are robust and replicable in large samples. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 31(6), 536–545. https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214221121100 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., Proulx, J., Lok, I., & Norton, M. I. (2020). Does spending money on others promote happiness? A registered replication report. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 119(2), e15–e26. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000191 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., Whillans, A. V., Grant, A. M., & Norton, M. I. (2013). Making a difference matters: Impact unlocks the emotional benefits of prosocial spending. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 88, 90–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2013.01.008 Aknin, L. B., Hamlin, J. K., & Dunn, E. W. (2012). Giving leads to happiness in young children. PLOS ONE, 7(6), Article e39211. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0039211 Andreoni, J. (1989). Giving with impure altruism: Applications to charity and Ricardian equivalence. Journal of Political Economy, 97(6), 1447–1458. https://doi.org/10.1086/261662 Andreoni, J. (1990). Impure altruism and donations to public goods: A theory of warm-glow giving. The Economic Journal, 100(401), 464–477. https://doi.org/10.2307/2234133 Bekkers, R., & Wiepking, P. (2011). A literature review of empirical studies of philanthropy: Eight mechanisms that drive charitable giving. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 40(5), 924–973. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764010380927 Bischoff, I., & Krauskopf, T. (2015). Warm glow of giving collectively—An experimental study. Journal of Economic Psychology, 51, 210–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2015.09.001 Chen, Y. (2025). Gaining in giving: Unveiling continuous engagement intentions with the Chinese pro-environmental gamification Ant Forest. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 41(13), 8447–8463. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2024.2410053 Coleman, J. T., & Peasley, M. C. (2023). Wounding pride and infusing affect: The ambivalent emotional experience of checkout charity. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 40(6), 785–797. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-07-2021-4750 Crumpler, H., & Grossman, P. J. (2008). An experimental test of warm glow giving. Journal of Public Economics, 92(5–6), 1011–1021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2007.12.014 Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2014). Prosocial spending and happiness: Using money to benefit others pays off. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(1), 41–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413512503 Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2008). Spending money on others promotes happiness. Science, 319(5870), 1687–1688. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1150952 Genevsky, A., Yoon, C., Lin, T.-Y., Shaw, S. D., & Knutson, B. (2025). The impact of affective congruence on charitable giving. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 20(1), nsaf086. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsaf086 Geng, Y., Chen, Y., Huang, C., Tan, Y., Zhang, C., & Zhu, S. (2022). Volunteering, charitable donation, and psychological well-being of college students in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 790528. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.790528 Harbaugh, W. T., Mayr, U., & Burghart, D. R. (2007). Neural responses to taxation and voluntary giving reveal motives for charitable donations. Science, 316(5831), 1622–1625. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1140738 Hasford, J., Farmer, A., & Waites, S. F. (2015). Thinking, feeling, and giving: The effects of scope and valuation on consumer donations. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 32(4), 435–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2015.05.006 Hepworth, A., Lee, N. Y., & Zablah, A. R. (2021). Feeling anxious: The dark side of checkout charity solicitations. Journal of Business Research, 136, 330–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.07.050 Luccasen, A. (2017). Warm-glow giving: Earned money and the option to take. Economic Inquiry, 55(2), 996–1006. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecin.12417 Moll, J., Krueger, F., Zahn, R., Pardini, M., de Oliveira-Souza, R., & Grafman, J. (2006). Human fronto-mesolimbic networks guide decisions about charitable donation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103(42), 15623–15628. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0604475103 Regan, A., Margolis, S., Ozer, D. J., Schwitzgebel, E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2023). What is unique about kindness? Exploring the proximal experience of prosocial acts relative to other positive behaviors. Affective Science, 4, 92–100. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-022-00143-4 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 Shlefer, S., & Kogut, T. (2021). How did it feel? Affect as a feedback system in repeated donation decisions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 97, 104203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104203 Weinstein, N., & Ryan, R. M. (2010). When helping helps: Autonomous motivation for prosocial behavior and its influence on well-being for the helper and recipient. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(2), 222–244. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016984 Wiwad, D., & Aknin, L. B. (2017). Motives matter: The emotional consequences of recalled self- and other-focused prosocial acts. Motivation and Emotion, 41(6), 730–740. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-017-9638-2 Xing, C., Zhang, Y., & Tripe, D. (2024). Ethical consumers and low-income sellers on China's reward-based crowdfunding platforms: Are poverty alleviation campaigns more successful? Journal of Business Ethics, 191(4), 793–810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-024-05666-3 Yin, B. M., Olson, J. G., & Li, Y. J. (2026). When having less elevates more: Benefactor income, moral elevation, and prosocial contagion among observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 131(4), 585–601. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000493 }} ==External links== * [https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/how_to_make_giving_feel_good How to make giving feel good] (Greater Good Science Center) * [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/publications/observer/obsonline/the-warm-glow-of-giving-may-overshadow-doing-the-greatest-good.html The “Warm Glow” of Giving May Overshadow Doing the Greatest Good] (Association for Psychological Science) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Prosocial]] 1dqdaiove2mdygbj0w4pd21jwcekdus 2840844 2840843 2026-10-17T05:44:33Z Karabi Tasneem 3109802 /* See also */ 2840844 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Warm-glow giving:<br>Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Charity donation box, Hong Kong International Airport (2018).jpg|thumb|190px|'''Figure 1'''. A public donation box illustrates an everyday opportunity to engage in charitable giving. Such situations can benefit recipients while also generating emotional responses in donors.]] '''Imagine this...''' You are buying groceries when the checkout screen asks whether you would like to add $2 to support a charity. You had not planned to donate and you briefly hesitate. Two dollars will not make a noticeable difference to your own finances, so you select '''yes'''. As you leave the supermarket, you feel unexpectedly pleased about having helped someone else. A week later, you encounter another request for a small donation. You remember the positive feeling from the previous experience and again consider giving. Why can giving money away make a person feel good, and could this pleasant emotional response encourage them to behave generously again? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * '''Warm-glow giving''' describes the internal satisfaction or emotional reward that people can experience from helping others. Andreoni's (1990) theory proposes that people can be motivated simultaneously by concern for beneficiaries and by the personal satisfaction they receive from giving. * Research suggests that giving is associated with positive emotional experiences and psychological well-being. For example, charitable donation and volunteering have been positively associated with psychological well-being among university students (Geng et al., 2022). * However, giving does not always produce purely positive emotions. Charitable requests can also produce anxiety, guilt, anger, pressure, or mixed emotional reactions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023; Hepworth et al., 2021). * Understanding these processes is important because emotional experiences may influence not only an immediate decision to donate but also whether people continue engaging in prosocial behaviour in the future (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions''' * What is warm-glow giving and how does it explain people's motivation to help others? * Why can giving produce positive emotional and rewarding experiences? * How do positive and negative emotions influence charitable giving decisions? * How can the emotional consequences of giving influence future and wider prosocial behavior?{{ic|}}{{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is warm-glow giving?== Warm-glow giving was formally developed through Andreoni's (1990) theory of impure altruism. Pure altruism assumes that a person gives because they value improvements in another person's welfare, whereas impure altruism proposes that donors can also obtain utility from the act of giving itself. Warm glow therefore provides a way of understanding why apparently selfless behaviour may also contain a personally rewarding component. Experiencing satisfaction from helping does not necessarily mean that genuine concern for others is absent; self-oriented and other-oriented motives can coexist (Andreoni, 1990). The theory is particularly useful because it connects motivation and emotion: the expectation or experience of a positive internal reward can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. Evidence shows that warm-glow processes extend beyond conventional charitable donations. Xing et al. (2024) found that consumers' feelings of warm glow helped explain the greater success of poverty-alleviation crowdfunding campaigns compared with ordinary crowdfunding campaigns. Chen (2025) extended warm-glow theory to pro-environmental gamification. Among 525 Ant Forest users, perceived warm glow was one of the positive predictors of continued engagement, alongside altruistic, egoistic, and pragmatic motivational factors. These findings suggest that warm glow can help explain multiple forms of prosocial participation, including donating, crowdfunding, and sustained environmentally beneficial behaviour. Evidence from a motivation-focused journal provides a useful psychological qualification to the economic account. Wiwad and Aknin (2017) conducted three experiments comparing the emotional consequences of recalling self-focused and other-focused helpful acts. Recalling other-focused acts produced greater positive affect, with perceived morality helping to explain the difference. Because the studies relied on remembered behaviour, the results do not establish that every other-focused act produces more happiness at the time it occurs. '''Key points:''' * Warm-glow giving is explained by Andreoni's (1990) theory of '''impure altruism''', in which concern for others and personal satisfaction from giving can coexist. * The emotional reward associated with helping can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. * Warm-glow processes can extend beyond charitable donations to other forms of prosocial participation, including crowdfunding and environmentally beneficial behaviour (Xing et al., 2024; Chen, 2025). ==Why does giving feel good?== Andreoni’s theory explains why a donor might value the act of giving, but it does not itself establish that a donation will improve emotional well-being. Dunn et al. (2008) provided initial experimental evidence that spending on others can increase happiness; Aknin, Barrington-Leigh, et al. (2013) extended the finding to a range of cultural contexts. However, Aknin et al. (2020) obtained mixed results in large preregistered replications, suggesting that any average emotional benefit depends partly on how prosocial spending is enacted and measured. One explanation is that giving generates positive affect. Genevsky et al. (2025) found across behavioural and neuroimaging experiments that charitable appeals containing affectively congruent features generated greater donations than incongruent appeals. Importantly, the relationship between affective congruence and giving was mediated by positive aroused affect. This suggests that positive emotional experience was not simply associated with donation—it helped explain why particular appeals increased giving (Genevsky et al., 2025). Genevsky et al. (2025) also found greater activity in the nucleus accumbens, a brain region associated with positive affect and reward processing, in response to affectively congruent charitable requests. Increased activity subsequently predicted donation decisions. These findings provide a useful psychological and neuroaffective extension of warm-glow theory: charitable giving can engage emotional and reward processes that make helping psychologically reinforcing. Giving can also produce a sense of meaning rather than pleasure alone. Regan et al. (2023), writing in Affective Science, experimentally compared kindness towards others with kindness towards oneself and other positive activities. Other-directed kindness was linked to relatively stronger feelings of competence, self-confidence and meaning. These findings complement self-determination theory, but the intervention concerned kindness generally rather than charitable spending specifically. Psychological benefits are also evident outside laboratory donation tasks. Geng et al. (2022), using data from 1,871 Chinese university students, found that both volunteering time and the amount donated to charity were positively associated with psychological well-being. However, Geng et al. (2022) used observational data, so the association should not automatically be interpreted as proof that charitable giving directly causes greater well-being. People with greater psychological well-being may also be more inclined or able to participate in prosocial activities. Chen's (2025) findings similarly demonstrate that perceived warm glow can contribute to continued prosocial engagement. Participants in the Ant Forest platform were motivated by a combination of altruistic, self-related, and practical motives rather than a single source of motivation. '''Key points:''' * Positive emotional arousal can contribute to charitable donation decisions (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Giving can engage positive affect and reward-related processes, helping to explain why prosocial behaviour may feel psychologically rewarding (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Charitable giving and volunteering are associated with psychological well-being, although correlational findings should not be interpreted as proof of causation (Geng et al., 2022). Planned Figure 2 for the final book chapter A simple original diagram could illustrate the proposed motivational cycle: Opportunity to help → Giving → Positive affect/warm glow → Emotional reward → Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. As illustrated in '''Figure 2''', an opportunity to help may lead to giving, positive affect or warm glow, emotional reward, and greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. {| style="margin:15px auto; border-collapse:separate; border-spacing:4px; text-align:center;" | style="border:1px solid #4f81bd;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#eef5fc; width:110px;" | '''Opportunity to help''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #548235;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f0f7ed; width:70px;" | '''Giving''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #d6a000;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#fff7dc; width:135px;" | '''Positive affect / warm glow''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #8064a2;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f5f0fa; width:110px;" | '''Emotional reward''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #31859b;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#edf8fa; width:175px;" | '''Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour''' |} '''''Figure 2.'' Proposed motivational cycle of warm-glow giving.''' ==How do emotions influence charitable giving?== Self-determination theory provides a useful framework for distinguishing voluntary generosity from helping under pressure. Ryan and Deci (2000) identify autonomy, competence and relatedness as psychological needs, while Weinstein and Ryan (2010) found more favourable helper and recipient outcomes when helping was autonomously motivated. Aknin, Dunn, et al. (2013) further showed the importance of understanding a donation’s impact. These findings suggest that the rewarding quality of giving depends on circumstances and motives rather than on monetary transfer alone. Emotions can affect how people evaluate charitable need, not merely whether they feel good afterwards. Hasford et al. (2015) found that consumers were more insensitive to the scope of a charitable problem when their donations were based on emotional rather than calculative valuation. This finding provides an important limitation to a simple "emotion improves giving" explanation. Emotional motivation may stimulate generosity while simultaneously making donors less responsive to information such as the number of beneficiaries (Hasford et al., 2015). Genevsky et al. (2025) showed that the emotional construction of a charitable appeal also matters. Affectively congruent combinations of appeal features increased positive affect and donations, regardless of whether the matched features themselves were positively or negatively valenced. Emotional responses to charitable requests are not necessarily pleasant. Hepworth et al. (2021), across four studies, found that checkout-charity solicitations could create customer anxiety, which subsequently reduced evaluations of the service encounter. Interestingly, Hepworth et al. (2021) also found that anxiety could decrease when customers agreed to donate in employee-led solicitation situations. Therefore, some giving may potentially involve reducing an uncomfortable emotional state rather than simply seeking positive warm glow. Coleman and Peasley (2023) similarly found that checkout charity can produce ambivalent emotional experiences. Consumers may experience positive emotions such as pride and joy alongside negative emotions such as guilt and anger. Their findings suggest that high positive and high negative affect can occur simultaneously, and this emotional incongruence may actually reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Together, these studies demonstrate that emotion has a complex role in charitable behaviour. Warm glow, pride, positive arousal, anxiety, guilt, and anger can each influence donation decisions under different circumstances. '''Key points:''' * Emotional responses can encourage charitable giving, but emotional decision-making may also reduce sensitivity to the scope of need (Hasford et al., 2015). * Charitable requests can generate negative emotional reactions such as anxiety, and donating may sometimes reduce this discomfort (Hepworth et al., 2021). * Positive and negative emotions can occur simultaneously during charitable requests, and emotional ambivalence may reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Table 1. Emotional processes associated with giving and their possible influence on prosocial behaviour''' |- ! Process ! Emotional or motivational experience ! Possible behavioural effect ! Key evidence |- | '''Warm glow''' | Satisfaction from personally helping | Increases motivation to give or participate | Andreoni (1990); Xing et al. (2024) |- | '''Positive aroused affect''' | Positive emotional arousal during an appeal | Greater charitable donations | Genevsky et al. (2025) |- | '''Psychological well-being''' | Positive functioning associated with helping | May reinforce participation in prosocial activity | Geng et al. (2022) |- | '''Emotional valuation''' | Giving based mainly on feelings | Can promote donations but reduce sensitivity to scope | Hasford et al. (2015) |- | '''Checkout anxiety''' | Anxiety following a donation request | May reduce service evaluations and can sometimes encourage donating to reduce discomfort | Hepworth et al. (2021) |- | '''Emotional ambivalence''' | Simultaneous pride/joy and guilt/anger | Mixed affect can complicate or reduce donation intentions | Coleman & Peasley (2023) |- | '''Perceived warm glow''' | Personal satisfaction from environmental contribution | Encourages continued engagement | Chen (2025) |- | '''Moral elevation''' | Feeling inspired by another person's generosity | Encourages prosocial contagion | Yin et al. (2026) |} As summarised in Table 1, charitable behaviour cannot be explained by one emotion alone. Giving involves interacting positive and negative emotional processes, and these processes can either encourage or inhibit prosocial action. ==How can warm glow influence future and wider prosocial behaviour?== A useful distinction is between evidence of feeling good after giving and evidence of a later behavioural effect. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) tested repeated donation decisions, whereas Chen (2025) examined intentions to continue a digital environmental activity. The former more directly informs choice repetition; the latter helps explain sustained intentions but cannot by itself establish long-term action. This distinction limits overly simple claims that warm glow always produces future generosity. If giving produces an emotional reward, that feeling may act as feedback which shapes later choices. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) examined how feelings following previous donation decisions predicted subsequent decisions. They found that feeling good about a previous decision whether that decision was to give or not give—predicted a tendency to make a similar choice later. In contrast, feeling bad about the previous decision increased the likelihood of changing the next decision (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). This provides an important mechanism for explaining repeated prosocial behaviour. If donating creates a warm-glow response, people may learn from this positive emotional feedback and become more motivated to donate again. Chen (2025) provides complementary evidence about sustained engagement in a different prosocial context. Perceived warm glow positively contributed to users' intentions to continue engaging with Ant Forest, suggesting that emotional benefits can support persistence over time. Warm-glow processes may also influence behaviour between people, not just within a single donor. Yin et al. (2026) examined prosocial contagion across nine experiments and investigated responses to observing generosity from benefactors with different income levels. Observing generosity from lower-income benefactors produced stronger perceptions of altruistic motivation and greater moral elevation, which subsequently encouraged prosocial responses among observers (Yin et al., 2026). The finding demonstrates how emotional responses to another person's generosity can spread prosocial behaviour. People do not necessarily need to experience the initial act of giving themselves; witnessing meaningful generosity can also motivate helping. Xing et al. (2024) further illustrates the social and practical application of warm glow. In poverty-alleviation crowdfunding, consumer warm glow helped account for the greater success of poverty-focused campaigns, demonstrating that the emotional reward attached to helping can influence marketplace behaviour. Thus, emotional rewards may create two reinforcing pathways: personal reinforcement, where feeling good after giving encourages future giving, and social contagion, where observing generosity inspires prosocial behaviour in other people.{{anchor|Scenarios}} '''Key points:''' * Emotional reactions to previous donation decisions can act as feedback that influences later giving behaviour (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). * Perceived warm glow can support continued engagement in prosocial activities over time (Chen, 2025). * Prosocial behaviour can spread socially because observing another person's generosity may produce moral elevation and encourage further helping behaviour (Yin et al., 2026). ;Quiz Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {Warm-glow giving suggests that people can care about helping others while also experiencing personal emotional satisfaction from the act of giving: |type="()"} + True - False {Charitable requests always make people feel positive emotions: |type="()"} - True + False {Why can giving produce positive emotional rewards? |type="()"} - Because all charitable donations guarantee happiness. + Because helping others can generate positive affect, personal satisfaction, and a sense of meaning. - Because people only donate to receive financial rewards. {According to Shlefer and Kogut (2021), how can emotions following a donation decision influence future giving? |type="()"} - Positive emotions always cause people to increase their donations. + Feeling good about a previous decision can encourage people to repeat a similar decision. - Emotional reactions have no influence on subsequent donation decisions. </quiz> ==Conclusion== Warm-glow giving explains why helping can be emotionally rewarding without implying that generosity is entirely self-interested. Andreoni's (1990) account of impure altruism establishes how concern for others and satisfaction from personally helping can coexist. Psychological research further indicates that perceived impact, autonomous choice, positive affect and feelings of meaning help explain when giving is rewarding (Weinstein & Ryan, 2010; Aknin, Dunn, et al., 2013; Regan et al., 2023). Nevertheless, emotional benefits are not guaranteed. Larger replications have produced positive, null and small effects (Aknin et al., 2020), while requests for donations can elicit guilt, anxiety and ambivalence (Hepworth et al., 2021; Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Emotional satisfaction also differs from demonstrable effectiveness: feeling pleased by a donation does not establish that it meets recipients' needs particularly well. Warm glow may reinforce repeated giving through emotional feedback, while observing generosity can inspire related but distinct feelings of moral elevation (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021; Yin et al., 2026). In everyday life, informed and voluntary donations, accompanied by meaningful feedback about impact, offer a practical way to support donors' well-being without losing sight of those who receive help. == See also == {{ic| }} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Altruism and empathy|Altruism and empathy]] (Book chapter, 2024) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Empathy-altruism hypothesis|Empathy-altruism hypothesis]] (Book chapter, 2021) [[w|Altruism]] (Wikipedia) [[w behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Aknin, L. B., Barrington-Leigh, C. P., Dunn, E. W., Helliwell, J. F., Burns, J., Biswas-Diener, R., Kemeza, I., Nyende, P., Ashton-James, C. E., & Norton, M. I. (2013). Prosocial spending and well-being: Cross-cultural evidence for a psychological universal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(4), 635–652. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031578 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., & Whillans, A. V. (2022). The emotional rewards of prosocial spending are robust and replicable in large samples. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 31(6), 536–545. https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214221121100 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., Proulx, J., Lok, I., & Norton, M. I. (2020). Does spending money on others promote happiness? A registered replication report. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 119(2), e15–e26. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000191 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., Whillans, A. V., Grant, A. M., & Norton, M. I. (2013). Making a difference matters: Impact unlocks the emotional benefits of prosocial spending. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 88, 90–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2013.01.008 Aknin, L. B., Hamlin, J. K., & Dunn, E. W. (2012). Giving leads to happiness in young children. PLOS ONE, 7(6), Article e39211. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0039211 Andreoni, J. (1989). Giving with impure altruism: Applications to charity and Ricardian equivalence. Journal of Political Economy, 97(6), 1447–1458. https://doi.org/10.1086/261662 Andreoni, J. (1990). Impure altruism and donations to public goods: A theory of warm-glow giving. The Economic Journal, 100(401), 464–477. https://doi.org/10.2307/2234133 Bekkers, R., & Wiepking, P. (2011). A literature review of empirical studies of philanthropy: Eight mechanisms that drive charitable giving. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 40(5), 924–973. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764010380927 Bischoff, I., & Krauskopf, T. (2015). Warm glow of giving collectively—An experimental study. Journal of Economic Psychology, 51, 210–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2015.09.001 Chen, Y. (2025). Gaining in giving: Unveiling continuous engagement intentions with the Chinese pro-environmental gamification Ant Forest. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 41(13), 8447–8463. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2024.2410053 Coleman, J. T., & Peasley, M. C. (2023). Wounding pride and infusing affect: The ambivalent emotional experience of checkout charity. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 40(6), 785–797. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-07-2021-4750 Crumpler, H., & Grossman, P. J. (2008). An experimental test of warm glow giving. Journal of Public Economics, 92(5–6), 1011–1021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2007.12.014 Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2014). Prosocial spending and happiness: Using money to benefit others pays off. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(1), 41–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413512503 Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2008). Spending money on others promotes happiness. Science, 319(5870), 1687–1688. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1150952 Genevsky, A., Yoon, C., Lin, T.-Y., Shaw, S. D., & Knutson, B. (2025). The impact of affective congruence on charitable giving. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 20(1), nsaf086. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsaf086 Geng, Y., Chen, Y., Huang, C., Tan, Y., Zhang, C., & Zhu, S. (2022). Volunteering, charitable donation, and psychological well-being of college students in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 790528. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.790528 Harbaugh, W. T., Mayr, U., & Burghart, D. R. (2007). Neural responses to taxation and voluntary giving reveal motives for charitable donations. Science, 316(5831), 1622–1625. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1140738 Hasford, J., Farmer, A., & Waites, S. F. (2015). Thinking, feeling, and giving: The effects of scope and valuation on consumer donations. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 32(4), 435–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2015.05.006 Hepworth, A., Lee, N. Y., & Zablah, A. R. (2021). Feeling anxious: The dark side of checkout charity solicitations. Journal of Business Research, 136, 330–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.07.050 Luccasen, A. (2017). Warm-glow giving: Earned money and the option to take. Economic Inquiry, 55(2), 996–1006. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecin.12417 Moll, J., Krueger, F., Zahn, R., Pardini, M., de Oliveira-Souza, R., & Grafman, J. (2006). Human fronto-mesolimbic networks guide decisions about charitable donation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103(42), 15623–15628. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0604475103 Regan, A., Margolis, S., Ozer, D. J., Schwitzgebel, E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2023). What is unique about kindness? Exploring the proximal experience of prosocial acts relative to other positive behaviors. Affective Science, 4, 92–100. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-022-00143-4 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 Shlefer, S., & Kogut, T. (2021). How did it feel? Affect as a feedback system in repeated donation decisions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 97, 104203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104203 Weinstein, N., & Ryan, R. M. (2010). When helping helps: Autonomous motivation for prosocial behavior and its influence on well-being for the helper and recipient. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(2), 222–244. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016984 Wiwad, D., & Aknin, L. B. (2017). Motives matter: The emotional consequences of recalled self- and other-focused prosocial acts. Motivation and Emotion, 41(6), 730–740. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-017-9638-2 Xing, C., Zhang, Y., & Tripe, D. (2024). Ethical consumers and low-income sellers on China's reward-based crowdfunding platforms: Are poverty alleviation campaigns more successful? Journal of Business Ethics, 191(4), 793–810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-024-05666-3 Yin, B. M., Olson, J. G., & Li, Y. J. (2026). When having less elevates more: Benefactor income, moral elevation, and prosocial contagion among observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 131(4), 585–601. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000493 }} ==External links== * [https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/how_to_make_giving_feel_good How to make giving feel good] (Greater Good Science Center) * [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/publications/observer/obsonline/the-warm-glow-of-giving-may-overshadow-doing-the-greatest-good.html The “Warm Glow” of Giving May Overshadow Doing the Greatest Good] (Association for Psychological Science) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Prosocial]] j2drsc69prattsfw127gxitluqcbagg 2840846 2840844 2026-10-17T05:45:19Z Karabi Tasneem 3109802 /* See also */ 2840846 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Warm-glow giving:<br>Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Charity donation box, Hong Kong International Airport (2018).jpg|thumb|190px|'''Figure 1'''. A public donation box illustrates an everyday opportunity to engage in charitable giving. Such situations can benefit recipients while also generating emotional responses in donors.]] '''Imagine this...''' You are buying groceries when the checkout screen asks whether you would like to add $2 to support a charity. You had not planned to donate and you briefly hesitate. Two dollars will not make a noticeable difference to your own finances, so you select '''yes'''. As you leave the supermarket, you feel unexpectedly pleased about having helped someone else. A week later, you encounter another request for a small donation. You remember the positive feeling from the previous experience and again consider giving. Why can giving money away make a person feel good, and could this pleasant emotional response encourage them to behave generously again? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * '''Warm-glow giving''' describes the internal satisfaction or emotional reward that people can experience from helping others. Andreoni's (1990) theory proposes that people can be motivated simultaneously by concern for beneficiaries and by the personal satisfaction they receive from giving. * Research suggests that giving is associated with positive emotional experiences and psychological well-being. For example, charitable donation and volunteering have been positively associated with psychological well-being among university students (Geng et al., 2022). * However, giving does not always produce purely positive emotions. Charitable requests can also produce anxiety, guilt, anger, pressure, or mixed emotional reactions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023; Hepworth et al., 2021). * Understanding these processes is important because emotional experiences may influence not only an immediate decision to donate but also whether people continue engaging in prosocial behaviour in the future (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions''' * What is warm-glow giving and how does it explain people's motivation to help others? * Why can giving produce positive emotional and rewarding experiences? * How do positive and negative emotions influence charitable giving decisions? * How can the emotional consequences of giving influence future and wider prosocial behavior?{{ic|}}{{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is warm-glow giving?== Warm-glow giving was formally developed through Andreoni's (1990) theory of impure altruism. Pure altruism assumes that a person gives because they value improvements in another person's welfare, whereas impure altruism proposes that donors can also obtain utility from the act of giving itself. Warm glow therefore provides a way of understanding why apparently selfless behaviour may also contain a personally rewarding component. Experiencing satisfaction from helping does not necessarily mean that genuine concern for others is absent; self-oriented and other-oriented motives can coexist (Andreoni, 1990). The theory is particularly useful because it connects motivation and emotion: the expectation or experience of a positive internal reward can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. Evidence shows that warm-glow processes extend beyond conventional charitable donations. Xing et al. (2024) found that consumers' feelings of warm glow helped explain the greater success of poverty-alleviation crowdfunding campaigns compared with ordinary crowdfunding campaigns. Chen (2025) extended warm-glow theory to pro-environmental gamification. Among 525 Ant Forest users, perceived warm glow was one of the positive predictors of continued engagement, alongside altruistic, egoistic, and pragmatic motivational factors. These findings suggest that warm glow can help explain multiple forms of prosocial participation, including donating, crowdfunding, and sustained environmentally beneficial behaviour. Evidence from a motivation-focused journal provides a useful psychological qualification to the economic account. Wiwad and Aknin (2017) conducted three experiments comparing the emotional consequences of recalling self-focused and other-focused helpful acts. Recalling other-focused acts produced greater positive affect, with perceived morality helping to explain the difference. Because the studies relied on remembered behaviour, the results do not establish that every other-focused act produces more happiness at the time it occurs. '''Key points:''' * Warm-glow giving is explained by Andreoni's (1990) theory of '''impure altruism''', in which concern for others and personal satisfaction from giving can coexist. * The emotional reward associated with helping can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. * Warm-glow processes can extend beyond charitable donations to other forms of prosocial participation, including crowdfunding and environmentally beneficial behaviour (Xing et al., 2024; Chen, 2025). ==Why does giving feel good?== Andreoni’s theory explains why a donor might value the act of giving, but it does not itself establish that a donation will improve emotional well-being. Dunn et al. (2008) provided initial experimental evidence that spending on others can increase happiness; Aknin, Barrington-Leigh, et al. (2013) extended the finding to a range of cultural contexts. However, Aknin et al. (2020) obtained mixed results in large preregistered replications, suggesting that any average emotional benefit depends partly on how prosocial spending is enacted and measured. One explanation is that giving generates positive affect. Genevsky et al. (2025) found across behavioural and neuroimaging experiments that charitable appeals containing affectively congruent features generated greater donations than incongruent appeals. Importantly, the relationship between affective congruence and giving was mediated by positive aroused affect. This suggests that positive emotional experience was not simply associated with donation—it helped explain why particular appeals increased giving (Genevsky et al., 2025). Genevsky et al. (2025) also found greater activity in the nucleus accumbens, a brain region associated with positive affect and reward processing, in response to affectively congruent charitable requests. Increased activity subsequently predicted donation decisions. These findings provide a useful psychological and neuroaffective extension of warm-glow theory: charitable giving can engage emotional and reward processes that make helping psychologically reinforcing. Giving can also produce a sense of meaning rather than pleasure alone. Regan et al. (2023), writing in Affective Science, experimentally compared kindness towards others with kindness towards oneself and other positive activities. Other-directed kindness was linked to relatively stronger feelings of competence, self-confidence and meaning. These findings complement self-determination theory, but the intervention concerned kindness generally rather than charitable spending specifically. Psychological benefits are also evident outside laboratory donation tasks. Geng et al. (2022), using data from 1,871 Chinese university students, found that both volunteering time and the amount donated to charity were positively associated with psychological well-being. However, Geng et al. (2022) used observational data, so the association should not automatically be interpreted as proof that charitable giving directly causes greater well-being. People with greater psychological well-being may also be more inclined or able to participate in prosocial activities. Chen's (2025) findings similarly demonstrate that perceived warm glow can contribute to continued prosocial engagement. Participants in the Ant Forest platform were motivated by a combination of altruistic, self-related, and practical motives rather than a single source of motivation. '''Key points:''' * Positive emotional arousal can contribute to charitable donation decisions (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Giving can engage positive affect and reward-related processes, helping to explain why prosocial behaviour may feel psychologically rewarding (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Charitable giving and volunteering are associated with psychological well-being, although correlational findings should not be interpreted as proof of causation (Geng et al., 2022). Planned Figure 2 for the final book chapter A simple original diagram could illustrate the proposed motivational cycle: Opportunity to help → Giving → Positive affect/warm glow → Emotional reward → Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. As illustrated in '''Figure 2''', an opportunity to help may lead to giving, positive affect or warm glow, emotional reward, and greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. {| style="margin:15px auto; border-collapse:separate; border-spacing:4px; text-align:center;" | style="border:1px solid #4f81bd;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#eef5fc; width:110px;" | '''Opportunity to help''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #548235;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f0f7ed; width:70px;" | '''Giving''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #d6a000;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#fff7dc; width:135px;" | '''Positive affect / warm glow''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #8064a2;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f5f0fa; width:110px;" | '''Emotional reward''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #31859b;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#edf8fa; width:175px;" | '''Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour''' |} '''''Figure 2.'' Proposed motivational cycle of warm-glow giving.''' ==How do emotions influence charitable giving?== Self-determination theory provides a useful framework for distinguishing voluntary generosity from helping under pressure. Ryan and Deci (2000) identify autonomy, competence and relatedness as psychological needs, while Weinstein and Ryan (2010) found more favourable helper and recipient outcomes when helping was autonomously motivated. Aknin, Dunn, et al. (2013) further showed the importance of understanding a donation’s impact. These findings suggest that the rewarding quality of giving depends on circumstances and motives rather than on monetary transfer alone. Emotions can affect how people evaluate charitable need, not merely whether they feel good afterwards. Hasford et al. (2015) found that consumers were more insensitive to the scope of a charitable problem when their donations were based on emotional rather than calculative valuation. This finding provides an important limitation to a simple "emotion improves giving" explanation. Emotional motivation may stimulate generosity while simultaneously making donors less responsive to information such as the number of beneficiaries (Hasford et al., 2015). Genevsky et al. (2025) showed that the emotional construction of a charitable appeal also matters. Affectively congruent combinations of appeal features increased positive affect and donations, regardless of whether the matched features themselves were positively or negatively valenced. Emotional responses to charitable requests are not necessarily pleasant. Hepworth et al. (2021), across four studies, found that checkout-charity solicitations could create customer anxiety, which subsequently reduced evaluations of the service encounter. Interestingly, Hepworth et al. (2021) also found that anxiety could decrease when customers agreed to donate in employee-led solicitation situations. Therefore, some giving may potentially involve reducing an uncomfortable emotional state rather than simply seeking positive warm glow. Coleman and Peasley (2023) similarly found that checkout charity can produce ambivalent emotional experiences. Consumers may experience positive emotions such as pride and joy alongside negative emotions such as guilt and anger. Their findings suggest that high positive and high negative affect can occur simultaneously, and this emotional incongruence may actually reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Together, these studies demonstrate that emotion has a complex role in charitable behaviour. Warm glow, pride, positive arousal, anxiety, guilt, and anger can each influence donation decisions under different circumstances. '''Key points:''' * Emotional responses can encourage charitable giving, but emotional decision-making may also reduce sensitivity to the scope of need (Hasford et al., 2015). * Charitable requests can generate negative emotional reactions such as anxiety, and donating may sometimes reduce this discomfort (Hepworth et al., 2021). * Positive and negative emotions can occur simultaneously during charitable requests, and emotional ambivalence may reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Table 1. Emotional processes associated with giving and their possible influence on prosocial behaviour''' |- ! Process ! Emotional or motivational experience ! Possible behavioural effect ! Key evidence |- | '''Warm glow''' | Satisfaction from personally helping | Increases motivation to give or participate | Andreoni (1990); Xing et al. (2024) |- | '''Positive aroused affect''' | Positive emotional arousal during an appeal | Greater charitable donations | Genevsky et al. (2025) |- | '''Psychological well-being''' | Positive functioning associated with helping | May reinforce participation in prosocial activity | Geng et al. (2022) |- | '''Emotional valuation''' | Giving based mainly on feelings | Can promote donations but reduce sensitivity to scope | Hasford et al. (2015) |- | '''Checkout anxiety''' | Anxiety following a donation request | May reduce service evaluations and can sometimes encourage donating to reduce discomfort | Hepworth et al. (2021) |- | '''Emotional ambivalence''' | Simultaneous pride/joy and guilt/anger | Mixed affect can complicate or reduce donation intentions | Coleman & Peasley (2023) |- | '''Perceived warm glow''' | Personal satisfaction from environmental contribution | Encourages continued engagement | Chen (2025) |- | '''Moral elevation''' | Feeling inspired by another person's generosity | Encourages prosocial contagion | Yin et al. (2026) |} As summarised in Table 1, charitable behaviour cannot be explained by one emotion alone. Giving involves interacting positive and negative emotional processes, and these processes can either encourage or inhibit prosocial action. ==How can warm glow influence future and wider prosocial behaviour?== A useful distinction is between evidence of feeling good after giving and evidence of a later behavioural effect. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) tested repeated donation decisions, whereas Chen (2025) examined intentions to continue a digital environmental activity. The former more directly informs choice repetition; the latter helps explain sustained intentions but cannot by itself establish long-term action. This distinction limits overly simple claims that warm glow always produces future generosity. If giving produces an emotional reward, that feeling may act as feedback which shapes later choices. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) examined how feelings following previous donation decisions predicted subsequent decisions. They found that feeling good about a previous decision whether that decision was to give or not give—predicted a tendency to make a similar choice later. In contrast, feeling bad about the previous decision increased the likelihood of changing the next decision (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). This provides an important mechanism for explaining repeated prosocial behaviour. If donating creates a warm-glow response, people may learn from this positive emotional feedback and become more motivated to donate again. Chen (2025) provides complementary evidence about sustained engagement in a different prosocial context. Perceived warm glow positively contributed to users' intentions to continue engaging with Ant Forest, suggesting that emotional benefits can support persistence over time. Warm-glow processes may also influence behaviour between people, not just within a single donor. Yin et al. (2026) examined prosocial contagion across nine experiments and investigated responses to observing generosity from benefactors with different income levels. Observing generosity from lower-income benefactors produced stronger perceptions of altruistic motivation and greater moral elevation, which subsequently encouraged prosocial responses among observers (Yin et al., 2026). The finding demonstrates how emotional responses to another person's generosity can spread prosocial behaviour. People do not necessarily need to experience the initial act of giving themselves; witnessing meaningful generosity can also motivate helping. Xing et al. (2024) further illustrates the social and practical application of warm glow. In poverty-alleviation crowdfunding, consumer warm glow helped account for the greater success of poverty-focused campaigns, demonstrating that the emotional reward attached to helping can influence marketplace behaviour. Thus, emotional rewards may create two reinforcing pathways: personal reinforcement, where feeling good after giving encourages future giving, and social contagion, where observing generosity inspires prosocial behaviour in other people.{{anchor|Scenarios}} '''Key points:''' * Emotional reactions to previous donation decisions can act as feedback that influences later giving behaviour (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). * Perceived warm glow can support continued engagement in prosocial activities over time (Chen, 2025). * Prosocial behaviour can spread socially because observing another person's generosity may produce moral elevation and encourage further helping behaviour (Yin et al., 2026). ;Quiz Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {Warm-glow giving suggests that people can care about helping others while also experiencing personal emotional satisfaction from the act of giving: |type="()"} + True - False {Charitable requests always make people feel positive emotions: |type="()"} - True + False {Why can giving produce positive emotional rewards? |type="()"} - Because all charitable donations guarantee happiness. + Because helping others can generate positive affect, personal satisfaction, and a sense of meaning. - Because people only donate to receive financial rewards. {According to Shlefer and Kogut (2021), how can emotions following a donation decision influence future giving? |type="()"} - Positive emotions always cause people to increase their donations. + Feeling good about a previous decision can encourage people to repeat a similar decision. - Emotional reactions have no influence on subsequent donation decisions. </quiz> ==Conclusion== Warm-glow giving explains why helping can be emotionally rewarding without implying that generosity is entirely self-interested. Andreoni's (1990) account of impure altruism establishes how concern for others and satisfaction from personally helping can coexist. Psychological research further indicates that perceived impact, autonomous choice, positive affect and feelings of meaning help explain when giving is rewarding (Weinstein & Ryan, 2010; Aknin, Dunn, et al., 2013; Regan et al., 2023). Nevertheless, emotional benefits are not guaranteed. Larger replications have produced positive, null and small effects (Aknin et al., 2020), while requests for donations can elicit guilt, anxiety and ambivalence (Hepworth et al., 2021; Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Emotional satisfaction also differs from demonstrable effectiveness: feeling pleased by a donation does not establish that it meets recipients' needs particularly well. Warm glow may reinforce repeated giving through emotional feedback, while observing generosity can inspire related but distinct feelings of moral elevation (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021; Yin et al., 2026). In everyday life, informed and voluntary donations, accompanied by meaningful feedback about impact, offer a practical way to support donors' well-being without losing sight of those who receive help. == See also == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Altruism and empathy|Altruism and empathy]] (Book chapter, 2024) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Empathy-altruism hypothesis|Empathy-altruism hypothesis]] (Book chapter, 2021) [[w|Altruism]] (Wikipedia) [[w behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Aknin, L. B., Barrington-Leigh, C. P., Dunn, E. W., Helliwell, J. F., Burns, J., Biswas-Diener, R., Kemeza, I., Nyende, P., Ashton-James, C. E., & Norton, M. I. (2013). Prosocial spending and well-being: Cross-cultural evidence for a psychological universal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(4), 635–652. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031578 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., & Whillans, A. V. (2022). The emotional rewards of prosocial spending are robust and replicable in large samples. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 31(6), 536–545. https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214221121100 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., Proulx, J., Lok, I., & Norton, M. I. (2020). Does spending money on others promote happiness? A registered replication report. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 119(2), e15–e26. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000191 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., Whillans, A. V., Grant, A. M., & Norton, M. I. (2013). Making a difference matters: Impact unlocks the emotional benefits of prosocial spending. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 88, 90–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2013.01.008 Aknin, L. B., Hamlin, J. K., & Dunn, E. W. (2012). Giving leads to happiness in young children. PLOS ONE, 7(6), Article e39211. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0039211 Andreoni, J. (1989). Giving with impure altruism: Applications to charity and Ricardian equivalence. Journal of Political Economy, 97(6), 1447–1458. https://doi.org/10.1086/261662 Andreoni, J. (1990). Impure altruism and donations to public goods: A theory of warm-glow giving. The Economic Journal, 100(401), 464–477. https://doi.org/10.2307/2234133 Bekkers, R., & Wiepking, P. (2011). A literature review of empirical studies of philanthropy: Eight mechanisms that drive charitable giving. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 40(5), 924–973. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764010380927 Bischoff, I., & Krauskopf, T. (2015). Warm glow of giving collectively—An experimental study. Journal of Economic Psychology, 51, 210–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2015.09.001 Chen, Y. (2025). Gaining in giving: Unveiling continuous engagement intentions with the Chinese pro-environmental gamification Ant Forest. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 41(13), 8447–8463. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2024.2410053 Coleman, J. T., & Peasley, M. C. (2023). Wounding pride and infusing affect: The ambivalent emotional experience of checkout charity. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 40(6), 785–797. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-07-2021-4750 Crumpler, H., & Grossman, P. J. (2008). An experimental test of warm glow giving. Journal of Public Economics, 92(5–6), 1011–1021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2007.12.014 Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2014). Prosocial spending and happiness: Using money to benefit others pays off. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(1), 41–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413512503 Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2008). Spending money on others promotes happiness. Science, 319(5870), 1687–1688. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1150952 Genevsky, A., Yoon, C., Lin, T.-Y., Shaw, S. D., & Knutson, B. (2025). The impact of affective congruence on charitable giving. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 20(1), nsaf086. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsaf086 Geng, Y., Chen, Y., Huang, C., Tan, Y., Zhang, C., & Zhu, S. (2022). Volunteering, charitable donation, and psychological well-being of college students in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 790528. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.790528 Harbaugh, W. T., Mayr, U., & Burghart, D. R. (2007). Neural responses to taxation and voluntary giving reveal motives for charitable donations. Science, 316(5831), 1622–1625. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1140738 Hasford, J., Farmer, A., & Waites, S. F. (2015). Thinking, feeling, and giving: The effects of scope and valuation on consumer donations. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 32(4), 435–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2015.05.006 Hepworth, A., Lee, N. Y., & Zablah, A. R. (2021). Feeling anxious: The dark side of checkout charity solicitations. Journal of Business Research, 136, 330–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.07.050 Luccasen, A. (2017). Warm-glow giving: Earned money and the option to take. Economic Inquiry, 55(2), 996–1006. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecin.12417 Moll, J., Krueger, F., Zahn, R., Pardini, M., de Oliveira-Souza, R., & Grafman, J. (2006). Human fronto-mesolimbic networks guide decisions about charitable donation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103(42), 15623–15628. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0604475103 Regan, A., Margolis, S., Ozer, D. J., Schwitzgebel, E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2023). What is unique about kindness? Exploring the proximal experience of prosocial acts relative to other positive behaviors. Affective Science, 4, 92–100. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-022-00143-4 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 Shlefer, S., & Kogut, T. (2021). How did it feel? Affect as a feedback system in repeated donation decisions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 97, 104203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104203 Weinstein, N., & Ryan, R. M. (2010). When helping helps: Autonomous motivation for prosocial behavior and its influence on well-being for the helper and recipient. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(2), 222–244. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016984 Wiwad, D., & Aknin, L. B. (2017). Motives matter: The emotional consequences of recalled self- and other-focused prosocial acts. Motivation and Emotion, 41(6), 730–740. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-017-9638-2 Xing, C., Zhang, Y., & Tripe, D. (2024). Ethical consumers and low-income sellers on China's reward-based crowdfunding platforms: Are poverty alleviation campaigns more successful? Journal of Business Ethics, 191(4), 793–810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-024-05666-3 Yin, B. M., Olson, J. G., & Li, Y. J. (2026). When having less elevates more: Benefactor income, moral elevation, and prosocial contagion among observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 131(4), 585–601. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000493 }} ==External links== * [https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/how_to_make_giving_feel_good How to make giving feel good] (Greater Good Science Center) * [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/publications/observer/obsonline/the-warm-glow-of-giving-may-overshadow-doing-the-greatest-good.html The “Warm Glow” of Giving May Overshadow Doing the Greatest Good] (Association for Psychological Science) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Prosocial]] 7qt6tfwbq766td1oaq65gxm5w401w64 2840848 2840846 2026-10-17T05:57:27Z Karabi Tasneem 3109802 edited 2840848 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Warm-glow giving:<br>Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Charity donation box, Hong Kong International Airport (2018).jpg|thumb|190px|'''Figure 1'''. A public donation box illustrates an everyday opportunity to engage in charitable giving. Such situations can benefit recipients while also generating emotional responses in donors.]] '''Imagine this...''' You are buying groceries when the checkout screen asks whether you would like to add $2 to support a charity. You had not planned to donate and you briefly hesitate. Two dollars will not make a noticeable difference to your own finances, so you select '''yes'''. As you leave the supermarket, you feel unexpectedly pleased about having helped someone else. A week later, you encounter another request for a small donation. You remember the positive feeling from the previous experience and again consider giving. Why can giving money away make a person feel good, and could this pleasant emotional response encourage them to behave generously again? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * '''Warm-glow giving''' describes the internal satisfaction or emotional reward that people can experience from helping others. Andreoni's (1990) theory proposes that people can be motivated simultaneously by concern for beneficiaries and by the personal satisfaction they receive from giving. * Research suggests that giving is associated with positive emotional experiences and psychological well-being. For example, charitable donation and volunteering have been positively associated with psychological well-being among university students (Geng et al., 2022). * However, giving does not always produce purely positive emotions. Charitable requests can also produce anxiety, guilt, anger, pressure, or mixed emotional reactions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023; Hepworth et al., 2021). * Understanding these processes is important because emotional experiences may influence not only an immediate decision to donate but also whether people continue engaging in prosocial behaviour in the future (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions'''{{ic| * What is warm-glow giving and how does it explain people's motivation to help others? * Why can giving produce positive emotional and rewarding experiences? * How do positive and negative emotions influence charitable giving decisions? * How can the emotional consequences of giving influence future and wider prosocial behavior? }}{{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is warm-glow giving?== Warm-glow giving was formally developed through Andreoni's (1990) theory of impure altruism. Pure altruism assumes that a person gives because they value improvements in another person's welfare, whereas impure altruism proposes that donors can also obtain utility from the act of giving itself. Warm glow therefore provides a way of understanding why apparently selfless behaviour may also contain a personally rewarding component. Experiencing satisfaction from helping does not necessarily mean that genuine concern for others is absent; self-oriented and other-oriented motives can coexist (Andreoni, 1990). The theory is particularly useful because it connects motivation and emotion: the expectation or experience of a positive internal reward can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. Evidence shows that warm-glow processes extend beyond conventional charitable donations. Xing et al. (2024) found that consumers' feelings of warm glow helped explain the greater success of poverty-alleviation crowdfunding campaigns compared with ordinary crowdfunding campaigns. Chen (2025) extended warm-glow theory to pro-environmental gamification. Among 525 Ant Forest users, perceived warm glow was one of the positive predictors of continued engagement, alongside altruistic, egoistic, and pragmatic motivational factors. These findings suggest that warm glow can help explain multiple forms of prosocial participation, including donating, crowdfunding, and sustained environmentally beneficial behaviour. Evidence from a motivation-focused journal provides a useful psychological qualification to the economic account. Wiwad and Aknin (2017) conducted three experiments comparing the emotional consequences of recalling self-focused and other-focused helpful acts. Recalling other-focused acts produced greater positive affect, with perceived morality helping to explain the difference. Because the studies relied on remembered behaviour, the results do not establish that every other-focused act produces more happiness at the time it occurs. '''Key points:''' * Warm-glow giving is explained by Andreoni's (1990) theory of '''impure altruism''', in which concern for others and personal satisfaction from giving can coexist. * The emotional reward associated with helping can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. * Warm-glow processes can extend beyond charitable donations to other forms of prosocial participation, including crowdfunding and environmentally beneficial behaviour (Xing et al., 2024; Chen, 2025). ==Why does giving feel good?== Andreoni’s theory explains why a donor might value the act of giving, but it does not itself establish that a donation will improve emotional well-being. Dunn et al. (2008) provided initial experimental evidence that spending on others can increase happiness; Aknin, Barrington-Leigh, et al. (2013) extended the finding to a range of cultural contexts. However, Aknin et al. (2020) obtained mixed results in large preregistered replications, suggesting that any average emotional benefit depends partly on how prosocial spending is enacted and measured. One explanation is that giving generates positive affect. Genevsky et al. (2025) found across behavioural and neuroimaging experiments that charitable appeals containing affectively congruent features generated greater donations than incongruent appeals. Importantly, the relationship between affective congruence and giving was mediated by positive aroused affect. This suggests that positive emotional experience was not simply associated with donation—it helped explain why particular appeals increased giving (Genevsky et al., 2025). Genevsky et al. (2025) also found greater activity in the nucleus accumbens, a brain region associated with positive affect and reward processing, in response to affectively congruent charitable requests. Increased activity subsequently predicted donation decisions. These findings provide a useful psychological and neuroaffective extension of warm-glow theory: charitable giving can engage emotional and reward processes that make helping psychologically reinforcing. Giving can also produce a sense of meaning rather than pleasure alone. Regan et al. (2023), writing in Affective Science, experimentally compared kindness towards others with kindness towards oneself and other positive activities. Other-directed kindness was linked to relatively stronger feelings of competence, self-confidence and meaning. These findings complement self-determination theory, but the intervention concerned kindness generally rather than charitable spending specifically. Psychological benefits are also evident outside laboratory donation tasks. Geng et al. (2022), using data from 1,871 Chinese university students, found that both volunteering time and the amount donated to charity were positively associated with psychological well-being. However, Geng et al. (2022) used observational data, so the association should not automatically be interpreted as proof that charitable giving directly causes greater well-being. People with greater psychological well-being may also be more inclined or able to participate in prosocial activities. Chen's (2025) findings similarly demonstrate that perceived warm glow can contribute to continued prosocial engagement. Participants in the Ant Forest platform were motivated by a combination of altruistic, self-related, and practical motives rather than a single source of motivation. '''Key points:''' * Positive emotional arousal can contribute to charitable donation decisions (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Giving can engage positive affect and reward-related processes, helping to explain why prosocial behaviour may feel psychologically rewarding (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Charitable giving and volunteering are associated with psychological well-being, although correlational findings should not be interpreted as proof of causation (Geng et al., 2022). Planned Figure 2 for the final book chapter A simple original diagram could illustrate the proposed motivational cycle: Opportunity to help → Giving → Positive affect/warm glow → Emotional reward → Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. As illustrated in '''Figure 2''', an opportunity to help may lead to giving, positive affect or warm glow, emotional reward, and greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. {| style="margin:15px auto; border-collapse:separate; border-spacing:4px; text-align:center;" | style="border:1px solid #4f81bd;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#eef5fc; width:110px;" | '''Opportunity to help''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #548235;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f0f7ed; width:70px;" | '''Giving''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #d6a000;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#fff7dc; width:135px;" | '''Positive affect / warm glow''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #8064a2;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f5f0fa; width:110px;" | '''Emotional reward''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #31859b;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#edf8fa; width:175px;" | '''Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour''' |} '''''Figure 2.'' Proposed motivational cycle of warm-glow giving.''' ==How do emotions influence charitable giving?== Self-determination theory provides a useful framework for distinguishing voluntary generosity from helping under pressure. Ryan and Deci (2000) identify autonomy, competence and relatedness as psychological needs, while Weinstein and Ryan (2010) found more favourable helper and recipient outcomes when helping was autonomously motivated. Aknin, Dunn, et al. (2013) further showed the importance of understanding a donation’s impact. These findings suggest that the rewarding quality of giving depends on circumstances and motives rather than on monetary transfer alone. Emotions can affect how people evaluate charitable need, not merely whether they feel good afterwards. Hasford et al. (2015) found that consumers were more insensitive to the scope of a charitable problem when their donations were based on emotional rather than calculative valuation. This finding provides an important limitation to a simple "emotion improves giving" explanation. Emotional motivation may stimulate generosity while simultaneously making donors less responsive to information such as the number of beneficiaries (Hasford et al., 2015). Genevsky et al. (2025) showed that the emotional construction of a charitable appeal also matters. Affectively congruent combinations of appeal features increased positive affect and donations, regardless of whether the matched features themselves were positively or negatively valenced. Emotional responses to charitable requests are not necessarily pleasant. Hepworth et al. (2021), across four studies, found that checkout-charity solicitations could create customer anxiety, which subsequently reduced evaluations of the service encounter. Interestingly, Hepworth et al. (2021) also found that anxiety could decrease when customers agreed to donate in employee-led solicitation situations. Therefore, some giving may potentially involve reducing an uncomfortable emotional state rather than simply seeking positive warm glow. Coleman and Peasley (2023) similarly found that checkout charity can produce ambivalent emotional experiences. Consumers may experience positive emotions such as pride and joy alongside negative emotions such as guilt and anger. Their findings suggest that high positive and high negative affect can occur simultaneously, and this emotional incongruence may actually reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Together, these studies demonstrate that emotion has a complex role in charitable behaviour. Warm glow, pride, positive arousal, anxiety, guilt, and anger can each influence donation decisions under different circumstances. '''Key points:''' * Emotional responses can encourage charitable giving, but emotional decision-making may also reduce sensitivity to the scope of need (Hasford et al., 2015). * Charitable requests can generate negative emotional reactions such as anxiety, and donating may sometimes reduce this discomfort (Hepworth et al., 2021). * Positive and negative emotions can occur simultaneously during charitable requests, and emotional ambivalence may reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Table 1. Emotional processes associated with giving and their possible influence on prosocial behaviour''' |- ! Process ! Emotional or motivational experience ! Possible behavioural effect ! Key evidence |- | '''Warm glow''' | Satisfaction from personally helping | Increases motivation to give or participate | Andreoni (1990); Xing et al. (2024) |- | '''Positive aroused affect''' | Positive emotional arousal during an appeal | Greater charitable donations | Genevsky et al. (2025) |- | '''Psychological well-being''' | Positive functioning associated with helping | May reinforce participation in prosocial activity | Geng et al. (2022) |- | '''Emotional valuation''' | Giving based mainly on feelings | Can promote donations but reduce sensitivity to scope | Hasford et al. (2015) |- | '''Checkout anxiety''' | Anxiety following a donation request | May reduce service evaluations and can sometimes encourage donating to reduce discomfort | Hepworth et al. (2021) |- | '''Emotional ambivalence''' | Simultaneous pride/joy and guilt/anger | Mixed affect can complicate or reduce donation intentions | Coleman & Peasley (2023) |- | '''Perceived warm glow''' | Personal satisfaction from environmental contribution | Encourages continued engagement | Chen (2025) |- | '''Moral elevation''' | Feeling inspired by another person's generosity | Encourages prosocial contagion | Yin et al. (2026) |} As summarised in Table 1, charitable behaviour cannot be explained by one emotion alone. Giving involves interacting positive and negative emotional processes, and these processes can either encourage or inhibit prosocial action. ==How can warm glow influence future and wider prosocial behaviour?== A useful distinction is between evidence of feeling good after giving and evidence of a later behavioural effect. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) tested repeated donation decisions, whereas Chen (2025) examined intentions to continue a digital environmental activity. The former more directly informs choice repetition; the latter helps explain sustained intentions but cannot by itself establish long-term action. This distinction limits overly simple claims that warm glow always produces future generosity. If giving produces an emotional reward, that feeling may act as feedback which shapes later choices. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) examined how feelings following previous donation decisions predicted subsequent decisions. They found that feeling good about a previous decision whether that decision was to give or not give—predicted a tendency to make a similar choice later. In contrast, feeling bad about the previous decision increased the likelihood of changing the next decision (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). This provides an important mechanism for explaining repeated prosocial behaviour. If donating creates a warm-glow response, people may learn from this positive emotional feedback and become more motivated to donate again. Chen (2025) provides complementary evidence about sustained engagement in a different prosocial context. Perceived warm glow positively contributed to users' intentions to continue engaging with Ant Forest, suggesting that emotional benefits can support persistence over time. Warm-glow processes may also influence behaviour between people, not just within a single donor. Yin et al. (2026) examined prosocial contagion across nine experiments and investigated responses to observing generosity from benefactors with different income levels. Observing generosity from lower-income benefactors produced stronger perceptions of altruistic motivation and greater moral elevation, which subsequently encouraged prosocial responses among observers (Yin et al., 2026). The finding demonstrates how emotional responses to another person's generosity can spread prosocial behaviour. People do not necessarily need to experience the initial act of giving themselves; witnessing meaningful generosity can also motivate helping. Xing et al. (2024) further illustrates the social and practical application of warm glow. In poverty-alleviation crowdfunding, consumer warm glow helped account for the greater success of poverty-focused campaigns, demonstrating that the emotional reward attached to helping can influence marketplace behaviour. Thus, emotional rewards may create two reinforcing pathways: personal reinforcement, where feeling good after giving encourages future giving, and social contagion, where observing generosity inspires prosocial behaviour in other people.{{anchor|Scenarios}} '''Key points:''' * Emotional reactions to previous donation decisions can act as feedback that influences later giving behaviour (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). * Perceived warm glow can support continued engagement in prosocial activities over time (Chen, 2025). * Prosocial behaviour can spread socially because observing another person's generosity may produce moral elevation and encourage further helping behaviour (Yin et al., 2026). ;Quiz Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {Warm-glow giving suggests that people can care about helping others while also experiencing personal emotional satisfaction from the act of giving: |type="()"} + True - False {Charitable requests always make people feel positive emotions: |type="()"} - True + False {Why can giving produce positive emotional rewards? |type="()"} - Because all charitable donations guarantee happiness. + Because helping others can generate positive affect, personal satisfaction, and a sense of meaning. - Because people only donate to receive financial rewards. {According to Shlefer and Kogut (2021), how can emotions following a donation decision influence future giving? |type="()"} - Positive emotions always cause people to increase their donations. + Feeling good about a previous decision can encourage people to repeat a similar decision. - Emotional reactions have no influence on subsequent donation decisions. </quiz> ==Conclusion== Warm-glow giving explains why helping can be emotionally rewarding without implying that generosity is entirely self-interested. Andreoni's (1990) account of impure altruism establishes how concern for others and satisfaction from personally helping can coexist. Psychological research further indicates that perceived impact, autonomous choice, positive affect and feelings of meaning help explain when giving is rewarding (Weinstein & Ryan, 2010; Aknin, Dunn, et al., 2013; Regan et al., 2023). Nevertheless, emotional benefits are not guaranteed. Larger replications have produced positive, null and small effects (Aknin et al., 2020), while requests for donations can elicit guilt, anxiety and ambivalence (Hepworth et al., 2021; Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Emotional satisfaction also differs from demonstrable effectiveness: feeling pleased by a donation does not establish that it meets recipients' needs particularly well. Warm glow may reinforce repeated giving through emotional feedback, while observing generosity can inspire related but distinct feelings of moral elevation (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021; Yin et al., 2026). In everyday life, informed and voluntary donations, accompanied by meaningful feedback about impact, offer a practical way to support donors' well-being without losing sight of those who receive help. == See also == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Altruism and empathy|Altruism and empathy]] (Book chapter, 2024) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Empathy-altruism hypothesis|Empathy-altruism hypothesis]] (Book chapter, 2021) [[w|Altruism]] (Wikipedia) [[w behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Aknin, L. B., Barrington-Leigh, C. P., Dunn, E. W., Helliwell, J. F., Burns, J., Biswas-Diener, R., Kemeza, I., Nyende, P., Ashton-James, C. E., & Norton, M. I. (2013). Prosocial spending and well-being: Cross-cultural evidence for a psychological universal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(4), 635–652. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031578 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., & Whillans, A. V. (2022). The emotional rewards of prosocial spending are robust and replicable in large samples. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 31(6), 536–545. https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214221121100 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., Proulx, J., Lok, I., & Norton, M. I. (2020). Does spending money on others promote happiness? A registered replication report. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 119(2), e15–e26. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000191 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., Whillans, A. V., Grant, A. M., & Norton, M. I. (2013). Making a difference matters: Impact unlocks the emotional benefits of prosocial spending. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 88, 90–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2013.01.008 Aknin, L. B., Hamlin, J. K., & Dunn, E. W. (2012). Giving leads to happiness in young children. PLOS ONE, 7(6), Article e39211. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0039211 Andreoni, J. (1989). Giving with impure altruism: Applications to charity and Ricardian equivalence. Journal of Political Economy, 97(6), 1447–1458. https://doi.org/10.1086/261662 Andreoni, J. (1990). Impure altruism and donations to public goods: A theory of warm-glow giving. The Economic Journal, 100(401), 464–477. https://doi.org/10.2307/2234133 Bekkers, R., & Wiepking, P. (2011). A literature review of empirical studies of philanthropy: Eight mechanisms that drive charitable giving. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 40(5), 924–973. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764010380927 Bischoff, I., & Krauskopf, T. (2015). Warm glow of giving collectively—An experimental study. Journal of Economic Psychology, 51, 210–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2015.09.001 Chen, Y. (2025). Gaining in giving: Unveiling continuous engagement intentions with the Chinese pro-environmental gamification Ant Forest. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 41(13), 8447–8463. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2024.2410053 Coleman, J. T., & Peasley, M. C. (2023). Wounding pride and infusing affect: The ambivalent emotional experience of checkout charity. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 40(6), 785–797. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-07-2021-4750 Crumpler, H., & Grossman, P. J. (2008). An experimental test of warm glow giving. Journal of Public Economics, 92(5–6), 1011–1021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2007.12.014 Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2014). Prosocial spending and happiness: Using money to benefit others pays off. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(1), 41–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413512503 Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2008). Spending money on others promotes happiness. Science, 319(5870), 1687–1688. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1150952 Genevsky, A., Yoon, C., Lin, T.-Y., Shaw, S. D., & Knutson, B. (2025). The impact of affective congruence on charitable giving. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 20(1), nsaf086. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsaf086 Geng, Y., Chen, Y., Huang, C., Tan, Y., Zhang, C., & Zhu, S. (2022). Volunteering, charitable donation, and psychological well-being of college students in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 790528. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.790528 Harbaugh, W. T., Mayr, U., & Burghart, D. R. (2007). Neural responses to taxation and voluntary giving reveal motives for charitable donations. Science, 316(5831), 1622–1625. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1140738 Hasford, J., Farmer, A., & Waites, S. F. (2015). Thinking, feeling, and giving: The effects of scope and valuation on consumer donations. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 32(4), 435–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2015.05.006 Hepworth, A., Lee, N. Y., & Zablah, A. R. (2021). Feeling anxious: The dark side of checkout charity solicitations. Journal of Business Research, 136, 330–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.07.050 Luccasen, A. (2017). Warm-glow giving: Earned money and the option to take. Economic Inquiry, 55(2), 996–1006. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecin.12417 Moll, J., Krueger, F., Zahn, R., Pardini, M., de Oliveira-Souza, R., & Grafman, J. (2006). Human fronto-mesolimbic networks guide decisions about charitable donation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103(42), 15623–15628. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0604475103 Regan, A., Margolis, S., Ozer, D. J., Schwitzgebel, E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2023). What is unique about kindness? Exploring the proximal experience of prosocial acts relative to other positive behaviors. Affective Science, 4, 92–100. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-022-00143-4 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 Shlefer, S., & Kogut, T. (2021). How did it feel? Affect as a feedback system in repeated donation decisions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 97, 104203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104203 Weinstein, N., & Ryan, R. M. (2010). When helping helps: Autonomous motivation for prosocial behavior and its influence on well-being for the helper and recipient. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(2), 222–244. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016984 Wiwad, D., & Aknin, L. B. (2017). Motives matter: The emotional consequences of recalled self- and other-focused prosocial acts. Motivation and Emotion, 41(6), 730–740. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-017-9638-2 Xing, C., Zhang, Y., & Tripe, D. (2024). Ethical consumers and low-income sellers on China's reward-based crowdfunding platforms: Are poverty alleviation campaigns more successful? Journal of Business Ethics, 191(4), 793–810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-024-05666-3 Yin, B. M., Olson, J. G., & Li, Y. J. (2026). When having less elevates more: Benefactor income, moral elevation, and prosocial contagion among observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 131(4), 585–601. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000493 }} ==External links== * [https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/how_to_make_giving_feel_good How to make giving feel good] (Greater Good Science Center) * [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/publications/observer/obsonline/the-warm-glow-of-giving-may-overshadow-doing-the-greatest-good.html The “Warm Glow” of Giving May Overshadow Doing the Greatest Good] (Association for Psychological Science) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Prosocial]] 2nl63v8ti1ry1oegew4qj80ptpnax1s 2840849 2840848 2026-10-17T05:59:27Z Karabi Tasneem 3109802 2840849 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Warm-glow giving:<br>Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Charity donation box, Hong Kong International Airport (2018).jpg|thumb|190px|'''Figure 1'''. A public donation box illustrates an everyday opportunity to engage in charitable giving. Such situations can benefit recipients while also generating emotional responses in donors.]] '''Imagine this...''' You are buying groceries when the checkout screen asks whether you would like to add $2 to support a charity. You had not planned to donate and you briefly hesitate. Two dollars will not make a noticeable difference to your own finances, so you select '''yes'''. As you leave the supermarket, you feel unexpectedly pleased about having helped someone else. A week later, you encounter another request for a small donation. You remember the positive feeling from the previous experience and again consider giving. Why can giving money away make a person feel good, and could this pleasant emotional response encourage them to behave generously again? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * '''Warm-glow giving''' describes the internal satisfaction or emotional reward that people can experience from helping others. Andreoni's (1990) theory proposes that people can be motivated simultaneously by concern for beneficiaries and by the personal satisfaction they receive from giving. * Research suggests that giving is associated with positive emotional experiences and psychological well-being. For example, charitable donation and volunteering have been positively associated with psychological well-being among university students (Geng et al., 2022). * However, giving does not always produce purely positive emotions. Charitable requests can also produce anxiety, guilt, anger, pressure, or mixed emotional reactions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023; Hepworth et al., 2021). * Understanding these processes is important because emotional experiences may influence not only an immediate decision to donate but also whether people continue engaging in prosocial behaviour in the future (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions''' * What is warm-glow giving and how does it explain people's motivation to help others? * Why can giving produce positive emotional and rewarding experiences? * How do positive and negative emotions influence charitable giving decisions? * How can the emotional consequences of giving influence future and wider prosocial behavior? ==What is warm-glow giving?== Warm-glow giving was formally developed through Andreoni's (1990) theory of impure altruism. Pure altruism assumes that a person gives because they value improvements in another person's welfare, whereas impure altruism proposes that donors can also obtain utility from the act of giving itself. Warm glow therefore provides a way of understanding why apparently selfless behaviour may also contain a personally rewarding component. Experiencing satisfaction from helping does not necessarily mean that genuine concern for others is absent; self-oriented and other-oriented motives can coexist (Andreoni, 1990). The theory is particularly useful because it connects motivation and emotion: the expectation or experience of a positive internal reward can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. Evidence shows that warm-glow processes extend beyond conventional charitable donations. Xing et al. (2024) found that consumers' feelings of warm glow helped explain the greater success of poverty-alleviation crowdfunding campaigns compared with ordinary crowdfunding campaigns. Chen (2025) extended warm-glow theory to pro-environmental gamification. Among 525 Ant Forest users, perceived warm glow was one of the positive predictors of continued engagement, alongside altruistic, egoistic, and pragmatic motivational factors. These findings suggest that warm glow can help explain multiple forms of prosocial participation, including donating, crowdfunding, and sustained environmentally beneficial behaviour. Evidence from a motivation-focused journal provides a useful psychological qualification to the economic account. Wiwad and Aknin (2017) conducted three experiments comparing the emotional consequences of recalling self-focused and other-focused helpful acts. Recalling other-focused acts produced greater positive affect, with perceived morality helping to explain the difference. Because the studies relied on remembered behaviour, the results do not establish that every other-focused act produces more happiness at the time it occurs. '''Key points:''' * Warm-glow giving is explained by Andreoni's (1990) theory of '''impure altruism''', in which concern for others and personal satisfaction from giving can coexist. * The emotional reward associated with helping can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. * Warm-glow processes can extend beyond charitable donations to other forms of prosocial participation, including crowdfunding and environmentally beneficial behaviour (Xing et al., 2024; Chen, 2025). ==Why does giving feel good?== Andreoni’s theory explains why a donor might value the act of giving, but it does not itself establish that a donation will improve emotional well-being. Dunn et al. (2008) provided initial experimental evidence that spending on others can increase happiness; Aknin, Barrington-Leigh, et al. (2013) extended the finding to a range of cultural contexts. However, Aknin et al. (2020) obtained mixed results in large preregistered replications, suggesting that any average emotional benefit depends partly on how prosocial spending is enacted and measured. One explanation is that giving generates positive affect. Genevsky et al. (2025) found across behavioural and neuroimaging experiments that charitable appeals containing affectively congruent features generated greater donations than incongruent appeals. Importantly, the relationship between affective congruence and giving was mediated by positive aroused affect. This suggests that positive emotional experience was not simply associated with donation—it helped explain why particular appeals increased giving (Genevsky et al., 2025). Genevsky et al. (2025) also found greater activity in the nucleus accumbens, a brain region associated with positive affect and reward processing, in response to affectively congruent charitable requests. Increased activity subsequently predicted donation decisions. These findings provide a useful psychological and neuroaffective extension of warm-glow theory: charitable giving can engage emotional and reward processes that make helping psychologically reinforcing. Giving can also produce a sense of meaning rather than pleasure alone. Regan et al. (2023), writing in Affective Science, experimentally compared kindness towards others with kindness towards oneself and other positive activities. Other-directed kindness was linked to relatively stronger feelings of competence, self-confidence and meaning. These findings complement self-determination theory, but the intervention concerned kindness generally rather than charitable spending specifically. Psychological benefits are also evident outside laboratory donation tasks. Geng et al. (2022), using data from 1,871 Chinese university students, found that both volunteering time and the amount donated to charity were positively associated with psychological well-being. However, Geng et al. (2022) used observational data, so the association should not automatically be interpreted as proof that charitable giving directly causes greater well-being. People with greater psychological well-being may also be more inclined or able to participate in prosocial activities. Chen's (2025) findings similarly demonstrate that perceived warm glow can contribute to continued prosocial engagement. Participants in the Ant Forest platform were motivated by a combination of altruistic, self-related, and practical motives rather than a single source of motivation. '''Key points:''' * Positive emotional arousal can contribute to charitable donation decisions (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Giving can engage positive affect and reward-related processes, helping to explain why prosocial behaviour may feel psychologically rewarding (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Charitable giving and volunteering are associated with psychological well-being, although correlational findings should not be interpreted as proof of causation (Geng et al., 2022). Planned Figure 2 for the final book chapter A simple original diagram could illustrate the proposed motivational cycle: Opportunity to help → Giving → Positive affect/warm glow → Emotional reward → Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. As illustrated in '''Figure 2''', an opportunity to help may lead to giving, positive affect or warm glow, emotional reward, and greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. {| style="margin:15px auto; border-collapse:separate; border-spacing:4px; text-align:center;" | style="border:1px solid #4f81bd;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#eef5fc; width:110px;" | '''Opportunity to help''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #548235;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f0f7ed; width:70px;" | '''Giving''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #d6a000;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#fff7dc; width:135px;" | '''Positive affect / warm glow''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #8064a2;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f5f0fa; width:110px;" | '''Emotional reward''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #31859b;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#edf8fa; width:175px;" | '''Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour''' |} '''''Figure 2.'' Proposed motivational cycle of warm-glow giving.''' ==How do emotions influence charitable giving?== Self-determination theory provides a useful framework for distinguishing voluntary generosity from helping under pressure. Ryan and Deci (2000) identify autonomy, competence and relatedness as psychological needs, while Weinstein and Ryan (2010) found more favourable helper and recipient outcomes when helping was autonomously motivated. Aknin, Dunn, et al. (2013) further showed the importance of understanding a donation’s impact. These findings suggest that the rewarding quality of giving depends on circumstances and motives rather than on monetary transfer alone. Emotions can affect how people evaluate charitable need, not merely whether they feel good afterwards. Hasford et al. (2015) found that consumers were more insensitive to the scope of a charitable problem when their donations were based on emotional rather than calculative valuation. This finding provides an important limitation to a simple "emotion improves giving" explanation. Emotional motivation may stimulate generosity while simultaneously making donors less responsive to information such as the number of beneficiaries (Hasford et al., 2015). Genevsky et al. (2025) showed that the emotional construction of a charitable appeal also matters. Affectively congruent combinations of appeal features increased positive affect and donations, regardless of whether the matched features themselves were positively or negatively valenced. Emotional responses to charitable requests are not necessarily pleasant. Hepworth et al. (2021), across four studies, found that checkout-charity solicitations could create customer anxiety, which subsequently reduced evaluations of the service encounter. Interestingly, Hepworth et al. (2021) also found that anxiety could decrease when customers agreed to donate in employee-led solicitation situations. Therefore, some giving may potentially involve reducing an uncomfortable emotional state rather than simply seeking positive warm glow. Coleman and Peasley (2023) similarly found that checkout charity can produce ambivalent emotional experiences. Consumers may experience positive emotions such as pride and joy alongside negative emotions such as guilt and anger. Their findings suggest that high positive and high negative affect can occur simultaneously, and this emotional incongruence may actually reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Together, these studies demonstrate that emotion has a complex role in charitable behaviour. Warm glow, pride, positive arousal, anxiety, guilt, and anger can each influence donation decisions under different circumstances. '''Key points:''' * Emotional responses can encourage charitable giving, but emotional decision-making may also reduce sensitivity to the scope of need (Hasford et al., 2015). * Charitable requests can generate negative emotional reactions such as anxiety, and donating may sometimes reduce this discomfort (Hepworth et al., 2021). * Positive and negative emotions can occur simultaneously during charitable requests, and emotional ambivalence may reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Table 1. Emotional processes associated with giving and their possible influence on prosocial behaviour''' |- ! Process ! Emotional or motivational experience ! Possible behavioural effect ! Key evidence |- | '''Warm glow''' | Satisfaction from personally helping | Increases motivation to give or participate | Andreoni (1990); Xing et al. (2024) |- | '''Positive aroused affect''' | Positive emotional arousal during an appeal | Greater charitable donations | Genevsky et al. (2025) |- | '''Psychological well-being''' | Positive functioning associated with helping | May reinforce participation in prosocial activity | Geng et al. (2022) |- | '''Emotional valuation''' | Giving based mainly on feelings | Can promote donations but reduce sensitivity to scope | Hasford et al. (2015) |- | '''Checkout anxiety''' | Anxiety following a donation request | May reduce service evaluations and can sometimes encourage donating to reduce discomfort | Hepworth et al. (2021) |- | '''Emotional ambivalence''' | Simultaneous pride/joy and guilt/anger | Mixed affect can complicate or reduce donation intentions | Coleman & Peasley (2023) |- | '''Perceived warm glow''' | Personal satisfaction from environmental contribution | Encourages continued engagement | Chen (2025) |- | '''Moral elevation''' | Feeling inspired by another person's generosity | Encourages prosocial contagion | Yin et al. (2026) |} As summarised in Table 1, charitable behaviour cannot be explained by one emotion alone. Giving involves interacting positive and negative emotional processes, and these processes can either encourage or inhibit prosocial action. ==How can warm glow influence future and wider prosocial behaviour?== A useful distinction is between evidence of feeling good after giving and evidence of a later behavioural effect. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) tested repeated donation decisions, whereas Chen (2025) examined intentions to continue a digital environmental activity. The former more directly informs choice repetition; the latter helps explain sustained intentions but cannot by itself establish long-term action. This distinction limits overly simple claims that warm glow always produces future generosity. If giving produces an emotional reward, that feeling may act as feedback which shapes later choices. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) examined how feelings following previous donation decisions predicted subsequent decisions. They found that feeling good about a previous decision whether that decision was to give or not give—predicted a tendency to make a similar choice later. In contrast, feeling bad about the previous decision increased the likelihood of changing the next decision (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). This provides an important mechanism for explaining repeated prosocial behaviour. If donating creates a warm-glow response, people may learn from this positive emotional feedback and become more motivated to donate again. Chen (2025) provides complementary evidence about sustained engagement in a different prosocial context. Perceived warm glow positively contributed to users' intentions to continue engaging with Ant Forest, suggesting that emotional benefits can support persistence over time. Warm-glow processes may also influence behaviour between people, not just within a single donor. Yin et al. (2026) examined prosocial contagion across nine experiments and investigated responses to observing generosity from benefactors with different income levels. Observing generosity from lower-income benefactors produced stronger perceptions of altruistic motivation and greater moral elevation, which subsequently encouraged prosocial responses among observers (Yin et al., 2026). The finding demonstrates how emotional responses to another person's generosity can spread prosocial behaviour. People do not necessarily need to experience the initial act of giving themselves; witnessing meaningful generosity can also motivate helping. Xing et al. (2024) further illustrates the social and practical application of warm glow. In poverty-alleviation crowdfunding, consumer warm glow helped account for the greater success of poverty-focused campaigns, demonstrating that the emotional reward attached to helping can influence marketplace behaviour. Thus, emotional rewards may create two reinforcing pathways: personal reinforcement, where feeling good after giving encourages future giving, and social contagion, where observing generosity inspires prosocial behaviour in other people.{{anchor|Scenarios}} '''Key points:''' * Emotional reactions to previous donation decisions can act as feedback that influences later giving behaviour (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). * Perceived warm glow can support continued engagement in prosocial activities over time (Chen, 2025). * Prosocial behaviour can spread socially because observing another person's generosity may produce moral elevation and encourage further helping behaviour (Yin et al., 2026). ;Quiz Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {Warm-glow giving suggests that people can care about helping others while also experiencing personal emotional satisfaction from the act of giving: |type="()"} + True - False {Charitable requests always make people feel positive emotions: |type="()"} - True + False {Why can giving produce positive emotional rewards? |type="()"} - Because all charitable donations guarantee happiness. + Because helping others can generate positive affect, personal satisfaction, and a sense of meaning. - Because people only donate to receive financial rewards. {According to Shlefer and Kogut (2021), how can emotions following a donation decision influence future giving? |type="()"} - Positive emotions always cause people to increase their donations. + Feeling good about a previous decision can encourage people to repeat a similar decision. - Emotional reactions have no influence on subsequent donation decisions. </quiz> ==Conclusion== Warm-glow giving explains why helping can be emotionally rewarding without implying that generosity is entirely self-interested. Andreoni's (1990) account of impure altruism establishes how concern for others and satisfaction from personally helping can coexist. Psychological research further indicates that perceived impact, autonomous choice, positive affect and feelings of meaning help explain when giving is rewarding (Weinstein & Ryan, 2010; Aknin, Dunn, et al., 2013; Regan et al., 2023). Nevertheless, emotional benefits are not guaranteed. Larger replications have produced positive, null and small effects (Aknin et al., 2020), while requests for donations can elicit guilt, anxiety and ambivalence (Hepworth et al., 2021; Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Emotional satisfaction also differs from demonstrable effectiveness: feeling pleased by a donation does not establish that it meets recipients' needs particularly well. Warm glow may reinforce repeated giving through emotional feedback, while observing generosity can inspire related but distinct feelings of moral elevation (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021; Yin et al., 2026). In everyday life, informed and voluntary donations, accompanied by meaningful feedback about impact, offer a practical way to support donors' well-being without losing sight of those who receive help. == See also == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Altruism and empathy|Altruism and empathy]] (Book chapter, 2024) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Empathy-altruism hypothesis|Empathy-altruism hypothesis]] (Book chapter, 2021) [[w|Altruism]] (Wikipedia) [[w behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Aknin, L. B., Barrington-Leigh, C. P., Dunn, E. W., Helliwell, J. F., Burns, J., Biswas-Diener, R., Kemeza, I., Nyende, P., Ashton-James, C. E., & Norton, M. I. (2013). Prosocial spending and well-being: Cross-cultural evidence for a psychological universal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(4), 635–652. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031578 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., & Whillans, A. V. (2022). The emotional rewards of prosocial spending are robust and replicable in large samples. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 31(6), 536–545. https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214221121100 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., Proulx, J., Lok, I., & Norton, M. I. (2020). Does spending money on others promote happiness? A registered replication report. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 119(2), e15–e26. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000191 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., Whillans, A. V., Grant, A. M., & Norton, M. I. (2013). Making a difference matters: Impact unlocks the emotional benefits of prosocial spending. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 88, 90–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2013.01.008 Aknin, L. B., Hamlin, J. K., & Dunn, E. W. (2012). Giving leads to happiness in young children. PLOS ONE, 7(6), Article e39211. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0039211 Andreoni, J. (1989). Giving with impure altruism: Applications to charity and Ricardian equivalence. Journal of Political Economy, 97(6), 1447–1458. https://doi.org/10.1086/261662 Andreoni, J. (1990). Impure altruism and donations to public goods: A theory of warm-glow giving. The Economic Journal, 100(401), 464–477. https://doi.org/10.2307/2234133 Bekkers, R., & Wiepking, P. (2011). A literature review of empirical studies of philanthropy: Eight mechanisms that drive charitable giving. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 40(5), 924–973. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764010380927 Bischoff, I., & Krauskopf, T. (2015). Warm glow of giving collectively—An experimental study. Journal of Economic Psychology, 51, 210–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2015.09.001 Chen, Y. (2025). Gaining in giving: Unveiling continuous engagement intentions with the Chinese pro-environmental gamification Ant Forest. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 41(13), 8447–8463. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2024.2410053 Coleman, J. T., & Peasley, M. C. (2023). Wounding pride and infusing affect: The ambivalent emotional experience of checkout charity. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 40(6), 785–797. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-07-2021-4750 Crumpler, H., & Grossman, P. J. (2008). An experimental test of warm glow giving. Journal of Public Economics, 92(5–6), 1011–1021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2007.12.014 Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2014). Prosocial spending and happiness: Using money to benefit others pays off. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(1), 41–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413512503 Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2008). Spending money on others promotes happiness. Science, 319(5870), 1687–1688. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1150952 Genevsky, A., Yoon, C., Lin, T.-Y., Shaw, S. D., & Knutson, B. (2025). The impact of affective congruence on charitable giving. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 20(1), nsaf086. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsaf086 Geng, Y., Chen, Y., Huang, C., Tan, Y., Zhang, C., & Zhu, S. (2022). Volunteering, charitable donation, and psychological well-being of college students in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 790528. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.790528 Harbaugh, W. T., Mayr, U., & Burghart, D. R. (2007). Neural responses to taxation and voluntary giving reveal motives for charitable donations. Science, 316(5831), 1622–1625. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1140738 Hasford, J., Farmer, A., & Waites, S. F. (2015). Thinking, feeling, and giving: The effects of scope and valuation on consumer donations. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 32(4), 435–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2015.05.006 Hepworth, A., Lee, N. Y., & Zablah, A. R. (2021). Feeling anxious: The dark side of checkout charity solicitations. Journal of Business Research, 136, 330–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.07.050 Luccasen, A. (2017). Warm-glow giving: Earned money and the option to take. Economic Inquiry, 55(2), 996–1006. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecin.12417 Moll, J., Krueger, F., Zahn, R., Pardini, M., de Oliveira-Souza, R., & Grafman, J. (2006). Human fronto-mesolimbic networks guide decisions about charitable donation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103(42), 15623–15628. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0604475103 Regan, A., Margolis, S., Ozer, D. J., Schwitzgebel, E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2023). What is unique about kindness? Exploring the proximal experience of prosocial acts relative to other positive behaviors. Affective Science, 4, 92–100. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-022-00143-4 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 Shlefer, S., & Kogut, T. (2021). How did it feel? Affect as a feedback system in repeated donation decisions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 97, 104203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104203 Weinstein, N., & Ryan, R. M. (2010). When helping helps: Autonomous motivation for prosocial behavior and its influence on well-being for the helper and recipient. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(2), 222–244. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016984 Wiwad, D., & Aknin, L. B. (2017). Motives matter: The emotional consequences of recalled self- and other-focused prosocial acts. Motivation and Emotion, 41(6), 730–740. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-017-9638-2 Xing, C., Zhang, Y., & Tripe, D. (2024). Ethical consumers and low-income sellers on China's reward-based crowdfunding platforms: Are poverty alleviation campaigns more successful? Journal of Business Ethics, 191(4), 793–810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-024-05666-3 Yin, B. M., Olson, J. G., & Li, Y. J. (2026). When having less elevates more: Benefactor income, moral elevation, and prosocial contagion among observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 131(4), 585–601. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000493 }} ==External links== * [https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/how_to_make_giving_feel_good How to make giving feel good] (Greater Good Science Center) * [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/publications/observer/obsonline/the-warm-glow-of-giving-may-overshadow-doing-the-greatest-good.html The “Warm Glow” of Giving May Overshadow Doing the Greatest Good] (Association for Psychological Science) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Prosocial]] hxvivqt6dqgfbvy8oua5ikl6cofsmip 2840850 2840849 2026-10-17T06:00:50Z Karabi Tasneem 3109802 removed bullet points 2840850 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Warm-glow giving:<br>Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Charity donation box, Hong Kong International Airport (2018).jpg|thumb|190px|'''Figure 1'''. A public donation box illustrates an everyday opportunity to engage in charitable giving. Such situations can benefit recipients while also generating emotional responses in donors.]] '''Imagine this...''' You are buying groceries when the checkout screen asks whether you would like to add $2 to support a charity. You had not planned to donate and you briefly hesitate. Two dollars will not make a noticeable difference to your own finances, so you select '''yes'''. As you leave the supermarket, you feel unexpectedly pleased about having helped someone else. A week later, you encounter another request for a small donation. You remember the positive feeling from the previous experience and again consider giving. Why can giving money away make a person feel good, and could this pleasant emotional response encourage them to behave generously again? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * '''Warm-glow giving''' describes the internal satisfaction or emotional reward that people can experience from helping others. Andreoni's (1990) theory proposes that people can be motivated simultaneously by concern for beneficiaries and by the personal satisfaction they receive from giving. Research suggests that giving is associated with positive emotional experiences and psychological well-being. For example, charitable donation and volunteering have been positively associated with psychological well-being among university students (Geng et al., 2022). However, giving does not always produce purely positive emotions. Charitable requests can also produce anxiety, guilt, anger, pressure, or mixed emotional reactions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023; Hepworth et al., 2021). Understanding these processes is important because emotional experiences may influence not only an immediate decision to donate but also whether people continue engaging in prosocial behavior in the future (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions''' * What is warm-glow giving and how does it explain people's motivation to help others? * Why can giving produce positive emotional and rewarding experiences? * How do positive and negative emotions influence charitable giving decisions? * How can the emotional consequences of giving influence future and wider prosocial behavior? ==What is warm-glow giving?== Warm-glow giving was formally developed through Andreoni's (1990) theory of impure altruism. Pure altruism assumes that a person gives because they value improvements in another person's welfare, whereas impure altruism proposes that donors can also obtain utility from the act of giving itself. Warm glow therefore provides a way of understanding why apparently selfless behaviour may also contain a personally rewarding component. Experiencing satisfaction from helping does not necessarily mean that genuine concern for others is absent; self-oriented and other-oriented motives can coexist (Andreoni, 1990). The theory is particularly useful because it connects motivation and emotion: the expectation or experience of a positive internal reward can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. Evidence shows that warm-glow processes extend beyond conventional charitable donations. Xing et al. (2024) found that consumers' feelings of warm glow helped explain the greater success of poverty-alleviation crowdfunding campaigns compared with ordinary crowdfunding campaigns. Chen (2025) extended warm-glow theory to pro-environmental gamification. Among 525 Ant Forest users, perceived warm glow was one of the positive predictors of continued engagement, alongside altruistic, egoistic, and pragmatic motivational factors. These findings suggest that warm glow can help explain multiple forms of prosocial participation, including donating, crowdfunding, and sustained environmentally beneficial behaviour. Evidence from a motivation-focused journal provides a useful psychological qualification to the economic account. Wiwad and Aknin (2017) conducted three experiments comparing the emotional consequences of recalling self-focused and other-focused helpful acts. Recalling other-focused acts produced greater positive affect, with perceived morality helping to explain the difference. Because the studies relied on remembered behaviour, the results do not establish that every other-focused act produces more happiness at the time it occurs. '''Key points:''' * Warm-glow giving is explained by Andreoni's (1990) theory of '''impure altruism''', in which concern for others and personal satisfaction from giving can coexist. * The emotional reward associated with helping can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. * Warm-glow processes can extend beyond charitable donations to other forms of prosocial participation, including crowdfunding and environmentally beneficial behaviour (Xing et al., 2024; Chen, 2025). ==Why does giving feel good?== Andreoni’s theory explains why a donor might value the act of giving, but it does not itself establish that a donation will improve emotional well-being. Dunn et al. (2008) provided initial experimental evidence that spending on others can increase happiness; Aknin, Barrington-Leigh, et al. (2013) extended the finding to a range of cultural contexts. However, Aknin et al. (2020) obtained mixed results in large preregistered replications, suggesting that any average emotional benefit depends partly on how prosocial spending is enacted and measured. One explanation is that giving generates positive affect. Genevsky et al. (2025) found across behavioural and neuroimaging experiments that charitable appeals containing affectively congruent features generated greater donations than incongruent appeals. Importantly, the relationship between affective congruence and giving was mediated by positive aroused affect. This suggests that positive emotional experience was not simply associated with donation—it helped explain why particular appeals increased giving (Genevsky et al., 2025). Genevsky et al. (2025) also found greater activity in the nucleus accumbens, a brain region associated with positive affect and reward processing, in response to affectively congruent charitable requests. Increased activity subsequently predicted donation decisions. These findings provide a useful psychological and neuroaffective extension of warm-glow theory: charitable giving can engage emotional and reward processes that make helping psychologically reinforcing. Giving can also produce a sense of meaning rather than pleasure alone. Regan et al. (2023), writing in Affective Science, experimentally compared kindness towards others with kindness towards oneself and other positive activities. Other-directed kindness was linked to relatively stronger feelings of competence, self-confidence and meaning. These findings complement self-determination theory, but the intervention concerned kindness generally rather than charitable spending specifically. Psychological benefits are also evident outside laboratory donation tasks. Geng et al. (2022), using data from 1,871 Chinese university students, found that both volunteering time and the amount donated to charity were positively associated with psychological well-being. However, Geng et al. (2022) used observational data, so the association should not automatically be interpreted as proof that charitable giving directly causes greater well-being. People with greater psychological well-being may also be more inclined or able to participate in prosocial activities. Chen's (2025) findings similarly demonstrate that perceived warm glow can contribute to continued prosocial engagement. Participants in the Ant Forest platform were motivated by a combination of altruistic, self-related, and practical motives rather than a single source of motivation. '''Key points:''' * Positive emotional arousal can contribute to charitable donation decisions (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Giving can engage positive affect and reward-related processes, helping to explain why prosocial behaviour may feel psychologically rewarding (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Charitable giving and volunteering are associated with psychological well-being, although correlational findings should not be interpreted as proof of causation (Geng et al., 2022). Planned Figure 2 for the final book chapter A simple original diagram could illustrate the proposed motivational cycle: Opportunity to help → Giving → Positive affect/warm glow → Emotional reward → Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. As illustrated in '''Figure 2''', an opportunity to help may lead to giving, positive affect or warm glow, emotional reward, and greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. {| style="margin:15px auto; border-collapse:separate; border-spacing:4px; text-align:center;" | style="border:1px solid #4f81bd;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#eef5fc; width:110px;" | '''Opportunity to help''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #548235;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f0f7ed; width:70px;" | '''Giving''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #d6a000;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#fff7dc; width:135px;" | '''Positive affect / warm glow''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #8064a2;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f5f0fa; width:110px;" | '''Emotional reward''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #31859b;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#edf8fa; width:175px;" | '''Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour''' |} '''''Figure 2.'' Proposed motivational cycle of warm-glow giving.''' ==How do emotions influence charitable giving?== Self-determination theory provides a useful framework for distinguishing voluntary generosity from helping under pressure. Ryan and Deci (2000) identify autonomy, competence and relatedness as psychological needs, while Weinstein and Ryan (2010) found more favourable helper and recipient outcomes when helping was autonomously motivated. Aknin, Dunn, et al. (2013) further showed the importance of understanding a donation’s impact. These findings suggest that the rewarding quality of giving depends on circumstances and motives rather than on monetary transfer alone. Emotions can affect how people evaluate charitable need, not merely whether they feel good afterwards. Hasford et al. (2015) found that consumers were more insensitive to the scope of a charitable problem when their donations were based on emotional rather than calculative valuation. This finding provides an important limitation to a simple "emotion improves giving" explanation. Emotional motivation may stimulate generosity while simultaneously making donors less responsive to information such as the number of beneficiaries (Hasford et al., 2015). Genevsky et al. (2025) showed that the emotional construction of a charitable appeal also matters. Affectively congruent combinations of appeal features increased positive affect and donations, regardless of whether the matched features themselves were positively or negatively valenced. Emotional responses to charitable requests are not necessarily pleasant. Hepworth et al. (2021), across four studies, found that checkout-charity solicitations could create customer anxiety, which subsequently reduced evaluations of the service encounter. Interestingly, Hepworth et al. (2021) also found that anxiety could decrease when customers agreed to donate in employee-led solicitation situations. Therefore, some giving may potentially involve reducing an uncomfortable emotional state rather than simply seeking positive warm glow. Coleman and Peasley (2023) similarly found that checkout charity can produce ambivalent emotional experiences. Consumers may experience positive emotions such as pride and joy alongside negative emotions such as guilt and anger. Their findings suggest that high positive and high negative affect can occur simultaneously, and this emotional incongruence may actually reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Together, these studies demonstrate that emotion has a complex role in charitable behaviour. Warm glow, pride, positive arousal, anxiety, guilt, and anger can each influence donation decisions under different circumstances. '''Key points:''' * Emotional responses can encourage charitable giving, but emotional decision-making may also reduce sensitivity to the scope of need (Hasford et al., 2015). * Charitable requests can generate negative emotional reactions such as anxiety, and donating may sometimes reduce this discomfort (Hepworth et al., 2021). * Positive and negative emotions can occur simultaneously during charitable requests, and emotional ambivalence may reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Table 1. Emotional processes associated with giving and their possible influence on prosocial behaviour''' |- ! Process ! Emotional or motivational experience ! Possible behavioural effect ! Key evidence |- | '''Warm glow''' | Satisfaction from personally helping | Increases motivation to give or participate | Andreoni (1990); Xing et al. (2024) |- | '''Positive aroused affect''' | Positive emotional arousal during an appeal | Greater charitable donations | Genevsky et al. (2025) |- | '''Psychological well-being''' | Positive functioning associated with helping | May reinforce participation in prosocial activity | Geng et al. (2022) |- | '''Emotional valuation''' | Giving based mainly on feelings | Can promote donations but reduce sensitivity to scope | Hasford et al. (2015) |- | '''Checkout anxiety''' | Anxiety following a donation request | May reduce service evaluations and can sometimes encourage donating to reduce discomfort | Hepworth et al. (2021) |- | '''Emotional ambivalence''' | Simultaneous pride/joy and guilt/anger | Mixed affect can complicate or reduce donation intentions | Coleman & Peasley (2023) |- | '''Perceived warm glow''' | Personal satisfaction from environmental contribution | Encourages continued engagement | Chen (2025) |- | '''Moral elevation''' | Feeling inspired by another person's generosity | Encourages prosocial contagion | Yin et al. (2026) |} As summarised in Table 1, charitable behaviour cannot be explained by one emotion alone. Giving involves interacting positive and negative emotional processes, and these processes can either encourage or inhibit prosocial action. ==How can warm glow influence future and wider prosocial behaviour?== A useful distinction is between evidence of feeling good after giving and evidence of a later behavioural effect. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) tested repeated donation decisions, whereas Chen (2025) examined intentions to continue a digital environmental activity. The former more directly informs choice repetition; the latter helps explain sustained intentions but cannot by itself establish long-term action. This distinction limits overly simple claims that warm glow always produces future generosity. If giving produces an emotional reward, that feeling may act as feedback which shapes later choices. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) examined how feelings following previous donation decisions predicted subsequent decisions. They found that feeling good about a previous decision whether that decision was to give or not give—predicted a tendency to make a similar choice later. In contrast, feeling bad about the previous decision increased the likelihood of changing the next decision (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). This provides an important mechanism for explaining repeated prosocial behaviour. If donating creates a warm-glow response, people may learn from this positive emotional feedback and become more motivated to donate again. Chen (2025) provides complementary evidence about sustained engagement in a different prosocial context. Perceived warm glow positively contributed to users' intentions to continue engaging with Ant Forest, suggesting that emotional benefits can support persistence over time. Warm-glow processes may also influence behaviour between people, not just within a single donor. Yin et al. (2026) examined prosocial contagion across nine experiments and investigated responses to observing generosity from benefactors with different income levels. Observing generosity from lower-income benefactors produced stronger perceptions of altruistic motivation and greater moral elevation, which subsequently encouraged prosocial responses among observers (Yin et al., 2026). The finding demonstrates how emotional responses to another person's generosity can spread prosocial behaviour. People do not necessarily need to experience the initial act of giving themselves; witnessing meaningful generosity can also motivate helping. Xing et al. (2024) further illustrates the social and practical application of warm glow. In poverty-alleviation crowdfunding, consumer warm glow helped account for the greater success of poverty-focused campaigns, demonstrating that the emotional reward attached to helping can influence marketplace behaviour. Thus, emotional rewards may create two reinforcing pathways: personal reinforcement, where feeling good after giving encourages future giving, and social contagion, where observing generosity inspires prosocial behaviour in other people.{{anchor|Scenarios}} '''Key points:''' * Emotional reactions to previous donation decisions can act as feedback that influences later giving behaviour (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). * Perceived warm glow can support continued engagement in prosocial activities over time (Chen, 2025). * Prosocial behaviour can spread socially because observing another person's generosity may produce moral elevation and encourage further helping behaviour (Yin et al., 2026). ;Quiz Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {Warm-glow giving suggests that people can care about helping others while also experiencing personal emotional satisfaction from the act of giving: |type="()"} + True - False {Charitable requests always make people feel positive emotions: |type="()"} - True + False {Why can giving produce positive emotional rewards? |type="()"} - Because all charitable donations guarantee happiness. + Because helping others can generate positive affect, personal satisfaction, and a sense of meaning. - Because people only donate to receive financial rewards. {According to Shlefer and Kogut (2021), how can emotions following a donation decision influence future giving? |type="()"} - Positive emotions always cause people to increase their donations. + Feeling good about a previous decision can encourage people to repeat a similar decision. - Emotional reactions have no influence on subsequent donation decisions. </quiz> ==Conclusion== Warm-glow giving explains why helping can be emotionally rewarding without implying that generosity is entirely self-interested. Andreoni's (1990) account of impure altruism establishes how concern for others and satisfaction from personally helping can coexist. Psychological research further indicates that perceived impact, autonomous choice, positive affect and feelings of meaning help explain when giving is rewarding (Weinstein & Ryan, 2010; Aknin, Dunn, et al., 2013; Regan et al., 2023). Nevertheless, emotional benefits are not guaranteed. Larger replications have produced positive, null and small effects (Aknin et al., 2020), while requests for donations can elicit guilt, anxiety and ambivalence (Hepworth et al., 2021; Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Emotional satisfaction also differs from demonstrable effectiveness: feeling pleased by a donation does not establish that it meets recipients' needs particularly well. Warm glow may reinforce repeated giving through emotional feedback, while observing generosity can inspire related but distinct feelings of moral elevation (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021; Yin et al., 2026). In everyday life, informed and voluntary donations, accompanied by meaningful feedback about impact, offer a practical way to support donors' well-being without losing sight of those who receive help. == See also == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Altruism and empathy|Altruism and empathy]] (Book chapter, 2024) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Empathy-altruism hypothesis|Empathy-altruism hypothesis]] (Book chapter, 2021) [[w|Altruism]] (Wikipedia) [[w behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Aknin, L. B., Barrington-Leigh, C. P., Dunn, E. W., Helliwell, J. F., Burns, J., Biswas-Diener, R., Kemeza, I., Nyende, P., Ashton-James, C. E., & Norton, M. I. (2013). Prosocial spending and well-being: Cross-cultural evidence for a psychological universal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(4), 635–652. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031578 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., & Whillans, A. V. (2022). The emotional rewards of prosocial spending are robust and replicable in large samples. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 31(6), 536–545. https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214221121100 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., Proulx, J., Lok, I., & Norton, M. I. (2020). Does spending money on others promote happiness? A registered replication report. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 119(2), e15–e26. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000191 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., Whillans, A. V., Grant, A. M., & Norton, M. I. (2013). Making a difference matters: Impact unlocks the emotional benefits of prosocial spending. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 88, 90–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2013.01.008 Aknin, L. B., Hamlin, J. K., & Dunn, E. W. (2012). Giving leads to happiness in young children. PLOS ONE, 7(6), Article e39211. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0039211 Andreoni, J. (1989). Giving with impure altruism: Applications to charity and Ricardian equivalence. Journal of Political Economy, 97(6), 1447–1458. https://doi.org/10.1086/261662 Andreoni, J. (1990). Impure altruism and donations to public goods: A theory of warm-glow giving. The Economic Journal, 100(401), 464–477. https://doi.org/10.2307/2234133 Bekkers, R., & Wiepking, P. (2011). A literature review of empirical studies of philanthropy: Eight mechanisms that drive charitable giving. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 40(5), 924–973. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764010380927 Bischoff, I., & Krauskopf, T. (2015). Warm glow of giving collectively—An experimental study. Journal of Economic Psychology, 51, 210–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2015.09.001 Chen, Y. (2025). Gaining in giving: Unveiling continuous engagement intentions with the Chinese pro-environmental gamification Ant Forest. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 41(13), 8447–8463. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2024.2410053 Coleman, J. T., & Peasley, M. C. (2023). Wounding pride and infusing affect: The ambivalent emotional experience of checkout charity. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 40(6), 785–797. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-07-2021-4750 Crumpler, H., & Grossman, P. J. (2008). An experimental test of warm glow giving. Journal of Public Economics, 92(5–6), 1011–1021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2007.12.014 Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2014). Prosocial spending and happiness: Using money to benefit others pays off. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(1), 41–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413512503 Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2008). Spending money on others promotes happiness. Science, 319(5870), 1687–1688. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1150952 Genevsky, A., Yoon, C., Lin, T.-Y., Shaw, S. D., & Knutson, B. (2025). The impact of affective congruence on charitable giving. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 20(1), nsaf086. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsaf086 Geng, Y., Chen, Y., Huang, C., Tan, Y., Zhang, C., & Zhu, S. (2022). Volunteering, charitable donation, and psychological well-being of college students in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 790528. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.790528 Harbaugh, W. T., Mayr, U., & Burghart, D. R. (2007). Neural responses to taxation and voluntary giving reveal motives for charitable donations. Science, 316(5831), 1622–1625. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1140738 Hasford, J., Farmer, A., & Waites, S. F. (2015). Thinking, feeling, and giving: The effects of scope and valuation on consumer donations. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 32(4), 435–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2015.05.006 Hepworth, A., Lee, N. Y., & Zablah, A. R. (2021). Feeling anxious: The dark side of checkout charity solicitations. Journal of Business Research, 136, 330–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.07.050 Luccasen, A. (2017). Warm-glow giving: Earned money and the option to take. Economic Inquiry, 55(2), 996–1006. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecin.12417 Moll, J., Krueger, F., Zahn, R., Pardini, M., de Oliveira-Souza, R., & Grafman, J. (2006). Human fronto-mesolimbic networks guide decisions about charitable donation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103(42), 15623–15628. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0604475103 Regan, A., Margolis, S., Ozer, D. J., Schwitzgebel, E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2023). What is unique about kindness? Exploring the proximal experience of prosocial acts relative to other positive behaviors. Affective Science, 4, 92–100. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-022-00143-4 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 Shlefer, S., & Kogut, T. (2021). How did it feel? Affect as a feedback system in repeated donation decisions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 97, 104203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104203 Weinstein, N., & Ryan, R. M. (2010). When helping helps: Autonomous motivation for prosocial behavior and its influence on well-being for the helper and recipient. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(2), 222–244. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016984 Wiwad, D., & Aknin, L. B. (2017). Motives matter: The emotional consequences of recalled self- and other-focused prosocial acts. Motivation and Emotion, 41(6), 730–740. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-017-9638-2 Xing, C., Zhang, Y., & Tripe, D. (2024). Ethical consumers and low-income sellers on China's reward-based crowdfunding platforms: Are poverty alleviation campaigns more successful? Journal of Business Ethics, 191(4), 793–810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-024-05666-3 Yin, B. M., Olson, J. G., & Li, Y. J. (2026). When having less elevates more: Benefactor income, moral elevation, and prosocial contagion among observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 131(4), 585–601. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000493 }} ==External links== * [https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/how_to_make_giving_feel_good How to make giving feel good] (Greater Good Science Center) * [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/publications/observer/obsonline/the-warm-glow-of-giving-may-overshadow-doing-the-greatest-good.html The “Warm Glow” of Giving May Overshadow Doing the Greatest Good] (Association for Psychological Science) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Prosocial]] 46jq7k3h1v9k5efy5jvyr6nb876po1e 2840851 2840850 2026-10-17T06:03:03Z Karabi Tasneem 3109802 2840851 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Warm-glow giving:<br>Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Charity donation box, Hong Kong International Airport (2018).jpg|thumb|190px|'''Figure 1'''. A public donation box illustrates an everyday opportunity to engage in charitable giving. Such situations can benefit recipients while also generating emotional responses in donors.]] '''Imagine this...''' You are buying groceries when the checkout screen asks whether you would like to add $2 to support a charity. You had not planned to donate and you briefly hesitate. Two dollars will not make a noticeable difference to your own finances, so you select '''yes'''. As you leave the supermarket, you feel unexpectedly pleased about having helped someone else. A week later, you encounter another request for a small donation. You remember the positive feeling from the previous experience and again consider giving. Why can giving money away make a person feel good, and could this pleasant emotional response encourage them to behave generously again? {{RoundBoxBottom}} '''Warm-glow giving''' describes the internal satisfaction or emotional reward that people can experience from helping others. Andreoni's (1990) theory proposes that people can be motivated simultaneously by concern for beneficiaries and by the personal satisfaction they receive from giving. Research suggests that giving is associated with positive emotional experiences and psychological well-being. For example, charitable donation and volunteering have been positively associated with psychological well-being among university students (Geng et al., 2022). However, giving does not always produce purely positive emotions. Charitable requests can also produce anxiety, guilt, anger, pressure, or mixed emotional reactions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023; Hepworth et al., 2021). Understanding these processes is important because emotional experiences may influence not only an immediate decision to donate but also whether people continue engaging in prosocial behavior in the future (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions''' * What is warm-glow giving and how does it explain people's motivation to help others? * Why can giving produce positive emotional and rewarding experiences? * How do positive and negative emotions influence charitable giving decisions? * How can the emotional consequences of giving influence future and wider prosocial behavior? ==What is warm-glow giving?== Warm-glow giving was formally developed through Andreoni's (1990) theory of impure altruism. Pure altruism assumes that a person gives because they value improvements in another person's welfare, whereas impure altruism proposes that donors can also obtain utility from the act of giving itself. Warm glow therefore provides a way of understanding why apparently selfless behaviour may also contain a personally rewarding component. Experiencing satisfaction from helping does not necessarily mean that genuine concern for others is absent; self-oriented and other-oriented motives can coexist (Andreoni, 1990). The theory is particularly useful because it connects motivation and emotion: the expectation or experience of a positive internal reward can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. Evidence shows that warm-glow processes extend beyond conventional charitable donations. Xing et al. (2024) found that consumers' feelings of warm glow helped explain the greater success of poverty-alleviation crowdfunding campaigns compared with ordinary crowdfunding campaigns. Chen (2025) extended warm-glow theory to pro-environmental gamification. Among 525 Ant Forest users, perceived warm glow was one of the positive predictors of continued engagement, alongside altruistic, egoistic, and pragmatic motivational factors. These findings suggest that warm glow can help explain multiple forms of prosocial participation, including donating, crowdfunding, and sustained environmentally beneficial behaviour. Evidence from a motivation-focused journal provides a useful psychological qualification to the economic account. Wiwad and Aknin (2017) conducted three experiments comparing the emotional consequences of recalling self-focused and other-focused helpful acts. Recalling other-focused acts produced greater positive affect, with perceived morality helping to explain the difference. Because the studies relied on remembered behaviour, the results do not establish that every other-focused act produces more happiness at the time it occurs. '''Key points:''' * Warm-glow giving is explained by Andreoni's (1990) theory of '''impure altruism''', in which concern for others and personal satisfaction from giving can coexist. * The emotional reward associated with helping can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. * Warm-glow processes can extend beyond charitable donations to other forms of prosocial participation, including crowdfunding and environmentally beneficial behaviour (Xing et al., 2024; Chen, 2025). ==Why does giving feel good?== Andreoni’s theory explains why a donor might value the act of giving, but it does not itself establish that a donation will improve emotional well-being. Dunn et al. (2008) provided initial experimental evidence that spending on others can increase happiness; Aknin, Barrington-Leigh, et al. (2013) extended the finding to a range of cultural contexts. However, Aknin et al. (2020) obtained mixed results in large preregistered replications, suggesting that any average emotional benefit depends partly on how prosocial spending is enacted and measured. One explanation is that giving generates positive affect. Genevsky et al. (2025) found across behavioural and neuroimaging experiments that charitable appeals containing affectively congruent features generated greater donations than incongruent appeals. Importantly, the relationship between affective congruence and giving was mediated by positive aroused affect. This suggests that positive emotional experience was not simply associated with donation—it helped explain why particular appeals increased giving (Genevsky et al., 2025). Genevsky et al. (2025) also found greater activity in the nucleus accumbens, a brain region associated with positive affect and reward processing, in response to affectively congruent charitable requests. Increased activity subsequently predicted donation decisions. These findings provide a useful psychological and neuroaffective extension of warm-glow theory: charitable giving can engage emotional and reward processes that make helping psychologically reinforcing. Giving can also produce a sense of meaning rather than pleasure alone. Regan et al. (2023), writing in Affective Science, experimentally compared kindness towards others with kindness towards oneself and other positive activities. Other-directed kindness was linked to relatively stronger feelings of competence, self-confidence and meaning. These findings complement self-determination theory, but the intervention concerned kindness generally rather than charitable spending specifically. Psychological benefits are also evident outside laboratory donation tasks. Geng et al. (2022), using data from 1,871 Chinese university students, found that both volunteering time and the amount donated to charity were positively associated with psychological well-being. However, Geng et al. (2022) used observational data, so the association should not automatically be interpreted as proof that charitable giving directly causes greater well-being. People with greater psychological well-being may also be more inclined or able to participate in prosocial activities. Chen's (2025) findings similarly demonstrate that perceived warm glow can contribute to continued prosocial engagement. Participants in the Ant Forest platform were motivated by a combination of altruistic, self-related, and practical motives rather than a single source of motivation. '''Key points:''' * Positive emotional arousal can contribute to charitable donation decisions (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Giving can engage positive affect and reward-related processes, helping to explain why prosocial behaviour may feel psychologically rewarding (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Charitable giving and volunteering are associated with psychological well-being, although correlational findings should not be interpreted as proof of causation (Geng et al., 2022). Planned Figure 2 for the final book chapter A simple original diagram could illustrate the proposed motivational cycle: Opportunity to help → Giving → Positive affect/warm glow → Emotional reward → Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. As illustrated in '''Figure 2''', an opportunity to help may lead to giving, positive affect or warm glow, emotional reward, and greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. {| style="margin:15px auto; border-collapse:separate; border-spacing:4px; text-align:center;" | style="border:1px solid #4f81bd;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#eef5fc; width:110px;" | '''Opportunity to help''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #548235;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f0f7ed; width:70px;" | '''Giving''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #d6a000;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#fff7dc; width:135px;" | '''Positive affect / warm glow''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #8064a2;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f5f0fa; width:110px;" | '''Emotional reward''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #31859b;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#edf8fa; width:175px;" | '''Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour''' |} '''''Figure 2.'' Proposed motivational cycle of warm-glow giving.''' ==How do emotions influence charitable giving?== Self-determination theory provides a useful framework for distinguishing voluntary generosity from helping under pressure. Ryan and Deci (2000) identify autonomy, competence and relatedness as psychological needs, while Weinstein and Ryan (2010) found more favourable helper and recipient outcomes when helping was autonomously motivated. Aknin, Dunn, et al. (2013) further showed the importance of understanding a donation’s impact. These findings suggest that the rewarding quality of giving depends on circumstances and motives rather than on monetary transfer alone. Emotions can affect how people evaluate charitable need, not merely whether they feel good afterwards. Hasford et al. (2015) found that consumers were more insensitive to the scope of a charitable problem when their donations were based on emotional rather than calculative valuation. This finding provides an important limitation to a simple "emotion improves giving" explanation. Emotional motivation may stimulate generosity while simultaneously making donors less responsive to information such as the number of beneficiaries (Hasford et al., 2015). Genevsky et al. (2025) showed that the emotional construction of a charitable appeal also matters. Affectively congruent combinations of appeal features increased positive affect and donations, regardless of whether the matched features themselves were positively or negatively valenced. Emotional responses to charitable requests are not necessarily pleasant. Hepworth et al. (2021), across four studies, found that checkout-charity solicitations could create customer anxiety, which subsequently reduced evaluations of the service encounter. Interestingly, Hepworth et al. (2021) also found that anxiety could decrease when customers agreed to donate in employee-led solicitation situations. Therefore, some giving may potentially involve reducing an uncomfortable emotional state rather than simply seeking positive warm glow. Coleman and Peasley (2023) similarly found that checkout charity can produce ambivalent emotional experiences. Consumers may experience positive emotions such as pride and joy alongside negative emotions such as guilt and anger. Their findings suggest that high positive and high negative affect can occur simultaneously, and this emotional incongruence may actually reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Together, these studies demonstrate that emotion has a complex role in charitable behaviour. Warm glow, pride, positive arousal, anxiety, guilt, and anger can each influence donation decisions under different circumstances. '''Key points:''' * Emotional responses can encourage charitable giving, but emotional decision-making may also reduce sensitivity to the scope of need (Hasford et al., 2015). * Charitable requests can generate negative emotional reactions such as anxiety, and donating may sometimes reduce this discomfort (Hepworth et al., 2021). * Positive and negative emotions can occur simultaneously during charitable requests, and emotional ambivalence may reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Table 1. Emotional processes associated with giving and their possible influence on prosocial behaviour''' |- ! Process ! Emotional or motivational experience ! Possible behavioural effect ! Key evidence |- | '''Warm glow''' | Satisfaction from personally helping | Increases motivation to give or participate | Andreoni (1990); Xing et al. (2024) |- | '''Positive aroused affect''' | Positive emotional arousal during an appeal | Greater charitable donations | Genevsky et al. (2025) |- | '''Psychological well-being''' | Positive functioning associated with helping | May reinforce participation in prosocial activity | Geng et al. (2022) |- | '''Emotional valuation''' | Giving based mainly on feelings | Can promote donations but reduce sensitivity to scope | Hasford et al. (2015) |- | '''Checkout anxiety''' | Anxiety following a donation request | May reduce service evaluations and can sometimes encourage donating to reduce discomfort | Hepworth et al. (2021) |- | '''Emotional ambivalence''' | Simultaneous pride/joy and guilt/anger | Mixed affect can complicate or reduce donation intentions | Coleman & Peasley (2023) |- | '''Perceived warm glow''' | Personal satisfaction from environmental contribution | Encourages continued engagement | Chen (2025) |- | '''Moral elevation''' | Feeling inspired by another person's generosity | Encourages prosocial contagion | Yin et al. (2026) |} As summarised in Table 1, charitable behaviour cannot be explained by one emotion alone. Giving involves interacting positive and negative emotional processes, and these processes can either encourage or inhibit prosocial action. ==How can warm glow influence future and wider prosocial behaviour?== A useful distinction is between evidence of feeling good after giving and evidence of a later behavioural effect. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) tested repeated donation decisions, whereas Chen (2025) examined intentions to continue a digital environmental activity. The former more directly informs choice repetition; the latter helps explain sustained intentions but cannot by itself establish long-term action. This distinction limits overly simple claims that warm glow always produces future generosity. If giving produces an emotional reward, that feeling may act as feedback which shapes later choices. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) examined how feelings following previous donation decisions predicted subsequent decisions. They found that feeling good about a previous decision whether that decision was to give or not give—predicted a tendency to make a similar choice later. In contrast, feeling bad about the previous decision increased the likelihood of changing the next decision (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). This provides an important mechanism for explaining repeated prosocial behaviour. If donating creates a warm-glow response, people may learn from this positive emotional feedback and become more motivated to donate again. Chen (2025) provides complementary evidence about sustained engagement in a different prosocial context. Perceived warm glow positively contributed to users' intentions to continue engaging with Ant Forest, suggesting that emotional benefits can support persistence over time. Warm-glow processes may also influence behaviour between people, not just within a single donor. Yin et al. (2026) examined prosocial contagion across nine experiments and investigated responses to observing generosity from benefactors with different income levels. Observing generosity from lower-income benefactors produced stronger perceptions of altruistic motivation and greater moral elevation, which subsequently encouraged prosocial responses among observers (Yin et al., 2026). The finding demonstrates how emotional responses to another person's generosity can spread prosocial behaviour. People do not necessarily need to experience the initial act of giving themselves; witnessing meaningful generosity can also motivate helping. Xing et al. (2024) further illustrates the social and practical application of warm glow. In poverty-alleviation crowdfunding, consumer warm glow helped account for the greater success of poverty-focused campaigns, demonstrating that the emotional reward attached to helping can influence marketplace behaviour. Thus, emotional rewards may create two reinforcing pathways: personal reinforcement, where feeling good after giving encourages future giving, and social contagion, where observing generosity inspires prosocial behaviour in other people.{{anchor|Scenarios}} '''Key points:''' * Emotional reactions to previous donation decisions can act as feedback that influences later giving behaviour (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). * Perceived warm glow can support continued engagement in prosocial activities over time (Chen, 2025). * Prosocial behaviour can spread socially because observing another person's generosity may produce moral elevation and encourage further helping behaviour (Yin et al., 2026). ;Quiz Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {Warm-glow giving suggests that people can care about helping others while also experiencing personal emotional satisfaction from the act of giving: |type="()"} + True - False {Charitable requests always make people feel positive emotions: |type="()"} - True + False {Why can giving produce positive emotional rewards? |type="()"} - Because all charitable donations guarantee happiness. + Because helping others can generate positive affect, personal satisfaction, and a sense of meaning. - Because people only donate to receive financial rewards. {According to Shlefer and Kogut (2021), how can emotions following a donation decision influence future giving? |type="()"} - Positive emotions always cause people to increase their donations. + Feeling good about a previous decision can encourage people to repeat a similar decision. - Emotional reactions have no influence on subsequent donation decisions. </quiz> ==Conclusion== Warm-glow giving explains why helping can be emotionally rewarding without implying that generosity is entirely self-interested. Andreoni's (1990) account of impure altruism establishes how concern for others and satisfaction from personally helping can coexist. Psychological research further indicates that perceived impact, autonomous choice, positive affect and feelings of meaning help explain when giving is rewarding (Weinstein & Ryan, 2010; Aknin, Dunn, et al., 2013; Regan et al., 2023). Nevertheless, emotional benefits are not guaranteed. Larger replications have produced positive, null and small effects (Aknin et al., 2020), while requests for donations can elicit guilt, anxiety and ambivalence (Hepworth et al., 2021; Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Emotional satisfaction also differs from demonstrable effectiveness: feeling pleased by a donation does not establish that it meets recipients' needs particularly well. Warm glow may reinforce repeated giving through emotional feedback, while observing generosity can inspire related but distinct feelings of moral elevation (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021; Yin et al., 2026). In everyday life, informed and voluntary donations, accompanied by meaningful feedback about impact, offer a practical way to support donors' well-being without losing sight of those who receive help. == See also == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Altruism and empathy|Altruism and empathy]] (Book chapter, 2024) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Empathy-altruism hypothesis|Empathy-altruism hypothesis]] (Book chapter, 2021) [[w|Altruism]] (Wikipedia) [[w behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Aknin, L. B., Barrington-Leigh, C. P., Dunn, E. W., Helliwell, J. F., Burns, J., Biswas-Diener, R., Kemeza, I., Nyende, P., Ashton-James, C. E., & Norton, M. I. (2013). Prosocial spending and well-being: Cross-cultural evidence for a psychological universal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(4), 635–652. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031578 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., & Whillans, A. V. (2022). The emotional rewards of prosocial spending are robust and replicable in large samples. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 31(6), 536–545. https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214221121100 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., Proulx, J., Lok, I., & Norton, M. I. (2020). Does spending money on others promote happiness? A registered replication report. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 119(2), e15–e26. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000191 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., Whillans, A. V., Grant, A. M., & Norton, M. I. (2013). Making a difference matters: Impact unlocks the emotional benefits of prosocial spending. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 88, 90–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2013.01.008 Aknin, L. B., Hamlin, J. K., & Dunn, E. W. (2012). Giving leads to happiness in young children. PLOS ONE, 7(6), Article e39211. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0039211 Andreoni, J. (1989). Giving with impure altruism: Applications to charity and Ricardian equivalence. Journal of Political Economy, 97(6), 1447–1458. https://doi.org/10.1086/261662 Andreoni, J. (1990). Impure altruism and donations to public goods: A theory of warm-glow giving. The Economic Journal, 100(401), 464–477. https://doi.org/10.2307/2234133 Bekkers, R., & Wiepking, P. (2011). A literature review of empirical studies of philanthropy: Eight mechanisms that drive charitable giving. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 40(5), 924–973. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764010380927 Bischoff, I., & Krauskopf, T. (2015). Warm glow of giving collectively—An experimental study. Journal of Economic Psychology, 51, 210–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2015.09.001 Chen, Y. (2025). Gaining in giving: Unveiling continuous engagement intentions with the Chinese pro-environmental gamification Ant Forest. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 41(13), 8447–8463. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2024.2410053 Coleman, J. T., & Peasley, M. C. (2023). Wounding pride and infusing affect: The ambivalent emotional experience of checkout charity. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 40(6), 785–797. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-07-2021-4750 Crumpler, H., & Grossman, P. J. (2008). An experimental test of warm glow giving. Journal of Public Economics, 92(5–6), 1011–1021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2007.12.014 Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2014). Prosocial spending and happiness: Using money to benefit others pays off. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(1), 41–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413512503 Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2008). Spending money on others promotes happiness. Science, 319(5870), 1687–1688. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1150952 Genevsky, A., Yoon, C., Lin, T.-Y., Shaw, S. D., & Knutson, B. (2025). The impact of affective congruence on charitable giving. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 20(1), nsaf086. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsaf086 Geng, Y., Chen, Y., Huang, C., Tan, Y., Zhang, C., & Zhu, S. (2022). Volunteering, charitable donation, and psychological well-being of college students in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 790528. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.790528 Harbaugh, W. T., Mayr, U., & Burghart, D. R. (2007). Neural responses to taxation and voluntary giving reveal motives for charitable donations. Science, 316(5831), 1622–1625. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1140738 Hasford, J., Farmer, A., & Waites, S. F. (2015). Thinking, feeling, and giving: The effects of scope and valuation on consumer donations. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 32(4), 435–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2015.05.006 Hepworth, A., Lee, N. Y., & Zablah, A. R. (2021). Feeling anxious: The dark side of checkout charity solicitations. Journal of Business Research, 136, 330–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.07.050 Luccasen, A. (2017). Warm-glow giving: Earned money and the option to take. Economic Inquiry, 55(2), 996–1006. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecin.12417 Moll, J., Krueger, F., Zahn, R., Pardini, M., de Oliveira-Souza, R., & Grafman, J. (2006). Human fronto-mesolimbic networks guide decisions about charitable donation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103(42), 15623–15628. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0604475103 Regan, A., Margolis, S., Ozer, D. J., Schwitzgebel, E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2023). What is unique about kindness? Exploring the proximal experience of prosocial acts relative to other positive behaviors. Affective Science, 4, 92–100. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-022-00143-4 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 Shlefer, S., & Kogut, T. (2021). How did it feel? Affect as a feedback system in repeated donation decisions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 97, 104203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104203 Weinstein, N., & Ryan, R. M. (2010). When helping helps: Autonomous motivation for prosocial behavior and its influence on well-being for the helper and recipient. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(2), 222–244. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016984 Wiwad, D., & Aknin, L. B. (2017). Motives matter: The emotional consequences of recalled self- and other-focused prosocial acts. Motivation and Emotion, 41(6), 730–740. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-017-9638-2 Xing, C., Zhang, Y., & Tripe, D. (2024). Ethical consumers and low-income sellers on China's reward-based crowdfunding platforms: Are poverty alleviation campaigns more successful? Journal of Business Ethics, 191(4), 793–810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-024-05666-3 Yin, B. M., Olson, J. G., & Li, Y. J. (2026). When having less elevates more: Benefactor income, moral elevation, and prosocial contagion among observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 131(4), 585–601. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000493 }} ==External links== * [https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/how_to_make_giving_feel_good How to make giving feel good] (Greater Good Science Center) * [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/publications/observer/obsonline/the-warm-glow-of-giving-may-overshadow-doing-the-greatest-good.html The “Warm Glow” of Giving May Overshadow Doing the Greatest Good] (Association for Psychological Science) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Prosocial]] e3ukec2o8gy4c5kwcwfafcows9fk8xu 2840852 2840851 2026-10-17T06:09:55Z Karabi Tasneem 3109802 edited 2840852 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Warm-glow giving:<br>Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Charity donation box, Hong Kong International Airport (2018).jpg|thumb|190px|'''Figure 1'''. A public donation box illustrates an everyday opportunity to engage in charitable giving. Such situations can benefit recipients while also generating emotional responses in donors.]] '''Imagine this...''' You are buying groceries when the checkout screen asks whether you would like to add $2 to support a charity. You had not planned to donate and you briefly hesitate. Two dollars will not make a noticeable difference to your own finances, so you select '''yes'''. As you leave the supermarket, you feel unexpectedly pleased about having helped someone else. A week later, you encounter another request for a small donation. You remember the positive feeling from the previous experience and again consider giving. Why can giving money away make a person feel good, and could this pleasant emotional response encourage them to behave generously again? {{RoundBoxBottom}} '''Warm-glow giving''' describes the internal satisfaction or emotional reward that people can experience from helping others. Andreoni's (1990) theory proposes that people can be motivated simultaneously by concern for beneficiaries and by the personal satisfaction they receive from giving. Research suggests that giving is associated with positive emotional experiences and psychological well-being. For example, charitable donation and volunteering have been positively associated with psychological well-being among university students (Geng et al., 2022). However, giving does not always produce purely positive emotions. Charitable requests can also produce anxiety, guilt, anger, pressure, or mixed emotional reactions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023; Hepworth et al., 2021). Understanding these processes is important because emotional experiences may influence not only an immediate decision to donate but also whether people continue engaging in prosocial behavior in the future (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions''' * What is warm-glow giving and how does it explain people's motivation to help others? * Why can giving produce positive emotional and rewarding experiences? * How do positive and negative emotions influence charitable giving decisions? * How can the emotional consequences of giving influence future and wider prosocial behavior? ==What is warm-glow giving?== Warm-glow giving was formally developed through Andreoni's (1990) theory of impure altruism. Pure altruism assumes that a person gives because they value improvements in another person's welfare, whereas impure altruism proposes that donors can also obtain utility from the act of giving itself. Warm glow therefore provides a way of understanding why apparently selfless behaviour may also contain a personally rewarding component. Experiencing satisfaction from helping does not necessarily mean that genuine concern for others is absent; self-oriented and other-oriented motives can coexist (Andreoni, 1990). The theory is particularly useful because it connects motivation and emotion: the expectation or experience of a positive internal reward can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. Evidence shows that warm-glow processes extend beyond conventional charitable donations. Xing et al. (2024) found that consumers' feelings of warm glow helped explain the greater success of poverty-alleviation crowdfunding campaigns compared with ordinary crowdfunding campaigns. Chen (2025) extended warm-glow theory to pro-environmental gamification. Among 525 Ant Forest users, perceived warm glow was one of the positive predictors of continued engagement, alongside altruistic, egoistic, and pragmatic motivational factors. These findings suggest that warm glow can help explain multiple forms of prosocial participation, including donating, crowdfunding, and sustained environmentally beneficial behaviour. Evidence from a motivation-focused journal provides a useful psychological qualification to the economic account. Wiwad and Aknin (2017) conducted three experiments comparing the emotional consequences of recalling self-focused and other-focused helpful acts. Recalling other-focused acts produced greater positive affect, with perceived morality helping to explain the difference. Because the studies relied on remembered behaviour, the results do not establish that every other-focused act produces more happiness at the time it occurs. '''Key points:''' * Warm-glow giving is explained by Andreoni's (1990) theory of '''impure altruism''', in which concern for others and personal satisfaction from giving can coexist. * The emotional reward associated with helping can provide motivation for prosocial behaviour. * Warm-glow processes can extend beyond charitable donations to other forms of prosocial participation, including crowdfunding and environmentally beneficial behaviour (Xing et al., 2024; Chen, 2025). ==Why does giving feel good?== Andreoni’s theory explains why a donor might value the act of giving, but it does not itself establish that a donation will improve emotional well-being. Dunn et al. (2008) provided initial experimental evidence that spending on others can increase happiness; Aknin, Barrington-Leigh, et al. (2013) extended the finding to a range of cultural contexts. However, Aknin et al. (2020) obtained mixed results in large preregistered replications, suggesting that any average emotional benefit depends partly on how prosocial spending is enacted and measured. One explanation is that giving generates positive affect. Genevsky et al. (2025) found across behavioural and neuroimaging experiments that charitable appeals containing affectively congruent features generated greater donations than incongruent appeals. Importantly, the relationship between affective congruence and giving was mediated by positive aroused affect. This suggests that positive emotional experience was not simply associated with donation—it helped explain why particular appeals increased giving (Genevsky et al., 2025). Genevsky et al. (2025) also found greater activity in the nucleus accumbens, a brain region associated with positive affect and reward processing, in response to affectively congruent charitable requests. Increased activity subsequently predicted donation decisions. These findings provide a useful psychological and neuroaffective extension of warm-glow theory: charitable giving can engage emotional and reward processes that make helping psychologically reinforcing. Giving can also produce a sense of meaning rather than pleasure alone. Regan et al. (2023), writing in Affective Science, experimentally compared kindness towards others with kindness towards oneself and other positive activities. Other-directed kindness was linked to relatively stronger feelings of competence, self-confidence and meaning. These findings complement self-determination theory, but the intervention concerned kindness generally rather than charitable spending specifically. Psychological benefits are also evident outside laboratory donation tasks. Geng et al. (2022), using data from 1,871 Chinese university students, found that both volunteering time and the amount donated to charity were positively associated with psychological well-being. However, Geng et al. (2022) used observational data, so the association should not automatically be interpreted as proof that charitable giving directly causes greater well-being. People with greater psychological well-being may also be more inclined or able to participate in prosocial activities. Chen's (2025) findings similarly demonstrate that perceived warm glow can contribute to continued prosocial engagement. Participants in the Ant Forest platform were motivated by a combination of altruistic, self-related, and practical motives rather than a single source of motivation. '''Key points:''' * Positive emotional arousal can contribute to charitable donation decisions (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Giving can engage positive affect and reward-related processes, helping to explain why prosocial behaviour may feel psychologically rewarding (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Charitable giving and volunteering are associated with psychological well-being, although correlational findings should not be interpreted as proof of causation (Geng et al., 2022). Planned Figure 2 for the final book chapter A simple original diagram could illustrate the proposed motivational cycle: Opportunity to help → Giving → Positive affect/warm glow → Emotional reward → Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. As illustrated in '''Figure 2''', an opportunity to help may lead to giving, positive affect or warm glow, emotional reward, and greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour. {| style="margin:15px auto; border-collapse:separate; border-spacing:4px; text-align:center;" | style="border:1px solid #4f81bd;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#eef5fc; width:110px;" | '''Opportunity to help''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #548235;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f0f7ed; width:70px;" | '''Giving''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #d6a000;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#fff7dc; width:135px;" | '''Positive affect / warm glow''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #8064a2;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f5f0fa; width:110px;" | '''Emotional reward''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #31859b;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#edf8fa; width:175px;" | '''Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour''' |} '''''Figure 2.'' Proposed motivational cycle of warm-glow giving.''' ==How do emotions influence charitable giving?== Self-determination theory provides a useful framework for distinguishing voluntary generosity from helping under pressure. Ryan and Deci (2000) identify autonomy, competence and relatedness as psychological needs, while Weinstein and Ryan (2010) found more favourable helper and recipient outcomes when helping was autonomously motivated. Aknin, Dunn, et al. (2013) further showed the importance of understanding a donation’s impact. These findings suggest that the rewarding quality of giving depends on circumstances and motives rather than on monetary transfer alone. Emotions can affect how people evaluate charitable need, not merely whether they feel good afterwards. Hasford et al. (2015) found that consumers were more insensitive to the scope of a charitable problem when their donations were based on emotional rather than calculative valuation. This finding provides an important limitation to a simple "emotion improves giving" explanation. Emotional motivation may stimulate generosity while simultaneously making donors less responsive to information such as the number of beneficiaries (Hasford et al., 2015). Genevsky et al. (2025) showed that the emotional construction of a charitable appeal also matters. Affectively congruent combinations of appeal features increased positive affect and donations, regardless of whether the matched features themselves were positively or negatively valenced. Emotional responses to charitable requests are not necessarily pleasant. Hepworth et al. (2021), across four studies, found that checkout-charity solicitations could create customer anxiety, which subsequently reduced evaluations of the service encounter. Interestingly, Hepworth et al. (2021) also found that anxiety could decrease when customers agreed to donate in employee-led solicitation situations. Therefore, some giving may potentially involve reducing an uncomfortable emotional state rather than simply seeking positive warm glow. Coleman and Peasley (2023) similarly found that checkout charity can produce ambivalent emotional experiences. Consumers may experience positive emotions such as pride and joy alongside negative emotions such as guilt and anger. Their findings suggest that high positive and high negative affect can occur simultaneously, and this emotional incongruence may actually reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Together, these studies demonstrate that emotion has a complex role in charitable behaviour. Warm glow, pride, positive arousal, anxiety, guilt, and anger can each influence donation decisions under different circumstances. '''Key points:''' * Emotional responses can encourage charitable giving, but emotional decision-making may also reduce sensitivity to the scope of need (Hasford et al., 2015). * Charitable requests can generate negative emotional reactions such as anxiety, and donating may sometimes reduce this discomfort (Hepworth et al., 2021). * Positive and negative emotions can occur simultaneously during charitable requests, and emotional ambivalence may reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Table 1. Emotional processes associated with giving and their possible influence on prosocial behaviour''' |- ! Process ! Emotional or motivational experience ! Possible behavioural effect ! Key evidence |- | '''Warm glow''' | Satisfaction from personally helping | Increases motivation to give or participate | Andreoni (1990); Xing et al. (2024) |- | '''Positive aroused affect''' | Positive emotional arousal during an appeal | Greater charitable donations | Genevsky et al. (2025) |- | '''Psychological well-being''' | Positive functioning associated with helping | May reinforce participation in prosocial activity | Geng et al. (2022) |- | '''Emotional valuation''' | Giving based mainly on feelings | Can promote donations but reduce sensitivity to scope | Hasford et al. (2015) |- | '''Checkout anxiety''' | Anxiety following a donation request | May reduce service evaluations and can sometimes encourage donating to reduce discomfort | Hepworth et al. (2021) |- | '''Emotional ambivalence''' | Simultaneous pride/joy and guilt/anger | Mixed affect can complicate or reduce donation intentions | Coleman & Peasley (2023) |- | '''Perceived warm glow''' | Personal satisfaction from environmental contribution | Encourages continued engagement | Chen (2025) |- | '''Moral elevation''' | Feeling inspired by another person's generosity | Encourages prosocial contagion | Yin et al. (2026) |} As summarised in Table 1, charitable behaviour cannot be explained by one emotion alone. Giving involves interacting positive and negative emotional processes, and these processes can either encourage or inhibit prosocial action. ==How can warm glow influence future and wider prosocial behaviour?== A useful distinction is between evidence of feeling good after giving and evidence of a later behavioural effect. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) tested repeated donation decisions, whereas Chen (2025) examined intentions to continue a digital environmental activity. The former more directly informs choice repetition; the latter helps explain sustained intentions but cannot by itself establish long-term action. This distinction limits overly simple claims that warm glow always produces future generosity. If giving produces an emotional reward, that feeling may act as feedback which shapes later choices. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) examined how feelings following previous donation decisions predicted subsequent decisions. They found that feeling good about a previous decision whether that decision was to give or not give—predicted a tendency to make a similar choice later. In contrast, feeling bad about the previous decision increased the likelihood of changing the next decision (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). This provides an important mechanism for explaining repeated prosocial behaviour. If donating creates a warm-glow response, people may learn from this positive emotional feedback and become more motivated to donate again. Chen (2025) provides complementary evidence about sustained engagement in a different prosocial context. Perceived warm glow positively contributed to users' intentions to continue engaging with Ant Forest, suggesting that emotional benefits can support persistence over time. Warm-glow processes may also influence behaviour between people, not just within a single donor. Yin et al. (2026) examined prosocial contagion across nine experiments and investigated responses to observing generosity from benefactors with different income levels. Observing generosity from lower-income benefactors produced stronger perceptions of altruistic motivation and greater moral elevation, which subsequently encouraged prosocial responses among observers (Yin et al., 2026). The finding demonstrates how emotional responses to another person's generosity can spread prosocial behaviour. People do not necessarily need to experience the initial act of giving themselves; witnessing meaningful generosity can also motivate helping. Xing et al. (2024) further illustrates the social and practical application of warm glow. In poverty-alleviation crowdfunding, consumer warm glow helped account for the greater success of poverty-focused campaigns, demonstrating that the emotional reward attached to helping can influence marketplace behaviour. Thus, emotional rewards may create two reinforcing pathways: personal reinforcement, where feeling good after giving encourages future giving, and social contagion, where observing generosity inspires prosocial behaviour in other people.{{anchor|Scenarios}} '''Key points:''' * Emotional reactions to previous donation decisions can act as feedback that influences later giving behaviour (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). * Perceived warm glow can support continued engagement in prosocial activities over time (Chen, 2025). * Prosocial behaviour can spread socially because observing another person's generosity may produce moral elevation and encourage further helping behaviour (Yin et al., 2026). ;Quiz Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {Warm-glow giving suggests that people can care about helping others while also experiencing personal emotional satisfaction from the act of giving: |type="()"} + True - False {Charitable requests always make people feel positive emotions: |type="()"} - True + False {Why can giving produce positive emotional rewards? |type="()"} - Because all charitable donations guarantee happiness. + Because helping others can generate positive affect, personal satisfaction, and a sense of meaning. - Because people only donate to receive financial rewards. {According to Shlefer and Kogut (2021), how can emotions following a donation decision influence future giving? |type="()"} - Positive emotions always cause people to increase their donations. + Feeling good about a previous decision can encourage people to repeat a similar decision. - Emotional reactions have no influence on subsequent donation decisions. </quiz> ==Conclusion== Warm-glow giving explains why helping can be emotionally rewarding without implying that generosity is entirely self-interested. Andreoni's (1990) account of impure altruism establishes how concern for others and satisfaction from personally helping can coexist. Psychological research further indicates that perceived impact, autonomous choice, positive affect and feelings of meaning help explain when giving is rewarding (Weinstein & Ryan, 2010; Aknin, Dunn, et al., 2013; Regan et al., 2023). Nevertheless, emotional benefits are not guaranteed. Larger replications have produced positive, null and small effects (Aknin et al., 2020), while requests for donations can elicit guilt, anxiety and ambivalence (Hepworth et al., 2021; Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Emotional satisfaction also differs from demonstrable effectiveness: feeling pleased by a donation does not establish that it meets recipients' needs particularly well. Warm glow may reinforce repeated giving through emotional feedback, while observing generosity can inspire related but distinct feelings of moral elevation (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021; Yin et al., 2026). In everyday life, informed and voluntary donations, accompanied by meaningful feedback about impact, offer a practical way to support donors' well-being without losing sight of those who receive help. == See also == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Altruism and empathy|Altruism and empathy]] (Book chapter, 2024) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Empathy-altruism hypothesis|Empathy-altruism hypothesis]] (Book chapter, 2021) [[w|Altruism]] (Wikipedia) [[w behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Aknin, L. B., Barrington-Leigh, C. P., Dunn, E. W., Helliwell, J. F., Burns, J., Biswas-Diener, R., Kemeza, I., Nyende, P., Ashton-James, C. E., & Norton, M. I. (2013). Prosocial spending and well-being: Cross-cultural evidence for a psychological universal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(4), 635–652. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031578 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., & Whillans, A. V. (2022). The emotional rewards of prosocial spending are robust and replicable in large samples. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 31(6), 536–545. https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214221121100 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., Proulx, J., Lok, I., & Norton, M. I. (2020). Does spending money on others promote happiness? A registered replication report. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 119(2), e15–e26. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000191 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., Whillans, A. V., Grant, A. M., & Norton, M. I. (2013). Making a difference matters: Impact unlocks the emotional benefits of prosocial spending. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 88, 90–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2013.01.008 Aknin, L. B., Hamlin, J. K., & Dunn, E. W. (2012). Giving leads to happiness in young children. PLOS ONE, 7(6), Article e39211. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0039211 Andreoni, J. (1989). Giving with impure altruism: Applications to charity and Ricardian equivalence. Journal of Political Economy, 97(6), 1447–1458. https://doi.org/10.1086/261662 Andreoni, J. (1990). Impure altruism and donations to public goods: A theory of warm-glow giving. The Economic Journal, 100(401), 464–477. https://doi.org/10.2307/2234133 Bekkers, R., & Wiepking, P. (2011). A literature review of empirical studies of philanthropy: Eight mechanisms that drive charitable giving. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 40(5), 924–973. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764010380927 Bischoff, I., & Krauskopf, T. (2015). Warm glow of giving collectively—An experimental study. Journal of Economic Psychology, 51, 210–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2015.09.001 Chen, Y. (2025). Gaining in giving: Unveiling continuous engagement intentions with the Chinese pro-environmental gamification Ant Forest. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 41(13), 8447–8463. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2024.2410053 Coleman, J. T., & Peasley, M. C. (2023). Wounding pride and infusing affect: The ambivalent emotional experience of checkout charity. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 40(6), 785–797. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-07-2021-4750 Crumpler, H., & Grossman, P. J. (2008). An experimental test of warm glow giving. Journal of Public Economics, 92(5–6), 1011–1021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2007.12.014 Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2014). Prosocial spending and happiness: Using money to benefit others pays off. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(1), 41–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413512503 Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2008). Spending money on others promotes happiness. Science, 319(5870), 1687–1688. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1150952 Genevsky, A., Yoon, C., Lin, T.-Y., Shaw, S. D., & Knutson, B. (2025). The impact of affective congruence on charitable giving. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 20(1), nsaf086. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsaf086 Geng, Y., Chen, Y., Huang, C., Tan, Y., Zhang, C., & Zhu, S. (2022). Volunteering, charitable donation, and psychological well-being of college students in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 790528. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.790528 Harbaugh, W. T., Mayr, U., & Burghart, D. R. (2007). Neural responses to taxation and voluntary giving reveal motives for charitable donations. Science, 316(5831), 1622–1625. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1140738 Hasford, J., Farmer, A., & Waites, S. F. (2015). Thinking, feeling, and giving: The effects of scope and valuation on consumer donations. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 32(4), 435–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2015.05.006 Hepworth, A., Lee, N. Y., & Zablah, A. R. (2021). Feeling anxious: The dark side of checkout charity solicitations. Journal of Business Research, 136, 330–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.07.050 Luccasen, A. (2017). Warm-glow giving: Earned money and the option to take. Economic Inquiry, 55(2), 996–1006. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecin.12417 Moll, J., Krueger, F., Zahn, R., Pardini, M., de Oliveira-Souza, R., & Grafman, J. (2006). Human fronto-mesolimbic networks guide decisions about charitable donation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103(42), 15623–15628. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0604475103 Regan, A., Margolis, S., Ozer, D. J., Schwitzgebel, E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2023). What is unique about kindness? Exploring the proximal experience of prosocial acts relative to other positive behaviors. Affective Science, 4, 92–100. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-022-00143-4 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 Shlefer, S., & Kogut, T. (2021). How did it feel? Affect as a feedback system in repeated donation decisions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 97, 104203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104203 Weinstein, N., & Ryan, R. M. (2010). When helping helps: Autonomous motivation for prosocial behavior and its influence on well-being for the helper and recipient. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(2), 222–244. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016984 Wiwad, D., & Aknin, L. B. (2017). Motives matter: The emotional consequences of recalled self- and other-focused prosocial acts. Motivation and Emotion, 41(6), 730–740. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-017-9638-2 Xing, C., Zhang, Y., & Tripe, D. (2024). Ethical consumers and low-income sellers on China's reward-based crowdfunding platforms: Are poverty alleviation campaigns more successful? Journal of Business Ethics, 191(4), 793–810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-024-05666-3 Yin, B. M., Olson, J. G., & Li, Y. J. (2026). When having less elevates more: Benefactor income, moral elevation, and prosocial contagion among observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 131(4), 585–601. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000493 }} ==External links== * [https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/how_to_make_giving_feel_good How to make giving feel good] (Greater Good Science Center) * [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/publications/observer/obsonline/the-warm-glow-of-giving-may-overshadow-doing-the-greatest-good.html The “Warm Glow” of Giving May Overshadow Doing the Greatest Good] (Association for Psychological Science) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Prosocial]] gkmfo5ktagyp5nsrddwwirfilk7ynt1 2840854 2840852 2026-10-17T06:14:19Z Karabi Tasneem 3109802 minor edited 2840854 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Warm-glow giving:<br>Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Charity donation box, Hong Kong International Airport (2018).jpg|thumb|190px|'''Figure 1'''. A public donation box illustrates an everyday opportunity to engage in charitable giving. Such situations can benefit recipients while also generating emotional responses in donors.]] '''Imagine this...''' You are buying groceries when the checkout screen asks whether you would like to add $2 to support a charity. You had not planned to donate and you briefly hesitate. Two dollars will not make a noticeable difference to your own finances, so you select '''yes'''. As you leave the supermarket, you feel unexpectedly pleased about having helped someone else. A week later, you encounter another request for a small donation. You remember the positive feeling from the previous experience and again consider giving. Why can giving money away make a person feel good, and could this pleasant emotional response encourage them to behave generously again? {{RoundBoxBottom}} '''Warm-glow giving''' describes the internal satisfaction or emotional reward that people can experience from helping others. Andreoni's (1990) theory proposes that people can be motivated simultaneously by concern for beneficiaries and by the personal satisfaction they receive from giving. Research suggests that giving is associated with positive emotional experiences and psychological well-being. For example, charitable donation and volunteering have been positively associated with psychological well-being among university students (Geng et al., 2022). However, giving does not always produce purely positive emotions. Charitable requests can also produce anxiety, guilt, anger, pressure, or mixed emotional reactions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023; Hepworth et al., 2021). Understanding these processes is important because emotional experiences may influence not only an immediate decision to donate but also whether people continue engaging in prosocial behavior in the future (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions''' * What is warm-glow giving and how does it explain people's motivation to help others? * Why can giving produce positive emotional and rewarding experiences? * How do positive and negative emotions influence charitable giving decisions? * How can the emotional consequences of giving influence future and wider prosocial behavior? ==What is warm-glow giving?== Warm-glow giving was formally developed through Andreoni's (1990) theory of impure altruism. Pure altruism assumes that a person gives because they value improvements in another person's welfare, whereas impure altruism proposes that donors can also obtain utility from the act of giving itself. Warm glow therefore provides a way of understanding why apparently selfless behavior may also contain a personally rewarding component. Experiencing satisfaction from helping does not necessarily mean that genuine concern for others is absent; self-oriented and other-oriented motives can coexist (Andreoni, 1990). The theory is particularly useful because it connects motivation and emotion: the expectation or experience of a positive internal reward can provide motivation for prosocial behavior. Evidence shows that warm-glow processes extend beyond conventional charitable donations. Xing et al. (2024) found that consumers' feelings of warm glow helped explain the greater success of poverty-alleviation crowdfunding campaigns compared with ordinary crowdfunding campaigns. Chen (2025) extended warm-glow theory to pro-environmental gamification. Among 525 Ant Forest users, perceived warm glow was one of the positive predictors of continued engagement, alongside altruistic, egoistic, and pragmatic motivational factors. These findings suggest that warm glow can help explain multiple forms of prosocial participation, including donating, crowdfunding, and sustained environmentally beneficial behavior. Evidence from a motivation-focused journal provides a useful psychological qualification to the economic account. Wiwad and Aknin (2017) conducted three experiments comparing the emotional consequences of recalling self-focused and other-focused helpful acts. Recalling other-focused acts produced greater positive affect, with perceived morality helping to explain the difference. Because the studies relied on remembered behavior, the results do not establish that every other-focused act produces more happiness at the time it occurs. '''Key points:''' * Warm-glow giving is explained by Andreoni's (1990) theory of '''impure altruism''', in which concern for others and personal satisfaction from giving can coexist. * The emotional reward associated with helping can provide motivation for prosocial behavior. * Warm-glow processes can extend beyond charitable donations to other forms of prosocial participation, including crowdfunding and environmentally beneficial behavior (Xing et al., 2024; Chen, 2025). ==Why does giving feel good?== Andreoni’s theory explains why a donor might value the act of giving, but it does not itself establish that a donation will improve emotional well-being. Dunn et al. (2008) provided initial experimental evidence that spending on others can increase happiness; Aknin, Barrington-Leigh, et al. (2013) extended the finding to a range of cultural contexts. However, Aknin et al. (2020) obtained mixed results in large preregistered replications, suggesting that any average emotional benefit depends partly on how prosocial spending is enacted and measured. One explanation is that giving generates positive affect. Genevsky et al. (2025) found across behavioral and neuroimaging experiments that charitable appeals containing affectively congruent features generated greater donations than incongruent appeals. Importantly, the relationship between affective congruence and giving was mediated by positive aroused affect. This suggests that positive emotional experience was not simply associated with donation—it helped explain why particular appeals increased giving (Genevsky et al., 2025). Genevsky et al. (2025) also found greater activity in the nucleus accumbens, a brain region associated with positive affect and reward processing, in response to affectively congruent charitable requests. Increased activity subsequently predicted donation decisions. These findings provide a useful psychological and neuroaffective extension of warm-glow theory: charitable giving can engage emotional and reward processes that make helping psychologically reinforcing. Giving can also produce a sense of meaning rather than pleasure alone. Regan et al. (2023), writing in Affective Science, experimentally compared kindness towards others with kindness towards oneself and other positive activities. Other-directed kindness was linked to relatively stronger feelings of competence, self-confidence and meaning. These findings complement self-determination theory, but the intervention concerned kindness generally rather than charitable spending specifically. Psychological benefits are also evident outside laboratory donation tasks. Geng et al. (2022), using data from 1,871 Chinese university students, found that both volunteering time and the amount donated to charity were positively associated with psychological well-being. However, Geng et al. (2022) used observational data, so the association should not automatically be interpreted as proof that charitable giving directly causes greater well-being. People with greater psychological well-being may also be more inclined or able to participate in prosocial activities. Chen's (2025) findings similarly demonstrate that perceived warm glow can contribute to continued prosocial engagement. Participants in the Ant Forest platform were motivated by a combination of altruistic, self-related, and practical motives rather than a single source of motivation. '''Key points:''' * Positive emotional arousal can contribute to charitable donation decisions (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Giving can engage positive affect and reward-related processes, helping to explain why prosocial behavior may feel psychologically rewarding (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Charitable giving and volunteering are associated with psychological well-being, although correlational findings should not be interpreted as proof of causation (Geng et al., 2022). Planned Figure 2 for the final book chapter A simple original diagram could illustrate the proposed motivational cycle: Opportunity to help → Giving → Positive affect/warm glow → Emotional reward → Greater motivation for future prosocial behavior. As illustrated in '''Figure 2''', an opportunity to help may lead to giving, positive affect or warm glow, emotional reward, and greater motivation for future prosocial behavior. {| style="margin:15px auto; border-collapse:separate; border-spacing:4px; text-align:center;" | style="border:1px solid #4f81bd;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#eef5fc; width:110px;" | '''Opportunity to help''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #548235;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f0f7ed; width:70px;" | '''Giving''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #d6a000;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#fff7dc; width:135px;" | '''Positive affect / warm glow''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #8064a2;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f5f0fa; width:110px;" | '''Emotional reward''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #31859b;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#edf8fa; width:175px;" | '''Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour''' |} '''''Figure 2.'' Proposed motivational cycle of warm-glow giving.''' ==How do emotions influence charitable giving?== Self-determination theory provides a useful framework for distinguishing voluntary generosity from helping under pressure. Ryan and Deci (2000) identify autonomy, competence and relatedness as psychological needs, while Weinstein and Ryan (2010) found more favorable helper and recipient outcomes when helping was autonomously motivated. Aknin, Dunn, et al. (2013) further showed the importance of understanding a donation’s impact. These findings suggest that the rewarding quality of giving depends on circumstances and motives rather than on monetary transfer alone. Emotions can affect how people evaluate charitable need, not merely whether they feel good afterwards. Hasford et al. (2015) found that consumers were more insensitive to the scope of a charitable problem when their donations were based on emotional rather than calculative valuation. This finding provides an important limitation to a simple "emotion improves giving" explanation. Emotional motivation may stimulate generosity while simultaneously making donors less responsive to information such as the number of beneficiaries (Hasford et al., 2015). Genevsky et al. (2025) showed that the emotional construction of a charitable appeal also matters. Affectively congruent combinations of appeal features increased positive affect and donations, regardless of whether the matched features themselves were positively or negatively valenced. Emotional responses to charitable requests are not necessarily pleasant. Hepworth et al. (2021), across four studies, found that checkout-charity solicitations could create customer anxiety, which subsequently reduced evaluations of the service encounter. Interestingly, Hepworth et al. (2021) also found that anxiety could decrease when customers agreed to donate in employee-led solicitation situations. Therefore, some giving may potentially involve reducing an uncomfortable emotional state rather than simply seeking positive warm glow. Coleman and Peasley (2023) similarly found that checkout charity can produce ambivalent emotional experiences. Consumers may experience positive emotions such as pride and joy alongside negative emotions such as guilt and anger. Their findings suggest that high positive and high negative affect can occur simultaneously, and this emotional incongruence may actually reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Together, these studies demonstrate that emotion has a complex role in charitable behaviour. Warm glow, pride, positive arousal, anxiety, guilt, and anger can each influence donation decisions under different circumstances. '''Key points:''' * Emotional responses can encourage charitable giving, but emotional decision-making may also reduce sensitivity to the scope of need (Hasford et al., 2015). * Charitable requests can generate negative emotional reactions such as anxiety, and donating may sometimes reduce this discomfort (Hepworth et al., 2021). * Positive and negative emotions can occur simultaneously during charitable requests, and emotional ambivalence may reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Table 1. Emotional processes associated with giving and their possible influence on prosocial behaviour''' |- ! Process ! Emotional or motivational experience ! Possible behavioural effect ! Key evidence |- | '''Warm glow''' | Satisfaction from personally helping | Increases motivation to give or participate | Andreoni (1990); Xing et al. (2024) |- | '''Positive aroused affect''' | Positive emotional arousal during an appeal | Greater charitable donations | Genevsky et al. (2025) |- | '''Psychological well-being''' | Positive functioning associated with helping | May reinforce participation in prosocial activity | Geng et al. (2022) |- | '''Emotional valuation''' | Giving based mainly on feelings | Can promote donations but reduce sensitivity to scope | Hasford et al. (2015) |- | '''Checkout anxiety''' | Anxiety following a donation request | May reduce service evaluations and can sometimes encourage donating to reduce discomfort | Hepworth et al. (2021) |- | '''Emotional ambivalence''' | Simultaneous pride/joy and guilt/anger | Mixed affect can complicate or reduce donation intentions | Coleman & Peasley (2023) |- | '''Perceived warm glow''' | Personal satisfaction from environmental contribution | Encourages continued engagement | Chen (2025) |- | '''Moral elevation''' | Feeling inspired by another person's generosity | Encourages prosocial contagion | Yin et al. (2026) |} As summarised in Table 1, charitable behavior cannot be explained by one emotion alone. Giving involves interacting positive and negative emotional processes, and these processes can either encourage or inhibit prosocial action. ==How can warm glow influence future and wider prosocial behavior?== A useful distinction is between evidence of feeling good after giving and evidence of a later behavioral effect. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) tested repeated donation decisions, whereas Chen (2025) examined intentions to continue a digital environmental activity. The former more directly informs choice repetition; the latter helps explain sustained intentions but cannot by itself establish long-term action. This distinction limits overly simple claims that warm glow always produces future generosity. If giving produces an emotional reward, that feeling may act as feedback which shapes later choices. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) examined how feelings following previous donation decisions predicted subsequent decisions. They found that feeling good about a previous decision whether that decision was to give or not give—predicted a tendency to make a similar choice later. In contrast, feeling bad about the previous decision increased the likelihood of changing the next decision (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). This provides an important mechanism for explaining repeated prosocial behavior. If donating creates a warm-glow response, people may learn from this positive emotional feedback and become more motivated to donate again. Chen (2025) provides complementary evidence about sustained engagement in a different prosocial context. Perceived warm glow positively contributed to users' intentions to continue engaging with Ant Forest, suggesting that emotional benefits can support persistence over time. Warm-glow processes may also influence behavior between people, not just within a single donor. Yin et al. (2026) examined prosocial contagion across nine experiments and investigated responses to observing generosity from benefactors with different income levels. Observing generosity from lower-income benefactors produced stronger perceptions of altruistic motivation and greater moral elevation, which subsequently encouraged prosocial responses among observers (Yin et al., 2026). The finding demonstrates how emotional responses to another person's generosity can spread prosocial behavior. People do not necessarily need to experience the initial act of giving themselves; witnessing meaningful generosity can also motivate helping. Xing et al. (2024) further illustrates the social and practical application of warm glow. In poverty-alleviation crowdfunding, consumer warm glow helped account for the greater success of poverty-focused campaigns, demonstrating that the emotional reward attached to helping can influence marketplace behavior. Thus, emotional rewards may create two reinforcing pathways: personal reinforcement, where feeling good after giving encourages future giving, and social contagion, where observing generosity inspires prosocial behavior in other people.{{anchor|Scenarios}} '''Key points:''' * Emotional reactions to previous donation decisions can act as feedback that influences later giving behaviour (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). * Perceived warm glow can support continued engagement in prosocial activities over time (Chen, 2025). * Prosocial behaviour can spread socially because observing another person's generosity may produce moral elevation and encourage further helping behaviour (Yin et al., 2026). ;Quiz Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {Warm-glow giving suggests that people can care about helping others while also experiencing personal emotional satisfaction from the act of giving: |type="()"} + True - False {Charitable requests always make people feel positive emotions: |type="()"} - True + False {Why can giving produce positive emotional rewards? |type="()"} - Because all charitable donations guarantee happiness. + Because helping others can generate positive affect, personal satisfaction, and a sense of meaning. - Because people only donate to receive financial rewards. {According to Shlefer and Kogut (2021), how can emotions following a donation decision influence future giving? |type="()"} - Positive emotions always cause people to increase their donations. + Feeling good about a previous decision can encourage people to repeat a similar decision. - Emotional reactions have no influence on subsequent donation decisions. </quiz> ==Conclusion== Warm-glow giving explains why helping can be emotionally rewarding without implying that generosity is entirely self-interested. Andreoni's (1990) account of impure altruism establishes how concern for others and satisfaction from personally helping can coexist. Psychological research further indicates that perceived impact, autonomous choice, positive affect and feelings of meaning help explain when giving is rewarding (Weinstein & Ryan, 2010; Aknin, Dunn, et al., 2013; Regan et al., 2023). Nevertheless, emotional benefits are not guaranteed. Larger replications have produced positive, null and small effects (Aknin et al., 2020), while requests for donations can elicit guilt, anxiety and ambivalence (Hepworth et al., 2021; Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Emotional satisfaction also differs from demonstrable effectiveness: feeling pleased by a donation does not establish that it meets recipients' needs particularly well. Warm glow may reinforce repeated giving through emotional feedback, while observing generosity can inspire related but distinct feelings of moral elevation (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021; Yin et al., 2026). In everyday life, informed and voluntary donations, accompanied by meaningful feedback about impact, offer a practical way to support donors' well-being without losing sight of those who receive help. == See also == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Altruism and empathy|Altruism and empathy]] (Book chapter, 2024) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Empathy-altruism hypothesis|Empathy-altruism hypothesis]] (Book chapter, 2021) [[w|Altruism]] (Wikipedia) [[w behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Aknin, L. B., Barrington-Leigh, C. P., Dunn, E. W., Helliwell, J. F., Burns, J., Biswas-Diener, R., Kemeza, I., Nyende, P., Ashton-James, C. E., & Norton, M. I. (2013). Prosocial spending and well-being: Cross-cultural evidence for a psychological universal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(4), 635–652. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031578 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., & Whillans, A. V. (2022). The emotional rewards of prosocial spending are robust and replicable in large samples. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 31(6), 536–545. https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214221121100 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., Proulx, J., Lok, I., & Norton, M. I. (2020). Does spending money on others promote happiness? A registered replication report. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 119(2), e15–e26. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000191 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., Whillans, A. V., Grant, A. M., & Norton, M. I. (2013). Making a difference matters: Impact unlocks the emotional benefits of prosocial spending. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 88, 90–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2013.01.008 Aknin, L. B., Hamlin, J. K., & Dunn, E. W. (2012). Giving leads to happiness in young children. PLOS ONE, 7(6), Article e39211. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0039211 Andreoni, J. (1989). Giving with impure altruism: Applications to charity and Ricardian equivalence. Journal of Political Economy, 97(6), 1447–1458. https://doi.org/10.1086/261662 Andreoni, J. (1990). Impure altruism and donations to public goods: A theory of warm-glow giving. The Economic Journal, 100(401), 464–477. https://doi.org/10.2307/2234133 Bekkers, R., & Wiepking, P. (2011). A literature review of empirical studies of philanthropy: Eight mechanisms that drive charitable giving. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 40(5), 924–973. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764010380927 Bischoff, I., & Krauskopf, T. (2015). Warm glow of giving collectively—An experimental study. Journal of Economic Psychology, 51, 210–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2015.09.001 Chen, Y. (2025). Gaining in giving: Unveiling continuous engagement intentions with the Chinese pro-environmental gamification Ant Forest. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 41(13), 8447–8463. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2024.2410053 Coleman, J. T., & Peasley, M. C. (2023). Wounding pride and infusing affect: The ambivalent emotional experience of checkout charity. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 40(6), 785–797. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-07-2021-4750 Crumpler, H., & Grossman, P. J. (2008). An experimental test of warm glow giving. Journal of Public Economics, 92(5–6), 1011–1021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2007.12.014 Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2014). Prosocial spending and happiness: Using money to benefit others pays off. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(1), 41–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413512503 Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2008). Spending money on others promotes happiness. Science, 319(5870), 1687–1688. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1150952 Genevsky, A., Yoon, C., Lin, T.-Y., Shaw, S. D., & Knutson, B. (2025). The impact of affective congruence on charitable giving. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 20(1), nsaf086. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsaf086 Geng, Y., Chen, Y., Huang, C., Tan, Y., Zhang, C., & Zhu, S. (2022). Volunteering, charitable donation, and psychological well-being of college students in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 790528. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.790528 Harbaugh, W. T., Mayr, U., & Burghart, D. R. (2007). Neural responses to taxation and voluntary giving reveal motives for charitable donations. Science, 316(5831), 1622–1625. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1140738 Hasford, J., Farmer, A., & Waites, S. F. (2015). Thinking, feeling, and giving: The effects of scope and valuation on consumer donations. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 32(4), 435–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2015.05.006 Hepworth, A., Lee, N. Y., & Zablah, A. R. (2021). Feeling anxious: The dark side of checkout charity solicitations. Journal of Business Research, 136, 330–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.07.050 Luccasen, A. (2017). Warm-glow giving: Earned money and the option to take. Economic Inquiry, 55(2), 996–1006. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecin.12417 Moll, J., Krueger, F., Zahn, R., Pardini, M., de Oliveira-Souza, R., & Grafman, J. (2006). Human fronto-mesolimbic networks guide decisions about charitable donation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103(42), 15623–15628. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0604475103 Regan, A., Margolis, S., Ozer, D. J., Schwitzgebel, E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2023). What is unique about kindness? Exploring the proximal experience of prosocial acts relative to other positive behaviors. Affective Science, 4, 92–100. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-022-00143-4 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 Shlefer, S., & Kogut, T. (2021). How did it feel? Affect as a feedback system in repeated donation decisions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 97, 104203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104203 Weinstein, N., & Ryan, R. M. (2010). When helping helps: Autonomous motivation for prosocial behavior and its influence on well-being for the helper and recipient. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(2), 222–244. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016984 Wiwad, D., & Aknin, L. B. (2017). Motives matter: The emotional consequences of recalled self- and other-focused prosocial acts. Motivation and Emotion, 41(6), 730–740. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-017-9638-2 Xing, C., Zhang, Y., & Tripe, D. (2024). Ethical consumers and low-income sellers on China's reward-based crowdfunding platforms: Are poverty alleviation campaigns more successful? Journal of Business Ethics, 191(4), 793–810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-024-05666-3 Yin, B. M., Olson, J. G., & Li, Y. J. (2026). When having less elevates more: Benefactor income, moral elevation, and prosocial contagion among observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 131(4), 585–601. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000493 }} ==External links== * [https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/how_to_make_giving_feel_good How to make giving feel good] (Greater Good Science Center) * [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/publications/observer/obsonline/the-warm-glow-of-giving-may-overshadow-doing-the-greatest-good.html The “Warm Glow” of Giving May Overshadow Doing the Greatest Good] (Association for Psychological Science) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Prosocial]] 3oyqduj1v96xqtzn47s7fza4mzt5ovc 2840855 2840854 2026-10-17T06:16:48Z Karabi Tasneem 3109802 2840855 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Warm-glow giving:<br>Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Charity donation box, Hong Kong International Airport (2018).jpg|thumb|190px|'''Figure 1'''. A public donation box illustrates an everyday opportunity to engage in charitable giving. Such situations can benefit recipients while also generating emotional responses in donors.]] '''Imagine this...''' You are buying groceries when the checkout screen asks whether you would like to add $2 to support a charity. You had not planned to donate and you briefly hesitate. Two dollars will not make a noticeable difference to your own finances, so you select '''yes'''. As you leave the supermarket, you feel unexpectedly pleased about having helped someone else. A week later, you encounter another request for a small donation. You remember the positive feeling from the previous experience and again consider giving. Why can giving money away make a person feel good, and could this pleasant emotional response encourage them to behave generously again? {{RoundBoxBottom}} '''Warm-glow giving''' describes the internal satisfaction or emotional reward that people can experience from helping others. Andreoni's (1990) theory proposes that people can be motivated simultaneously by concern for beneficiaries and by the personal satisfaction they receive from giving. Research suggests that giving is associated with positive emotional experiences and psychological well-being. For example, charitable donation and volunteering have been positively associated with psychological well-being among university students (Geng et al., 2022). However, giving does not always produce purely positive emotions. Charitable requests can also produce anxiety, guilt, anger, pressure, or mixed emotional reactions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023; Hepworth et al., 2021). Understanding these processes is important because emotional experiences may influence not only an immediate decision to donate but also whether people continue engaging in prosocial behavior in the future (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions''' * What is warm-glow giving and how does it explain people's motivation to help others? * Why can giving produce positive emotional and rewarding experiences? * How do positive and negative emotions influence charitable giving decisions? * How can the emotional consequences of giving influence future and wider prosocial behavior? ==What is warm-glow giving?== Warm-glow giving was formally developed through Andreoni's (1990) theory of impure altruism. Pure altruism assumes that a person gives because they value improvements in another person's welfare, whereas impure altruism proposes that donors can also obtain utility from the act of giving itself. Warm glow therefore provides a way of understanding why apparently selfless behavior may also contain a personally rewarding component. Experiencing satisfaction from helping does not necessarily mean that genuine concern for others is absent; self-oriented and other-oriented motives can coexist (Andreoni, 1990). The theory is particularly useful because it connects motivation and emotion: the expectation or experience of a positive internal reward can provide motivation for prosocial behavior. Evidence shows that warm-glow processes extend beyond conventional charitable donations. Xing et al. (2024) found that consumers' feelings of warm glow helped explain the greater success of poverty-alleviation crowdfunding campaigns compared with ordinary crowdfunding campaigns. Chen (2025) extended warm-glow theory to pro-environmental gamification. Among 525 Ant Forest users, perceived warm glow was one of the positive predictors of continued engagement, alongside altruistic, egoistic, and pragmatic motivational factors. These findings suggest that warm glow can help explain multiple forms of prosocial participation, including donating, crowdfunding, and sustained environmentally beneficial behavior. Evidence from a motivation-focused journal provides a useful psychological qualification to the economic account. Wiwad and Aknin (2017) conducted three experiments comparing the emotional consequences of recalling self-focused and other-focused helpful acts. Recalling other-focused acts produced greater positive affect, with perceived morality helping to explain the difference. Because the studies relied on remembered behavior, the results do not establish that every other-focused act produces more happiness at the time it occurs. '''Key points:''' * Warm-glow giving is explained by Andreoni's (1990) theory of '''impure altruism''', in which concern for others and personal satisfaction from giving can coexist. * The emotional reward associated with helping can provide motivation for prosocial behavior. * Warm-glow processes can extend beyond charitable donations to other forms of prosocial participation, including crowdfunding and environmentally beneficial behavior (Xing et al., 2024; Chen, 2025). ==Why does giving feel good?== Andreoni’s theory explains why a donor might value the act of giving, but it does not itself establish that a donation will improve emotional well-being. Dunn et al. (2008) provided initial experimental evidence that spending on others can increase happiness; Aknin, Barrington-Leigh, et al. (2013) extended the finding to a range of cultural contexts. However, Aknin et al. (2020) obtained mixed results in large preregistered replications, suggesting that any average emotional benefit depends partly on how prosocial spending is enacted and measured. One explanation is that giving generates positive affect. Genevsky et al. (2025) found across behavioral and neuroimaging experiments that charitable appeals containing affectively congruent features generated greater donations than incongruent appeals. Importantly, the relationship between affective congruence and giving was mediated by positive aroused affect. This suggests that positive emotional experience was not simply associated with donation—it helped explain why particular appeals increased giving (Genevsky et al., 2025). Genevsky et al. (2025) also found greater activity in the nucleus accumbens, a brain region associated with positive affect and reward processing, in response to affectively congruent charitable requests. Increased activity subsequently predicted donation decisions. These findings provide a useful psychological and neuroaffective extension of warm-glow theory: charitable giving can engage emotional and reward processes that make helping psychologically reinforcing. Giving can also produce a sense of meaning rather than pleasure alone. Regan et al. (2023), writing in Affective Science, experimentally compared kindness towards others with kindness towards oneself and other positive activities. Other-directed kindness was linked to relatively stronger feelings of competence, self-confidence and meaning. These findings complement self-determination theory, but the intervention concerned kindness generally rather than charitable spending specifically. Psychological benefits are also evident outside laboratory donation tasks. Geng et al. (2022), using data from 1,871 Chinese university students, found that both volunteering time and the amount donated to charity were positively associated with psychological well-being. However, Geng et al. (2022) used observational data, so the association should not automatically be interpreted as proof that charitable giving directly causes greater well-being. People with greater psychological well-being may also be more inclined or able to participate in prosocial activities. Chen's (2025) findings similarly demonstrate that perceived warm glow can contribute to continued prosocial engagement. Participants in the Ant Forest platform were motivated by a combination of altruistic, self-related, and practical motives rather than a single source of motivation. '''Key points:''' * Positive emotional arousal can contribute to charitable donation decisions (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Giving can engage positive affect and reward-related processes, helping to explain why prosocial behavior may feel psychologically rewarding (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Charitable giving and volunteering are associated with psychological well-being, although correlational findings should not be interpreted as proof of causation (Geng et al., 2022). Planned Figure 2 for the final book chapter A simple original diagram could illustrate the proposed motivational cycle: Opportunity to help → Giving → Positive affect/warm glow → Emotional reward → Greater motivation for future prosocial behavior. As illustrated in '''Figure 2''', an opportunity to help may lead to giving, positive affect or warm glow, emotional reward, and greater motivation for future prosocial behavior. {| style="margin:15px auto; border-collapse:separate; border-spacing:4px; text-align:center;" | style="border:1px solid #4f81bd;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#eef5fc; width:110px;" | '''Opportunity to help''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #548235;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f0f7ed; width:70px;" | '''Giving''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #d6a000;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#fff7dc; width:135px;" | '''Positive affect / warm glow''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #8064a2;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f5f0fa; width:110px;" | '''Emotional reward''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #31859b;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#edf8fa; width:175px;" | '''Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour''' |} '''''Figure 2.'' Proposed motivational cycle of warm-glow giving.''' ==How do emotions influence charitable giving?== Self-determination theory provides a useful framework for distinguishing voluntary generosity from helping under pressure. Ryan and Deci (2000) identify autonomy, competence and relatedness as psychological needs, while Weinstein and Ryan (2010) found more favorable helper and recipient outcomes when helping was autonomously motivated. Aknin, Dunn, et al. (2013) further showed the importance of understanding a donation’s impact. These findings suggest that the rewarding quality of giving depends on circumstances and motives rather than on monetary transfer alone. Emotions can affect how people evaluate charitable need, not merely whether they feel good afterwards. Hasford et al. (2015) found that consumers were more insensitive to the scope of a charitable problem when their donations were based on emotional rather than calculative valuation. This finding provides an important limitation to a simple "emotion improves giving" explanation. Emotional motivation may stimulate generosity while simultaneously making donors less responsive to information such as the number of beneficiaries (Hasford et al., 2015). Genevsky et al. (2025) showed that the emotional construction of a charitable appeal also matters. Affectively congruent combinations of appeal features increased positive affect and donations, regardless of whether the matched features themselves were positively or negatively valenced. Emotional responses to charitable requests are not necessarily pleasant. Hepworth et al. (2021), across four studies, found that checkout-charity solicitations could create customer anxiety, which subsequently reduced evaluations of the service encounter. Interestingly, Hepworth et al. (2021) also found that anxiety could decrease when customers agreed to donate in employee-led solicitation situations. Therefore, some giving may potentially involve reducing an uncomfortable emotional state rather than simply seeking positive warm glow. Coleman and Peasley (2023) similarly found that checkout charity can produce ambivalent emotional experiences. Consumers may experience positive emotions such as pride and joy alongside negative emotions such as guilt and anger. Their findings suggest that high positive and high negative affect can occur simultaneously, and this emotional incongruence may actually reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Together, these studies demonstrate that emotion has a complex role in charitable behaviour. Warm glow, pride, positive arousal, anxiety, guilt, and anger can each influence donation decisions under different circumstances. '''Key points:''' * Emotional responses can encourage charitable giving, but emotional decision-making may also reduce sensitivity to the scope of need (Hasford et al., 2015). * Charitable requests can generate negative emotional reactions such as anxiety, and donating may sometimes reduce this discomfort (Hepworth et al., 2021). * Positive and negative emotions can occur simultaneously during charitable requests, and emotional ambivalence may reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Table 1. Emotional processes associated with giving and their possible influence on prosocial behaviour''' |- ! Process ! Emotional or motivational experience ! Possible behavioural effect ! Key evidence |- | '''Warm glow''' | Satisfaction from personally helping | Increases motivation to give or participate | Andreoni (1990); Xing et al. (2024) |- | '''Positive aroused affect''' | Positive emotional arousal during an appeal | Greater charitable donations | Genevsky et al. (2025) |- | '''Psychological well-being''' | Positive functioning associated with helping | May reinforce participation in prosocial activity | Geng et al. (2022) |- | '''Emotional valuation''' | Giving based mainly on feelings | Can promote donations but reduce sensitivity to scope | Hasford et al. (2015) |- | '''Checkout anxiety''' | Anxiety following a donation request | May reduce service evaluations and can sometimes encourage donating to reduce discomfort | Hepworth et al. (2021) |- | '''Emotional ambivalence''' | Simultaneous pride/joy and guilt/anger | Mixed affect can complicate or reduce donation intentions | Coleman & Peasley (2023) |- | '''Perceived warm glow''' | Personal satisfaction from environmental contribution | Encourages continued engagement | Chen (2025) |- | '''Moral elevation''' | Feeling inspired by another person's generosity | Encourages prosocial contagion | Yin et al. (2026) |} As summarised in Table 1, charitable behavior cannot be explained by one emotion alone. Giving involves interacting positive and negative emotional processes, and these processes can either encourage or inhibit prosocial action. ==How can warm glow influence future and wider prosocial behavior?== A useful distinction is between evidence of feeling good after giving and evidence of a later behavioral effect. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) tested repeated donation decisions, whereas Chen (2025) examined intentions to continue a digital environmental activity. The former more directly informs choice repetition; the latter helps explain sustained intentions but cannot by itself establish long-term action. This distinction limits overly simple claims that warm glow always produces future generosity. If giving produces an emotional reward, that feeling may act as feedback which shapes later choices. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) examined how feelings following previous donation decisions predicted subsequent decisions. They found that feeling good about a previous decision whether that decision was to give or not give—predicted a tendency to make a similar choice later. In contrast, feeling bad about the previous decision increased the likelihood of changing the next decision (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). This provides an important mechanism for explaining repeated prosocial behavior. If donating creates a warm-glow response, people may learn from this positive emotional feedback and become more motivated to donate again. Chen (2025) provides complementary evidence about sustained engagement in a different prosocial context. Perceived warm glow positively contributed to users' intentions to continue engaging with Ant Forest, suggesting that emotional benefits can support persistence over time. Warm-glow processes may also influence behavior between people, not just within a single donor. Yin et al. (2026) examined prosocial contagion across nine experiments and investigated responses to observing generosity from benefactors with different income levels. Observing generosity from lower-income benefactors produced stronger perceptions of altruistic motivation and greater moral elevation, which subsequently encouraged prosocial responses among observers (Yin et al., 2026). The finding demonstrates how emotional responses to another person's generosity can spread prosocial behavior. People do not necessarily need to experience the initial act of giving themselves; witnessing meaningful generosity can also motivate helping. Xing et al. (2024) further illustrates the social and practical application of warm glow. In poverty-alleviation crowdfunding, consumer warm glow helped account for the greater success of poverty-focused campaigns, demonstrating that the emotional reward attached to helping can influence marketplace behavior. Thus, emotional rewards may create two reinforcing pathways: personal reinforcement, where feeling good after giving encourages future giving, and social contagion, where observing generosity inspires prosocial behavior in other people.{{anchor|Scenarios}} '''Key points:''' * Emotional reactions to previous donation decisions can act as feedback that influences later giving behaviour (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). * Perceived warm glow can support continued engagement in prosocial activities over time (Chen, 2025). * Prosocial behaviour can spread socially because observing another person's generosity may produce moral elevation and encourage further helping behaviour (Yin et al., 2026). ;Quiz Choose your answers and click "Submit":<quiz display="simple"> {Warm-glow giving suggests that people can care about helping others while also experiencing personal emotional satisfaction from the act of giving: |type="()"} + True - False {Charitable requests always make people feel positive emotions: |type="()"} - True + False {Why can giving produce positive emotional rewards? |type="()"} - Because all charitable donations guarantee happiness. + Because helping others can generate positive affect, personal satisfaction, and a sense of meaning. - Because people only donate to receive financial rewards. {According to Shlefer and Kogut (2021), how can emotions following a donation decision influence future giving? |type="()"} - Positive emotions always cause people to increase their donations. + Feeling good about a previous decision can encourage people to repeat a similar decision. - Emotional reactions have no influence on subsequent donation decisions. </quiz> ==Conclusion== Warm-glow giving explains why helping can be emotionally rewarding without implying that generosity is entirely self-interested. Andreoni's (1990) account of impure altruism establishes how concern for others and satisfaction from personally helping can coexist. Psychological research further indicates that perceived impact, autonomous choice, positive affect and feelings of meaning help explain when giving is rewarding (Weinstein & Ryan, 2010; Aknin, Dunn, et al., 2013; Regan et al., 2023). Nevertheless, emotional benefits are not guaranteed. Larger replications have produced positive, null and small effects (Aknin et al., 2020), while requests for donations can elicit guilt, anxiety and ambivalence (Hepworth et al., 2021; Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Emotional satisfaction also differs from demonstrable effectiveness: feeling pleased by a donation does not establish that it meets recipients' needs particularly well. Warm glow may reinforce repeated giving through emotional feedback, while observing generosity can inspire related but distinct feelings of moral elevation (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021; Yin et al., 2026). In everyday life, informed and voluntary donations, accompanied by meaningful feedback about impact, offer a practical way to support donors' well-being without losing sight of those who receive help. == See also == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Altruism and empathy|Altruism and empathy]] (Book chapter, 2024) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Empathy-altruism hypothesis|Empathy-altruism hypothesis]] (Book chapter, 2021) [[w|Altruism]] (Wikipedia) [[w behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Aknin, L. B., Barrington-Leigh, C. P., Dunn, E. W., Helliwell, J. F., Burns, J., Biswas-Diener, R., Kemeza, I., Nyende, P., Ashton-James, C. E., & Norton, M. I. (2013). Prosocial spending and well-being: Cross-cultural evidence for a psychological universal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(4), 635–652. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031578 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., & Whillans, A. V. (2022). The emotional rewards of prosocial spending are robust and replicable in large samples. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 31(6), 536–545. https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214221121100 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., Proulx, J., Lok, I., & Norton, M. I. (2020). Does spending money on others promote happiness? A registered replication report. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 119(2), e15–e26. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000191 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., Whillans, A. V., Grant, A. M., & Norton, M. I. (2013). Making a difference matters: Impact unlocks the emotional benefits of prosocial spending. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 88, 90–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2013.01.008 Aknin, L. B., Hamlin, J. K., & Dunn, E. W. (2012). Giving leads to happiness in young children. PLOS ONE, 7(6), Article e39211. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0039211 Andreoni, J. (1989). Giving with impure altruism: Applications to charity and Ricardian equivalence. Journal of Political Economy, 97(6), 1447–1458. https://doi.org/10.1086/261662 Andreoni, J. (1990). Impure altruism and donations to public goods: A theory of warm-glow giving. The Economic Journal, 100(401), 464–477. https://doi.org/10.2307/2234133 Bekkers, R., & Wiepking, P. (2011). A literature review of empirical studies of philanthropy: Eight mechanisms that drive charitable giving. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 40(5), 924–973. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764010380927 Bischoff, I., & Krauskopf, T. (2015). Warm glow of giving collectively—An experimental study. Journal of Economic Psychology, 51, 210–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2015.09.001 Chen, Y. (2025). Gaining in giving: Unveiling continuous engagement intentions with the Chinese pro-environmental gamification Ant Forest. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 41(13), 8447–8463. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2024.2410053 Coleman, J. T., & Peasley, M. C. (2023). Wounding pride and infusing affect: The ambivalent emotional experience of checkout charity. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 40(6), 785–797. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-07-2021-4750 Crumpler, H., & Grossman, P. J. (2008). An experimental test of warm glow giving. Journal of Public Economics, 92(5–6), 1011–1021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2007.12.014 Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2014). Prosocial spending and happiness: Using money to benefit others pays off. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(1), 41–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413512503 Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2008). Spending money on others promotes happiness. Science, 319(5870), 1687–1688. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1150952 Genevsky, A., Yoon, C., Lin, T.-Y., Shaw, S. D., & Knutson, B. (2025). The impact of affective congruence on charitable giving. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 20(1), nsaf086. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsaf086 Geng, Y., Chen, Y., Huang, C., Tan, Y., Zhang, C., & Zhu, S. (2022). Volunteering, charitable donation, and psychological well-being of college students in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 790528. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.790528 Harbaugh, W. T., Mayr, U., & Burghart, D. R. (2007). Neural responses to taxation and voluntary giving reveal motives for charitable donations. Science, 316(5831), 1622–1625. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1140738 Hasford, J., Farmer, A., & Waites, S. F. (2015). Thinking, feeling, and giving: The effects of scope and valuation on consumer donations. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 32(4), 435–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2015.05.006 Hepworth, A., Lee, N. Y., & Zablah, A. R. (2021). Feeling anxious: The dark side of checkout charity solicitations. Journal of Business Research, 136, 330–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.07.050 Luccasen, A. (2017). Warm-glow giving: Earned money and the option to take. Economic Inquiry, 55(2), 996–1006. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecin.12417 Moll, J., Krueger, F., Zahn, R., Pardini, M., de Oliveira-Souza, R., & Grafman, J. (2006). Human fronto-mesolimbic networks guide decisions about charitable donation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103(42), 15623–15628. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0604475103 Regan, A., Margolis, S., Ozer, D. J., Schwitzgebel, E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2023). What is unique about kindness? Exploring the proximal experience of prosocial acts relative to other positive behaviors. Affective Science, 4, 92–100. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-022-00143-4 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 Shlefer, S., & Kogut, T. (2021). How did it feel? Affect as a feedback system in repeated donation decisions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 97, 104203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104203 Weinstein, N., & Ryan, R. M. (2010). When helping helps: Autonomous motivation for prosocial behavior and its influence on well-being for the helper and recipient. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(2), 222–244. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016984 Wiwad, D., & Aknin, L. B. (2017). Motives matter: The emotional consequences of recalled self- and other-focused prosocial acts. Motivation and Emotion, 41(6), 730–740. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-017-9638-2 Xing, C., Zhang, Y., & Tripe, D. (2024). Ethical consumers and low-income sellers on China's reward-based crowdfunding platforms: Are poverty alleviation campaigns more successful? Journal of Business Ethics, 191(4), 793–810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-024-05666-3 Yin, B. M., Olson, J. G., & Li, Y. J. (2026). When having less elevates more: Benefactor income, moral elevation, and prosocial contagion among observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 131(4), 585–601. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000493 }} ==External links== * [https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/how_to_make_giving_feel_good How to make giving feel good] (Greater Good Science Center) * [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/publications/observer/obsonline/the-warm-glow-of-giving-may-overshadow-doing-the-greatest-good.html The “Warm Glow” of Giving May Overshadow Doing the Greatest Good] (Association for Psychological Science) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Prosocial]] grd65rdt9nopha5zy4lc0ygm2ml6mz5 2840862 2840855 2026-10-17T06:22:36Z Karabi Tasneem 3109802 2840862 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Warm-glow giving:<br>Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Charity donation box, Hong Kong International Airport (2018).jpg|thumb|190px|'''Figure 1'''. A public donation box illustrates an everyday opportunity to engage in charitable giving. Such situations can benefit recipients while also generating emotional responses in donors.]] '''Imagine this...''' You are buying groceries when the checkout screen asks whether you would like to add $2 to support a charity. You had not planned to donate and you briefly hesitate. Two dollars will not make a noticeable difference to your own finances, so you select '''yes'''. As you leave the supermarket, you feel unexpectedly pleased about having helped someone else. A week later, you encounter another request for a small donation. You remember the positive feeling from the previous experience and again consider giving. Why can giving money away make a person feel good, and could this pleasant emotional response encourage them to behave generously again? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Warm-glow giving\|warm-glow giving]] the internal satisfaction or emotional reward that people can experience from helping others. Andreoni's (1990) theory proposes that people can be motivated simultaneously by concern for beneficiaries and by the personal satisfaction they receive from giving. Research suggests that giving is associated with positive emotional experiences and psychological well-being. For example, charitable donation and volunteering have been positively associated with psychological well-being among university students (Geng et al., 2022). However, giving does not always produce purely positive emotions. Charitable requests can also produce anxiety, guilt, anger, pressure, or mixed emotional reactions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023; Hepworth et al., 2021). Understanding these processes is important because emotional experiences may influence not only an immediate decision to donate but also whether people continue engaging in prosocial behavior in the future (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions''' * What is warm-glow giving and how does it explain people's motivation to help others? * Why can giving produce positive emotional and rewarding experiences? * How do positive and negative emotions influence charitable giving decisions? * How can the emotional consequences of giving influence future and wider prosocial behavior? ==What is warm-glow giving?== Warm-glow giving was formally developed through Andreoni's (1990) theory of impure altruism. Pure altruism assumes that a person gives because they value improvements in another person's welfare, whereas impure altruism proposes that donors can also obtain utility from the act of giving itself. Warm glow therefore provides a way of understanding why apparently selfless behavior may also contain a personally rewarding component. Experiencing satisfaction from helping does not necessarily mean that genuine concern for others is absent; self-oriented and other-oriented motives can coexist (Andreoni, 1990). The theory is particularly useful because it connects motivation and emotion: the expectation or experience of a positive internal reward can provide motivation for prosocial behavior. Evidence shows that warm-glow processes extend beyond conventional charitable donations. Xing et al. (2024) found that consumers' feelings of warm glow helped explain the greater success of poverty-alleviation crowdfunding campaigns compared with ordinary crowdfunding campaigns. Chen (2025) extended warm-glow theory to pro-environmental gamification. Among 525 Ant Forest users, perceived warm glow was one of the positive predictors of continued engagement, alongside altruistic, egoistic, and pragmatic motivational factors. These findings suggest that warm glow can help explain multiple forms of prosocial participation, including donating, crowdfunding, and sustained environmentally beneficial behavior. Evidence from a motivation-focused journal provides a useful psychological qualification to the economic account. Wiwad and Aknin (2017) conducted three experiments comparing the emotional consequences of recalling self-focused and other-focused helpful acts. Recalling other-focused acts produced greater positive affect, with perceived morality helping to explain the difference. Because the studies relied on remembered behavior, the results do not establish that every other-focused act produces more happiness at the time it occurs. '''Key points:''' * Warm-glow giving is explained by Andreoni's (1990) theory of '''impure altruism''', in which concern for others and personal satisfaction from giving can coexist. * The emotional reward associated with helping can provide motivation for prosocial behavior. * Warm-glow processes can extend beyond charitable donations to other forms of prosocial participation, including crowdfunding and environmentally beneficial behavior (Xing et al., 2024; Chen, 2025). ==Why does giving feel good?== Andreoni’s theory explains why a donor might value the act of giving, but it does not itself establish that a donation will improve emotional well-being. Dunn et al. (2008) provided initial experimental evidence that spending on others can increase happiness; Aknin, Barrington-Leigh, et al. (2013) extended the finding to a range of cultural contexts. However, Aknin et al. (2020) obtained mixed results in large preregistered replications, suggesting that any average emotional benefit depends partly on how prosocial spending is enacted and measured. One explanation is that giving generates positive affect. Genevsky et al. (2025) found across behavioral and neuroimaging experiments that charitable appeals containing affectively congruent features generated greater donations than incongruent appeals. Importantly, the relationship between affective congruence and giving was mediated by positive aroused affect. This suggests that positive emotional experience was not simply associated with donation—it helped explain why particular appeals increased giving (Genevsky et al., 2025). Genevsky et al. (2025) also found greater activity in the nucleus accumbens, a brain region associated with positive affect and reward processing, in response to affectively congruent charitable requests. Increased activity subsequently predicted donation decisions. These findings provide a useful psychological and neuroaffective extension of warm-glow theory: charitable giving can engage emotional and reward processes that make helping psychologically reinforcing. Giving can also produce a sense of meaning rather than pleasure alone. Regan et al. (2023), writing in Affective Science, experimentally compared kindness towards others with kindness towards oneself and other positive activities. Other-directed kindness was linked to relatively stronger feelings of competence, self-confidence and meaning. These findings complement self-determination theory, but the intervention concerned kindness generally rather than charitable spending specifically. Psychological benefits are also evident outside laboratory donation tasks. Geng et al. (2022), using data from 1,871 Chinese university students, found that both volunteering time and the amount donated to charity were positively associated with psychological well-being. However, Geng et al. (2022) used observational data, so the association should not automatically be interpreted as proof that charitable giving directly causes greater well-being. People with greater psychological well-being may also be more inclined or able to participate in prosocial activities. Chen's (2025) findings similarly demonstrate that perceived warm glow can contribute to continued prosocial engagement. Participants in the Ant Forest platform were motivated by a combination of altruistic, self-related, and practical motives rather than a single source of motivation. '''Key points:''' * Positive emotional arousal can contribute to charitable donation decisions (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Giving can engage positive affect and reward-related processes, helping to explain why prosocial behavior may feel psychologically rewarding (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Charitable giving and volunteering are associated with psychological well-being, although correlational findings should not be interpreted as proof of causation (Geng et al., 2022). Planned Figure 2 for the final book chapter A simple original diagram could illustrate the proposed motivational cycle: Opportunity to help → Giving → Positive affect/warm glow → Emotional reward → Greater motivation for future prosocial behavior. As illustrated in '''Figure 2''', an opportunity to help may lead to giving, positive affect or warm glow, emotional reward, and greater motivation for future prosocial behavior. {| style="margin:15px auto; border-collapse:separate; border-spacing:4px; text-align:center;" | style="border:1px solid #4f81bd;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#eef5fc; width:110px;" | '''Opportunity to help''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #548235;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f0f7ed; width:70px;" | '''Giving''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #d6a000;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#fff7dc; width:135px;" | '''Positive affect / warm glow''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #8064a2;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f5f0fa; width:110px;" | '''Emotional reward''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #31859b;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#edf8fa; width:175px;" | '''Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour''' |} '''''Figure 2.'' Proposed motivational cycle of warm-glow giving.''' ==How do emotions influence charitable giving?== Self-determination theory provides a useful framework for distinguishing voluntary generosity from helping under pressure. Ryan and Deci (2000) identify autonomy, competence and relatedness as psychological needs, while Weinstein and Ryan (2010) found more favorable helper and recipient outcomes when helping was autonomously motivated. Aknin, Dunn, et al. (2013) further showed the importance of understanding a donation’s impact. These findings suggest that the rewarding quality of giving depends on circumstances and motives rather than on monetary transfer alone. Emotions can affect how people evaluate charitable need, not merely whether they feel good afterwards. Hasford et al. (2015) found that consumers were more insensitive to the scope of a charitable problem when their donations were based on emotional rather than calculative valuation. This finding provides an important limitation to a simple "emotion improves giving" explanation. Emotional motivation may stimulate generosity while simultaneously making donors less responsive to information such as the number of beneficiaries (Hasford et al., 2015). Genevsky et al. (2025) showed that the emotional construction of a charitable appeal also matters. Affectively congruent combinations of appeal features increased positive affect and donations, regardless of whether the matched features themselves were positively or negatively valenced. Emotional responses to charitable requests are not necessarily pleasant. Hepworth et al. (2021), across four studies, found that checkout-charity solicitations could create customer anxiety, which subsequently reduced evaluations of the service encounter. Interestingly, Hepworth et al. (2021) also found that anxiety could decrease when customers agreed to donate in employee-led solicitation situations. Therefore, some giving may potentially involve reducing an uncomfortable emotional state rather than simply seeking positive warm glow. Coleman and Peasley (2023) similarly found that checkout charity can produce ambivalent emotional experiences. Consumers may experience positive emotions such as pride and joy alongside negative emotions such as guilt and anger. Their findings suggest that high positive and high negative affect can occur simultaneously, and this emotional incongruence may actually reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Together, these studies demonstrate that emotion has a complex role in charitable behaviour. Warm glow, pride, positive arousal, anxiety, guilt, and anger can each influence donation decisions under different circumstances. '''Key points:''' * Emotional responses can encourage charitable giving, but emotional decision-making may also reduce sensitivity to the scope of need (Hasford et al., 2015). * Charitable requests can generate negative emotional reactions such as anxiety, and donating may sometimes reduce this discomfort (Hepworth et al., 2021). * Positive and negative emotions can occur simultaneously during charitable requests, and emotional ambivalence may reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Table 1. Emotional processes associated with giving and their possible influence on prosocial behaviour''' |- ! Process ! Emotional or motivational experience ! Possible behavioural effect ! Key evidence |- | '''Warm glow''' | Satisfaction from personally helping | Increases motivation to give or participate | Andreoni (1990); Xing et al. (2024) |- | '''Positive aroused affect''' | Positive emotional arousal during an appeal | Greater charitable donations | Genevsky et al. (2025) |- | '''Psychological well-being''' | Positive functioning associated with helping | May reinforce participation in prosocial activity | Geng et al. (2022) |- | '''Emotional valuation''' | Giving based mainly on feelings | Can promote donations but reduce sensitivity to scope | Hasford et al. (2015) |- | '''Checkout anxiety''' | Anxiety following a donation request | May reduce service evaluations and can sometimes encourage donating to reduce discomfort | Hepworth et al. (2021) |- | '''Emotional ambivalence''' | Simultaneous pride/joy and guilt/anger | Mixed affect can complicate or reduce donation intentions | Coleman & Peasley (2023) |- | '''Perceived warm glow''' | Personal satisfaction from environmental contribution | Encourages continued engagement | Chen (2025) |- | '''Moral elevation''' | Feeling inspired by another person's generosity | Encourages prosocial contagion | Yin et al. (2026) |} As summarised in Table 1, charitable behavior cannot be explained by one emotion alone. Giving involves interacting positive and negative emotional processes, and these processes can either encourage or inhibit prosocial action. ==How can warm glow influence future and wider prosocial behavior?== A useful distinction is between evidence of feeling good after giving and evidence of a later behavioral effect. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) tested repeated donation decisions, whereas Chen (2025) examined intentions to continue a digital environmental activity. The former more directly informs choice repetition; the latter helps explain sustained intentions but cannot by itself establish long-term action. This distinction limits overly simple claims that warm glow always produces future generosity. If giving produces an emotional reward, that feeling may act as feedback which shapes later choices. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) examined how feelings following previous donation decisions predicted subsequent decisions. They found that feeling good about a previous decision whether that decision was to give or not give—predicted a tendency to make a similar choice later. In contrast, feeling bad about the previous decision increased the likelihood of changing the next decision (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). This provides an important mechanism for explaining repeated prosocial behavior. If donating creates a warm-glow response, people may learn from this positive emotional feedback and become more motivated to donate again. Chen (2025) provides complementary evidence about sustained engagement in a different prosocial context. Perceived warm glow positively contributed to users' intentions to continue engaging with Ant Forest, suggesting that emotional benefits can support persistence over time. Warm-glow processes may also influence behavior between people, not just within a single donor. Yin et al. (2026) examined prosocial contagion across nine experiments and investigated responses to observing generosity from benefactors with different income levels. Observing generosity from lower-income benefactors produced stronger perceptions of altruistic motivation and greater moral elevation, which subsequently encouraged prosocial responses among observers (Yin et al., 2026). The finding demonstrates how emotional responses to another person's generosity can spread prosocial behavior. People do not necessarily need to experience the initial act of giving themselves; witnessing meaningful generosity can also motivate helping. Xing et al. (2024) further illustrates the social and practical application of warm glow. In poverty-alleviation crowdfunding, consumer warm glow helped account for the greater success of poverty-focused campaigns, demonstrating that the emotional reward attached to helping can influence marketplace behavior. Thus, emotional rewards may create two reinforcing pathways: personal reinforcement, where feeling good after giving encourages future giving, and social contagion, where observing generosity inspires prosocial behavior in other people.{{anchor|Scenarios}} '''Key points:''' * Emotional reactions to previous donation decisions can act as feedback that influences later giving behaviour (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). * Perceived warm glow can support continued engagement in prosocial activities over time (Chen, 2025). * Prosocial behaviour can spread socially because observing another person's generosity may produce moral elevation and encourage further helping behaviour (Yin et al., 2026). ;Quiz Choose your answers and click "Submit":<quiz display="simple"> {Warm-glow giving suggests that people can care about helping others while also experiencing personal emotional satisfaction from the act of giving: |type="()"} + True - False {Charitable requests always make people feel positive emotions: |type="()"} - True + False {Why can giving produce positive emotional rewards? |type="()"} - Because all charitable donations guarantee happiness. + Because helping others can generate positive affect, personal satisfaction, and a sense of meaning. - Because people only donate to receive financial rewards. {According to Shlefer and Kogut (2021), how can emotions following a donation decision influence future giving? |type="()"} - Positive emotions always cause people to increase their donations. + Feeling good about a previous decision can encourage people to repeat a similar decision. - Emotional reactions have no influence on subsequent donation decisions. </quiz> ==Conclusion== Warm-glow giving explains why helping can be emotionally rewarding without implying that generosity is entirely self-interested. Andreoni's (1990) account of impure altruism establishes how concern for others and satisfaction from personally helping can coexist. Psychological research further indicates that perceived impact, autonomous choice, positive affect and feelings of meaning help explain when giving is rewarding (Weinstein & Ryan, 2010; Aknin, Dunn, et al., 2013; Regan et al., 2023). Nevertheless, emotional benefits are not guaranteed. Larger replications have produced positive, null and small effects (Aknin et al., 2020), while requests for donations can elicit guilt, anxiety and ambivalence (Hepworth et al., 2021; Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Emotional satisfaction also differs from demonstrable effectiveness: feeling pleased by a donation does not establish that it meets recipients' needs particularly well. Warm glow may reinforce repeated giving through emotional feedback, while observing generosity can inspire related but distinct feelings of moral elevation (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021; Yin et al., 2026). In everyday life, informed and voluntary donations, accompanied by meaningful feedback about impact, offer a practical way to support donors' well-being without losing sight of those who receive help. == See also == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Altruism and empathy|Altruism and empathy]] (Book chapter, 2024) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Empathy-altruism hypothesis|Empathy-altruism hypothesis]] (Book chapter, 2021) [[w|Altruism]] (Wikipedia) [[w behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Aknin, L. B., Barrington-Leigh, C. P., Dunn, E. W., Helliwell, J. F., Burns, J., Biswas-Diener, R., Kemeza, I., Nyende, P., Ashton-James, C. E., & Norton, M. I. (2013). Prosocial spending and well-being: Cross-cultural evidence for a psychological universal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(4), 635–652. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031578 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., & Whillans, A. V. (2022). The emotional rewards of prosocial spending are robust and replicable in large samples. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 31(6), 536–545. https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214221121100 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., Proulx, J., Lok, I., & Norton, M. I. (2020). Does spending money on others promote happiness? A registered replication report. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 119(2), e15–e26. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000191 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., Whillans, A. V., Grant, A. M., & Norton, M. I. (2013). Making a difference matters: Impact unlocks the emotional benefits of prosocial spending. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 88, 90–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2013.01.008 Aknin, L. B., Hamlin, J. K., & Dunn, E. W. (2012). Giving leads to happiness in young children. PLOS ONE, 7(6), Article e39211. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0039211 Andreoni, J. (1989). Giving with impure altruism: Applications to charity and Ricardian equivalence. Journal of Political Economy, 97(6), 1447–1458. https://doi.org/10.1086/261662 Andreoni, J. (1990). Impure altruism and donations to public goods: A theory of warm-glow giving. The Economic Journal, 100(401), 464–477. https://doi.org/10.2307/2234133 Bekkers, R., & Wiepking, P. (2011). A literature review of empirical studies of philanthropy: Eight mechanisms that drive charitable giving. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 40(5), 924–973. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764010380927 Bischoff, I., & Krauskopf, T. (2015). Warm glow of giving collectively—An experimental study. Journal of Economic Psychology, 51, 210–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2015.09.001 Chen, Y. (2025). Gaining in giving: Unveiling continuous engagement intentions with the Chinese pro-environmental gamification Ant Forest. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 41(13), 8447–8463. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2024.2410053 Coleman, J. T., & Peasley, M. C. (2023). Wounding pride and infusing affect: The ambivalent emotional experience of checkout charity. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 40(6), 785–797. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-07-2021-4750 Crumpler, H., & Grossman, P. J. (2008). An experimental test of warm glow giving. Journal of Public Economics, 92(5–6), 1011–1021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2007.12.014 Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2014). Prosocial spending and happiness: Using money to benefit others pays off. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(1), 41–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413512503 Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2008). Spending money on others promotes happiness. Science, 319(5870), 1687–1688. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1150952 Genevsky, A., Yoon, C., Lin, T.-Y., Shaw, S. D., & Knutson, B. (2025). The impact of affective congruence on charitable giving. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 20(1), nsaf086. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsaf086 Geng, Y., Chen, Y., Huang, C., Tan, Y., Zhang, C., & Zhu, S. (2022). Volunteering, charitable donation, and psychological well-being of college students in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 790528. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.790528 Harbaugh, W. T., Mayr, U., & Burghart, D. R. (2007). Neural responses to taxation and voluntary giving reveal motives for charitable donations. Science, 316(5831), 1622–1625. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1140738 Hasford, J., Farmer, A., & Waites, S. F. (2015). Thinking, feeling, and giving: The effects of scope and valuation on consumer donations. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 32(4), 435–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2015.05.006 Hepworth, A., Lee, N. Y., & Zablah, A. R. (2021). Feeling anxious: The dark side of checkout charity solicitations. Journal of Business Research, 136, 330–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.07.050 Luccasen, A. (2017). Warm-glow giving: Earned money and the option to take. Economic Inquiry, 55(2), 996–1006. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecin.12417 Moll, J., Krueger, F., Zahn, R., Pardini, M., de Oliveira-Souza, R., & Grafman, J. (2006). Human fronto-mesolimbic networks guide decisions about charitable donation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103(42), 15623–15628. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0604475103 Regan, A., Margolis, S., Ozer, D. J., Schwitzgebel, E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2023). What is unique about kindness? Exploring the proximal experience of prosocial acts relative to other positive behaviors. Affective Science, 4, 92–100. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-022-00143-4 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 Shlefer, S., & Kogut, T. (2021). How did it feel? Affect as a feedback system in repeated donation decisions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 97, 104203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104203 Weinstein, N., & Ryan, R. M. (2010). When helping helps: Autonomous motivation for prosocial behavior and its influence on well-being for the helper and recipient. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(2), 222–244. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016984 Wiwad, D., & Aknin, L. B. (2017). Motives matter: The emotional consequences of recalled self- and other-focused prosocial acts. Motivation and Emotion, 41(6), 730–740. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-017-9638-2 Xing, C., Zhang, Y., & Tripe, D. (2024). Ethical consumers and low-income sellers on China's reward-based crowdfunding platforms: Are poverty alleviation campaigns more successful? Journal of Business Ethics, 191(4), 793–810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-024-05666-3 Yin, B. M., Olson, J. G., & Li, Y. J. (2026). When having less elevates more: Benefactor income, moral elevation, and prosocial contagion among observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 131(4), 585–601. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000493 }} ==External links== * [https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/how_to_make_giving_feel_good How to make giving feel good] (Greater Good Science Center) * [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/publications/observer/obsonline/the-warm-glow-of-giving-may-overshadow-doing-the-greatest-good.html The “Warm Glow” of Giving May Overshadow Doing the Greatest Good] (Association for Psychological Science) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Prosocial]] 56lntc70s6auxz6tyqaa5x1a3v3fvyy 0 331583 2840877 2839430 2026-10-17T06:36:27Z U3228742 3005570 /* Learning features */ updating to captialise at the beginning of the sentence 2840877 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Cognitive versus affective empathy:<br>What are the differences between cognitive and affective empathy and how do they contribute to prosociality?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Scenario''' Imagine a friend tells you they accidentally deleted the entirety of their important assignment. You might try to understand what they are thinking and feeling. At the same time, you may feel sadness, concern or anxiety in response to their experience. Both responses can be described as empathy, but they are not necessarily the same psychological process. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Empathy and the brain.png|thumb|Figure 1. Affective and Cognitive Empathy ]] Empathy is a multidimensional psychological construct and is important in human interaction as it allows a person to understand and respond to the experience of another. Empathy can involve responding to another persons psychological or emotional state, while maintaining a distinction between self and other. Often confused with sympathy, empathy is not simply defined as feeling sorry for someone, but involves gaining an understanding of someones situation and their psychological response (Maibom, 2020). Empathy is often viewed as putting yourself in another's shoes however, research shows that empathy involves different processes and adoptions of empathy. There are two main constructs of empathy, affective and cognitive. Both types of empathy can influence how people interact with one another and can encourage prosocial behaviour through cooperating, supporting, comforting and helping others (Sanders et al., 2021). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Focus questions * What is the difference between cognitive and affective empathy? * how does each form of empathy contribute to prosocial behaviour? * when can empathic responses fail to produce helpful behaviour?{{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Development of Empathy== Empathy is developed progressively throughout early childhood and adolescence as one develops emotional, cognitive and social skills. it is believed that empathy can develop through interactions between maturation, environmental influences and social experiences (GGSC, 2026). [[File:There's no crying in baseball! (4549295140) 2.jpg|thumb|Figure 2. A Child Comforting Another in Emotional Distress]] For most individuals, signs of affective empathy appear early in life. Using foundations of emotional cognition, children will begin to cry at the sight of another infant crying. This does not represent a full understanding of another's emotions however, it reflects early sensitivity to the emotional state of those around them. As the growth of children progresses, they eventually learn to distinguish the emotions of self and other to respond in the most appropriate way. In a study addressing prosocial behaviour and empathy in relation to ageing, researchers found that adults responded strongly to empathy and were more likely to contribute helpful actions as a result. The study suggests that as people age they develop stronger empathetic abilities and display more frequent prosocial tendencies (Beadle et al., 2013). Cognitive empathy is developed later in life as is utilises more advance thinking skills. Children learn that other people will have their own individual beliefs, thoughts and perspectives that may differer from their own. According to Zephyra Merritt (2026), Perspective taking abilities begin to develop between 6-10 years of age, allowing children to understand that others might view situations differently from themselves. During this period of life, children become capable of seeing how another person might feel and adjusting their behaviour accordingly. == Perspective Taking == Perspective taking is the ability to mentally put oneself in the position of another to accurately understand how they might view their situation. Perspective taking is closely related to empathy as it allows people to understand the experiences of others, but is not identical to empathy. Perspective taking forms a cognitive foundation of empathy ands understanding, giving one the opportunity to have more effective social interactions and responses (Reniers et al., 2022). ==Cognitive Empathy== Cognitive empathy involves understanding another persons psychological perspective without experiencing the same emotions. It is the ability to recognise how another person may be thinking or feeling and considering a situation from another persons point of view. Some signs of effective empathy include active listening, strong perspective taking skills, thoughtful questioning, awareness of social cues, open minded thinking and adaptable communication (z. Merritt, 2026). Cognitive empathy has relation to perspective taking, involving mental consideration of one's viewpoint. Cognitive empathy plays an important role in social interaction and communication. It enables one to interpret the beliefs, intentions and emotions of others, helping them respond to their situation appropriately. some examples may include A manager noticing the silence of an employee and understand that this may be stress rather than disengagement. A teacher may recognise a poorly performing student as being anxious and not lazy. In cases such as these, cognitive empathy can help people to make the right informed, and compassionate decision (Price, 2023). The development of cognitive empathy is important in professions that require effective interpersonal relationships including education, healthcare and counselling. by understanding different view points, professionals can communicate effectively, manage conflict, and provide individually tailored support (Fink & de Rosnay, 2023). However, cognitive empathy is considered morally neutral as it can be used for both positive and negative purposes and is not inherently prosocial. while it can often promote understanding and cooperating, it can also be noticed in manipulative individuals who understand others' emotions without caring for their wellbeing. In such cases, understanding someones psychological state can be used for self interest, deception or exploitation rather than helping (Reniers et al., 2022). Unaccompanied by affective empathy, cognitive empathy can not solely be responsible for morally correct behaviour. == Affective Empathy == Affective empathy is the capacity to emotionally respond to and share the feelings of another person. Affective empathy unlike cognitive empathy, involves experiencing and emotional reaction that mirrors or embodies the emotions of another person. Affective empathy plays a crucial role in forming and maintaining social relationships. when others' witness someone experiencing joy, fear, distress or sadness, they may experience a similar emotional reaction. Emotional resonance such as this, helps strengthen relationships and promotes compassionate behaviour. Affective empathy contributes to prosocial behaviour through actions of comforting others, acts of kindness and offering support (Isrealashvili, 2020). Affective empathy is distinguished from cognitive empathy because they involve two different psychological processes. A person may retain one form of empathy stronger than the other, meaning they might accurately understand what another person is feeling without without mirroring those emotions demonstrating cognitive empathy with a weaker display of affective empathy. Alternatively, one might feel emotional discomfort in response to a friends' suffering without entirely understanding the reasons for it (Eisenberg, 2020). Affective empathy is often considered as a motivator of helpful behaviour as people who connect with someone else's distress are often motivated to ease that distress for the person and themselves. However, excessive affective empathy can cause emotional exhaustion and empathetic distress. For this reason, it is argued that a balance between cognitive and affective empathy is crucial for effective and sustainable responsive behaviours (Cox et al., 2012). == Empathy and Prosociality == Prosociality is the tendency to perform behaviours that benefit the welfare of other people (Reniers et al., 2022). Such behaviours are voluntary and intended to help, support or cooperate with others. Prosociality develops throughout childhood and follows through to adolescence as individuals learn perspective taking skills, social norms and moral values. Family relationships, education, social interactions and cultural influences all contribute to the development of prosocial behaviour. Both cognitive and affective empathy are associated with prosocial behaviour. Cognitive and affective empathy may contribute to prosociality through different pathways: understanding another person's needs versus emotionally responding to their experience. However, empathy does not automatically result in prosocial behaviour because emotion regulation, context, and the type of empathic response can influence whether someone helps. It can be seen in figure 3 that affective empathy might result in the prosocial behaviour of either helping or withdrawal/escape. A study of social withdrawal implemented by Pool and Hassan (2026), concluded that social withdrawal depended of several difference factors. They explained that unsociable people were good at understanding others' perspectives and staying emotionally calm, displaying high levels of cognitive empathy. People that were shy were still able to help those with an effected psychological state but could feel the emotional distress of others, presenting strong qualities of affective empathy. Those who were avoidant in their daily lives, generally care less for providing a positive prosocial contribution to those who are in emotional distress, displaying a withdrawal outcome as an effect of empathy. One construct of empathy alone cannot result in prosocial behaviour but when combining cognitive and affective empathy, there are higher results in positive social outcomes. {| class="wikitable" |+Figure 3. Cognitive and affective empathy as distinct but interaction pathways to prosociality. |'''Cognitive empathy''' |'''Affective empathy''' |- |Understanding another person's perspective |Emotional response to another person's state |- |Identifying their needs |Empathic concern or personal distress |- |Potentially appropriate helping |Helping or withdrawal/escape |} ==Learning features== ; '''Table 1''' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- !Dimension ! Cognitive empathy !! Affective empathy |- | Core process || Understanding another person's mental/emotional state. || Experiencing an emotional response to another person's state. |- |Related concept |Perspective-taking / mentalising. |Emotional sharing / experience-sharing. |- |Example |“I understand why they feel hurt.” |“I feel upset because they are hurting.” |- |Potential contribution to prosociality |Helps identify another person's perspective and needs. |Can generate emotional motivation to care and help. |- |Potential limitation |Understanding someone does not necessarily motivate helping. |Emotional sharing can produce personal distress rather than. |} Source: [https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10803-026-07315-2.pdf Double Empathy Problem], [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3017348/ Empathy Related Responding] You see a stranger in public crying. What would you think, feel and/or do? * Think = cognitive empathy * Feel = affective empathy * Do = Prosocial behaviour ; == Conclusion == Cognitive and affective empathy are two important but distinct components of empathy that contribute to prosocial behaviour. Cognitive empathy allows individuals to understand another persons' perspective, thoughts, and feelings, while affective empathy allows one to mirror those feelings themselves. Both can result is a person helping, comforting and supporting another. However, Empathy does not always lead to prosocial behaviour as personal distress and emotional overwhelm can cause withdrawal rather than help. Understanding these difference highlights that ultimately, both frames of empathy can play an important role in promoting prosocial behaviour when paired together. The most effective prosocial outcomes occur when cognitive and affective empathy work together. Understanding the the perspective of another while also experiencing appropriate emotional concern, enables individuals to provide support that is both compassionate and responsive to individualised needs. A balance between cognitive and affective empathy is essential in fostering positive social relationships and prosocial behaviour. ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Empathy|Empathy]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Individual emotions|Motivation and Emotion]] (Wikiversity) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1= Beadle, J., sheehan, A., Dahlben, B., & Gutchess, A. (2013). Aging, Empathy, and Prosociality. Oxford Academic, 70(2).https://academic.oup.com/psychsocgerontology/article-abstract/70/2/213/572414?redirectedFrom=PDF Cox, C. L., Uddin, L. Q., Di Martino, A., Castellanos, F. X., Milham, M. P., & Kelly, C. (2012). The balance between feeling and knowing: Affective and cognitive empathy are reflected in the brain’s intrinsic functional dynamics. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 7(6), 727–737. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsr051 Eisenberg, N., Eggum, N. D., & Di Giunta, L. (2010). Empathy-related Responding: Associations with Prosocial Behavior, Aggression, and Intergroup Relations. Social issues and policy review, 4(1), 143–180. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-2409.2010.01020.x Fellowes, S. (2026). Cognitive Empathy, Affective Empathy and Empirical Research on the Double Empathy Problem: A Critical Methodology Review.https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10803-026-07315-2.pdf Fink, E., & de Rosnay, M. (2023). Examining links between affective empathy, cognitive empathy, and peer relationships at the transition to school. ''Social Development'', ''32''(4), 1208–1226. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12685</nowiki> Fiveable. (2026, March 4). Empathy and prosocial behavior. Fiveable. https://fiveable.me/adolescent-development/unit-5/empathy-prosocial-behavior/study-guide/nX0hzv5WnNyAKG01 Greater Good Magazine. (2009). Empathy definition {{!}} what is empathy. Greater Good. https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/topic/empathy/definition Israelashvili, J., Sauter, D., & Fischer, A. (2020). Two facets of affective empathy: Concern and distress have opposite relationships to emotion recognition. Cognition and Emotion, 34(6), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2020.1724893 Khalid, A., Tarlinton, J., Kwan, T., & Khoo, K. (2023). Amiodarone-Induced Delirium. ''TTU Journal of Biomedical Sciences'', ''2''(1), 29–32. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.53901/tjbs.2023.08.art03</nowiki> Maibom, H. (2020). Empathy (1st edn). Routledge. https://www-taylorfrancis-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/reader/read-online/813e55c8-e789-40d2-9bea-a2da2105925b/book/epub?context=ubx Markus Paulus. (2015). ''Sugar and spice, and everything nice : exploring prosocial development through infancy and early childhood'' (C. Moore, M. Paulus, & A. Williams, Eds.). Frontiers Media SA. Merritt, Z. (2026, July 2). What is cognitive empathy and why it matters? Sicotests. https://www.sicotests.com/what-is-cognitive-empathy-and-why-it-matters/ Price, D. N. (2023). Author post: Cognitive empathy: What it is, why it matters. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbesbooksauthors/2023/08/14/cognitive-empathy-what-it-is-why-it-matters/ Reniers, R. L. E. P., Abu-Akel, A., & Seara-Cardoso, A. (2022). Editorial: Cognitive empathy and perspective taking: Understanding the mechanisms of normal and abnormal experiences and abilities. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.945258 Sanders, J. J., Dubey, M., Hall, J. A., Catzen, H. Z., Blanch‐Hartigan, D., & Schwartz, R. (2021). What is empathy? Oncology patient perspectives on empathic clinician behaviors. Cancer, 127(22), 4258–4265. https://doi.org/10.1002/cncr.33834 Scott, R., Poole, K. L., Schmidt, L. A., & Hassan, R. (2025). Caring too much or too little? Relations among motivations for social withdrawal, empathy, and prosociality in emerging adulthood. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 66(5), 717–728. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.13116 }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3AgvKJK-nrk The Roots of Empathy and Compassion] (GGSC) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vhtACD8Nk7c Pondering Prosocial Behavior] (youtube.com) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] gc5rvx3cux59jealu90u9245dmhrb17 1 331591 2840789 2829392 2026-10-17T01:37:28Z Jtneill 10242 Book chapter feedback 2840789 wikitext text/x-wiki == feedback == hey there! I found your book chapter insightful. I chose to look at your chapter as it interested me and I enjoyed reading about the basic psychological needs and how exercise is so important for not only our bodies but our mind. I related to the feeling of connection as i connect with others through sport teams or through social media influencers that are inspiring. This is what drives my motivation. Thank you for your insight. [[User:Pinkk47|Pinkk47]] ([[User talk:Pinkk47|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Pinkk47|contribs]]) 10:19, 27 August 2026 (UTC) <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and subtitle are correctly worded and use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] |2= <!-- Heading structure --> # Excellent [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|1-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development (e.g., consider using subheadings) – consider using a 2-level structure for larger section(s) (i.e., including subheadings) # Excellent alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure |3= <!-- Overview--> # Good <!-- GenAI ---> # Does this section include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, it needs to be acknowledged as such in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. <!-- Scenario --> # The scenario could more clearly illustrate the topic <!-- Description --> # A promising description of the problem/topic is planned or presented <!-- Style --> # Use present, rather than future, tense <!-- Focus questions --> # Focus questions are aligned with sub-title and top-level headings |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Promising development # Perhaps also consider need frustration and need satisfaction # Provide more detailed edit summaries <!-- Scope --> # The scope is excellent (i.e., not too little/narrow or too big/broad) <!-- Theory and research --> # Promising balance of theory and research <!-- Citations --> # Promising use of citations <!-- GenAI ---> # Do these key points include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? 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(address the focus questions) |5= <!-- Figure --> # Relevant figure(s) are presented and captioned <!-- Cite --> # Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style (e.g., see Figure 1) |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Add in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Consider use of more scenarios/examples/case studies <!-- Quiz --> # Consider including quiz question(s) about the take-home messages <!-- Tables --> # Promising use of table(s) # Taylor the table to focus more directly on the topic |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Good <!-- Systematic reviews --> # At least one relevant systematic review and/or meta-analysis has been identified <!-- APA style --> # Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]: ## capitalisation ## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]] |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## Excellent # External links |9= <!-- User page --> # Basic <!-- Description about self --> # Very brief description about self – consider expanding <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # A link to the book chapter is provided |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # Excellent – at least three different types of contributions with direct link(s) to evidence }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 08:21, 29 August 2026 (UTC) <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is a basic, sufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* Use more specific [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Basic use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FSelf-determination_theory_and_physical_activity&diff=2840788&oldid=2837226 these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Reasonably good <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # The scenario is promising but could more clearly demonstrate autonomy, competence, and relatedness # Consider personalising the scenario by giving the two people names # The chapter subsquently refers to "Scenario 1" but this label isn't use for the scenario in the Overview <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; expand bullet-points into sentences and paragraphs <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # Basic, but effective focus questions |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Link the first mention of key words to related Wikipedia or Wikiversity pages # A good understanding is shown of how the relevance of each basic psychological need may vary depending on the stage of exercise adoption # Consider pointing to related theoretical perspectives (e.g., transtheoretical model of change) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Basic use of tables/figures and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # In many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Basic review of relevant research # Promising emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # More detail about key studies would be ideal # In many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Basic integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The presentation of theory and research could be more tightly interwoven and integrated # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Basic summary and conclusion # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are summarised in a basic way <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Add practical, take-home message(s) |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is basic ## Reduce excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st or 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar ## The grammar for many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well captioned ### Increase image size so that the text is easier to read (fixed) <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Well captioned ### Include citation(s) to source(s) of information <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use reasonably good [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. ### Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ### Check and correct placement of commas <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use reasonably good APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Include dois where available |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Basic use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Basicuse of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Insufficient use of figure(s) # Basic/No use of table(s) # No use of feature boxes other than the opening scenario # No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples, other than opening scenario <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # One quiz question; consider expanding to cover the take-away messages <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Very good use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use alphabetical order <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Very good use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use alphabetical order |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~3 logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 01:37, 17 October 2026 (UTC) nfx265f2ivh6xglv5om0gmprmuhsm4y 0 331663 2840684 2840683 2026-10-16T12:22:38Z U3203283 3110021 /* Relatedness, motivation, and behaviour */ 2840684 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory:<br>How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Raise hand gesture occupy.svg|Raise_hand_gesture_occupy|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. A raised hand: Lauren's tutor encouraged students to ask for help and connect with each other. {{expand}}]] ; Imagine this Lauren is a first-year university student studying psychology who recently started a demanding course. During the first few weeks, she finds the workload difficult and is unsure whether she is capable of succeeding. She chose to study psychology because she is interested in the subject, however, she feels isolated because her classmates seem to already know one another. One of Lauren’s tutors makes an effort to learn about students, encourages them to contribute to discussions, and provides feedback. The tutor also organises small-group activities where students can get to know one another and emphasises that asking for help is a normal part of learning. Lauren engages with these opportunities. Over time, Lauren begins to feel that she belongs in the course and that both her tutor and classmates value her participation. As Lauren feels increasingly connected to the people around her, she becomes more willing to attend tutorials, participate in discussions, ask questions (see Figure 1), and seek feedback when she does not understand something. She also starts studying with classmates outside class. Lauren is no longer completing the course requirements only because she feels she has to. Her growing sense of belonging helps her internalise the value of the course, so she begins to think, “Psychology is important to me, and I want to do well because I see myself as part of this community.” This shift leads to more persistent, engaged behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Self-determination theory (SDT) suggests people are most effectively motivated when motivation is intrinsic. SDT argues people have an innate tendency toward growth, and three distinct basic needs. Within SDT is the basic psychological needs theory (BPNT or BNT), which suggests three psychological needs related to intrinsic motivation which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Relatedness refers to the human desire to form strong relationships and bonds with those around them. This chapter will examine how the concept of relatedness, within self-determination theory, shapes human motivation and behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2000) The goal contents theory (GCT) expands on the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and their impact on wellness. Extrinsic goals including financial success, fame, and physical appearance have been compared to intrinsic goals which include personal growth, forming strong, high-quality relationships, and community which are associated with higher well-being than the latter. The role of relatedness can be understood through another micro-theory of SDT; the relationship motivation theory (RMT), which suggests that closeness to others is not only preferable, but essential to wellbeing. Not only do high-quality relationships satisfy the need for relatedness, but they can also satisfy the need for autonomy and competence (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In a meta-analysis, Slempt et. al (2024), note that support from others likely facilitates people’s motivational processes, finding that interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs were small to moderately positively associated with performance. Slempt et. al (2024), {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the need for relatedness within Self-Determination Theory, and why is it important in shaping motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction influence the development of autonomous motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction or frustration affect individuals’ behaviour, such as engagement, persistence, and disengagement? * How do relationships and social environments affect relatedness, and what are the implications on motivation and behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Self-Determination Theory== [[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] is a macro-theory of psychology created by [[w:Edward Deci|Edward Deci]] and [[w:Richard Ryan|Richard Ryan]] relating to motivation, behaviour, and personality. Deci and Ryan published their first comprehensive book of the theory in 1985 (Deci & Ryan, 1985). SDT utilises an organismic-dialectical approach, which assumes people are ‘active organisms’ who have tendencies toward growth, overcoming challenges, and integrating new experiences into their sense of self. SDT posits this inherent tendency toward growth as well as peoples’ innate psychological needs are the basis for self-motivation and personality integration. Ryan and Deci (2000), propose that humans have three basic psychological needs which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness and when these needs are met, they are essential to optimal personal growth, wellbeing, and [[W:intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivation]]. === Basic psychological needs theory === Basic psychological needs theory is a micro-theory within SDT. BPNT refers to the idea in SDT that people have three basic psychological needs that are central to wellbeing, growth and intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). [[w:Autonomy|Autonomy]] is the experience of ones actions as their own and personally-endorsed, as opposed to being controlled or imposed upon them. [[w:Competence|Competence]] is closely related to [[w:Self-Efficacy|self-efficacy]] and refers to the need to feel capable and effective and confident in your interactions with your environment, and to master challenges and achieve goals. [[w:relatedness|Relatedness]] is the innate human need to develop meaningful relationships with those around you, and to feel a sense of mutual care, respect, and warmth between yourself and others. Relatedness also refers to experiencing a sense of belonging, community, and kinship with others. Social or cultural factors can either support or 'thwart' individuals' motivation, well-being, and personal growth. (Ryan & Deci, 2000). ==Cognitive Evaluation Theory== [[File:Muhammad Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation.png|300px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. The player on the left wants to win the trophy which is an example of extrinsic motivation. The player on the right is playing for his own enjoyment, indicating he is intrinsically motivated.]] Cognitive evaluation theory (CET) is a micro-theory within self-determination theory. Cognitive evaluation theory is essential in understanding motivation within SDT, specifically, intrinsic motivation which refers to motivation to engage in a task out of an inherent interest, enjoyment, and engagement, whereas extrinsic motivation refers to an individual being motivated by external rewards or reinforcement (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET suggests that intrinsic motivation is more valuable than extrinsic motivation, as those that are intrinsically motivated feel a sense of choice over what they are doing and gain a feeling of competence and enjoyment from the activities or tasks they complete. (Hagger et. al., 2020). CET examines the role of social and environmental influences such as rewards, feedback and communications, that either facilitate or undermine intrinsic motivation. CET aims to specify that factors that explain the variability of intrinsic motivation and considers intrinsic motivation to be socially and environmentally influenced. For example, when an individual receives positive feedback, they are more likely to be intrinsically motivated, and when an individual receives negative feedback, they are less likely to be intrinsically motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Deci & Ryan (2000) propose a taxonomy of motivation to explain for the variability of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. [[File:Taxonomy of motivation.png| center |600x600px|'''Figure 3.'''Ryan & Deci's (2000) taxonomy of moitvation. A visual spectrum of motivation]] ==Relatedness, motivation, and behaviour== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Parallel mediation model with both satisfaction and frustration of basic needs (Van Tuin et al., 2020)]] CET focuses on the fundamental psychological needs for autonomy and competence and how they can enhance or thwart intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Although CET focuses on autonomy and competence as the main catalysts for intrinsic motivation, Ryan & Powelson (1991) explain that relatedness needs are not antithetical to comptence or autonomy and suggests people feel most strongly related to people who are responsive to your expressions of autonomy. Relatedness plays a role especially in the social and environmental contexts which influence motivation and behaviour (Hagger et. al., 2020). The effects of relatedness satisfaction and frustration on motivation and behaviour has been investigated in literature thoroughly. === Wellbeing === Wellbeing has been found to interaction with === Education === Ryan & Deci Relatedness has been found to influence students' engagement and performance in educational settings (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021; Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Behavioural engagement in education is essential to students' learning (Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that percieved relatedness satisfaction of students was positively associated with increased behavioural engagement in mathematics. When relatedness is satisfied, participation in education is percieved by students as more socialy and emotionally meaningful and therefore motivates participation behaviours (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). Additionally, students; perceptions of relatedness with their teachers has been associated with better engagement with homework (Collie, 2024). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) notes that although the literature commonly investigate links between the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and students' motivational regulations, but literature that utilises the full-model of SDT is limited. Specifically, more detailed research into the full chain of events that leads to higher quality engagement in education. ==Relatedness and well-being== * Interpersonal support of autonomy, competence, and relatedness were associated with satisfaction of those psychological needs. * Environmental support for needs were associated with greater wellbeing and improved performance. * Relatedness supports wellbeing which supports motivation. (Slemp et. al, 2024) {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || |} * '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Relatedness satisfaction has been shown to influence welbeing: |type="(true)"} + True - False {Relatedness is an element of self-determination theory: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Relatedness is a key psychological need within self-determination theory. When this need is satisfied, psychological well-being is more likely to increase and individuals are more likely to develop greater self-determined motivation * Both relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration can influence the quality of motivation, not just its strength * Relatedness satisfaction can shape behaviour by facilitating greater engagement, participation, and persistence and sustain their behaviour for longer. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== *[[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Intrinsic motivation|Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Social relation|Relatedness]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to Student Motivation: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents of Autonomous and Controlled Motivations. Review of Educational Research, 92(1), 46-72. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426 Collie, R. J. (2024). Social-emotional need satisfaction and students’ academic engagement and social-emotional skills. Educational Psychology, 44(2), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2024.2324751 Hagger, M. S., Hankonen, N., Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., & Ryan, R. M. (2020). Changing Behavior Using Self-Determination Theory. In M. S. Hagger, L. D. Cameron, K. Hamilton, N. Hankonen, & T. Lintunen (Eds.), The Handbook of Behaviour Change (pp. 104–119). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677318.008 Hofverberg, A., Winberg, M., Palmberg, B., Andersson, C., & Palm, T. (2022). Relationships between basic psychological need satisfaction, regulations, and behavioral engagement in mathematics. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.829958 Kaefer, A., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2021). Relatedness support enhances motivation, positive affect, and motor learning in adolescents. Human Movement Science, 79, 102864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2021.102864 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). "The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. ''Psychological inquiry'', ''11''(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 127(5), 1012–1037. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459 Van Tuin, L., Schaufeli, W. B., & van Rhenen, W. (2020). The satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs in engaging leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 14(2), 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21695 Weinstein, N. (Ed.). (2014). Human Motivation and Interpersonal Relationships : Theory, Research, and Applications (1st ed. 2014.). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8542-6 }} ==External links== {{ic|Use sentence casing}} * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci TEDX] (Youtube) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ Self-determination Theory] (Center for Self-determination Theory) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Relatedness]] r8zkcxz9hpbbfkbfs1d2jocryz2wt45 2840685 2840684 2026-10-16T12:24:47Z U3203283 3110021 /* Cognitive Evaluation Theory */ 2840685 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory:<br>How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Raise hand gesture occupy.svg|Raise_hand_gesture_occupy|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. A raised hand: Lauren's tutor encouraged students to ask for help and connect with each other. {{expand}}]] ; Imagine this Lauren is a first-year university student studying psychology who recently started a demanding course. During the first few weeks, she finds the workload difficult and is unsure whether she is capable of succeeding. She chose to study psychology because she is interested in the subject, however, she feels isolated because her classmates seem to already know one another. One of Lauren’s tutors makes an effort to learn about students, encourages them to contribute to discussions, and provides feedback. The tutor also organises small-group activities where students can get to know one another and emphasises that asking for help is a normal part of learning. Lauren engages with these opportunities. Over time, Lauren begins to feel that she belongs in the course and that both her tutor and classmates value her participation. As Lauren feels increasingly connected to the people around her, she becomes more willing to attend tutorials, participate in discussions, ask questions (see Figure 1), and seek feedback when she does not understand something. She also starts studying with classmates outside class. Lauren is no longer completing the course requirements only because she feels she has to. Her growing sense of belonging helps her internalise the value of the course, so she begins to think, “Psychology is important to me, and I want to do well because I see myself as part of this community.” This shift leads to more persistent, engaged behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Self-determination theory (SDT) suggests people are most effectively motivated when motivation is intrinsic. SDT argues people have an innate tendency toward growth, and three distinct basic needs. Within SDT is the basic psychological needs theory (BPNT or BNT), which suggests three psychological needs related to intrinsic motivation which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Relatedness refers to the human desire to form strong relationships and bonds with those around them. This chapter will examine how the concept of relatedness, within self-determination theory, shapes human motivation and behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2000) The goal contents theory (GCT) expands on the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and their impact on wellness. Extrinsic goals including financial success, fame, and physical appearance have been compared to intrinsic goals which include personal growth, forming strong, high-quality relationships, and community which are associated with higher well-being than the latter. The role of relatedness can be understood through another micro-theory of SDT; the relationship motivation theory (RMT), which suggests that closeness to others is not only preferable, but essential to wellbeing. Not only do high-quality relationships satisfy the need for relatedness, but they can also satisfy the need for autonomy and competence (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In a meta-analysis, Slempt et. al (2024), note that support from others likely facilitates people’s motivational processes, finding that interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs were small to moderately positively associated with performance. Slempt et. al (2024), {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the need for relatedness within Self-Determination Theory, and why is it important in shaping motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction influence the development of autonomous motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction or frustration affect individuals’ behaviour, such as engagement, persistence, and disengagement? * How do relationships and social environments affect relatedness, and what are the implications on motivation and behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Self-Determination Theory== [[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] is a macro-theory of psychology created by [[w:Edward Deci|Edward Deci]] and [[w:Richard Ryan|Richard Ryan]] relating to motivation, behaviour, and personality. Deci and Ryan published their first comprehensive book of the theory in 1985 (Deci & Ryan, 1985). SDT utilises an organismic-dialectical approach, which assumes people are ‘active organisms’ who have tendencies toward growth, overcoming challenges, and integrating new experiences into their sense of self. SDT posits this inherent tendency toward growth as well as peoples’ innate psychological needs are the basis for self-motivation and personality integration. Ryan and Deci (2000), propose that humans have three basic psychological needs which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness and when these needs are met, they are essential to optimal personal growth, wellbeing, and [[W:intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivation]]. === Basic psychological needs theory === Basic psychological needs theory is a micro-theory within SDT. BPNT refers to the idea in SDT that people have three basic psychological needs that are central to wellbeing, growth and intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). [[w:Autonomy|Autonomy]] is the experience of ones actions as their own and personally-endorsed, as opposed to being controlled or imposed upon them. [[w:Competence|Competence]] is closely related to [[w:Self-Efficacy|self-efficacy]] and refers to the need to feel capable and effective and confident in your interactions with your environment, and to master challenges and achieve goals. [[w:relatedness|Relatedness]] is the innate human need to develop meaningful relationships with those around you, and to feel a sense of mutual care, respect, and warmth between yourself and others. Relatedness also refers to experiencing a sense of belonging, community, and kinship with others. Social or cultural factors can either support or 'thwart' individuals' motivation, well-being, and personal growth. (Ryan & Deci, 2000). ==Cognitive Evaluation Theory== [[File:Muhammad Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation.png|300px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. The player on the left wants to win the trophy which is an example of extrinsic motivation. The player on the right is playing for his own enjoyment, indicating he is intrinsically motivated.]] Cognitive evaluation theory (CET) is a micro-theory within self-determination theory. Cognitive evaluation theory is essential in understanding motivation within SDT, specifically, intrinsic motivation which refers to motivation to engage in a task out of an inherent interest, enjoyment, and engagement, whereas extrinsic motivation refers to an individual being motivated by external rewards or reinforcement (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET suggests that intrinsic motivation is more valuable than extrinsic motivation, as those that are intrinsically motivated feel a sense of choice over what they are doing and gain a feeling of competence and enjoyment from the activities or tasks they complete. (Hagger et. al., 2020). CET examines the role of social and environmental influences such as rewards, feedback and communications, that either facilitate or undermine intrinsic motivation. CET aims to specify that factors that explain the variability of intrinsic motivation and considers intrinsic motivation to be socially and environmentally influenced. For example, when an individual receives positive feedback, they are more likely to be intrinsically motivated, and when an individual receives negative feedback, they are less likely to be intrinsically motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Deci & Ryan (2000) propose a taxonomy of motivation (shown in the figure below) to explain for the variability of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. [[File:Taxonomy of motivation.png| center |600x600px|'''Figure 3.'''Ryan & Deci's (2000) taxonomy of moitvation. A visual spectrum of motivation]] The taxonomy of motivation ==Relatedness, motivation, and behaviour== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Parallel mediation model with both satisfaction and frustration of basic needs (Van Tuin et al., 2020)]] CET focuses on the fundamental psychological needs for autonomy and competence and how they can enhance or thwart intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Although CET focuses on autonomy and competence as the main catalysts for intrinsic motivation, Ryan & Powelson (1991) explain that relatedness needs are not antithetical to comptence or autonomy and suggests people feel most strongly related to people who are responsive to your expressions of autonomy. Relatedness plays a role especially in the social and environmental contexts which influence motivation and behaviour (Hagger et. al., 2020). The effects of relatedness satisfaction and frustration on motivation and behaviour has been investigated in literature thoroughly. === Wellbeing === Wellbeing has been found to interaction with === Education === Ryan & Deci Relatedness has been found to influence students' engagement and performance in educational settings (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021; Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Behavioural engagement in education is essential to students' learning (Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that percieved relatedness satisfaction of students was positively associated with increased behavioural engagement in mathematics. When relatedness is satisfied, participation in education is percieved by students as more socialy and emotionally meaningful and therefore motivates participation behaviours (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). Additionally, students; perceptions of relatedness with their teachers has been associated with better engagement with homework (Collie, 2024). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) notes that although the literature commonly investigate links between the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and students' motivational regulations, but literature that utilises the full-model of SDT is limited. Specifically, more detailed research into the full chain of events that leads to higher quality engagement in education. ==Relatedness and well-being== * Interpersonal support of autonomy, competence, and relatedness were associated with satisfaction of those psychological needs. * Environmental support for needs were associated with greater wellbeing and improved performance. * Relatedness supports wellbeing which supports motivation. (Slemp et. al, 2024) {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || |} * '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Relatedness satisfaction has been shown to influence welbeing: |type="(true)"} + True - False {Relatedness is an element of self-determination theory: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Relatedness is a key psychological need within self-determination theory. When this need is satisfied, psychological well-being is more likely to increase and individuals are more likely to develop greater self-determined motivation * Both relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration can influence the quality of motivation, not just its strength * Relatedness satisfaction can shape behaviour by facilitating greater engagement, participation, and persistence and sustain their behaviour for longer. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== *[[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Intrinsic motivation|Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Social relation|Relatedness]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to Student Motivation: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents of Autonomous and Controlled Motivations. Review of Educational Research, 92(1), 46-72. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426 Collie, R. J. (2024). Social-emotional need satisfaction and students’ academic engagement and social-emotional skills. Educational Psychology, 44(2), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2024.2324751 Hagger, M. S., Hankonen, N., Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., & Ryan, R. M. (2020). Changing Behavior Using Self-Determination Theory. In M. S. Hagger, L. D. Cameron, K. Hamilton, N. Hankonen, & T. Lintunen (Eds.), The Handbook of Behaviour Change (pp. 104–119). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677318.008 Hofverberg, A., Winberg, M., Palmberg, B., Andersson, C., & Palm, T. (2022). Relationships between basic psychological need satisfaction, regulations, and behavioral engagement in mathematics. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.829958 Kaefer, A., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2021). Relatedness support enhances motivation, positive affect, and motor learning in adolescents. Human Movement Science, 79, 102864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2021.102864 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). "The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. ''Psychological inquiry'', ''11''(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 127(5), 1012–1037. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459 Van Tuin, L., Schaufeli, W. B., & van Rhenen, W. (2020). The satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs in engaging leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 14(2), 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21695 Weinstein, N. (Ed.). (2014). Human Motivation and Interpersonal Relationships : Theory, Research, and Applications (1st ed. 2014.). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8542-6 }} ==External links== {{ic|Use sentence casing}} * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci TEDX] (Youtube) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ Self-determination Theory] (Center for Self-determination Theory) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Relatedness]] 4r2lpq4rxdxo8ib9110oxm1yahgod0h 2840689 2840685 2026-10-16T13:24:51Z U3203283 3110021 /* Cognitive Evaluation Theory */ add content 2840689 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory:<br>How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Raise hand gesture occupy.svg|Raise_hand_gesture_occupy|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. A raised hand: Lauren's tutor encouraged students to ask for help and connect with each other. {{expand}}]] ; Imagine this Lauren is a first-year university student studying psychology who recently started a demanding course. During the first few weeks, she finds the workload difficult and is unsure whether she is capable of succeeding. She chose to study psychology because she is interested in the subject, however, she feels isolated because her classmates seem to already know one another. One of Lauren’s tutors makes an effort to learn about students, encourages them to contribute to discussions, and provides feedback. The tutor also organises small-group activities where students can get to know one another and emphasises that asking for help is a normal part of learning. Lauren engages with these opportunities. Over time, Lauren begins to feel that she belongs in the course and that both her tutor and classmates value her participation. As Lauren feels increasingly connected to the people around her, she becomes more willing to attend tutorials, participate in discussions, ask questions (see Figure 1), and seek feedback when she does not understand something. She also starts studying with classmates outside class. Lauren is no longer completing the course requirements only because she feels she has to. Her growing sense of belonging helps her internalise the value of the course, so she begins to think, “Psychology is important to me, and I want to do well because I see myself as part of this community.” This shift leads to more persistent, engaged behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Self-determination theory (SDT) suggests people are most effectively motivated when motivation is intrinsic. SDT argues people have an innate tendency toward growth, and three distinct basic needs. Within SDT is the basic psychological needs theory (BPNT or BNT), which suggests three psychological needs related to intrinsic motivation which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Relatedness refers to the human desire to form strong relationships and bonds with those around them. This chapter will examine how the concept of relatedness, within self-determination theory, shapes human motivation and behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2000) The goal contents theory (GCT) expands on the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and their impact on wellness. Extrinsic goals including financial success, fame, and physical appearance have been compared to intrinsic goals which include personal growth, forming strong, high-quality relationships, and community which are associated with higher well-being than the latter. The role of relatedness can be understood through another micro-theory of SDT; the relationship motivation theory (RMT), which suggests that closeness to others is not only preferable, but essential to wellbeing. Not only do high-quality relationships satisfy the need for relatedness, but they can also satisfy the need for autonomy and competence (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In a meta-analysis, Slempt et. al (2024), note that support from others likely facilitates people’s motivational processes, finding that interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs were small to moderately positively associated with performance. Slempt et. al (2024), {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the need for relatedness within Self-Determination Theory, and why is it important in shaping motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction influence the development of autonomous motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction or frustration affect individuals’ behaviour, such as engagement, persistence, and disengagement? * How do relationships and social environments affect relatedness, and what are the implications on motivation and behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Self-Determination Theory== [[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] is a macro-theory of psychology created by [[w:Edward Deci|Edward Deci]] and [[w:Richard Ryan|Richard Ryan]] relating to motivation, behaviour, and personality. Deci and Ryan published their first comprehensive book of the theory in 1985 (Deci & Ryan, 1985). SDT utilises an organismic-dialectical approach, which assumes people are ‘active organisms’ who have tendencies toward growth, overcoming challenges, and integrating new experiences into their sense of self. SDT posits this inherent tendency toward growth as well as peoples’ innate psychological needs are the basis for self-motivation and personality integration. Ryan and Deci (2000), propose that humans have three basic psychological needs which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness and when these needs are met, they are essential to optimal personal growth, wellbeing, and [[W:intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivation]]. === Basic psychological needs theory === Basic psychological needs theory is a micro-theory within SDT. BPNT refers to the idea in SDT that people have three basic psychological needs that are central to wellbeing, growth and intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). [[w:Autonomy|Autonomy]] is the experience of ones actions as their own and personally-endorsed, as opposed to being controlled or imposed upon them. [[w:Competence|Competence]] is closely related to [[w:Self-Efficacy|self-efficacy]] and refers to the need to feel capable and effective and confident in your interactions with your environment, and to master challenges and achieve goals. [[w:relatedness|Relatedness]] is the innate human need to develop meaningful relationships with those around you, and to feel a sense of mutual care, respect, and warmth between yourself and others. Relatedness also refers to experiencing a sense of belonging, community, and kinship with others. Social or cultural factors can either support or 'thwart' individuals' motivation, well-being, and personal growth. (Ryan & Deci, 2000). ==Cognitive Evaluation Theory== [[File:Muhammad Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation.png|300px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. The player on the left wants to win the trophy which is an example of extrinsic motivation. The player on the right is playing for his own enjoyment, indicating he is intrinsically motivated.]] Cognitive evaluation theory (CET) is a micro-theory within self-determination theory. Cognitive evaluation theory is essential in understanding motivation within SDT, specifically, intrinsic motivation which refers to motivation to engage in a task out of an inherent interest, enjoyment, and engagement, whereas extrinsic motivation refers to an individual being motivated by external rewards or reinforcement (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET suggests that intrinsic motivation is more valuable than extrinsic motivation, as those that are intrinsically motivated feel a sense of choice over what they are doing and gain a feeling of competence and enjoyment from the activities or tasks they complete. (Hagger et. al., 2020). The role of social and environmental influences such as rewards, feedback and communications, can either facilitate or undermine intrinsic motivation. CET considers intrinsic motivation to be socially and environmentally influenced. For example, when an individual receives positive feedback, they are more likely to be intrinsically motivated, and when an individual receives negative feedback, they are less likely to be intrinsically motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET also aims to specify that factors that explain the variability of intrinsic motivation. Deci & Ryan (2000) propose a taxonomy of motivation (shown in the figure below) to explain for the variability of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. [[File:Taxonomy of motivation.png| center |600x600px|'''Figure 3.'''Ryan & Deci's (2000) taxonomy of moitvation. A visual spectrum of motivation]] The taxonomy of motivation highlights motivation as sitting on a spectrum of autonomy, beginning with a complete lack of motivation (motivation) and ending with doing an activity purely for its inherent satisfaction or interest (intrinsic regulation). This model also highlights the differences between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation versus controlled and autonomous motivation, introducing regulations to specify the nuances of motivation. Notably, autonomous motivation spans across both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). ==Relatedness, motivation, and behaviour== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Parallel mediation model with both satisfaction and frustration of basic needs (Van Tuin et al., 2020)]] CET focuses on the fundamental psychological needs for autonomy and competence and how they can enhance or thwart intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Although CET focuses on autonomy and competence as the main catalysts for intrinsic motivation, Ryan & Powelson (1991) explain that relatedness needs are not antithetical to comptence or autonomy and suggests people feel most strongly related to people who are responsive to your expressions of autonomy. Relatedness plays a role especially in the social and environmental contexts which influence motivation and behaviour (Hagger et. al., 2020). The effects of relatedness satisfaction and frustration on motivation and behaviour has been investigated in literature thoroughly. === Wellbeing === Wellbeing has been found to interaction with === Education === Ryan & Deci Relatedness has been found to influence students' engagement and performance in educational settings (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021; Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Behavioural engagement in education is essential to students' learning (Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that percieved relatedness satisfaction of students was positively associated with increased behavioural engagement in mathematics. When relatedness is satisfied, participation in education is percieved by students as more socialy and emotionally meaningful and therefore motivates participation behaviours (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). Additionally, students; perceptions of relatedness with their teachers has been associated with better engagement with homework (Collie, 2024). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) notes that although the literature commonly investigate links between the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and students' motivational regulations, but literature that utilises the full-model of SDT is limited. Specifically, more detailed research into the full chain of events that leads to higher quality engagement in education. ==Relatedness and well-being== * Interpersonal support of autonomy, competence, and relatedness were associated with satisfaction of those psychological needs. * Environmental support for needs were associated with greater wellbeing and improved performance. * Relatedness supports wellbeing which supports motivation. (Slemp et. al, 2024) {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || |} * '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Relatedness satisfaction has been shown to influence welbeing: |type="(true)"} + True - False {Relatedness is an element of self-determination theory: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Relatedness is a key psychological need within self-determination theory. When this need is satisfied, psychological well-being is more likely to increase and individuals are more likely to develop greater self-determined motivation * Both relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration can influence the quality of motivation, not just its strength * Relatedness satisfaction can shape behaviour by facilitating greater engagement, participation, and persistence and sustain their behaviour for longer. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== *[[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Intrinsic motivation|Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Social relation|Relatedness]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to Student Motivation: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents of Autonomous and Controlled Motivations. Review of Educational Research, 92(1), 46-72. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426 Collie, R. J. (2024). Social-emotional need satisfaction and students’ academic engagement and social-emotional skills. Educational Psychology, 44(2), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2024.2324751 Hagger, M. S., Hankonen, N., Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., & Ryan, R. M. (2020). Changing Behavior Using Self-Determination Theory. In M. S. Hagger, L. D. Cameron, K. Hamilton, N. Hankonen, & T. Lintunen (Eds.), The Handbook of Behaviour Change (pp. 104–119). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677318.008 Hofverberg, A., Winberg, M., Palmberg, B., Andersson, C., & Palm, T. (2022). Relationships between basic psychological need satisfaction, regulations, and behavioral engagement in mathematics. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.829958 Kaefer, A., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2021). Relatedness support enhances motivation, positive affect, and motor learning in adolescents. Human Movement Science, 79, 102864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2021.102864 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). "The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. ''Psychological inquiry'', ''11''(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 127(5), 1012–1037. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459 Van Tuin, L., Schaufeli, W. B., & van Rhenen, W. (2020). The satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs in engaging leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 14(2), 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21695 Weinstein, N. (Ed.). (2014). Human Motivation and Interpersonal Relationships : Theory, Research, and Applications (1st ed. 2014.). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8542-6 }} ==External links== {{ic|Use sentence casing}} * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci TEDX] (Youtube) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ Self-determination Theory] (Center for Self-determination Theory) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Relatedness]] 7rjofj08ivv6ydc2iqv0ejw50e3j13g 2840690 2840689 2026-10-16T13:26:51Z U3203283 3110021 /* Cognitive Evaluation Theory */ 2840690 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory:<br>How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Raise hand gesture occupy.svg|Raise_hand_gesture_occupy|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. A raised hand: Lauren's tutor encouraged students to ask for help and connect with each other. {{expand}}]] ; Imagine this Lauren is a first-year university student studying psychology who recently started a demanding course. During the first few weeks, she finds the workload difficult and is unsure whether she is capable of succeeding. She chose to study psychology because she is interested in the subject, however, she feels isolated because her classmates seem to already know one another. One of Lauren’s tutors makes an effort to learn about students, encourages them to contribute to discussions, and provides feedback. The tutor also organises small-group activities where students can get to know one another and emphasises that asking for help is a normal part of learning. Lauren engages with these opportunities. Over time, Lauren begins to feel that she belongs in the course and that both her tutor and classmates value her participation. As Lauren feels increasingly connected to the people around her, she becomes more willing to attend tutorials, participate in discussions, ask questions (see Figure 1), and seek feedback when she does not understand something. She also starts studying with classmates outside class. Lauren is no longer completing the course requirements only because she feels she has to. Her growing sense of belonging helps her internalise the value of the course, so she begins to think, “Psychology is important to me, and I want to do well because I see myself as part of this community.” This shift leads to more persistent, engaged behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Self-determination theory (SDT) suggests people are most effectively motivated when motivation is intrinsic. SDT argues people have an innate tendency toward growth, and three distinct basic needs. Within SDT is the basic psychological needs theory (BPNT or BNT), which suggests three psychological needs related to intrinsic motivation which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Relatedness refers to the human desire to form strong relationships and bonds with those around them. This chapter will examine how the concept of relatedness, within self-determination theory, shapes human motivation and behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2000) The goal contents theory (GCT) expands on the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and their impact on wellness. Extrinsic goals including financial success, fame, and physical appearance have been compared to intrinsic goals which include personal growth, forming strong, high-quality relationships, and community which are associated with higher well-being than the latter. The role of relatedness can be understood through another micro-theory of SDT; the relationship motivation theory (RMT), which suggests that closeness to others is not only preferable, but essential to wellbeing. Not only do high-quality relationships satisfy the need for relatedness, but they can also satisfy the need for autonomy and competence (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In a meta-analysis, Slempt et. al (2024), note that support from others likely facilitates people’s motivational processes, finding that interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs were small to moderately positively associated with performance. Slempt et. al (2024), {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the need for relatedness within Self-Determination Theory, and why is it important in shaping motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction influence the development of autonomous motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction or frustration affect individuals’ behaviour, such as engagement, persistence, and disengagement? * How do relationships and social environments affect relatedness, and what are the implications on motivation and behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Self-Determination Theory== [[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] is a macro-theory of psychology created by [[w:Edward Deci|Edward Deci]] and [[w:Richard Ryan|Richard Ryan]] relating to motivation, behaviour, and personality. Deci and Ryan published their first comprehensive book of the theory in 1985 (Deci & Ryan, 1985). SDT utilises an organismic-dialectical approach, which assumes people are ‘active organisms’ who have tendencies toward growth, overcoming challenges, and integrating new experiences into their sense of self. SDT posits this inherent tendency toward growth as well as peoples’ innate psychological needs are the basis for self-motivation and personality integration. Ryan and Deci (2000), propose that humans have three basic psychological needs which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness and when these needs are met, they are essential to optimal personal growth, wellbeing, and [[W:intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivation]]. === Basic psychological needs theory === Basic psychological needs theory is a micro-theory within SDT. BPNT refers to the idea in SDT that people have three basic psychological needs that are central to wellbeing, growth and intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). [[w:Autonomy|Autonomy]] is the experience of ones actions as their own and personally-endorsed, as opposed to being controlled or imposed upon them. [[w:Competence|Competence]] is closely related to [[w:Self-Efficacy|self-efficacy]] and refers to the need to feel capable and effective and confident in your interactions with your environment, and to master challenges and achieve goals. [[w:relatedness|Relatedness]] is the innate human need to develop meaningful relationships with those around you, and to feel a sense of mutual care, respect, and warmth between yourself and others. Relatedness also refers to experiencing a sense of belonging, community, and kinship with others. Social or cultural factors can either support or 'thwart' individuals' motivation, well-being, and personal growth. (Ryan & Deci, 2000). ==Cognitive evaluation theory== [[File:Muhammad Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation.png|300px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. The player on the left wants to win the trophy which is an example of extrinsic motivation. The player on the right is playing for his own enjoyment, indicating he is intrinsically motivated.]] Cognitive evaluation theory (CET) is a micro-theory within self-determination theory. Cognitive evaluation theory is essential in understanding motivation within SDT, specifically, intrinsic motivation which refers to motivation to engage in a task out of an inherent interest, enjoyment, and engagement, whereas extrinsic motivation refers to an individual being motivated by external rewards or reinforcement (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET suggests that intrinsic motivation is more valuable than extrinsic motivation, as those that are intrinsically motivated feel a sense of choice over what they are doing and gain a feeling of competence and enjoyment from the activities or tasks they complete. (Hagger et. al., 2020). The role of social and environmental influences such as rewards, feedback and communications, can either facilitate or undermine intrinsic motivation. CET considers intrinsic motivation to be socially and environmentally influenced. For example, when an individual receives positive feedback, they are more likely to be intrinsically motivated, and when an individual receives negative feedback, they are less likely to be intrinsically motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET also aims to specify that factors that explain the variability of intrinsic motivation. === Taxonomy of human motivation === Deci & Ryan (2000) propose a taxonomy of motivation (shown in the figure below) to explain for the variability of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. [[File:Taxonomy of motivation.png| center |600x600px|'''Figure 3.'''Ryan & Deci's (2000) taxonomy of moitvation. A visual spectrum of motivation]] The taxonomy of motivation highlights motivation as sitting on a spectrum of autonomy, beginning with a complete lack of motivation (motivation) and ending with doing an activity purely for its inherent satisfaction or interest (intrinsic regulation). This model also highlights the differences between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation versus controlled and autonomous motivation, introducing regulations to specify the nuances of motivation. Notably, autonomous motivation spans across both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). ==Relatedness, motivation, and behaviour== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Parallel mediation model with both satisfaction and frustration of basic needs (Van Tuin et al., 2020)]] CET focuses on the fundamental psychological needs for autonomy and competence and how they can enhance or thwart intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Although CET focuses on autonomy and competence as the main catalysts for intrinsic motivation, Ryan & Powelson (1991) explain that relatedness needs are not antithetical to comptence or autonomy and suggests people feel most strongly related to people who are responsive to your expressions of autonomy. Relatedness plays a role especially in the social and environmental contexts which influence motivation and behaviour (Hagger et. al., 2020). The effects of relatedness satisfaction and frustration on motivation and behaviour has been investigated in literature thoroughly. === Wellbeing === Wellbeing has been found to interaction with === Education === Ryan & Deci Relatedness has been found to influence students' engagement and performance in educational settings (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021; Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Behavioural engagement in education is essential to students' learning (Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that percieved relatedness satisfaction of students was positively associated with increased behavioural engagement in mathematics. When relatedness is satisfied, participation in education is percieved by students as more socialy and emotionally meaningful and therefore motivates participation behaviours (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). Additionally, students; perceptions of relatedness with their teachers has been associated with better engagement with homework (Collie, 2024). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) notes that although the literature commonly investigate links between the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and students' motivational regulations, but literature that utilises the full-model of SDT is limited. Specifically, more detailed research into the full chain of events that leads to higher quality engagement in education. ==Relatedness and well-being== * Interpersonal support of autonomy, competence, and relatedness were associated with satisfaction of those psychological needs. * Environmental support for needs were associated with greater wellbeing and improved performance. * Relatedness supports wellbeing which supports motivation. (Slemp et. al, 2024) {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || |} * '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Relatedness satisfaction has been shown to influence welbeing: |type="(true)"} + True - False {Relatedness is an element of self-determination theory: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Relatedness is a key psychological need within self-determination theory. When this need is satisfied, psychological well-being is more likely to increase and individuals are more likely to develop greater self-determined motivation * Both relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration can influence the quality of motivation, not just its strength * Relatedness satisfaction can shape behaviour by facilitating greater engagement, participation, and persistence and sustain their behaviour for longer. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== *[[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Intrinsic motivation|Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Social relation|Relatedness]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to Student Motivation: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents of Autonomous and Controlled Motivations. Review of Educational Research, 92(1), 46-72. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426 Collie, R. J. (2024). Social-emotional need satisfaction and students’ academic engagement and social-emotional skills. Educational Psychology, 44(2), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2024.2324751 Hagger, M. S., Hankonen, N., Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., & Ryan, R. M. (2020). Changing Behavior Using Self-Determination Theory. In M. S. Hagger, L. D. Cameron, K. Hamilton, N. Hankonen, & T. Lintunen (Eds.), The Handbook of Behaviour Change (pp. 104–119). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677318.008 Hofverberg, A., Winberg, M., Palmberg, B., Andersson, C., & Palm, T. (2022). Relationships between basic psychological need satisfaction, regulations, and behavioral engagement in mathematics. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.829958 Kaefer, A., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2021). Relatedness support enhances motivation, positive affect, and motor learning in adolescents. Human Movement Science, 79, 102864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2021.102864 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). "The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. ''Psychological inquiry'', ''11''(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 127(5), 1012–1037. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459 Van Tuin, L., Schaufeli, W. B., & van Rhenen, W. (2020). The satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs in engaging leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 14(2), 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21695 Weinstein, N. (Ed.). (2014). Human Motivation and Interpersonal Relationships : Theory, Research, and Applications (1st ed. 2014.). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8542-6 }} ==External links== {{ic|Use sentence casing}} * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci TEDX] (Youtube) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ Self-determination Theory] (Center for Self-determination Theory) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Relatedness]] gqplqrplptkcpowkoksbughmv2p5gyk 2840691 2840690 2026-10-16T13:32:54Z U3203283 3110021 /* Taxonomy of human motivation */ 2840691 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory:<br>How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Raise hand gesture occupy.svg|Raise_hand_gesture_occupy|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. A raised hand: Lauren's tutor encouraged students to ask for help and connect with each other. {{expand}}]] ; Imagine this Lauren is a first-year university student studying psychology who recently started a demanding course. During the first few weeks, she finds the workload difficult and is unsure whether she is capable of succeeding. She chose to study psychology because she is interested in the subject, however, she feels isolated because her classmates seem to already know one another. One of Lauren’s tutors makes an effort to learn about students, encourages them to contribute to discussions, and provides feedback. The tutor also organises small-group activities where students can get to know one another and emphasises that asking for help is a normal part of learning. Lauren engages with these opportunities. Over time, Lauren begins to feel that she belongs in the course and that both her tutor and classmates value her participation. As Lauren feels increasingly connected to the people around her, she becomes more willing to attend tutorials, participate in discussions, ask questions (see Figure 1), and seek feedback when she does not understand something. She also starts studying with classmates outside class. Lauren is no longer completing the course requirements only because she feels she has to. Her growing sense of belonging helps her internalise the value of the course, so she begins to think, “Psychology is important to me, and I want to do well because I see myself as part of this community.” This shift leads to more persistent, engaged behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Self-determination theory (SDT) suggests people are most effectively motivated when motivation is intrinsic. SDT argues people have an innate tendency toward growth, and three distinct basic needs. Within SDT is the basic psychological needs theory (BPNT or BNT), which suggests three psychological needs related to intrinsic motivation which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Relatedness refers to the human desire to form strong relationships and bonds with those around them. This chapter will examine how the concept of relatedness, within self-determination theory, shapes human motivation and behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2000) The goal contents theory (GCT) expands on the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and their impact on wellness. Extrinsic goals including financial success, fame, and physical appearance have been compared to intrinsic goals which include personal growth, forming strong, high-quality relationships, and community which are associated with higher well-being than the latter. The role of relatedness can be understood through another micro-theory of SDT; the relationship motivation theory (RMT), which suggests that closeness to others is not only preferable, but essential to wellbeing. Not only do high-quality relationships satisfy the need for relatedness, but they can also satisfy the need for autonomy and competence (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In a meta-analysis, Slempt et. al (2024), note that support from others likely facilitates people’s motivational processes, finding that interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs were small to moderately positively associated with performance. Slempt et. al (2024), {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the need for relatedness within Self-Determination Theory, and why is it important in shaping motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction influence the development of autonomous motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction or frustration affect individuals’ behaviour, such as engagement, persistence, and disengagement? * How do relationships and social environments affect relatedness, and what are the implications on motivation and behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Self-Determination Theory== [[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] is a macro-theory of psychology created by [[w:Edward Deci|Edward Deci]] and [[w:Richard Ryan|Richard Ryan]] relating to motivation, behaviour, and personality. Deci and Ryan published their first comprehensive book of the theory in 1985 (Deci & Ryan, 1985). SDT utilises an organismic-dialectical approach, which assumes people are ‘active organisms’ who have tendencies toward growth, overcoming challenges, and integrating new experiences into their sense of self. SDT posits this inherent tendency toward growth as well as peoples’ innate psychological needs are the basis for self-motivation and personality integration. Ryan and Deci (2000), propose that humans have three basic psychological needs which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness and when these needs are met, they are essential to optimal personal growth, wellbeing, and [[W:intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivation]]. === Basic psychological needs theory === Basic psychological needs theory is a micro-theory within SDT. BPNT refers to the idea in SDT that people have three basic psychological needs that are central to wellbeing, growth and intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). [[w:Autonomy|Autonomy]] is the experience of ones actions as their own and personally-endorsed, as opposed to being controlled or imposed upon them. [[w:Competence|Competence]] is closely related to [[w:Self-Efficacy|self-efficacy]] and refers to the need to feel capable and effective and confident in your interactions with your environment, and to master challenges and achieve goals. [[w:relatedness|Relatedness]] is the innate human need to develop meaningful relationships with those around you, and to feel a sense of mutual care, respect, and warmth between yourself and others. Relatedness also refers to experiencing a sense of belonging, community, and kinship with others. Social or cultural factors can either support or 'thwart' individuals' motivation, well-being, and personal growth. (Ryan & Deci, 2000). ==Cognitive evaluation theory== [[File:Muhammad Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation.png|300px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. The player on the left wants to win the trophy which is an example of extrinsic motivation. The player on the right is playing for his own enjoyment, indicating he is intrinsically motivated.]] Cognitive evaluation theory (CET) is a micro-theory within self-determination theory. Cognitive evaluation theory is essential in understanding motivation within SDT, specifically, intrinsic motivation which refers to motivation to engage in a task out of an inherent interest, enjoyment, and engagement, whereas extrinsic motivation refers to an individual being motivated by external rewards or reinforcement (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET suggests that intrinsic motivation is more valuable than extrinsic motivation, as those that are intrinsically motivated feel a sense of choice over what they are doing and gain a feeling of competence and enjoyment from the activities or tasks they complete. (Hagger et. al., 2020). The role of social and environmental influences such as rewards, feedback and communications, can either facilitate or undermine intrinsic motivation. CET considers intrinsic motivation to be socially and environmentally influenced. For example, when an individual receives positive feedback, they are more likely to be intrinsically motivated, and when an individual receives negative feedback, they are less likely to be intrinsically motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET also aims to specify that factors that explain the variability of intrinsic motivation. === Taxonomy of human motivation === Deci & Ryan (2000) propose a taxonomy of motivation (shown in the figure below) to explain for the variability of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. [[File:Taxonomy of motivation.png| center |600x600px|'''Figure 3.'''Ryan & Deci's (2000) taxonomy of moitvation. A visual spectrum of motivation]] The taxonomy of motivation highlights motivation as sitting on a spectrum of autonomy, beginning with a complete lack of motivation (motivation) and ending with doing an activity purely for its inherent satisfaction or interest (intrinsic regulation). This model also highlights the differences between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation versus controlled and [[w:autonomous motivation|autonomous motivation]], introducing regulations to specify the nuances of motivation. Notably, autonomous motivation spans across both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). ==Relatedness, motivation, and behaviour== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Parallel mediation model with both satisfaction and frustration of basic needs (Van Tuin et al., 2020)]] CET focuses on the fundamental psychological needs for autonomy and competence and how they can enhance or thwart intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Although CET focuses on autonomy and competence as the main catalysts for intrinsic motivation, Ryan & Powelson (1991) explain that relatedness needs are not antithetical to comptence or autonomy and suggests people feel most strongly related to people who are responsive to your expressions of autonomy. Relatedness plays a role especially in the social and environmental contexts which influence motivation and behaviour (Hagger et. al., 2020). The effects of relatedness satisfaction and frustration on motivation and behaviour has been investigated in literature thoroughly. === Wellbeing === Wellbeing has been found to interaction with === Education === Ryan & Deci Relatedness has been found to influence students' engagement and performance in educational settings (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021; Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Behavioural engagement in education is essential to students' learning (Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that percieved relatedness satisfaction of students was positively associated with increased behavioural engagement in mathematics. When relatedness is satisfied, participation in education is percieved by students as more socialy and emotionally meaningful and therefore motivates participation behaviours (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). Additionally, students; perceptions of relatedness with their teachers has been associated with better engagement with homework (Collie, 2024). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) notes that although the literature commonly investigate links between the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and students' motivational regulations, but literature that utilises the full-model of SDT is limited. Specifically, more detailed research into the full chain of events that leads to higher quality engagement in education. ==Relatedness and well-being== * Interpersonal support of autonomy, competence, and relatedness were associated with satisfaction of those psychological needs. * Environmental support for needs were associated with greater wellbeing and improved performance. * Relatedness supports wellbeing which supports motivation. (Slemp et. al, 2024) {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || |} * '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Relatedness satisfaction has been shown to influence welbeing: |type="(true)"} + True - False {Relatedness is an element of self-determination theory: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Relatedness is a key psychological need within self-determination theory. When this need is satisfied, psychological well-being is more likely to increase and individuals are more likely to develop greater self-determined motivation * Both relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration can influence the quality of motivation, not just its strength * Relatedness satisfaction can shape behaviour by facilitating greater engagement, participation, and persistence and sustain their behaviour for longer. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== *[[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Intrinsic motivation|Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Social relation|Relatedness]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to Student Motivation: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents of Autonomous and Controlled Motivations. Review of Educational Research, 92(1), 46-72. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426 Collie, R. J. (2024). Social-emotional need satisfaction and students’ academic engagement and social-emotional skills. Educational Psychology, 44(2), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2024.2324751 Hagger, M. S., Hankonen, N., Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., & Ryan, R. M. (2020). Changing Behavior Using Self-Determination Theory. In M. S. Hagger, L. D. Cameron, K. Hamilton, N. Hankonen, & T. Lintunen (Eds.), The Handbook of Behaviour Change (pp. 104–119). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677318.008 Hofverberg, A., Winberg, M., Palmberg, B., Andersson, C., & Palm, T. (2022). Relationships between basic psychological need satisfaction, regulations, and behavioral engagement in mathematics. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.829958 Kaefer, A., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2021). Relatedness support enhances motivation, positive affect, and motor learning in adolescents. Human Movement Science, 79, 102864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2021.102864 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). "The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. ''Psychological inquiry'', ''11''(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 127(5), 1012–1037. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459 Van Tuin, L., Schaufeli, W. B., & van Rhenen, W. (2020). The satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs in engaging leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 14(2), 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21695 Weinstein, N. (Ed.). (2014). Human Motivation and Interpersonal Relationships : Theory, Research, and Applications (1st ed. 2014.). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8542-6 }} ==External links== {{ic|Use sentence casing}} * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci TEDX] (Youtube) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ Self-determination Theory] (Center for Self-determination Theory) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Relatedness]] mtablbgt4uhpvkdonfwmrcykiptu9aw 2840692 2840691 2026-10-16T13:34:19Z U3203283 3110021 /* Basic psychological needs theory */ 2840692 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory:<br>How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Raise hand gesture occupy.svg|Raise_hand_gesture_occupy|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. A raised hand: Lauren's tutor encouraged students to ask for help and connect with each other. {{expand}}]] ; Imagine this Lauren is a first-year university student studying psychology who recently started a demanding course. During the first few weeks, she finds the workload difficult and is unsure whether she is capable of succeeding. She chose to study psychology because she is interested in the subject, however, she feels isolated because her classmates seem to already know one another. One of Lauren’s tutors makes an effort to learn about students, encourages them to contribute to discussions, and provides feedback. The tutor also organises small-group activities where students can get to know one another and emphasises that asking for help is a normal part of learning. Lauren engages with these opportunities. Over time, Lauren begins to feel that she belongs in the course and that both her tutor and classmates value her participation. As Lauren feels increasingly connected to the people around her, she becomes more willing to attend tutorials, participate in discussions, ask questions (see Figure 1), and seek feedback when she does not understand something. She also starts studying with classmates outside class. Lauren is no longer completing the course requirements only because she feels she has to. Her growing sense of belonging helps her internalise the value of the course, so she begins to think, “Psychology is important to me, and I want to do well because I see myself as part of this community.” This shift leads to more persistent, engaged behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Self-determination theory (SDT) suggests people are most effectively motivated when motivation is intrinsic. SDT argues people have an innate tendency toward growth, and three distinct basic needs. Within SDT is the basic psychological needs theory (BPNT or BNT), which suggests three psychological needs related to intrinsic motivation which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Relatedness refers to the human desire to form strong relationships and bonds with those around them. This chapter will examine how the concept of relatedness, within self-determination theory, shapes human motivation and behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2000) The goal contents theory (GCT) expands on the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and their impact on wellness. Extrinsic goals including financial success, fame, and physical appearance have been compared to intrinsic goals which include personal growth, forming strong, high-quality relationships, and community which are associated with higher well-being than the latter. The role of relatedness can be understood through another micro-theory of SDT; the relationship motivation theory (RMT), which suggests that closeness to others is not only preferable, but essential to wellbeing. Not only do high-quality relationships satisfy the need for relatedness, but they can also satisfy the need for autonomy and competence (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In a meta-analysis, Slempt et. al (2024), note that support from others likely facilitates people’s motivational processes, finding that interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs were small to moderately positively associated with performance. Slempt et. al (2024), {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the need for relatedness within Self-Determination Theory, and why is it important in shaping motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction influence the development of autonomous motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction or frustration affect individuals’ behaviour, such as engagement, persistence, and disengagement? * How do relationships and social environments affect relatedness, and what are the implications on motivation and behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Self-Determination Theory== [[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] is a macro-theory of psychology created by [[w:Edward Deci|Edward Deci]] and [[w:Richard Ryan|Richard Ryan]] relating to motivation, behaviour, and personality. Deci and Ryan published their first comprehensive book of the theory in 1985 (Deci & Ryan, 1985). SDT utilises an organismic-dialectical approach, which assumes people are ‘active organisms’ who have tendencies toward growth, overcoming challenges, and integrating new experiences into their sense of self. SDT posits this inherent tendency toward growth as well as peoples’ innate psychological needs are the basis for self-motivation and personality integration. Ryan and Deci (2000), propose that humans have three basic psychological needs which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness and when these needs are met, they are essential to optimal personal growth, wellbeing, and [[W:intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivation]]. === Basic psychological needs theory === Basic psychological needs theory is a micro-theory within SDT. BPNT refers to the idea in SDT that people have three basic psychological needs that are central to wellbeing, growth and intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). [[w:Autonomy|Autonomy]] is the experience of ones actions as their own and personally-endorsed, as opposed to being controlled or imposed upon them. [[w:Competence|Competence]] is closely related to [[w:Self-Efficacy|self-efficacy]] and refers to the need to feel capable and effective and confident in your interactions with your environment, and to master challenges and achieve goals. Relatedness is the innate human need to develop meaningful relationships with those around you, and to feel a sense of mutual care, respect, and warmth between yourself and others. Relatedness also refers to experiencing a sense of belonging, community, and kinship with others. Social or cultural factors can either support or 'thwart' individuals' motivation, well-being, and personal growth. (Ryan & Deci, 2000). ==Cognitive evaluation theory== [[File:Muhammad Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation.png|300px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. The player on the left wants to win the trophy which is an example of extrinsic motivation. The player on the right is playing for his own enjoyment, indicating he is intrinsically motivated.]] Cognitive evaluation theory (CET) is a micro-theory within self-determination theory. Cognitive evaluation theory is essential in understanding motivation within SDT, specifically, intrinsic motivation which refers to motivation to engage in a task out of an inherent interest, enjoyment, and engagement, whereas extrinsic motivation refers to an individual being motivated by external rewards or reinforcement (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET suggests that intrinsic motivation is more valuable than extrinsic motivation, as those that are intrinsically motivated feel a sense of choice over what they are doing and gain a feeling of competence and enjoyment from the activities or tasks they complete. (Hagger et. al., 2020). The role of social and environmental influences such as rewards, feedback and communications, can either facilitate or undermine intrinsic motivation. CET considers intrinsic motivation to be socially and environmentally influenced. For example, when an individual receives positive feedback, they are more likely to be intrinsically motivated, and when an individual receives negative feedback, they are less likely to be intrinsically motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET also aims to specify that factors that explain the variability of intrinsic motivation. === Taxonomy of human motivation === Deci & Ryan (2000) propose a taxonomy of motivation (shown in the figure below) to explain for the variability of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. [[File:Taxonomy of motivation.png| center |600x600px|'''Figure 3.'''Ryan & Deci's (2000) taxonomy of moitvation. A visual spectrum of motivation]] The taxonomy of motivation highlights motivation as sitting on a spectrum of autonomy, beginning with a complete lack of motivation (motivation) and ending with doing an activity purely for its inherent satisfaction or interest (intrinsic regulation). This model also highlights the differences between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation versus controlled and [[w:autonomous motivation|autonomous motivation]], introducing regulations to specify the nuances of motivation. Notably, autonomous motivation spans across both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). ==Relatedness, motivation, and behaviour== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Parallel mediation model with both satisfaction and frustration of basic needs (Van Tuin et al., 2020)]] CET focuses on the fundamental psychological needs for autonomy and competence and how they can enhance or thwart intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Although CET focuses on autonomy and competence as the main catalysts for intrinsic motivation, Ryan & Powelson (1991) explain that relatedness needs are not antithetical to comptence or autonomy and suggests people feel most strongly related to people who are responsive to your expressions of autonomy. Relatedness plays a role especially in the social and environmental contexts which influence motivation and behaviour (Hagger et. al., 2020). The effects of relatedness satisfaction and frustration on motivation and behaviour has been investigated in literature thoroughly. === Wellbeing === Wellbeing has been found to interaction with === Education === Ryan & Deci Relatedness has been found to influence students' engagement and performance in educational settings (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021; Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Behavioural engagement in education is essential to students' learning (Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that percieved relatedness satisfaction of students was positively associated with increased behavioural engagement in mathematics. When relatedness is satisfied, participation in education is percieved by students as more socialy and emotionally meaningful and therefore motivates participation behaviours (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). Additionally, students; perceptions of relatedness with their teachers has been associated with better engagement with homework (Collie, 2024). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) notes that although the literature commonly investigate links between the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and students' motivational regulations, but literature that utilises the full-model of SDT is limited. Specifically, more detailed research into the full chain of events that leads to higher quality engagement in education. ==Relatedness and well-being== * Interpersonal support of autonomy, competence, and relatedness were associated with satisfaction of those psychological needs. * Environmental support for needs were associated with greater wellbeing and improved performance. * Relatedness supports wellbeing which supports motivation. (Slemp et. al, 2024) {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || |} * '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Relatedness satisfaction has been shown to influence welbeing: |type="(true)"} + True - False {Relatedness is an element of self-determination theory: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Relatedness is a key psychological need within self-determination theory. When this need is satisfied, psychological well-being is more likely to increase and individuals are more likely to develop greater self-determined motivation * Both relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration can influence the quality of motivation, not just its strength * Relatedness satisfaction can shape behaviour by facilitating greater engagement, participation, and persistence and sustain their behaviour for longer. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== *[[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Intrinsic motivation|Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Social relation|Relatedness]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to Student Motivation: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents of Autonomous and Controlled Motivations. Review of Educational Research, 92(1), 46-72. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426 Collie, R. J. (2024). Social-emotional need satisfaction and students’ academic engagement and social-emotional skills. Educational Psychology, 44(2), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2024.2324751 Hagger, M. S., Hankonen, N., Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., & Ryan, R. M. (2020). Changing Behavior Using Self-Determination Theory. In M. S. Hagger, L. D. Cameron, K. Hamilton, N. Hankonen, & T. Lintunen (Eds.), The Handbook of Behaviour Change (pp. 104–119). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677318.008 Hofverberg, A., Winberg, M., Palmberg, B., Andersson, C., & Palm, T. (2022). Relationships between basic psychological need satisfaction, regulations, and behavioral engagement in mathematics. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.829958 Kaefer, A., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2021). Relatedness support enhances motivation, positive affect, and motor learning in adolescents. Human Movement Science, 79, 102864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2021.102864 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). "The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. ''Psychological inquiry'', ''11''(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 127(5), 1012–1037. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459 Van Tuin, L., Schaufeli, W. B., & van Rhenen, W. (2020). The satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs in engaging leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 14(2), 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21695 Weinstein, N. (Ed.). (2014). Human Motivation and Interpersonal Relationships : Theory, Research, and Applications (1st ed. 2014.). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8542-6 }} ==External links== {{ic|Use sentence casing}} * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci TEDX] (Youtube) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ Self-determination Theory] (Center for Self-determination Theory) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Relatedness]] 4ri9g96wy2uaegu8yk436l5lqf7p5ay 2840693 2840692 2026-10-16T13:34:59Z U3203283 3110021 /* Taxonomy of human motivation */ 2840693 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory:<br>How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Raise hand gesture occupy.svg|Raise_hand_gesture_occupy|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. A raised hand: Lauren's tutor encouraged students to ask for help and connect with each other. {{expand}}]] ; Imagine this Lauren is a first-year university student studying psychology who recently started a demanding course. During the first few weeks, she finds the workload difficult and is unsure whether she is capable of succeeding. She chose to study psychology because she is interested in the subject, however, she feels isolated because her classmates seem to already know one another. One of Lauren’s tutors makes an effort to learn about students, encourages them to contribute to discussions, and provides feedback. The tutor also organises small-group activities where students can get to know one another and emphasises that asking for help is a normal part of learning. Lauren engages with these opportunities. Over time, Lauren begins to feel that she belongs in the course and that both her tutor and classmates value her participation. As Lauren feels increasingly connected to the people around her, she becomes more willing to attend tutorials, participate in discussions, ask questions (see Figure 1), and seek feedback when she does not understand something. She also starts studying with classmates outside class. Lauren is no longer completing the course requirements only because she feels she has to. Her growing sense of belonging helps her internalise the value of the course, so she begins to think, “Psychology is important to me, and I want to do well because I see myself as part of this community.” This shift leads to more persistent, engaged behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Self-determination theory (SDT) suggests people are most effectively motivated when motivation is intrinsic. SDT argues people have an innate tendency toward growth, and three distinct basic needs. Within SDT is the basic psychological needs theory (BPNT or BNT), which suggests three psychological needs related to intrinsic motivation which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Relatedness refers to the human desire to form strong relationships and bonds with those around them. This chapter will examine how the concept of relatedness, within self-determination theory, shapes human motivation and behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2000) The goal contents theory (GCT) expands on the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and their impact on wellness. Extrinsic goals including financial success, fame, and physical appearance have been compared to intrinsic goals which include personal growth, forming strong, high-quality relationships, and community which are associated with higher well-being than the latter. The role of relatedness can be understood through another micro-theory of SDT; the relationship motivation theory (RMT), which suggests that closeness to others is not only preferable, but essential to wellbeing. Not only do high-quality relationships satisfy the need for relatedness, but they can also satisfy the need for autonomy and competence (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In a meta-analysis, Slempt et. al (2024), note that support from others likely facilitates people’s motivational processes, finding that interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs were small to moderately positively associated with performance. Slempt et. al (2024), {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the need for relatedness within Self-Determination Theory, and why is it important in shaping motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction influence the development of autonomous motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction or frustration affect individuals’ behaviour, such as engagement, persistence, and disengagement? * How do relationships and social environments affect relatedness, and what are the implications on motivation and behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Self-Determination Theory== [[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] is a macro-theory of psychology created by [[w:Edward Deci|Edward Deci]] and [[w:Richard Ryan|Richard Ryan]] relating to motivation, behaviour, and personality. Deci and Ryan published their first comprehensive book of the theory in 1985 (Deci & Ryan, 1985). SDT utilises an organismic-dialectical approach, which assumes people are ‘active organisms’ who have tendencies toward growth, overcoming challenges, and integrating new experiences into their sense of self. SDT posits this inherent tendency toward growth as well as peoples’ innate psychological needs are the basis for self-motivation and personality integration. Ryan and Deci (2000), propose that humans have three basic psychological needs which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness and when these needs are met, they are essential to optimal personal growth, wellbeing, and [[W:intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivation]]. === Basic psychological needs theory === Basic psychological needs theory is a micro-theory within SDT. BPNT refers to the idea in SDT that people have three basic psychological needs that are central to wellbeing, growth and intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). [[w:Autonomy|Autonomy]] is the experience of ones actions as their own and personally-endorsed, as opposed to being controlled or imposed upon them. [[w:Competence|Competence]] is closely related to [[w:Self-Efficacy|self-efficacy]] and refers to the need to feel capable and effective and confident in your interactions with your environment, and to master challenges and achieve goals. Relatedness is the innate human need to develop meaningful relationships with those around you, and to feel a sense of mutual care, respect, and warmth between yourself and others. Relatedness also refers to experiencing a sense of belonging, community, and kinship with others. Social or cultural factors can either support or 'thwart' individuals' motivation, well-being, and personal growth. (Ryan & Deci, 2000). ==Cognitive evaluation theory== [[File:Muhammad Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation.png|300px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. The player on the left wants to win the trophy which is an example of extrinsic motivation. The player on the right is playing for his own enjoyment, indicating he is intrinsically motivated.]] Cognitive evaluation theory (CET) is a micro-theory within self-determination theory. Cognitive evaluation theory is essential in understanding motivation within SDT, specifically, intrinsic motivation which refers to motivation to engage in a task out of an inherent interest, enjoyment, and engagement, whereas extrinsic motivation refers to an individual being motivated by external rewards or reinforcement (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET suggests that intrinsic motivation is more valuable than extrinsic motivation, as those that are intrinsically motivated feel a sense of choice over what they are doing and gain a feeling of competence and enjoyment from the activities or tasks they complete. (Hagger et. al., 2020). The role of social and environmental influences such as rewards, feedback and communications, can either facilitate or undermine intrinsic motivation. CET considers intrinsic motivation to be socially and environmentally influenced. For example, when an individual receives positive feedback, they are more likely to be intrinsically motivated, and when an individual receives negative feedback, they are less likely to be intrinsically motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET also aims to specify that factors that explain the variability of intrinsic motivation. === Taxonomy of human motivation === Deci & Ryan (2000) propose a taxonomy of motivation (shown in the figure below) to explain for the variability of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. [[File:Taxonomy of motivation.png| center |600x600px|'''Figure 3.'''Ryan & Deci's (2000) taxonomy of moitvation. A visual spectrum of motivation]] The taxonomy of motivation highlights motivation as sitting on a spectrum of autonomy, beginning with a complete lack of motivation (motivation) and ending with doing an activity purely for its inherent satisfaction or interest (intrinsic regulation). This model also highlights the differences between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation versus controlled and autonomous motivation, introducing regulations to specify the nuances of motivation. Notably, autonomous motivation spans across both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). ==Relatedness, motivation, and behaviour== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Parallel mediation model with both satisfaction and frustration of basic needs (Van Tuin et al., 2020)]] CET focuses on the fundamental psychological needs for autonomy and competence and how they can enhance or thwart intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Although CET focuses on autonomy and competence as the main catalysts for intrinsic motivation, Ryan & Powelson (1991) explain that relatedness needs are not antithetical to comptence or autonomy and suggests people feel most strongly related to people who are responsive to your expressions of autonomy. Relatedness plays a role especially in the social and environmental contexts which influence motivation and behaviour (Hagger et. al., 2020). The effects of relatedness satisfaction and frustration on motivation and behaviour has been investigated in literature thoroughly. === Wellbeing === Wellbeing has been found to interaction with === Education === Ryan & Deci Relatedness has been found to influence students' engagement and performance in educational settings (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021; Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Behavioural engagement in education is essential to students' learning (Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that percieved relatedness satisfaction of students was positively associated with increased behavioural engagement in mathematics. When relatedness is satisfied, participation in education is percieved by students as more socialy and emotionally meaningful and therefore motivates participation behaviours (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). Additionally, students; perceptions of relatedness with their teachers has been associated with better engagement with homework (Collie, 2024). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) notes that although the literature commonly investigate links between the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and students' motivational regulations, but literature that utilises the full-model of SDT is limited. Specifically, more detailed research into the full chain of events that leads to higher quality engagement in education. ==Relatedness and well-being== * Interpersonal support of autonomy, competence, and relatedness were associated with satisfaction of those psychological needs. * Environmental support for needs were associated with greater wellbeing and improved performance. * Relatedness supports wellbeing which supports motivation. (Slemp et. al, 2024) {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || |} * '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Relatedness satisfaction has been shown to influence welbeing: |type="(true)"} + True - False {Relatedness is an element of self-determination theory: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Relatedness is a key psychological need within self-determination theory. When this need is satisfied, psychological well-being is more likely to increase and individuals are more likely to develop greater self-determined motivation * Both relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration can influence the quality of motivation, not just its strength * Relatedness satisfaction can shape behaviour by facilitating greater engagement, participation, and persistence and sustain their behaviour for longer. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== *[[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Intrinsic motivation|Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Social relation|Relatedness]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to Student Motivation: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents of Autonomous and Controlled Motivations. Review of Educational Research, 92(1), 46-72. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426 Collie, R. J. (2024). Social-emotional need satisfaction and students’ academic engagement and social-emotional skills. Educational Psychology, 44(2), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2024.2324751 Hagger, M. S., Hankonen, N., Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., & Ryan, R. M. (2020). Changing Behavior Using Self-Determination Theory. In M. S. Hagger, L. D. Cameron, K. Hamilton, N. Hankonen, & T. Lintunen (Eds.), The Handbook of Behaviour Change (pp. 104–119). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677318.008 Hofverberg, A., Winberg, M., Palmberg, B., Andersson, C., & Palm, T. (2022). Relationships between basic psychological need satisfaction, regulations, and behavioral engagement in mathematics. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.829958 Kaefer, A., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2021). Relatedness support enhances motivation, positive affect, and motor learning in adolescents. Human Movement Science, 79, 102864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2021.102864 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). "The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. ''Psychological inquiry'', ''11''(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 127(5), 1012–1037. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459 Van Tuin, L., Schaufeli, W. B., & van Rhenen, W. (2020). The satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs in engaging leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 14(2), 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21695 Weinstein, N. (Ed.). (2014). Human Motivation and Interpersonal Relationships : Theory, Research, and Applications (1st ed. 2014.). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8542-6 }} ==External links== {{ic|Use sentence casing}} * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci TEDX] (Youtube) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ Self-determination Theory] (Center for Self-determination Theory) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Relatedness]] sq5bbjlbfin1swi9pw5hfgsia5vkxc9 2840695 2840693 2026-10-16T13:41:33Z U3203283 3110021 /* Education */ 2840695 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory:<br>How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Raise hand gesture occupy.svg|Raise_hand_gesture_occupy|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. A raised hand: Lauren's tutor encouraged students to ask for help and connect with each other. {{expand}}]] ; Imagine this Lauren is a first-year university student studying psychology who recently started a demanding course. During the first few weeks, she finds the workload difficult and is unsure whether she is capable of succeeding. She chose to study psychology because she is interested in the subject, however, she feels isolated because her classmates seem to already know one another. One of Lauren’s tutors makes an effort to learn about students, encourages them to contribute to discussions, and provides feedback. The tutor also organises small-group activities where students can get to know one another and emphasises that asking for help is a normal part of learning. Lauren engages with these opportunities. Over time, Lauren begins to feel that she belongs in the course and that both her tutor and classmates value her participation. As Lauren feels increasingly connected to the people around her, she becomes more willing to attend tutorials, participate in discussions, ask questions (see Figure 1), and seek feedback when she does not understand something. She also starts studying with classmates outside class. Lauren is no longer completing the course requirements only because she feels she has to. Her growing sense of belonging helps her internalise the value of the course, so she begins to think, “Psychology is important to me, and I want to do well because I see myself as part of this community.” This shift leads to more persistent, engaged behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Self-determination theory (SDT) suggests people are most effectively motivated when motivation is intrinsic. SDT argues people have an innate tendency toward growth, and three distinct basic needs. Within SDT is the basic psychological needs theory (BPNT or BNT), which suggests three psychological needs related to intrinsic motivation which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Relatedness refers to the human desire to form strong relationships and bonds with those around them. This chapter will examine how the concept of relatedness, within self-determination theory, shapes human motivation and behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2000) The goal contents theory (GCT) expands on the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and their impact on wellness. Extrinsic goals including financial success, fame, and physical appearance have been compared to intrinsic goals which include personal growth, forming strong, high-quality relationships, and community which are associated with higher well-being than the latter. The role of relatedness can be understood through another micro-theory of SDT; the relationship motivation theory (RMT), which suggests that closeness to others is not only preferable, but essential to wellbeing. Not only do high-quality relationships satisfy the need for relatedness, but they can also satisfy the need for autonomy and competence (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In a meta-analysis, Slempt et. al (2024), note that support from others likely facilitates people’s motivational processes, finding that interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs were small to moderately positively associated with performance. Slempt et. al (2024), {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the need for relatedness within Self-Determination Theory, and why is it important in shaping motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction influence the development of autonomous motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction or frustration affect individuals’ behaviour, such as engagement, persistence, and disengagement? * How do relationships and social environments affect relatedness, and what are the implications on motivation and behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Self-Determination Theory== [[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] is a macro-theory of psychology created by [[w:Edward Deci|Edward Deci]] and [[w:Richard Ryan|Richard Ryan]] relating to motivation, behaviour, and personality. Deci and Ryan published their first comprehensive book of the theory in 1985 (Deci & Ryan, 1985). SDT utilises an organismic-dialectical approach, which assumes people are ‘active organisms’ who have tendencies toward growth, overcoming challenges, and integrating new experiences into their sense of self. SDT posits this inherent tendency toward growth as well as peoples’ innate psychological needs are the basis for self-motivation and personality integration. Ryan and Deci (2000), propose that humans have three basic psychological needs which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness and when these needs are met, they are essential to optimal personal growth, wellbeing, and [[W:intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivation]]. === Basic psychological needs theory === Basic psychological needs theory is a micro-theory within SDT. BPNT refers to the idea in SDT that people have three basic psychological needs that are central to wellbeing, growth and intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). [[w:Autonomy|Autonomy]] is the experience of ones actions as their own and personally-endorsed, as opposed to being controlled or imposed upon them. [[w:Competence|Competence]] is closely related to [[w:Self-Efficacy|self-efficacy]] and refers to the need to feel capable and effective and confident in your interactions with your environment, and to master challenges and achieve goals. Relatedness is the innate human need to develop meaningful relationships with those around you, and to feel a sense of mutual care, respect, and warmth between yourself and others. Relatedness also refers to experiencing a sense of belonging, community, and kinship with others. Social or cultural factors can either support or 'thwart' individuals' motivation, well-being, and personal growth. (Ryan & Deci, 2000). ==Cognitive evaluation theory== [[File:Muhammad Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation.png|300px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. The player on the left wants to win the trophy which is an example of extrinsic motivation. The player on the right is playing for his own enjoyment, indicating he is intrinsically motivated.]] Cognitive evaluation theory (CET) is a micro-theory within self-determination theory. Cognitive evaluation theory is essential in understanding motivation within SDT, specifically, intrinsic motivation which refers to motivation to engage in a task out of an inherent interest, enjoyment, and engagement, whereas extrinsic motivation refers to an individual being motivated by external rewards or reinforcement (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET suggests that intrinsic motivation is more valuable than extrinsic motivation, as those that are intrinsically motivated feel a sense of choice over what they are doing and gain a feeling of competence and enjoyment from the activities or tasks they complete. (Hagger et. al., 2020). The role of social and environmental influences such as rewards, feedback and communications, can either facilitate or undermine intrinsic motivation. CET considers intrinsic motivation to be socially and environmentally influenced. For example, when an individual receives positive feedback, they are more likely to be intrinsically motivated, and when an individual receives negative feedback, they are less likely to be intrinsically motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET also aims to specify that factors that explain the variability of intrinsic motivation. === Taxonomy of human motivation === Deci & Ryan (2000) propose a taxonomy of motivation (shown in the figure below) to explain for the variability of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. [[File:Taxonomy of motivation.png| center |600x600px|'''Figure 3.'''Ryan & Deci's (2000) taxonomy of moitvation. A visual spectrum of motivation]] The taxonomy of motivation highlights motivation as sitting on a spectrum of autonomy, beginning with a complete lack of motivation (motivation) and ending with doing an activity purely for its inherent satisfaction or interest (intrinsic regulation). This model also highlights the differences between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation versus controlled and autonomous motivation, introducing regulations to specify the nuances of motivation. Notably, autonomous motivation spans across both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). ==Relatedness, motivation, and behaviour== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Parallel mediation model with both satisfaction and frustration of basic needs (Van Tuin et al., 2020)]] CET focuses on the fundamental psychological needs for autonomy and competence and how they can enhance or thwart intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Although CET focuses on autonomy and competence as the main catalysts for intrinsic motivation, Ryan & Powelson (1991) explain that relatedness needs are not antithetical to comptence or autonomy and suggests people feel most strongly related to people who are responsive to your expressions of autonomy. Relatedness plays a role especially in the social and environmental contexts which influence motivation and behaviour (Hagger et. al., 2020). The effects of relatedness satisfaction and frustration on motivation and behaviour has been investigated in literature thoroughly. === Wellbeing === Wellbeing has been found to interaction with === Education === Ryan & Deci Relatedness has been found to influence students' engagement and performance in educational settings (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021; Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Behavioural engagement in education is essential to students' learning (Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that percieved relatedness satisfaction of students was positively associated with increased behavioural engagement in mathematics. When relatedness is satisfied, participation in education is percieved by students as more socialy and emotionally meaningful and therefore motivates participation behaviours (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). Additionally, students; perceptions of relatedness with their teachers has been associated with better engagement with homework (Collie, 2024). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) notes that although the literature commonly investigate links between the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and students' motivational regulations, but literature that utilises the full-model of SDT is limited. Specifically, more detailed research into the full chain of events that leads to higher quality engagement in education. Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that relatedness satisfaction predicted identified regulation which then, in turn, predicted engagement in mathematics. These findings highlight the importance of investigating the role of regulation in the understanding how relatedness functions within SDT to shape motivation and behaviour. ==Relatedness and well-being== * Interpersonal support of autonomy, competence, and relatedness were associated with satisfaction of those psychological needs. * Environmental support for needs were associated with greater wellbeing and improved performance. * Relatedness supports wellbeing which supports motivation. (Slemp et. al, 2024) {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || |} * '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Relatedness satisfaction has been shown to influence welbeing: |type="(true)"} + True - False {Relatedness is an element of self-determination theory: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Relatedness is a key psychological need within self-determination theory. When this need is satisfied, psychological well-being is more likely to increase and individuals are more likely to develop greater self-determined motivation * Both relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration can influence the quality of motivation, not just its strength * Relatedness satisfaction can shape behaviour by facilitating greater engagement, participation, and persistence and sustain their behaviour for longer. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== *[[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Intrinsic motivation|Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Social relation|Relatedness]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to Student Motivation: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents of Autonomous and Controlled Motivations. Review of Educational Research, 92(1), 46-72. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426 Collie, R. J. (2024). Social-emotional need satisfaction and students’ academic engagement and social-emotional skills. Educational Psychology, 44(2), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2024.2324751 Hagger, M. S., Hankonen, N., Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., & Ryan, R. M. (2020). Changing Behavior Using Self-Determination Theory. In M. S. Hagger, L. D. Cameron, K. Hamilton, N. Hankonen, & T. Lintunen (Eds.), The Handbook of Behaviour Change (pp. 104–119). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677318.008 Hofverberg, A., Winberg, M., Palmberg, B., Andersson, C., & Palm, T. (2022). Relationships between basic psychological need satisfaction, regulations, and behavioral engagement in mathematics. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.829958 Kaefer, A., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2021). Relatedness support enhances motivation, positive affect, and motor learning in adolescents. Human Movement Science, 79, 102864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2021.102864 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). "The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. ''Psychological inquiry'', ''11''(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 127(5), 1012–1037. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459 Van Tuin, L., Schaufeli, W. B., & van Rhenen, W. (2020). The satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs in engaging leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 14(2), 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21695 Weinstein, N. (Ed.). (2014). Human Motivation and Interpersonal Relationships : Theory, Research, and Applications (1st ed. 2014.). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8542-6 }} ==External links== {{ic|Use sentence casing}} * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci TEDX] (Youtube) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ Self-determination Theory] (Center for Self-determination Theory) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Relatedness]] egbeinf2tqyc0u1g1fy598qidvpyf83 2840696 2840695 2026-10-16T13:48:05Z U3203283 3110021 /* Taxonomy of human motivation */ 2840696 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory:<br>How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Raise hand gesture occupy.svg|Raise_hand_gesture_occupy|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. A raised hand: Lauren's tutor encouraged students to ask for help and connect with each other. {{expand}}]] ; Imagine this Lauren is a first-year university student studying psychology who recently started a demanding course. During the first few weeks, she finds the workload difficult and is unsure whether she is capable of succeeding. She chose to study psychology because she is interested in the subject, however, she feels isolated because her classmates seem to already know one another. One of Lauren’s tutors makes an effort to learn about students, encourages them to contribute to discussions, and provides feedback. The tutor also organises small-group activities where students can get to know one another and emphasises that asking for help is a normal part of learning. Lauren engages with these opportunities. Over time, Lauren begins to feel that she belongs in the course and that both her tutor and classmates value her participation. As Lauren feels increasingly connected to the people around her, she becomes more willing to attend tutorials, participate in discussions, ask questions (see Figure 1), and seek feedback when she does not understand something. She also starts studying with classmates outside class. Lauren is no longer completing the course requirements only because she feels she has to. Her growing sense of belonging helps her internalise the value of the course, so she begins to think, “Psychology is important to me, and I want to do well because I see myself as part of this community.” This shift leads to more persistent, engaged behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Self-determination theory (SDT) suggests people are most effectively motivated when motivation is intrinsic. SDT argues people have an innate tendency toward growth, and three distinct basic needs. Within SDT is the basic psychological needs theory (BPNT or BNT), which suggests three psychological needs related to intrinsic motivation which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Relatedness refers to the human desire to form strong relationships and bonds with those around them. This chapter will examine how the concept of relatedness, within self-determination theory, shapes human motivation and behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2000) The goal contents theory (GCT) expands on the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and their impact on wellness. Extrinsic goals including financial success, fame, and physical appearance have been compared to intrinsic goals which include personal growth, forming strong, high-quality relationships, and community which are associated with higher well-being than the latter. The role of relatedness can be understood through another micro-theory of SDT; the relationship motivation theory (RMT), which suggests that closeness to others is not only preferable, but essential to wellbeing. Not only do high-quality relationships satisfy the need for relatedness, but they can also satisfy the need for autonomy and competence (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In a meta-analysis, Slempt et. al (2024), note that support from others likely facilitates people’s motivational processes, finding that interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs were small to moderately positively associated with performance. Slempt et. al (2024), {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the need for relatedness within Self-Determination Theory, and why is it important in shaping motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction influence the development of autonomous motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction or frustration affect individuals’ behaviour, such as engagement, persistence, and disengagement? * How do relationships and social environments affect relatedness, and what are the implications on motivation and behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Self-Determination Theory== [[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] is a macro-theory of psychology created by [[w:Edward Deci|Edward Deci]] and [[w:Richard Ryan|Richard Ryan]] relating to motivation, behaviour, and personality. Deci and Ryan published their first comprehensive book of the theory in 1985 (Deci & Ryan, 1985). SDT utilises an organismic-dialectical approach, which assumes people are ‘active organisms’ who have tendencies toward growth, overcoming challenges, and integrating new experiences into their sense of self. SDT posits this inherent tendency toward growth as well as peoples’ innate psychological needs are the basis for self-motivation and personality integration. Ryan and Deci (2000), propose that humans have three basic psychological needs which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness and when these needs are met, they are essential to optimal personal growth, wellbeing, and [[W:intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivation]]. === Basic psychological needs theory === Basic psychological needs theory is a micro-theory within SDT. BPNT refers to the idea in SDT that people have three basic psychological needs that are central to wellbeing, growth and intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). [[w:Autonomy|Autonomy]] is the experience of ones actions as their own and personally-endorsed, as opposed to being controlled or imposed upon them. [[w:Competence|Competence]] is closely related to [[w:Self-Efficacy|self-efficacy]] and refers to the need to feel capable and effective and confident in your interactions with your environment, and to master challenges and achieve goals. Relatedness is the innate human need to develop meaningful relationships with those around you, and to feel a sense of mutual care, respect, and warmth between yourself and others. Relatedness also refers to experiencing a sense of belonging, community, and kinship with others. Social or cultural factors can either support or 'thwart' individuals' motivation, well-being, and personal growth. (Ryan & Deci, 2000). ==Cognitive evaluation theory== [[File:Muhammad Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation.png|300px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. The player on the left wants to win the trophy which is an example of extrinsic motivation. The player on the right is playing for his own enjoyment, indicating he is intrinsically motivated.]] Cognitive evaluation theory (CET) is a micro-theory within self-determination theory. Cognitive evaluation theory is essential in understanding motivation within SDT, specifically, intrinsic motivation which refers to motivation to engage in a task out of an inherent interest, enjoyment, and engagement, whereas extrinsic motivation refers to an individual being motivated by external rewards or reinforcement (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET suggests that intrinsic motivation is more valuable than extrinsic motivation, as those that are intrinsically motivated feel a sense of choice over what they are doing and gain a feeling of competence and enjoyment from the activities or tasks they complete. (Hagger et. al., 2020). The role of social and environmental influences such as rewards, feedback and communications, can either facilitate or undermine intrinsic motivation. CET considers intrinsic motivation to be socially and environmentally influenced. For example, when an individual receives positive feedback, they are more likely to be intrinsically motivated, and when an individual receives negative feedback, they are less likely to be intrinsically motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET also aims to specify that factors that explain the variability of intrinsic motivation. === Taxonomy of human motivation === Deci & Ryan (2000) propose a taxonomy of motivation (shown in the figure below) to explain for the variability of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. [[File:Taxonomy of motivation.png| center |600x600px|'''Figure 3.'''Ryan & Deci's (2000) taxonomy of moitvation. A visual spectrum of motivation]] The taxonomy of motivation highlights motivation as sitting on a spectrum of autonomy, beginning with a complete lack of motivation (motivation) and ending with doing an activity purely for its inherent satisfaction or interest (intrinsic regulation). This model also highlights the differences between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation versus controlled and autonomous motivation, introducing regulations to specify the nuances of motivation. Notably, autonomous motivation spans across both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Autonomous motivation is the same as intrinsic motivation: |type="(false)"} + True - False {Winning a trophy is an example of extrinsic motivation, and participating in a hobby that interests themselves is an example of intrinsic motivation: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Relatedness, motivation, and behaviour== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Parallel mediation model with both satisfaction and frustration of basic needs (Van Tuin et al., 2020)]] CET focuses on the fundamental psychological needs for autonomy and competence and how they can enhance or thwart intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Although CET focuses on autonomy and competence as the main catalysts for intrinsic motivation, Ryan & Powelson (1991) explain that relatedness needs are not antithetical to comptence or autonomy and suggests people feel most strongly related to people who are responsive to your expressions of autonomy. Relatedness plays a role especially in the social and environmental contexts which influence motivation and behaviour (Hagger et. al., 2020). The effects of relatedness satisfaction and frustration on motivation and behaviour has been investigated in literature thoroughly. === Wellbeing === Wellbeing has been found to interaction with === Education === Ryan & Deci Relatedness has been found to influence students' engagement and performance in educational settings (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021; Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Behavioural engagement in education is essential to students' learning (Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that percieved relatedness satisfaction of students was positively associated with increased behavioural engagement in mathematics. When relatedness is satisfied, participation in education is percieved by students as more socialy and emotionally meaningful and therefore motivates participation behaviours (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). Additionally, students; perceptions of relatedness with their teachers has been associated with better engagement with homework (Collie, 2024). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) notes that although the literature commonly investigate links between the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and students' motivational regulations, but literature that utilises the full-model of SDT is limited. Specifically, more detailed research into the full chain of events that leads to higher quality engagement in education. Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that relatedness satisfaction predicted identified regulation which then, in turn, predicted engagement in mathematics. These findings highlight the importance of investigating the role of regulation in the understanding how relatedness functions within SDT to shape motivation and behaviour. ==Relatedness and well-being== * Interpersonal support of autonomy, competence, and relatedness were associated with satisfaction of those psychological needs. * Environmental support for needs were associated with greater wellbeing and improved performance. * Relatedness supports wellbeing which supports motivation. (Slemp et. al, 2024) {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || |} * '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Relatedness satisfaction has been shown to influence welbeing: |type="(true)"} + True - False {Relatedness is an element of self-determination theory: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Relatedness is a key psychological need within self-determination theory. When this need is satisfied, psychological well-being is more likely to increase and individuals are more likely to develop greater self-determined motivation * Both relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration can influence the quality of motivation, not just its strength * Relatedness satisfaction can shape behaviour by facilitating greater engagement, participation, and persistence and sustain their behaviour for longer. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== *[[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Intrinsic motivation|Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Social relation|Relatedness]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to Student Motivation: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents of Autonomous and Controlled Motivations. Review of Educational Research, 92(1), 46-72. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426 Collie, R. J. (2024). Social-emotional need satisfaction and students’ academic engagement and social-emotional skills. Educational Psychology, 44(2), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2024.2324751 Hagger, M. S., Hankonen, N., Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., & Ryan, R. M. (2020). Changing Behavior Using Self-Determination Theory. In M. S. Hagger, L. D. Cameron, K. Hamilton, N. Hankonen, & T. Lintunen (Eds.), The Handbook of Behaviour Change (pp. 104–119). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677318.008 Hofverberg, A., Winberg, M., Palmberg, B., Andersson, C., & Palm, T. (2022). Relationships between basic psychological need satisfaction, regulations, and behavioral engagement in mathematics. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.829958 Kaefer, A., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2021). Relatedness support enhances motivation, positive affect, and motor learning in adolescents. Human Movement Science, 79, 102864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2021.102864 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). "The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. ''Psychological inquiry'', ''11''(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 127(5), 1012–1037. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459 Van Tuin, L., Schaufeli, W. B., & van Rhenen, W. (2020). The satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs in engaging leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 14(2), 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21695 Weinstein, N. (Ed.). (2014). Human Motivation and Interpersonal Relationships : Theory, Research, and Applications (1st ed. 2014.). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8542-6 }} ==External links== {{ic|Use sentence casing}} * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci TEDX] (Youtube) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ Self-determination Theory] (Center for Self-determination Theory) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Relatedness]] 2z3665a947k0xeqwa15aedytlmw29dh 2840697 2840696 2026-10-16T13:51:36Z U3203283 3110021 /* Taxonomy of human motivation */ 2840697 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory:<br>How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Raise hand gesture occupy.svg|Raise_hand_gesture_occupy|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. A raised hand: Lauren's tutor encouraged students to ask for help and connect with each other. {{expand}}]] ; Imagine this Lauren is a first-year university student studying psychology who recently started a demanding course. During the first few weeks, she finds the workload difficult and is unsure whether she is capable of succeeding. She chose to study psychology because she is interested in the subject, however, she feels isolated because her classmates seem to already know one another. One of Lauren’s tutors makes an effort to learn about students, encourages them to contribute to discussions, and provides feedback. The tutor also organises small-group activities where students can get to know one another and emphasises that asking for help is a normal part of learning. Lauren engages with these opportunities. Over time, Lauren begins to feel that she belongs in the course and that both her tutor and classmates value her participation. As Lauren feels increasingly connected to the people around her, she becomes more willing to attend tutorials, participate in discussions, ask questions (see Figure 1), and seek feedback when she does not understand something. She also starts studying with classmates outside class. Lauren is no longer completing the course requirements only because she feels she has to. Her growing sense of belonging helps her internalise the value of the course, so she begins to think, “Psychology is important to me, and I want to do well because I see myself as part of this community.” This shift leads to more persistent, engaged behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Self-determination theory (SDT) suggests people are most effectively motivated when motivation is intrinsic. SDT argues people have an innate tendency toward growth, and three distinct basic needs. Within SDT is the basic psychological needs theory (BPNT or BNT), which suggests three psychological needs related to intrinsic motivation which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Relatedness refers to the human desire to form strong relationships and bonds with those around them. This chapter will examine how the concept of relatedness, within self-determination theory, shapes human motivation and behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2000) The goal contents theory (GCT) expands on the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and their impact on wellness. Extrinsic goals including financial success, fame, and physical appearance have been compared to intrinsic goals which include personal growth, forming strong, high-quality relationships, and community which are associated with higher well-being than the latter. The role of relatedness can be understood through another micro-theory of SDT; the relationship motivation theory (RMT), which suggests that closeness to others is not only preferable, but essential to wellbeing. Not only do high-quality relationships satisfy the need for relatedness, but they can also satisfy the need for autonomy and competence (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In a meta-analysis, Slempt et. al (2024), note that support from others likely facilitates people’s motivational processes, finding that interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs were small to moderately positively associated with performance. Slempt et. al (2024), {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the need for relatedness within Self-Determination Theory, and why is it important in shaping motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction influence the development of autonomous motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction or frustration affect individuals’ behaviour, such as engagement, persistence, and disengagement? * How do relationships and social environments affect relatedness, and what are the implications on motivation and behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Self-Determination Theory== [[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] is a macro-theory of psychology created by [[w:Edward Deci|Edward Deci]] and [[w:Richard Ryan|Richard Ryan]] relating to motivation, behaviour, and personality. Deci and Ryan published their first comprehensive book of the theory in 1985 (Deci & Ryan, 1985). SDT utilises an organismic-dialectical approach, which assumes people are ‘active organisms’ who have tendencies toward growth, overcoming challenges, and integrating new experiences into their sense of self. SDT posits this inherent tendency toward growth as well as peoples’ innate psychological needs are the basis for self-motivation and personality integration. Ryan and Deci (2000), propose that humans have three basic psychological needs which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness and when these needs are met, they are essential to optimal personal growth, wellbeing, and [[W:intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivation]]. === Basic psychological needs theory === Basic psychological needs theory is a micro-theory within SDT. BPNT refers to the idea in SDT that people have three basic psychological needs that are central to wellbeing, growth and intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). [[w:Autonomy|Autonomy]] is the experience of ones actions as their own and personally-endorsed, as opposed to being controlled or imposed upon them. [[w:Competence|Competence]] is closely related to [[w:Self-Efficacy|self-efficacy]] and refers to the need to feel capable and effective and confident in your interactions with your environment, and to master challenges and achieve goals. Relatedness is the innate human need to develop meaningful relationships with those around you, and to feel a sense of mutual care, respect, and warmth between yourself and others. Relatedness also refers to experiencing a sense of belonging, community, and kinship with others. Social or cultural factors can either support or 'thwart' individuals' motivation, well-being, and personal growth. (Ryan & Deci, 2000). ==Cognitive evaluation theory== [[File:Muhammad Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation.png|300px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. The player on the left wants to win the trophy which is an example of extrinsic motivation. The player on the right is playing for his own enjoyment, indicating he is intrinsically motivated.]] Cognitive evaluation theory (CET) is a micro-theory within self-determination theory. Cognitive evaluation theory is essential in understanding motivation within SDT, specifically, intrinsic motivation which refers to motivation to engage in a task out of an inherent interest, enjoyment, and engagement, whereas extrinsic motivation refers to an individual being motivated by external rewards or reinforcement (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET suggests that intrinsic motivation is more valuable than extrinsic motivation, as those that are intrinsically motivated feel a sense of choice over what they are doing and gain a feeling of competence and enjoyment from the activities or tasks they complete. (Hagger et. al., 2020). The role of social and environmental influences such as rewards, feedback and communications, can either facilitate or undermine intrinsic motivation. CET considers intrinsic motivation to be socially and environmentally influenced. For example, when an individual receives positive feedback, they are more likely to be intrinsically motivated, and when an individual receives negative feedback, they are less likely to be intrinsically motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET also aims to specify that factors that explain the variability of intrinsic motivation. === Taxonomy of human motivation === Deci & Ryan (2000) propose a taxonomy of motivation (shown in the figure below) to explain for the variability of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. [[File:Taxonomy of motivation.png| center |600x600px|'''Figure 3.'''Ryan & Deci's (2000) taxonomy of moitvation. A visual spectrum of motivation]] The taxonomy of motivation highlights motivation as sitting on a spectrum of autonomy, beginning with a complete lack of motivation (motivation) and ending with doing an activity purely for its inherent satisfaction or interest (intrinsic regulation). This model also highlights the differences between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation versus controlled and autonomous motivation, introducing regulations to specify the nuances of motivation. Notably, autonomous motivation spans across both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Autonomous motivation is the same as intrinsic motivation: |type="(false)"} - True + False {Winning a trophy is an example of extrinsic motivation, and participating in a hobby that interests themselves is an example of intrinsic motivation: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Relatedness, motivation, and behaviour== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Parallel mediation model with both satisfaction and frustration of basic needs (Van Tuin et al., 2020)]] CET focuses on the fundamental psychological needs for autonomy and competence and how they can enhance or thwart intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Although CET focuses on autonomy and competence as the main catalysts for intrinsic motivation, Ryan & Powelson (1991) explain that relatedness needs are not antithetical to comptence or autonomy and suggests people feel most strongly related to people who are responsive to your expressions of autonomy. Relatedness plays a role especially in the social and environmental contexts which influence motivation and behaviour (Hagger et. al., 2020). The effects of relatedness satisfaction and frustration on motivation and behaviour has been investigated in literature thoroughly. === Wellbeing === Wellbeing has been found to interaction with === Education === Ryan & Deci Relatedness has been found to influence students' engagement and performance in educational settings (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021; Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Behavioural engagement in education is essential to students' learning (Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that percieved relatedness satisfaction of students was positively associated with increased behavioural engagement in mathematics. When relatedness is satisfied, participation in education is percieved by students as more socialy and emotionally meaningful and therefore motivates participation behaviours (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). Additionally, students; perceptions of relatedness with their teachers has been associated with better engagement with homework (Collie, 2024). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) notes that although the literature commonly investigate links between the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and students' motivational regulations, but literature that utilises the full-model of SDT is limited. Specifically, more detailed research into the full chain of events that leads to higher quality engagement in education. Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that relatedness satisfaction predicted identified regulation which then, in turn, predicted engagement in mathematics. These findings highlight the importance of investigating the role of regulation in the understanding how relatedness functions within SDT to shape motivation and behaviour. ==Relatedness and well-being== * Interpersonal support of autonomy, competence, and relatedness were associated with satisfaction of those psychological needs. * Environmental support for needs were associated with greater wellbeing and improved performance. * Relatedness supports wellbeing which supports motivation. (Slemp et. al, 2024) {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || |} * '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Relatedness satisfaction has been shown to influence welbeing: |type="(true)"} + True - False {Relatedness is an element of self-determination theory: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Relatedness is a key psychological need within self-determination theory. When this need is satisfied, psychological well-being is more likely to increase and individuals are more likely to develop greater self-determined motivation * Both relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration can influence the quality of motivation, not just its strength * Relatedness satisfaction can shape behaviour by facilitating greater engagement, participation, and persistence and sustain their behaviour for longer. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== *[[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Intrinsic motivation|Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Social relation|Relatedness]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to Student Motivation: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents of Autonomous and Controlled Motivations. Review of Educational Research, 92(1), 46-72. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426 Collie, R. J. (2024). Social-emotional need satisfaction and students’ academic engagement and social-emotional skills. Educational Psychology, 44(2), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2024.2324751 Hagger, M. S., Hankonen, N., Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., & Ryan, R. M. (2020). Changing Behavior Using Self-Determination Theory. In M. S. Hagger, L. D. Cameron, K. Hamilton, N. Hankonen, & T. Lintunen (Eds.), The Handbook of Behaviour Change (pp. 104–119). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677318.008 Hofverberg, A., Winberg, M., Palmberg, B., Andersson, C., & Palm, T. (2022). Relationships between basic psychological need satisfaction, regulations, and behavioral engagement in mathematics. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.829958 Kaefer, A., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2021). Relatedness support enhances motivation, positive affect, and motor learning in adolescents. Human Movement Science, 79, 102864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2021.102864 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). "The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. ''Psychological inquiry'', ''11''(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 127(5), 1012–1037. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459 Van Tuin, L., Schaufeli, W. B., & van Rhenen, W. (2020). The satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs in engaging leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 14(2), 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21695 Weinstein, N. (Ed.). (2014). Human Motivation and Interpersonal Relationships : Theory, Research, and Applications (1st ed. 2014.). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8542-6 }} ==External links== {{ic|Use sentence casing}} * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci TEDX] (Youtube) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ Self-determination Theory] (Center for Self-determination Theory) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Relatedness]] q9aad0ipvmx7c12dtbvfyxxt3e1n7pq 2840698 2840697 2026-10-16T14:14:05Z U3203283 3110021 /* Relatedness and well-being */ 2840698 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory:<br>How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Raise hand gesture occupy.svg|Raise_hand_gesture_occupy|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. A raised hand: Lauren's tutor encouraged students to ask for help and connect with each other. {{expand}}]] ; Imagine this Lauren is a first-year university student studying psychology who recently started a demanding course. During the first few weeks, she finds the workload difficult and is unsure whether she is capable of succeeding. She chose to study psychology because she is interested in the subject, however, she feels isolated because her classmates seem to already know one another. One of Lauren’s tutors makes an effort to learn about students, encourages them to contribute to discussions, and provides feedback. The tutor also organises small-group activities where students can get to know one another and emphasises that asking for help is a normal part of learning. Lauren engages with these opportunities. Over time, Lauren begins to feel that she belongs in the course and that both her tutor and classmates value her participation. As Lauren feels increasingly connected to the people around her, she becomes more willing to attend tutorials, participate in discussions, ask questions (see Figure 1), and seek feedback when she does not understand something. She also starts studying with classmates outside class. Lauren is no longer completing the course requirements only because she feels she has to. Her growing sense of belonging helps her internalise the value of the course, so she begins to think, “Psychology is important to me, and I want to do well because I see myself as part of this community.” This shift leads to more persistent, engaged behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Self-determination theory (SDT) suggests people are most effectively motivated when motivation is intrinsic. SDT argues people have an innate tendency toward growth, and three distinct basic needs. Within SDT is the basic psychological needs theory (BPNT or BNT), which suggests three psychological needs related to intrinsic motivation which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Relatedness refers to the human desire to form strong relationships and bonds with those around them. This chapter will examine how the concept of relatedness, within self-determination theory, shapes human motivation and behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2000) The goal contents theory (GCT) expands on the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and their impact on wellness. Extrinsic goals including financial success, fame, and physical appearance have been compared to intrinsic goals which include personal growth, forming strong, high-quality relationships, and community which are associated with higher well-being than the latter. The role of relatedness can be understood through another micro-theory of SDT; the relationship motivation theory (RMT), which suggests that closeness to others is not only preferable, but essential to wellbeing. Not only do high-quality relationships satisfy the need for relatedness, but they can also satisfy the need for autonomy and competence (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In a meta-analysis, Slempt et. al (2024), note that support from others likely facilitates people’s motivational processes, finding that interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs were small to moderately positively associated with performance. Slempt et. al (2024), {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the need for relatedness within Self-Determination Theory, and why is it important in shaping motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction influence the development of autonomous motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction or frustration affect individuals’ behaviour, such as engagement, persistence, and disengagement? * How do relationships and social environments affect relatedness, and what are the implications on motivation and behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Self-Determination Theory== [[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] is a macro-theory of psychology created by [[w:Edward Deci|Edward Deci]] and [[w:Richard Ryan|Richard Ryan]] relating to motivation, behaviour, and personality. Deci and Ryan published their first comprehensive book of the theory in 1985 (Deci & Ryan, 1985). SDT utilises an organismic-dialectical approach, which assumes people are ‘active organisms’ who have tendencies toward growth, overcoming challenges, and integrating new experiences into their sense of self. SDT posits this inherent tendency toward growth as well as peoples’ innate psychological needs are the basis for self-motivation and personality integration. Ryan and Deci (2000), propose that humans have three basic psychological needs which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness and when these needs are met, they are essential to optimal personal growth, wellbeing, and [[W:intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivation]]. === Basic psychological needs theory === Basic psychological needs theory is a micro-theory within SDT. BPNT refers to the idea in SDT that people have three basic psychological needs that are central to wellbeing, growth and intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). [[w:Autonomy|Autonomy]] is the experience of ones actions as their own and personally-endorsed, as opposed to being controlled or imposed upon them. [[w:Competence|Competence]] is closely related to [[w:Self-Efficacy|self-efficacy]] and refers to the need to feel capable and effective and confident in your interactions with your environment, and to master challenges and achieve goals. Relatedness is the innate human need to develop meaningful relationships with those around you, and to feel a sense of mutual care, respect, and warmth between yourself and others. Relatedness also refers to experiencing a sense of belonging, community, and kinship with others. Social or cultural factors can either support or 'thwart' individuals' motivation, well-being, and personal growth. (Ryan & Deci, 2000). ==Cognitive evaluation theory== [[File:Muhammad Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation.png|300px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. The player on the left wants to win the trophy which is an example of extrinsic motivation. The player on the right is playing for his own enjoyment, indicating he is intrinsically motivated.]] Cognitive evaluation theory (CET) is a micro-theory within self-determination theory. Cognitive evaluation theory is essential in understanding motivation within SDT, specifically, intrinsic motivation which refers to motivation to engage in a task out of an inherent interest, enjoyment, and engagement, whereas extrinsic motivation refers to an individual being motivated by external rewards or reinforcement (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET suggests that intrinsic motivation is more valuable than extrinsic motivation, as those that are intrinsically motivated feel a sense of choice over what they are doing and gain a feeling of competence and enjoyment from the activities or tasks they complete. (Hagger et. al., 2020). The role of social and environmental influences such as rewards, feedback and communications, can either facilitate or undermine intrinsic motivation. CET considers intrinsic motivation to be socially and environmentally influenced. For example, when an individual receives positive feedback, they are more likely to be intrinsically motivated, and when an individual receives negative feedback, they are less likely to be intrinsically motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET also aims to specify that factors that explain the variability of intrinsic motivation. === Taxonomy of human motivation === Deci & Ryan (2000) propose a taxonomy of motivation (shown in the figure below) to explain for the variability of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. [[File:Taxonomy of motivation.png| center |600x600px|'''Figure 3.'''Ryan & Deci's (2000) taxonomy of moitvation. A visual spectrum of motivation]] The taxonomy of motivation highlights motivation as sitting on a spectrum of autonomy, beginning with a complete lack of motivation (motivation) and ending with doing an activity purely for its inherent satisfaction or interest (intrinsic regulation). This model also highlights the differences between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation versus controlled and autonomous motivation, introducing regulations to specify the nuances of motivation. Notably, autonomous motivation spans across both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Autonomous motivation is the same as intrinsic motivation: |type="(false)"} - True + False {Winning a trophy is an example of extrinsic motivation, and participating in a hobby that interests themselves is an example of intrinsic motivation: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Relatedness, motivation, and behaviour== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Parallel mediation model with both satisfaction and frustration of basic needs (Van Tuin et al., 2020)]] CET focuses on the fundamental psychological needs for autonomy and competence and how they can enhance or thwart intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Although CET focuses on autonomy and competence as the main catalysts for intrinsic motivation, Ryan & Powelson (1991) explain that relatedness needs are not antithetical to comptence or autonomy and suggests people feel most strongly related to people who are responsive to your expressions of autonomy. Relatedness plays a role especially in the social and environmental contexts which influence motivation and behaviour (Hagger et. al., 2020). The effects of relatedness satisfaction and frustration on motivation and behaviour has been investigated in literature thoroughly. === Wellbeing === The role of wellbeing in the relationship between relatedness, motivation and behaviour has been investigated. Slemp et. al (2024), found that having interpersonal supports for autonomy, competence, and relatedness were associated with the satisfaction of those psychological needs. Environmental support for psychological needs were associated with greater wellbeing, which then lead to improved performance. === Education === Ryan & Deci Relatedness has been found to influence students' engagement and performance in educational settings (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021; Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Behavioural engagement in education is essential to students' learning (Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that percieved relatedness satisfaction of students was positively associated with increased behavioural engagement in mathematics. When relatedness is satisfied, participation in education is percieved by students as more socialy and emotionally meaningful and therefore motivates participation behaviours (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). Additionally, students; perceptions of relatedness with their teachers has been associated with better engagement with homework (Collie, 2024). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) notes that although the literature commonly investigate links between the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and students' motivational regulations, but literature that utilises the full-model of SDT is limited. Specifically, more detailed research into the full chain of events that leads to higher quality engagement in education. Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that relatedness satisfaction predicted identified regulation which then, in turn, predicted engagement in mathematics. These findings highlight the importance of investigating the role of regulation in the understanding how relatedness functions within SDT to shape motivation and behaviour. ==Relatedness and well-being== {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || |} * '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Relatedness satisfaction has been shown to influence welbeing: |type="(true)"} + True - False {Relatedness is an element of self-determination theory: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Relatedness is a key psychological need within self-determination theory. When this need is satisfied, psychological well-being is more likely to increase and individuals are more likely to develop greater self-determined motivation * Both relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration can influence the quality of motivation, not just its strength * Relatedness satisfaction can shape behaviour by facilitating greater engagement, participation, and persistence and sustain their behaviour for longer. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== *[[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Intrinsic motivation|Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Social relation|Relatedness]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to Student Motivation: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents of Autonomous and Controlled Motivations. Review of Educational Research, 92(1), 46-72. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426 Collie, R. J. (2024). Social-emotional need satisfaction and students’ academic engagement and social-emotional skills. Educational Psychology, 44(2), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2024.2324751 Hagger, M. S., Hankonen, N., Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., & Ryan, R. M. (2020). Changing Behavior Using Self-Determination Theory. In M. S. Hagger, L. D. Cameron, K. Hamilton, N. Hankonen, & T. Lintunen (Eds.), The Handbook of Behaviour Change (pp. 104–119). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677318.008 Hofverberg, A., Winberg, M., Palmberg, B., Andersson, C., & Palm, T. (2022). Relationships between basic psychological need satisfaction, regulations, and behavioral engagement in mathematics. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.829958 Kaefer, A., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2021). Relatedness support enhances motivation, positive affect, and motor learning in adolescents. Human Movement Science, 79, 102864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2021.102864 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). "The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. ''Psychological inquiry'', ''11''(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 127(5), 1012–1037. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459 Van Tuin, L., Schaufeli, W. B., & van Rhenen, W. (2020). The satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs in engaging leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 14(2), 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21695 Weinstein, N. (Ed.). (2014). Human Motivation and Interpersonal Relationships : Theory, Research, and Applications (1st ed. 2014.). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8542-6 }} ==External links== {{ic|Use sentence casing}} * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci TEDX] (Youtube) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ Self-determination Theory] (Center for Self-determination Theory) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Relatedness]] bukxj3s44jwts2egxgl6g3m478izlgf 2840703 2840698 2026-10-16T14:31:41Z U3203283 3110021 /* Relatedness, motivation, and behaviour */ 2840703 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory:<br>How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Raise hand gesture occupy.svg|Raise_hand_gesture_occupy|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. A raised hand: Lauren's tutor encouraged students to ask for help and connect with each other. {{expand}}]] ; Imagine this Lauren is a first-year university student studying psychology who recently started a demanding course. During the first few weeks, she finds the workload difficult and is unsure whether she is capable of succeeding. She chose to study psychology because she is interested in the subject, however, she feels isolated because her classmates seem to already know one another. One of Lauren’s tutors makes an effort to learn about students, encourages them to contribute to discussions, and provides feedback. The tutor also organises small-group activities where students can get to know one another and emphasises that asking for help is a normal part of learning. Lauren engages with these opportunities. Over time, Lauren begins to feel that she belongs in the course and that both her tutor and classmates value her participation. As Lauren feels increasingly connected to the people around her, she becomes more willing to attend tutorials, participate in discussions, ask questions (see Figure 1), and seek feedback when she does not understand something. She also starts studying with classmates outside class. Lauren is no longer completing the course requirements only because she feels she has to. Her growing sense of belonging helps her internalise the value of the course, so she begins to think, “Psychology is important to me, and I want to do well because I see myself as part of this community.” This shift leads to more persistent, engaged behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Self-determination theory (SDT) suggests people are most effectively motivated when motivation is intrinsic. SDT argues people have an innate tendency toward growth, and three distinct basic needs. Within SDT is the basic psychological needs theory (BPNT or BNT), which suggests three psychological needs related to intrinsic motivation which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Relatedness refers to the human desire to form strong relationships and bonds with those around them. This chapter will examine how the concept of relatedness, within self-determination theory, shapes human motivation and behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2000) The goal contents theory (GCT) expands on the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and their impact on wellness. Extrinsic goals including financial success, fame, and physical appearance have been compared to intrinsic goals which include personal growth, forming strong, high-quality relationships, and community which are associated with higher well-being than the latter. The role of relatedness can be understood through another micro-theory of SDT; the relationship motivation theory (RMT), which suggests that closeness to others is not only preferable, but essential to wellbeing. Not only do high-quality relationships satisfy the need for relatedness, but they can also satisfy the need for autonomy and competence (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In a meta-analysis, Slempt et. al (2024), note that support from others likely facilitates people’s motivational processes, finding that interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs were small to moderately positively associated with performance. Slempt et. al (2024), {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the need for relatedness within Self-Determination Theory, and why is it important in shaping motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction influence the development of autonomous motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction or frustration affect individuals’ behaviour, such as engagement, persistence, and disengagement? * How do relationships and social environments affect relatedness, and what are the implications on motivation and behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Self-Determination Theory== [[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] is a macro-theory of psychology created by [[w:Edward Deci|Edward Deci]] and [[w:Richard Ryan|Richard Ryan]] relating to motivation, behaviour, and personality. Deci and Ryan published their first comprehensive book of the theory in 1985 (Deci & Ryan, 1985). SDT utilises an organismic-dialectical approach, which assumes people are ‘active organisms’ who have tendencies toward growth, overcoming challenges, and integrating new experiences into their sense of self. SDT posits this inherent tendency toward growth as well as peoples’ innate psychological needs are the basis for self-motivation and personality integration. Ryan and Deci (2000), propose that humans have three basic psychological needs which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness and when these needs are met, they are essential to optimal personal growth, wellbeing, and [[W:intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivation]]. === Basic psychological needs theory === Basic psychological needs theory is a micro-theory within SDT. BPNT refers to the idea in SDT that people have three basic psychological needs that are central to wellbeing, growth and intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). [[w:Autonomy|Autonomy]] is the experience of ones actions as their own and personally-endorsed, as opposed to being controlled or imposed upon them. [[w:Competence|Competence]] is closely related to [[w:Self-Efficacy|self-efficacy]] and refers to the need to feel capable and effective and confident in your interactions with your environment, and to master challenges and achieve goals. Relatedness is the innate human need to develop meaningful relationships with those around you, and to feel a sense of mutual care, respect, and warmth between yourself and others. Relatedness also refers to experiencing a sense of belonging, community, and kinship with others. Social or cultural factors can either support or 'thwart' individuals' motivation, well-being, and personal growth. (Ryan & Deci, 2000). ==Cognitive evaluation theory== [[File:Muhammad Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation.png|300px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. The player on the left wants to win the trophy which is an example of extrinsic motivation. The player on the right is playing for his own enjoyment, indicating he is intrinsically motivated.]] Cognitive evaluation theory (CET) is a micro-theory within self-determination theory. Cognitive evaluation theory is essential in understanding motivation within SDT, specifically, intrinsic motivation which refers to motivation to engage in a task out of an inherent interest, enjoyment, and engagement, whereas extrinsic motivation refers to an individual being motivated by external rewards or reinforcement (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET suggests that intrinsic motivation is more valuable than extrinsic motivation, as those that are intrinsically motivated feel a sense of choice over what they are doing and gain a feeling of competence and enjoyment from the activities or tasks they complete. (Hagger et. al., 2020). The role of social and environmental influences such as rewards, feedback and communications, can either facilitate or undermine intrinsic motivation. CET considers intrinsic motivation to be socially and environmentally influenced. For example, when an individual receives positive feedback, they are more likely to be intrinsically motivated, and when an individual receives negative feedback, they are less likely to be intrinsically motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET also aims to specify that factors that explain the variability of intrinsic motivation. === Taxonomy of human motivation === Deci & Ryan (2000) propose a taxonomy of motivation (shown in the figure below) to explain for the variability of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. [[File:Taxonomy of motivation.png| center |600x600px|'''Figure 3.'''Ryan & Deci's (2000) taxonomy of moitvation. A visual spectrum of motivation]] The taxonomy of motivation highlights motivation as sitting on a spectrum of autonomy, beginning with a complete lack of motivation (motivation) and ending with doing an activity purely for its inherent satisfaction or interest (intrinsic regulation). This model also highlights the differences between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation versus controlled and autonomous motivation, introducing regulations to specify the nuances of motivation. Notably, autonomous motivation spans across both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Autonomous motivation is the same as intrinsic motivation: |type="(false)"} - True + False {Winning a trophy is an example of extrinsic motivation, and participating in a hobby that interests themselves is an example of intrinsic motivation: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Relatedness, motivation, and behaviour== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Parallel mediation model with both satisfaction and frustration of basic needs (Van Tuin et al., 2020)]] CET focuses on the fundamental psychological needs for autonomy and competence and how they can enhance or thwart intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). SDT specifies that needs-supportive environments should lead to self-determined student motivation (Burea et. al., 2021). In a meta-analysis, Bureau et. al. (2021) found that competence was the strongest predictor for self-determined motivation, followed by autonomy and then relatedness. Although CET focuses on autonomy and competence as the main catalysts for intrinsic motivation, Ryan & Powelson (1991) explain that relatedness needs are not antithetical to competence or autonomy and suggests people feel most strongly related to people who are responsive to your expressions of autonomy. Relatedness plays a role especially in the social and environmental contexts which influence motivation and behaviour (Hagger et. al., 2020). The effects of relatedness satisfaction and frustration on motivation and behaviour has been investigated in literature thoroughly. === Wellbeing === The role of wellbeing in the relationship between relatedness, motivation and behaviour has been investigated. Slemp et. al (2024), found that having interpersonal supports for autonomy, competence, and relatedness were associated with the satisfaction of those psychological needs. Environmental support for psychological needs were associated with greater wellbeing, which then lead to improved performance. === Education === Ryan & Deci Relatedness has been found to influence students' engagement and performance in educational settings (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021; Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Behavioural engagement in education is essential to students' learning (Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that percieved relatedness satisfaction of students was positively associated with increased behavioural engagement in mathematics. When relatedness is satisfied, participation in education is percieved by students as more socialy and emotionally meaningful and therefore motivates participation behaviours (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). Additionally, students; perceptions of relatedness with their teachers has been associated with better engagement with homework (Collie, 2024). Burea et. al. (2021), note that the weaker role of relatedness in self-determined motivation in education may be context-dependant, noting that relatedness may more strongly influence self-determined motivation in leisure contexts. Hofverberg et. al. (2022) notes that although the literature commonly investigate links between the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and students' motivational regulations, but literature that utilises the full-model of SDT is limited. Specifically, more detailed research into the full chain of events that leads to higher quality engagement in education. Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that relatedness satisfaction predicted identified regulation which then, in turn, predicted engagement in mathematics. These findings highlight the importance of investigating the role of regulation in the understanding how relatedness functions within SDT to shape motivation and behaviour. ==Relatedness and well-being== {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || |} * '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Relatedness satisfaction has been shown to influence welbeing: |type="(true)"} + True - False {Relatedness is an element of self-determination theory: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Relatedness is a key psychological need within self-determination theory. When this need is satisfied, psychological well-being is more likely to increase and individuals are more likely to develop greater self-determined motivation * Both relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration can influence the quality of motivation, not just its strength * Relatedness satisfaction can shape behaviour by facilitating greater engagement, participation, and persistence and sustain their behaviour for longer. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== *[[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Intrinsic motivation|Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Social relation|Relatedness]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to Student Motivation: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents of Autonomous and Controlled Motivations. Review of Educational Research, 92(1), 46-72. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426 Collie, R. J. (2024). Social-emotional need satisfaction and students’ academic engagement and social-emotional skills. Educational Psychology, 44(2), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2024.2324751 Hagger, M. S., Hankonen, N., Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., & Ryan, R. M. (2020). Changing Behavior Using Self-Determination Theory. In M. S. Hagger, L. D. Cameron, K. Hamilton, N. Hankonen, & T. Lintunen (Eds.), The Handbook of Behaviour Change (pp. 104–119). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677318.008 Hofverberg, A., Winberg, M., Palmberg, B., Andersson, C., & Palm, T. (2022). Relationships between basic psychological need satisfaction, regulations, and behavioral engagement in mathematics. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.829958 Kaefer, A., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2021). Relatedness support enhances motivation, positive affect, and motor learning in adolescents. Human Movement Science, 79, 102864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2021.102864 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). "The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. ''Psychological inquiry'', ''11''(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 127(5), 1012–1037. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459 Van Tuin, L., Schaufeli, W. B., & van Rhenen, W. (2020). The satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs in engaging leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 14(2), 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21695 Weinstein, N. (Ed.). (2014). Human Motivation and Interpersonal Relationships : Theory, Research, and Applications (1st ed. 2014.). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8542-6 }} ==External links== {{ic|Use sentence casing}} * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci TEDX] (Youtube) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ Self-determination Theory] (Center for Self-determination Theory) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Relatedness]] 8k7wjrtld4mmdnng1thscayssr0hlyh 2840705 2840703 2026-10-16T14:34:18Z U3203283 3110021 /* Education */ adding content 2840705 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory:<br>How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Raise hand gesture occupy.svg|Raise_hand_gesture_occupy|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. A raised hand: Lauren's tutor encouraged students to ask for help and connect with each other. {{expand}}]] ; Imagine this Lauren is a first-year university student studying psychology who recently started a demanding course. During the first few weeks, she finds the workload difficult and is unsure whether she is capable of succeeding. She chose to study psychology because she is interested in the subject, however, she feels isolated because her classmates seem to already know one another. One of Lauren’s tutors makes an effort to learn about students, encourages them to contribute to discussions, and provides feedback. The tutor also organises small-group activities where students can get to know one another and emphasises that asking for help is a normal part of learning. Lauren engages with these opportunities. Over time, Lauren begins to feel that she belongs in the course and that both her tutor and classmates value her participation. As Lauren feels increasingly connected to the people around her, she becomes more willing to attend tutorials, participate in discussions, ask questions (see Figure 1), and seek feedback when she does not understand something. She also starts studying with classmates outside class. Lauren is no longer completing the course requirements only because she feels she has to. Her growing sense of belonging helps her internalise the value of the course, so she begins to think, “Psychology is important to me, and I want to do well because I see myself as part of this community.” This shift leads to more persistent, engaged behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Self-determination theory (SDT) suggests people are most effectively motivated when motivation is intrinsic. SDT argues people have an innate tendency toward growth, and three distinct basic needs. Within SDT is the basic psychological needs theory (BPNT or BNT), which suggests three psychological needs related to intrinsic motivation which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Relatedness refers to the human desire to form strong relationships and bonds with those around them. This chapter will examine how the concept of relatedness, within self-determination theory, shapes human motivation and behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2000) The goal contents theory (GCT) expands on the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and their impact on wellness. Extrinsic goals including financial success, fame, and physical appearance have been compared to intrinsic goals which include personal growth, forming strong, high-quality relationships, and community which are associated with higher well-being than the latter. The role of relatedness can be understood through another micro-theory of SDT; the relationship motivation theory (RMT), which suggests that closeness to others is not only preferable, but essential to wellbeing. Not only do high-quality relationships satisfy the need for relatedness, but they can also satisfy the need for autonomy and competence (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In a meta-analysis, Slempt et. al (2024), note that support from others likely facilitates people’s motivational processes, finding that interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs were small to moderately positively associated with performance. Slempt et. al (2024), {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the need for relatedness within Self-Determination Theory, and why is it important in shaping motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction influence the development of autonomous motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction or frustration affect individuals’ behaviour, such as engagement, persistence, and disengagement? * How do relationships and social environments affect relatedness, and what are the implications on motivation and behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Self-Determination Theory== [[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] is a macro-theory of psychology created by [[w:Edward Deci|Edward Deci]] and [[w:Richard Ryan|Richard Ryan]] relating to motivation, behaviour, and personality. Deci and Ryan published their first comprehensive book of the theory in 1985 (Deci & Ryan, 1985). SDT utilises an organismic-dialectical approach, which assumes people are ‘active organisms’ who have tendencies toward growth, overcoming challenges, and integrating new experiences into their sense of self. SDT posits this inherent tendency toward growth as well as peoples’ innate psychological needs are the basis for self-motivation and personality integration. Ryan and Deci (2000), propose that humans have three basic psychological needs which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness and when these needs are met, they are essential to optimal personal growth, wellbeing, and [[W:intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivation]]. === Basic psychological needs theory === Basic psychological needs theory is a micro-theory within SDT. BPNT refers to the idea in SDT that people have three basic psychological needs that are central to wellbeing, growth and intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). [[w:Autonomy|Autonomy]] is the experience of ones actions as their own and personally-endorsed, as opposed to being controlled or imposed upon them. [[w:Competence|Competence]] is closely related to [[w:Self-Efficacy|self-efficacy]] and refers to the need to feel capable and effective and confident in your interactions with your environment, and to master challenges and achieve goals. Relatedness is the innate human need to develop meaningful relationships with those around you, and to feel a sense of mutual care, respect, and warmth between yourself and others. Relatedness also refers to experiencing a sense of belonging, community, and kinship with others. Social or cultural factors can either support or 'thwart' individuals' motivation, well-being, and personal growth. (Ryan & Deci, 2000). ==Cognitive evaluation theory== [[File:Muhammad Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation.png|300px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. The player on the left wants to win the trophy which is an example of extrinsic motivation. The player on the right is playing for his own enjoyment, indicating he is intrinsically motivated.]] Cognitive evaluation theory (CET) is a micro-theory within self-determination theory. Cognitive evaluation theory is essential in understanding motivation within SDT, specifically, intrinsic motivation which refers to motivation to engage in a task out of an inherent interest, enjoyment, and engagement, whereas extrinsic motivation refers to an individual being motivated by external rewards or reinforcement (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET suggests that intrinsic motivation is more valuable than extrinsic motivation, as those that are intrinsically motivated feel a sense of choice over what they are doing and gain a feeling of competence and enjoyment from the activities or tasks they complete. (Hagger et. al., 2020). The role of social and environmental influences such as rewards, feedback and communications, can either facilitate or undermine intrinsic motivation. CET considers intrinsic motivation to be socially and environmentally influenced. For example, when an individual receives positive feedback, they are more likely to be intrinsically motivated, and when an individual receives negative feedback, they are less likely to be intrinsically motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET also aims to specify that factors that explain the variability of intrinsic motivation. === Taxonomy of human motivation === Deci & Ryan (2000) propose a taxonomy of motivation (shown in the figure below) to explain for the variability of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. [[File:Taxonomy of motivation.png| center |600x600px|'''Figure 3.'''Ryan & Deci's (2000) taxonomy of moitvation. A visual spectrum of motivation]] The taxonomy of motivation highlights motivation as sitting on a spectrum of autonomy, beginning with a complete lack of motivation (motivation) and ending with doing an activity purely for its inherent satisfaction or interest (intrinsic regulation). This model also highlights the differences between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation versus controlled and autonomous motivation, introducing regulations to specify the nuances of motivation. Notably, autonomous motivation spans across both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Autonomous motivation is the same as intrinsic motivation: |type="(false)"} - True + False {Winning a trophy is an example of extrinsic motivation, and participating in a hobby that interests themselves is an example of intrinsic motivation: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Relatedness, motivation, and behaviour== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Parallel mediation model with both satisfaction and frustration of basic needs (Van Tuin et al., 2020)]] CET focuses on the fundamental psychological needs for autonomy and competence and how they can enhance or thwart intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). SDT specifies that needs-supportive environments should lead to self-determined student motivation (Burea et. al., 2021). In a meta-analysis, Bureau et. al. (2021) found that competence was the strongest predictor for self-determined motivation, followed by autonomy and then relatedness. Although CET focuses on autonomy and competence as the main catalysts for intrinsic motivation, Ryan & Powelson (1991) explain that relatedness needs are not antithetical to competence or autonomy and suggests people feel most strongly related to people who are responsive to your expressions of autonomy. Relatedness plays a role especially in the social and environmental contexts which influence motivation and behaviour (Hagger et. al., 2020). The effects of relatedness satisfaction and frustration on motivation and behaviour has been investigated in literature thoroughly. === Wellbeing === The role of wellbeing in the relationship between relatedness, motivation and behaviour has been investigated. Slemp et. al (2024), found that having interpersonal supports for autonomy, competence, and relatedness were associated with the satisfaction of those psychological needs. Environmental support for psychological needs were associated with greater wellbeing, which then lead to improved performance. === Education === Ryan & Deci Relatedness has been found to influence students' engagement and performance in educational settings (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021; Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Behavioural engagement in education is essential to students' learning (Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that percieved relatedness satisfaction of students was positively associated with increased behavioural engagement in mathematics. When relatedness is satisfied, participation in education is percieved by students as more socialy and emotionally meaningful and therefore motivates participation behaviours (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). Additionally, students; perceptions of relatedness with their teachers has been associated with better homework practices and lower behavioural disaffection (Collie, 2024). Burea et. al. (2021), note that the weaker role of relatedness in self-determined motivation in education may be context-dependant, noting that relatedness may more strongly influence self-determined motivation in leisure contexts. Hofverberg et. al. (2022) notes that although the literature commonly investigate links between the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and students' motivational regulations, but literature that utilises the full-model of SDT is limited. Specifically, more detailed research into the full chain of events that leads to higher quality engagement in education. Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that relatedness satisfaction predicted identified regulation which then, in turn, predicted engagement in mathematics. These findings highlight the importance of investigating the role of regulation in the understanding how relatedness functions within SDT to shape motivation and behaviour. ==Relatedness and well-being== {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || |} * '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Relatedness satisfaction has been shown to influence welbeing: |type="(true)"} + True - False {Relatedness is an element of self-determination theory: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Relatedness is a key psychological need within self-determination theory. When this need is satisfied, psychological well-being is more likely to increase and individuals are more likely to develop greater self-determined motivation * Both relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration can influence the quality of motivation, not just its strength * Relatedness satisfaction can shape behaviour by facilitating greater engagement, participation, and persistence and sustain their behaviour for longer. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== *[[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Intrinsic motivation|Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Social relation|Relatedness]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to Student Motivation: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents of Autonomous and Controlled Motivations. Review of Educational Research, 92(1), 46-72. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426 Collie, R. J. (2024). Social-emotional need satisfaction and students’ academic engagement and social-emotional skills. Educational Psychology, 44(2), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2024.2324751 Hagger, M. S., Hankonen, N., Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., & Ryan, R. M. (2020). Changing Behavior Using Self-Determination Theory. In M. S. Hagger, L. D. Cameron, K. Hamilton, N. Hankonen, & T. Lintunen (Eds.), The Handbook of Behaviour Change (pp. 104–119). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677318.008 Hofverberg, A., Winberg, M., Palmberg, B., Andersson, C., & Palm, T. (2022). Relationships between basic psychological need satisfaction, regulations, and behavioral engagement in mathematics. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.829958 Kaefer, A., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2021). Relatedness support enhances motivation, positive affect, and motor learning in adolescents. Human Movement Science, 79, 102864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2021.102864 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). "The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. ''Psychological inquiry'', ''11''(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 127(5), 1012–1037. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459 Van Tuin, L., Schaufeli, W. B., & van Rhenen, W. (2020). The satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs in engaging leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 14(2), 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21695 Weinstein, N. (Ed.). (2014). Human Motivation and Interpersonal Relationships : Theory, Research, and Applications (1st ed. 2014.). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8542-6 }} ==External links== {{ic|Use sentence casing}} * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci TEDX] (Youtube) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ Self-determination Theory] (Center for Self-determination Theory) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Relatedness]] b26pairwskswy3kcvw62yoljxagbxg8 2840708 2840705 2026-10-16T14:48:19Z U3203283 3110021 /* Education */ 2840708 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory:<br>How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Raise hand gesture occupy.svg|Raise_hand_gesture_occupy|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. A raised hand: Lauren's tutor encouraged students to ask for help and connect with each other. {{expand}}]] ; Imagine this Lauren is a first-year university student studying psychology who recently started a demanding course. During the first few weeks, she finds the workload difficult and is unsure whether she is capable of succeeding. She chose to study psychology because she is interested in the subject, however, she feels isolated because her classmates seem to already know one another. One of Lauren’s tutors makes an effort to learn about students, encourages them to contribute to discussions, and provides feedback. The tutor also organises small-group activities where students can get to know one another and emphasises that asking for help is a normal part of learning. Lauren engages with these opportunities. Over time, Lauren begins to feel that she belongs in the course and that both her tutor and classmates value her participation. As Lauren feels increasingly connected to the people around her, she becomes more willing to attend tutorials, participate in discussions, ask questions (see Figure 1), and seek feedback when she does not understand something. She also starts studying with classmates outside class. Lauren is no longer completing the course requirements only because she feels she has to. Her growing sense of belonging helps her internalise the value of the course, so she begins to think, “Psychology is important to me, and I want to do well because I see myself as part of this community.” This shift leads to more persistent, engaged behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Self-determination theory (SDT) suggests people are most effectively motivated when motivation is intrinsic. SDT argues people have an innate tendency toward growth, and three distinct basic needs. Within SDT is the basic psychological needs theory (BPNT or BNT), which suggests three psychological needs related to intrinsic motivation which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Relatedness refers to the human desire to form strong relationships and bonds with those around them. This chapter will examine how the concept of relatedness, within self-determination theory, shapes human motivation and behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2000) The goal contents theory (GCT) expands on the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and their impact on wellness. Extrinsic goals including financial success, fame, and physical appearance have been compared to intrinsic goals which include personal growth, forming strong, high-quality relationships, and community which are associated with higher well-being than the latter. The role of relatedness can be understood through another micro-theory of SDT; the relationship motivation theory (RMT), which suggests that closeness to others is not only preferable, but essential to wellbeing. Not only do high-quality relationships satisfy the need for relatedness, but they can also satisfy the need for autonomy and competence (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In a meta-analysis, Slempt et. al (2024), note that support from others likely facilitates people’s motivational processes, finding that interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs were small to moderately positively associated with performance. Slempt et. al (2024), {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the need for relatedness within Self-Determination Theory, and why is it important in shaping motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction influence the development of autonomous motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction or frustration affect individuals’ behaviour, such as engagement, persistence, and disengagement? * How do relationships and social environments affect relatedness, and what are the implications on motivation and behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Self-Determination Theory== [[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] is a macro-theory of psychology created by [[w:Edward Deci|Edward Deci]] and [[w:Richard Ryan|Richard Ryan]] relating to motivation, behaviour, and personality. Deci and Ryan published their first comprehensive book of the theory in 1985 (Deci & Ryan, 1985). SDT utilises an organismic-dialectical approach, which assumes people are ‘active organisms’ who have tendencies toward growth, overcoming challenges, and integrating new experiences into their sense of self. SDT posits this inherent tendency toward growth as well as peoples’ innate psychological needs are the basis for self-motivation and personality integration. Ryan and Deci (2000), propose that humans have three basic psychological needs which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness and when these needs are met, they are essential to optimal personal growth, wellbeing, and [[W:intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivation]]. === Basic psychological needs theory === Basic psychological needs theory is a micro-theory within SDT. BPNT refers to the idea in SDT that people have three basic psychological needs that are central to wellbeing, growth and intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). [[w:Autonomy|Autonomy]] is the experience of ones actions as their own and personally-endorsed, as opposed to being controlled or imposed upon them. [[w:Competence|Competence]] is closely related to [[w:Self-Efficacy|self-efficacy]] and refers to the need to feel capable and effective and confident in your interactions with your environment, and to master challenges and achieve goals. Relatedness is the innate human need to develop meaningful relationships with those around you, and to feel a sense of mutual care, respect, and warmth between yourself and others. Relatedness also refers to experiencing a sense of belonging, community, and kinship with others. Social or cultural factors can either support or 'thwart' individuals' motivation, well-being, and personal growth. (Ryan & Deci, 2000). ==Cognitive evaluation theory== [[File:Muhammad Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation.png|300px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. The player on the left wants to win the trophy which is an example of extrinsic motivation. The player on the right is playing for his own enjoyment, indicating he is intrinsically motivated.]] Cognitive evaluation theory (CET) is a micro-theory within self-determination theory. Cognitive evaluation theory is essential in understanding motivation within SDT, specifically, intrinsic motivation which refers to motivation to engage in a task out of an inherent interest, enjoyment, and engagement, whereas extrinsic motivation refers to an individual being motivated by external rewards or reinforcement (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET suggests that intrinsic motivation is more valuable than extrinsic motivation, as those that are intrinsically motivated feel a sense of choice over what they are doing and gain a feeling of competence and enjoyment from the activities or tasks they complete. (Hagger et. al., 2020). The role of social and environmental influences such as rewards, feedback and communications, can either facilitate or undermine intrinsic motivation. CET considers intrinsic motivation to be socially and environmentally influenced. For example, when an individual receives positive feedback, they are more likely to be intrinsically motivated, and when an individual receives negative feedback, they are less likely to be intrinsically motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET also aims to specify that factors that explain the variability of intrinsic motivation. === Taxonomy of human motivation === Deci & Ryan (2000) propose a taxonomy of motivation (shown in the figure below) to explain for the variability of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. [[File:Taxonomy of motivation.png| center |600x600px|'''Figure 3.'''Ryan & Deci's (2000) taxonomy of moitvation. A visual spectrum of motivation]] The taxonomy of motivation highlights motivation as sitting on a spectrum of autonomy, beginning with a complete lack of motivation (motivation) and ending with doing an activity purely for its inherent satisfaction or interest (intrinsic regulation). This model also highlights the differences between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation versus controlled and autonomous motivation, introducing regulations to specify the nuances of motivation. Notably, autonomous motivation spans across both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Autonomous motivation is the same as intrinsic motivation: |type="(false)"} - True + False {Winning a trophy is an example of extrinsic motivation, and participating in a hobby that interests themselves is an example of intrinsic motivation: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Relatedness, motivation, and behaviour== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Parallel mediation model with both satisfaction and frustration of basic needs (Van Tuin et al., 2020)]] CET focuses on the fundamental psychological needs for autonomy and competence and how they can enhance or thwart intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). SDT specifies that needs-supportive environments should lead to self-determined student motivation (Burea et. al., 2021). In a meta-analysis, Bureau et. al. (2021) found that competence was the strongest predictor for self-determined motivation, followed by autonomy and then relatedness. Although CET focuses on autonomy and competence as the main catalysts for intrinsic motivation, Ryan & Powelson (1991) explain that relatedness needs are not antithetical to competence or autonomy and suggests people feel most strongly related to people who are responsive to your expressions of autonomy. Relatedness plays a role especially in the social and environmental contexts which influence motivation and behaviour (Hagger et. al., 2020). The effects of relatedness satisfaction and frustration on motivation and behaviour has been investigated in literature thoroughly. === Wellbeing === The role of wellbeing in the relationship between relatedness, motivation and behaviour has been investigated. Slemp et. al (2024), found that having interpersonal supports for autonomy, competence, and relatedness were associated with the satisfaction of those psychological needs. Environmental support for psychological needs were associated with greater wellbeing, which then lead to improved performance (Slemp et. al., 2024). To test the effects of relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration on task learning, Kaefer & Chiviacowsky (2021) conducted an experiment in which adolescents were either put in a relatedness support condition, relatedness frustration condition, or a control group and tasks with learning how to hit a ball with a racket toward a target. Results showed that relatedness supports not only enhanced the task-learning of adolescents and affected motivation, but influence the affect of participants. === Education === Relatedness has been found to influence students' engagement and performance in educational settings (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021; Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Behavioural engagement in education is essential to students' learning (Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that perceived relatedness satisfaction of students was positively associated with increased behavioural engagement in mathematics. When relatedness is supported, task-learning is perceived by students as more socially and emotionally meaningful and therefore motivates participation behaviours (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). Additionally, students; perceptions of relatedness with their teachers has been associated with better homework practices and lower behavioural disaffection (Collie, 2024). Burea et. al. (2021), note that the weaker role of relatedness in self-determined motivation in education may be context-dependant, noting that relatedness may more strongly influence self-determined motivation in leisure contexts. Hofverberg et. al. (2022) notes that although the literature commonly investigate links between the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and students' motivational regulations, but literature that utilises the full-model of SDT is limited. Specifically, more detailed research into the full chain of events that leads to higher quality engagement in education. Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that relatedness satisfaction predicted identified regulation which then, in turn, predicted engagement in mathematics. These findings highlight the importance of investigating the role of regulation in the understanding how relatedness functions within SDT to shape motivation and behaviour. ==Relatedness and well-being== {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || |} * '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Relatedness satisfaction has been shown to influence welbeing: |type="(true)"} + True - False {Relatedness is an element of self-determination theory: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Relatedness is a key psychological need within self-determination theory. When this need is satisfied, psychological well-being is more likely to increase and individuals are more likely to develop greater self-determined motivation * Both relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration can influence the quality of motivation, not just its strength * Relatedness satisfaction can shape behaviour by facilitating greater engagement, participation, and persistence and sustain their behaviour for longer. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== *[[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Intrinsic motivation|Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Social relation|Relatedness]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to Student Motivation: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents of Autonomous and Controlled Motivations. Review of Educational Research, 92(1), 46-72. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426 Collie, R. J. (2024). Social-emotional need satisfaction and students’ academic engagement and social-emotional skills. Educational Psychology, 44(2), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2024.2324751 Hagger, M. S., Hankonen, N., Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., & Ryan, R. M. (2020). Changing Behavior Using Self-Determination Theory. In M. S. Hagger, L. D. Cameron, K. Hamilton, N. Hankonen, & T. Lintunen (Eds.), The Handbook of Behaviour Change (pp. 104–119). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677318.008 Hofverberg, A., Winberg, M., Palmberg, B., Andersson, C., & Palm, T. (2022). Relationships between basic psychological need satisfaction, regulations, and behavioral engagement in mathematics. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.829958 Kaefer, A., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2021). Relatedness support enhances motivation, positive affect, and motor learning in adolescents. Human Movement Science, 79, 102864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2021.102864 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). "The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. ''Psychological inquiry'', ''11''(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 127(5), 1012–1037. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459 Van Tuin, L., Schaufeli, W. B., & van Rhenen, W. (2020). The satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs in engaging leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 14(2), 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21695 Weinstein, N. (Ed.). (2014). Human Motivation and Interpersonal Relationships : Theory, Research, and Applications (1st ed. 2014.). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8542-6 }} ==External links== {{ic|Use sentence casing}} * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci TEDX] (Youtube) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ Self-determination Theory] (Center for Self-determination Theory) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Relatedness]] d7l348ompui7aqcxgxo02b4d1e4w3tt 2840711 2840708 2026-10-16T14:57:15Z U3203283 3110021 /* Relatedness and well-being */ delete section 2840711 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory:<br>How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Raise hand gesture occupy.svg|Raise_hand_gesture_occupy|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. A raised hand: Lauren's tutor encouraged students to ask for help and connect with each other. {{expand}}]] ; Imagine this Lauren is a first-year university student studying psychology who recently started a demanding course. During the first few weeks, she finds the workload difficult and is unsure whether she is capable of succeeding. She chose to study psychology because she is interested in the subject, however, she feels isolated because her classmates seem to already know one another. One of Lauren’s tutors makes an effort to learn about students, encourages them to contribute to discussions, and provides feedback. The tutor also organises small-group activities where students can get to know one another and emphasises that asking for help is a normal part of learning. Lauren engages with these opportunities. Over time, Lauren begins to feel that she belongs in the course and that both her tutor and classmates value her participation. As Lauren feels increasingly connected to the people around her, she becomes more willing to attend tutorials, participate in discussions, ask questions (see Figure 1), and seek feedback when she does not understand something. She also starts studying with classmates outside class. Lauren is no longer completing the course requirements only because she feels she has to. Her growing sense of belonging helps her internalise the value of the course, so she begins to think, “Psychology is important to me, and I want to do well because I see myself as part of this community.” This shift leads to more persistent, engaged behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Self-determination theory (SDT) suggests people are most effectively motivated when motivation is intrinsic. SDT argues people have an innate tendency toward growth, and three distinct basic needs. Within SDT is the basic psychological needs theory (BPNT or BNT), which suggests three psychological needs related to intrinsic motivation which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Relatedness refers to the human desire to form strong relationships and bonds with those around them. This chapter will examine how the concept of relatedness, within self-determination theory, shapes human motivation and behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2000) The goal contents theory (GCT) expands on the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and their impact on wellness. Extrinsic goals including financial success, fame, and physical appearance have been compared to intrinsic goals which include personal growth, forming strong, high-quality relationships, and community which are associated with higher well-being than the latter. The role of relatedness can be understood through another micro-theory of SDT; the relationship motivation theory (RMT), which suggests that closeness to others is not only preferable, but essential to wellbeing. Not only do high-quality relationships satisfy the need for relatedness, but they can also satisfy the need for autonomy and competence (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In a meta-analysis, Slempt et. al (2024), note that support from others likely facilitates people’s motivational processes, finding that interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs were small to moderately positively associated with performance. Slempt et. al (2024), {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the need for relatedness within Self-Determination Theory, and why is it important in shaping motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction influence the development of autonomous motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction or frustration affect individuals’ behaviour, such as engagement, persistence, and disengagement? * How do relationships and social environments affect relatedness, and what are the implications on motivation and behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Self-Determination Theory== [[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] is a macro-theory of psychology created by [[w:Edward Deci|Edward Deci]] and [[w:Richard Ryan|Richard Ryan]] relating to motivation, behaviour, and personality. Deci and Ryan published their first comprehensive book of the theory in 1985 (Deci & Ryan, 1985). SDT utilises an organismic-dialectical approach, which assumes people are ‘active organisms’ who have tendencies toward growth, overcoming challenges, and integrating new experiences into their sense of self. SDT posits this inherent tendency toward growth as well as peoples’ innate psychological needs are the basis for self-motivation and personality integration. Ryan and Deci (2000), propose that humans have three basic psychological needs which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness and when these needs are met, they are essential to optimal personal growth, wellbeing, and [[W:intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivation]]. === Basic psychological needs theory === Basic psychological needs theory is a micro-theory within SDT. BPNT refers to the idea in SDT that people have three basic psychological needs that are central to wellbeing, growth and intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). [[w:Autonomy|Autonomy]] is the experience of ones actions as their own and personally-endorsed, as opposed to being controlled or imposed upon them. [[w:Competence|Competence]] is closely related to [[w:Self-Efficacy|self-efficacy]] and refers to the need to feel capable and effective and confident in your interactions with your environment, and to master challenges and achieve goals. Relatedness is the innate human need to develop meaningful relationships with those around you, and to feel a sense of mutual care, respect, and warmth between yourself and others. Relatedness also refers to experiencing a sense of belonging, community, and kinship with others. Social or cultural factors can either support or 'thwart' individuals' motivation, well-being, and personal growth. (Ryan & Deci, 2000). ==Cognitive evaluation theory== [[File:Muhammad Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation.png|300px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. The player on the left wants to win the trophy which is an example of extrinsic motivation. The player on the right is playing for his own enjoyment, indicating he is intrinsically motivated.]] Cognitive evaluation theory (CET) is a micro-theory within self-determination theory. Cognitive evaluation theory is essential in understanding motivation within SDT, specifically, intrinsic motivation which refers to motivation to engage in a task out of an inherent interest, enjoyment, and engagement, whereas extrinsic motivation refers to an individual being motivated by external rewards or reinforcement (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET suggests that intrinsic motivation is more valuable than extrinsic motivation, as those that are intrinsically motivated feel a sense of choice over what they are doing and gain a feeling of competence and enjoyment from the activities or tasks they complete. (Hagger et. al., 2020). The role of social and environmental influences such as rewards, feedback and communications, can either facilitate or undermine intrinsic motivation. CET considers intrinsic motivation to be socially and environmentally influenced. For example, when an individual receives positive feedback, they are more likely to be intrinsically motivated, and when an individual receives negative feedback, they are less likely to be intrinsically motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET also aims to specify that factors that explain the variability of intrinsic motivation. === Taxonomy of human motivation === Deci & Ryan (2000) propose a taxonomy of motivation (shown in the figure below) to explain for the variability of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. [[File:Taxonomy of motivation.png| center |600x600px|'''Figure 3.'''Ryan & Deci's (2000) taxonomy of moitvation. A visual spectrum of motivation]] The taxonomy of motivation highlights motivation as sitting on a spectrum of autonomy, beginning with a complete lack of motivation (motivation) and ending with doing an activity purely for its inherent satisfaction or interest (intrinsic regulation). This model also highlights the differences between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation versus controlled and autonomous motivation, introducing regulations to specify the nuances of motivation. Notably, autonomous motivation spans across both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Autonomous motivation is the same as intrinsic motivation: |type="(false)"} - True + False {Winning a trophy is an example of extrinsic motivation, and participating in a hobby that interests themselves is an example of intrinsic motivation: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Relatedness, motivation, and behaviour== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Parallel mediation model with both satisfaction and frustration of basic needs (Van Tuin et al., 2020)]] CET focuses on the fundamental psychological needs for autonomy and competence and how they can enhance or thwart intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). SDT specifies that needs-supportive environments should lead to self-determined student motivation (Burea et. al., 2021). In a meta-analysis, Bureau et. al. (2021) found that competence was the strongest predictor for self-determined motivation, followed by autonomy and then relatedness. Although CET focuses on autonomy and competence as the main catalysts for intrinsic motivation, Ryan & Powelson (1991) explain that relatedness needs are not antithetical to competence or autonomy and suggests people feel most strongly related to people who are responsive to your expressions of autonomy. Relatedness plays a role especially in the social and environmental contexts which influence motivation and behaviour (Hagger et. al., 2020). The effects of relatedness satisfaction and frustration on motivation and behaviour has been investigated in literature thoroughly. === Wellbeing === The role of wellbeing in the relationship between relatedness, motivation and behaviour has been investigated. Slemp et. al (2024), found that having interpersonal supports for autonomy, competence, and relatedness were associated with the satisfaction of those psychological needs. Environmental support for psychological needs were associated with greater wellbeing, which then lead to improved performance (Slemp et. al., 2024). To test the effects of relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration on task learning, Kaefer & Chiviacowsky (2021) conducted an experiment in which adolescents were either put in a relatedness support condition, relatedness frustration condition, or a control group and tasks with learning how to hit a ball with a racket toward a target. Results showed that relatedness supports not only enhanced the task-learning of adolescents and affected motivation, but influence the affect of participants. === Education === Relatedness has been found to influence students' engagement and performance in educational settings (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021; Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Behavioural engagement in education is essential to students' learning (Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that perceived relatedness satisfaction of students was positively associated with increased behavioural engagement in mathematics. When relatedness is supported, task-learning is perceived by students as more socially and emotionally meaningful and therefore motivates participation behaviours (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). Additionally, students; perceptions of relatedness with their teachers has been associated with better homework practices and lower behavioural disaffection (Collie, 2024). Burea et. al. (2021), note that the weaker role of relatedness in self-determined motivation in education may be context-dependant, noting that relatedness may more strongly influence self-determined motivation in leisure contexts. Hofverberg et. al. (2022) notes that although the literature commonly investigate links between the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and students' motivational regulations, but literature that utilises the full-model of SDT is limited. Specifically, more detailed research into the full chain of events that leads to higher quality engagement in education. Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that relatedness satisfaction predicted identified regulation which then, in turn, predicted engagement in mathematics. These findings highlight the importance of investigating the role of regulation in the understanding how relatedness functions within SDT to shape motivation and behaviour. ==Conclusion== * Relatedness is a key psychological need within self-determination theory. When this need is satisfied, psychological well-being is more likely to increase and individuals are more likely to develop greater self-determined motivation * Both relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration can influence the quality of motivation, not just its strength * Relatedness satisfaction can shape behaviour by facilitating greater engagement, participation, and persistence and sustain their behaviour for longer. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== *[[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Intrinsic motivation|Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Social relation|Relatedness]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to Student Motivation: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents of Autonomous and Controlled Motivations. Review of Educational Research, 92(1), 46-72. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426 Collie, R. J. (2024). Social-emotional need satisfaction and students’ academic engagement and social-emotional skills. Educational Psychology, 44(2), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2024.2324751 Hagger, M. S., Hankonen, N., Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., & Ryan, R. M. (2020). Changing Behavior Using Self-Determination Theory. In M. S. Hagger, L. D. Cameron, K. Hamilton, N. Hankonen, & T. Lintunen (Eds.), The Handbook of Behaviour Change (pp. 104–119). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677318.008 Hofverberg, A., Winberg, M., Palmberg, B., Andersson, C., & Palm, T. (2022). Relationships between basic psychological need satisfaction, regulations, and behavioral engagement in mathematics. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.829958 Kaefer, A., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2021). Relatedness support enhances motivation, positive affect, and motor learning in adolescents. Human Movement Science, 79, 102864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2021.102864 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). "The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. ''Psychological inquiry'', ''11''(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 127(5), 1012–1037. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459 Van Tuin, L., Schaufeli, W. B., & van Rhenen, W. (2020). The satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs in engaging leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 14(2), 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21695 Weinstein, N. (Ed.). (2014). Human Motivation and Interpersonal Relationships : Theory, Research, and Applications (1st ed. 2014.). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8542-6 }} ==External links== {{ic|Use sentence casing}} * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci TEDX] (Youtube) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ Self-determination Theory] (Center for Self-determination Theory) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Relatedness]] ml6e2ffq1qp0mit9c00h08bsry22wct 2840712 2840711 2026-10-16T15:09:09Z U3203283 3110021 /* Relatedness, motivation, and behaviour */ 2840712 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory:<br>How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Raise hand gesture occupy.svg|Raise_hand_gesture_occupy|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. A raised hand: Lauren's tutor encouraged students to ask for help and connect with each other. {{expand}}]] ; Imagine this Lauren is a first-year university student studying psychology who recently started a demanding course. During the first few weeks, she finds the workload difficult and is unsure whether she is capable of succeeding. She chose to study psychology because she is interested in the subject, however, she feels isolated because her classmates seem to already know one another. One of Lauren’s tutors makes an effort to learn about students, encourages them to contribute to discussions, and provides feedback. The tutor also organises small-group activities where students can get to know one another and emphasises that asking for help is a normal part of learning. Lauren engages with these opportunities. Over time, Lauren begins to feel that she belongs in the course and that both her tutor and classmates value her participation. As Lauren feels increasingly connected to the people around her, she becomes more willing to attend tutorials, participate in discussions, ask questions (see Figure 1), and seek feedback when she does not understand something. She also starts studying with classmates outside class. Lauren is no longer completing the course requirements only because she feels she has to. Her growing sense of belonging helps her internalise the value of the course, so she begins to think, “Psychology is important to me, and I want to do well because I see myself as part of this community.” This shift leads to more persistent, engaged behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Self-determination theory (SDT) suggests people are most effectively motivated when motivation is intrinsic. SDT argues people have an innate tendency toward growth, and three distinct basic needs. Within SDT is the basic psychological needs theory (BPNT or BNT), which suggests three psychological needs related to intrinsic motivation which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Relatedness refers to the human desire to form strong relationships and bonds with those around them. This chapter will examine how the concept of relatedness, within self-determination theory, shapes human motivation and behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2000) The goal contents theory (GCT) expands on the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and their impact on wellness. Extrinsic goals including financial success, fame, and physical appearance have been compared to intrinsic goals which include personal growth, forming strong, high-quality relationships, and community which are associated with higher well-being than the latter. The role of relatedness can be understood through another micro-theory of SDT; the relationship motivation theory (RMT), which suggests that closeness to others is not only preferable, but essential to wellbeing. Not only do high-quality relationships satisfy the need for relatedness, but they can also satisfy the need for autonomy and competence (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In a meta-analysis, Slempt et. al (2024), note that support from others likely facilitates people’s motivational processes, finding that interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs were small to moderately positively associated with performance. Slempt et. al (2024), {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the need for relatedness within Self-Determination Theory, and why is it important in shaping motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction influence the development of autonomous motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction or frustration affect individuals’ behaviour, such as engagement, persistence, and disengagement? * How do relationships and social environments affect relatedness, and what are the implications on motivation and behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Self-Determination Theory== [[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] is a macro-theory of psychology created by [[w:Edward Deci|Edward Deci]] and [[w:Richard Ryan|Richard Ryan]] relating to motivation, behaviour, and personality. Deci and Ryan published their first comprehensive book of the theory in 1985 (Deci & Ryan, 1985). SDT utilises an organismic-dialectical approach, which assumes people are ‘active organisms’ who have tendencies toward growth, overcoming challenges, and integrating new experiences into their sense of self. SDT posits this inherent tendency toward growth as well as peoples’ innate psychological needs are the basis for self-motivation and personality integration. Ryan and Deci (2000), propose that humans have three basic psychological needs which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness and when these needs are met, they are essential to optimal personal growth, wellbeing, and [[W:intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivation]]. === Basic psychological needs theory === Basic psychological needs theory is a micro-theory within SDT. BPNT refers to the idea in SDT that people have three basic psychological needs that are central to wellbeing, growth and intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). [[w:Autonomy|Autonomy]] is the experience of ones actions as their own and personally-endorsed, as opposed to being controlled or imposed upon them. [[w:Competence|Competence]] is closely related to [[w:Self-Efficacy|self-efficacy]] and refers to the need to feel capable and effective and confident in your interactions with your environment, and to master challenges and achieve goals. Relatedness is the innate human need to develop meaningful relationships with those around you, and to feel a sense of mutual care, respect, and warmth between yourself and others. Relatedness also refers to experiencing a sense of belonging, community, and kinship with others. Social or cultural factors can either support or 'thwart' individuals' motivation, well-being, and personal growth. (Ryan & Deci, 2000). ==Cognitive evaluation theory== [[File:Muhammad Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation.png|300px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. The player on the left wants to win the trophy which is an example of extrinsic motivation. The player on the right is playing for his own enjoyment, indicating he is intrinsically motivated.]] Cognitive evaluation theory (CET) is a micro-theory within self-determination theory. Cognitive evaluation theory is essential in understanding motivation within SDT, specifically, intrinsic motivation which refers to motivation to engage in a task out of an inherent interest, enjoyment, and engagement, whereas extrinsic motivation refers to an individual being motivated by external rewards or reinforcement (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET suggests that intrinsic motivation is more valuable than extrinsic motivation, as those that are intrinsically motivated feel a sense of choice over what they are doing and gain a feeling of competence and enjoyment from the activities or tasks they complete. (Hagger et. al., 2020). The role of social and environmental influences such as rewards, feedback and communications, can either facilitate or undermine intrinsic motivation. CET considers intrinsic motivation to be socially and environmentally influenced. For example, when an individual receives positive feedback, they are more likely to be intrinsically motivated, and when an individual receives negative feedback, they are less likely to be intrinsically motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET also aims to specify that factors that explain the variability of intrinsic motivation. === Taxonomy of human motivation === Deci & Ryan (2000) propose a taxonomy of motivation (shown in the figure below) to explain for the variability of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. [[File:Taxonomy of motivation.png| center |600x600px|'''Figure 3.'''Ryan & Deci's (2000) taxonomy of moitvation. A visual spectrum of motivation]] The taxonomy of motivation highlights motivation as sitting on a spectrum of autonomy, beginning with a complete lack of motivation (motivation) and ending with doing an activity purely for its inherent satisfaction or interest (intrinsic regulation). This model also highlights the differences between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation versus controlled and autonomous motivation, introducing regulations to specify the nuances of motivation. Notably, autonomous motivation spans across both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Autonomous motivation is the same as intrinsic motivation: |type="(false)"} - True + False {Winning a trophy is an example of extrinsic motivation, and participating in a hobby that interests themselves is an example of intrinsic motivation: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Relatedness, motivation, and behaviour== CET focuses on the fundamental psychological needs for autonomy and competence and how they can enhance or thwart intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). SDT specifies that needs-supportive environments should lead to self-determined student motivation (Burea et. al., 2021). In a meta-analysis, Bureau et. al. (2021) found that competence was the strongest predictor for self-determined motivation, followed by autonomy and then relatedness. Although CET focuses on autonomy and competence as the main catalysts for intrinsic motivation, Ryan & Powelson (1991) explain that relatedness needs are not antithetical to competence or autonomy and suggests people feel most strongly related to people who are responsive to your expressions of autonomy. Relatedness plays a role especially in the social and environmental contexts which influence motivation and behaviour (Hagger et. al., 2020). The effects of relatedness satisfaction and frustration on motivation and behaviour has been investigated in literature thoroughly. === Wellbeing === The role of wellbeing in the relationship between relatedness, motivation and behaviour has been investigated. Slemp et. al (2024), found that having interpersonal supports for autonomy, competence, and relatedness were associated with the satisfaction of those psychological needs. Environmental support for psychological needs were associated with greater wellbeing, which then lead to improved performance (Slemp et. al., 2024). To test the effects of relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration on task learning, Kaefer & Chiviacowsky (2021) conducted an experiment in which adolescents were either put in a relatedness support condition, relatedness frustration condition, or a control group and tasks with learning how to hit a ball with a racket toward a target. Results showed that relatedness supports not only enhanced the task-learning of adolescents and affected motivation, but influence the affect of participants. === Education === [[File:A public high school teacher in a classroom in the United States 13.jpg|right|330px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Teacher relatedness can increase participation in education (Collie, 2024). ]] Relatedness has been found to influence students' engagement and performance in educational settings (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021; Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Behavioural engagement in education is essential to students' learning (Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that perceived relatedness satisfaction of students was positively associated with increased behavioural engagement in mathematics. When relatedness is supported, task-learning is perceived by students as more socially and emotionally meaningful and therefore motivates participation behaviours (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). Additionally, students; perceptions of relatedness with their teachers has been associated with better homework practices and lower behavioural disaffection (Collie, 2024). Burea et. al. (2021), note that the weaker role of relatedness in self-determined motivation in education may be context-dependant, noting that relatedness may more strongly influence self-determined motivation in leisure contexts. Hofverberg et. al. (2022) notes that although the literature commonly investigate links between the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and students' motivational regulations, but literature that utilises the full-model of SDT is limited. Specifically, more detailed research into the full chain of events that leads to higher quality engagement in education. Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that relatedness satisfaction predicted identified regulation which then, in turn, predicted engagement in mathematics. These findings highlight the importance of investigating the role of regulation in the understanding how relatedness functions within SDT to shape motivation and behaviour. ==Conclusion== * Relatedness is a key psychological need within self-determination theory. When this need is satisfied, psychological well-being is more likely to increase and individuals are more likely to develop greater self-determined motivation * Both relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration can influence the quality of motivation, not just its strength * Relatedness satisfaction can shape behaviour by facilitating greater engagement, participation, and persistence and sustain their behaviour for longer. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== *[[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Intrinsic motivation|Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Social relation|Relatedness]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to Student Motivation: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents of Autonomous and Controlled Motivations. Review of Educational Research, 92(1), 46-72. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426 Collie, R. J. (2024). Social-emotional need satisfaction and students’ academic engagement and social-emotional skills. Educational Psychology, 44(2), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2024.2324751 Hagger, M. S., Hankonen, N., Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., & Ryan, R. M. (2020). Changing Behavior Using Self-Determination Theory. In M. S. Hagger, L. D. Cameron, K. Hamilton, N. Hankonen, & T. Lintunen (Eds.), The Handbook of Behaviour Change (pp. 104–119). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677318.008 Hofverberg, A., Winberg, M., Palmberg, B., Andersson, C., & Palm, T. (2022). Relationships between basic psychological need satisfaction, regulations, and behavioral engagement in mathematics. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.829958 Kaefer, A., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2021). Relatedness support enhances motivation, positive affect, and motor learning in adolescents. Human Movement Science, 79, 102864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2021.102864 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). "The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. ''Psychological inquiry'', ''11''(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 127(5), 1012–1037. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459 Van Tuin, L., Schaufeli, W. B., & van Rhenen, W. (2020). The satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs in engaging leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 14(2), 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21695 Weinstein, N. (Ed.). (2014). Human Motivation and Interpersonal Relationships : Theory, Research, and Applications (1st ed. 2014.). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8542-6 }} ==External links== {{ic|Use sentence casing}} * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci TEDX] (Youtube) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ Self-determination Theory] (Center for Self-determination Theory) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Relatedness]] qxge3df7zgps2vk00rulh1npjbcr8py 2840713 2840712 2026-10-16T15:09:42Z U3203283 3110021 /* External links */ 2840713 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory:<br>How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Raise hand gesture occupy.svg|Raise_hand_gesture_occupy|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. A raised hand: Lauren's tutor encouraged students to ask for help and connect with each other. {{expand}}]] ; Imagine this Lauren is a first-year university student studying psychology who recently started a demanding course. During the first few weeks, she finds the workload difficult and is unsure whether she is capable of succeeding. She chose to study psychology because she is interested in the subject, however, she feels isolated because her classmates seem to already know one another. One of Lauren’s tutors makes an effort to learn about students, encourages them to contribute to discussions, and provides feedback. The tutor also organises small-group activities where students can get to know one another and emphasises that asking for help is a normal part of learning. Lauren engages with these opportunities. Over time, Lauren begins to feel that she belongs in the course and that both her tutor and classmates value her participation. As Lauren feels increasingly connected to the people around her, she becomes more willing to attend tutorials, participate in discussions, ask questions (see Figure 1), and seek feedback when she does not understand something. She also starts studying with classmates outside class. Lauren is no longer completing the course requirements only because she feels she has to. Her growing sense of belonging helps her internalise the value of the course, so she begins to think, “Psychology is important to me, and I want to do well because I see myself as part of this community.” This shift leads to more persistent, engaged behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Self-determination theory (SDT) suggests people are most effectively motivated when motivation is intrinsic. SDT argues people have an innate tendency toward growth, and three distinct basic needs. Within SDT is the basic psychological needs theory (BPNT or BNT), which suggests three psychological needs related to intrinsic motivation which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Relatedness refers to the human desire to form strong relationships and bonds with those around them. This chapter will examine how the concept of relatedness, within self-determination theory, shapes human motivation and behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2000) The goal contents theory (GCT) expands on the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and their impact on wellness. Extrinsic goals including financial success, fame, and physical appearance have been compared to intrinsic goals which include personal growth, forming strong, high-quality relationships, and community which are associated with higher well-being than the latter. The role of relatedness can be understood through another micro-theory of SDT; the relationship motivation theory (RMT), which suggests that closeness to others is not only preferable, but essential to wellbeing. Not only do high-quality relationships satisfy the need for relatedness, but they can also satisfy the need for autonomy and competence (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In a meta-analysis, Slempt et. al (2024), note that support from others likely facilitates people’s motivational processes, finding that interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs were small to moderately positively associated with performance. Slempt et. al (2024), {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the need for relatedness within Self-Determination Theory, and why is it important in shaping motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction influence the development of autonomous motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction or frustration affect individuals’ behaviour, such as engagement, persistence, and disengagement? * How do relationships and social environments affect relatedness, and what are the implications on motivation and behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Self-Determination Theory== [[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] is a macro-theory of psychology created by [[w:Edward Deci|Edward Deci]] and [[w:Richard Ryan|Richard Ryan]] relating to motivation, behaviour, and personality. Deci and Ryan published their first comprehensive book of the theory in 1985 (Deci & Ryan, 1985). SDT utilises an organismic-dialectical approach, which assumes people are ‘active organisms’ who have tendencies toward growth, overcoming challenges, and integrating new experiences into their sense of self. SDT posits this inherent tendency toward growth as well as peoples’ innate psychological needs are the basis for self-motivation and personality integration. Ryan and Deci (2000), propose that humans have three basic psychological needs which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness and when these needs are met, they are essential to optimal personal growth, wellbeing, and [[W:intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivation]]. === Basic psychological needs theory === Basic psychological needs theory is a micro-theory within SDT. BPNT refers to the idea in SDT that people have three basic psychological needs that are central to wellbeing, growth and intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). [[w:Autonomy|Autonomy]] is the experience of ones actions as their own and personally-endorsed, as opposed to being controlled or imposed upon them. [[w:Competence|Competence]] is closely related to [[w:Self-Efficacy|self-efficacy]] and refers to the need to feel capable and effective and confident in your interactions with your environment, and to master challenges and achieve goals. Relatedness is the innate human need to develop meaningful relationships with those around you, and to feel a sense of mutual care, respect, and warmth between yourself and others. Relatedness also refers to experiencing a sense of belonging, community, and kinship with others. Social or cultural factors can either support or 'thwart' individuals' motivation, well-being, and personal growth. (Ryan & Deci, 2000). ==Cognitive evaluation theory== [[File:Muhammad Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation.png|300px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. The player on the left wants to win the trophy which is an example of extrinsic motivation. The player on the right is playing for his own enjoyment, indicating he is intrinsically motivated.]] Cognitive evaluation theory (CET) is a micro-theory within self-determination theory. Cognitive evaluation theory is essential in understanding motivation within SDT, specifically, intrinsic motivation which refers to motivation to engage in a task out of an inherent interest, enjoyment, and engagement, whereas extrinsic motivation refers to an individual being motivated by external rewards or reinforcement (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET suggests that intrinsic motivation is more valuable than extrinsic motivation, as those that are intrinsically motivated feel a sense of choice over what they are doing and gain a feeling of competence and enjoyment from the activities or tasks they complete. (Hagger et. al., 2020). The role of social and environmental influences such as rewards, feedback and communications, can either facilitate or undermine intrinsic motivation. CET considers intrinsic motivation to be socially and environmentally influenced. For example, when an individual receives positive feedback, they are more likely to be intrinsically motivated, and when an individual receives negative feedback, they are less likely to be intrinsically motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET also aims to specify that factors that explain the variability of intrinsic motivation. === Taxonomy of human motivation === Deci & Ryan (2000) propose a taxonomy of motivation (shown in the figure below) to explain for the variability of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. [[File:Taxonomy of motivation.png| center |600x600px|'''Figure 3.'''Ryan & Deci's (2000) taxonomy of moitvation. A visual spectrum of motivation]] The taxonomy of motivation highlights motivation as sitting on a spectrum of autonomy, beginning with a complete lack of motivation (motivation) and ending with doing an activity purely for its inherent satisfaction or interest (intrinsic regulation). This model also highlights the differences between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation versus controlled and autonomous motivation, introducing regulations to specify the nuances of motivation. Notably, autonomous motivation spans across both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Autonomous motivation is the same as intrinsic motivation: |type="(false)"} - True + False {Winning a trophy is an example of extrinsic motivation, and participating in a hobby that interests themselves is an example of intrinsic motivation: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Relatedness, motivation, and behaviour== CET focuses on the fundamental psychological needs for autonomy and competence and how they can enhance or thwart intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). SDT specifies that needs-supportive environments should lead to self-determined student motivation (Burea et. al., 2021). In a meta-analysis, Bureau et. al. (2021) found that competence was the strongest predictor for self-determined motivation, followed by autonomy and then relatedness. Although CET focuses on autonomy and competence as the main catalysts for intrinsic motivation, Ryan & Powelson (1991) explain that relatedness needs are not antithetical to competence or autonomy and suggests people feel most strongly related to people who are responsive to your expressions of autonomy. Relatedness plays a role especially in the social and environmental contexts which influence motivation and behaviour (Hagger et. al., 2020). The effects of relatedness satisfaction and frustration on motivation and behaviour has been investigated in literature thoroughly. === Wellbeing === The role of wellbeing in the relationship between relatedness, motivation and behaviour has been investigated. Slemp et. al (2024), found that having interpersonal supports for autonomy, competence, and relatedness were associated with the satisfaction of those psychological needs. Environmental support for psychological needs were associated with greater wellbeing, which then lead to improved performance (Slemp et. al., 2024). To test the effects of relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration on task learning, Kaefer & Chiviacowsky (2021) conducted an experiment in which adolescents were either put in a relatedness support condition, relatedness frustration condition, or a control group and tasks with learning how to hit a ball with a racket toward a target. Results showed that relatedness supports not only enhanced the task-learning of adolescents and affected motivation, but influence the affect of participants. === Education === [[File:A public high school teacher in a classroom in the United States 13.jpg|right|330px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Teacher relatedness can increase participation in education (Collie, 2024). ]] Relatedness has been found to influence students' engagement and performance in educational settings (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021; Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Behavioural engagement in education is essential to students' learning (Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that perceived relatedness satisfaction of students was positively associated with increased behavioural engagement in mathematics. When relatedness is supported, task-learning is perceived by students as more socially and emotionally meaningful and therefore motivates participation behaviours (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). Additionally, students; perceptions of relatedness with their teachers has been associated with better homework practices and lower behavioural disaffection (Collie, 2024). Burea et. al. (2021), note that the weaker role of relatedness in self-determined motivation in education may be context-dependant, noting that relatedness may more strongly influence self-determined motivation in leisure contexts. Hofverberg et. al. (2022) notes that although the literature commonly investigate links between the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and students' motivational regulations, but literature that utilises the full-model of SDT is limited. Specifically, more detailed research into the full chain of events that leads to higher quality engagement in education. Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that relatedness satisfaction predicted identified regulation which then, in turn, predicted engagement in mathematics. These findings highlight the importance of investigating the role of regulation in the understanding how relatedness functions within SDT to shape motivation and behaviour. ==Conclusion== * Relatedness is a key psychological need within self-determination theory. When this need is satisfied, psychological well-being is more likely to increase and individuals are more likely to develop greater self-determined motivation * Both relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration can influence the quality of motivation, not just its strength * Relatedness satisfaction can shape behaviour by facilitating greater engagement, participation, and persistence and sustain their behaviour for longer. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== *[[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Intrinsic motivation|Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Social relation|Relatedness]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to Student Motivation: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents of Autonomous and Controlled Motivations. Review of Educational Research, 92(1), 46-72. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426 Collie, R. J. (2024). Social-emotional need satisfaction and students’ academic engagement and social-emotional skills. Educational Psychology, 44(2), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2024.2324751 Hagger, M. S., Hankonen, N., Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., & Ryan, R. M. (2020). Changing Behavior Using Self-Determination Theory. In M. S. Hagger, L. D. Cameron, K. Hamilton, N. Hankonen, & T. Lintunen (Eds.), The Handbook of Behaviour Change (pp. 104–119). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677318.008 Hofverberg, A., Winberg, M., Palmberg, B., Andersson, C., & Palm, T. (2022). Relationships between basic psychological need satisfaction, regulations, and behavioral engagement in mathematics. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.829958 Kaefer, A., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2021). Relatedness support enhances motivation, positive affect, and motor learning in adolescents. Human Movement Science, 79, 102864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2021.102864 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). "The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. ''Psychological inquiry'', ''11''(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 127(5), 1012–1037. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459 Van Tuin, L., Schaufeli, W. B., & van Rhenen, W. (2020). The satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs in engaging leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 14(2), 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21695 Weinstein, N. (Ed.). (2014). Human Motivation and Interpersonal Relationships : Theory, Research, and Applications (1st ed. 2014.). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8542-6 }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci TEDX] (Youtube) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ Self-determination Theory] (Center for Self-determination Theory) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Relatedness]] ngdviyk2i03yud7nxc8pb7gfa6jgktf 2840714 2840713 2026-10-16T15:19:13Z U3203283 3110021 /* Self-Determination Theory */ add text and RMT 2840714 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory:<br>How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Raise hand gesture occupy.svg|Raise_hand_gesture_occupy|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. A raised hand: Lauren's tutor encouraged students to ask for help and connect with each other. {{expand}}]] ; Imagine this Lauren is a first-year university student studying psychology who recently started a demanding course. During the first few weeks, she finds the workload difficult and is unsure whether she is capable of succeeding. She chose to study psychology because she is interested in the subject, however, she feels isolated because her classmates seem to already know one another. One of Lauren’s tutors makes an effort to learn about students, encourages them to contribute to discussions, and provides feedback. The tutor also organises small-group activities where students can get to know one another and emphasises that asking for help is a normal part of learning. Lauren engages with these opportunities. Over time, Lauren begins to feel that she belongs in the course and that both her tutor and classmates value her participation. As Lauren feels increasingly connected to the people around her, she becomes more willing to attend tutorials, participate in discussions, ask questions (see Figure 1), and seek feedback when she does not understand something. She also starts studying with classmates outside class. Lauren is no longer completing the course requirements only because she feels she has to. Her growing sense of belonging helps her internalise the value of the course, so she begins to think, “Psychology is important to me, and I want to do well because I see myself as part of this community.” This shift leads to more persistent, engaged behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Self-determination theory (SDT) suggests people are most effectively motivated when motivation is intrinsic. SDT argues people have an innate tendency toward growth, and three distinct basic needs. Within SDT is the basic psychological needs theory (BPNT or BNT), which suggests three psychological needs related to intrinsic motivation which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Relatedness refers to the human desire to form strong relationships and bonds with those around them. This chapter will examine how the concept of relatedness, within self-determination theory, shapes human motivation and behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2000) The goal contents theory (GCT) expands on the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and their impact on wellness. Extrinsic goals including financial success, fame, and physical appearance have been compared to intrinsic goals which include personal growth, forming strong, high-quality relationships, and community which are associated with higher well-being than the latter. The role of relatedness can be understood through another micro-theory of SDT; the relationship motivation theory (RMT), which suggests that closeness to others is not only preferable, but essential to wellbeing. Not only do high-quality relationships satisfy the need for relatedness, but they can also satisfy the need for autonomy and competence (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In a meta-analysis, Slempt et. al (2024), note that support from others likely facilitates people’s motivational processes, finding that interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs were small to moderately positively associated with performance. Slempt et. al (2024), {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the need for relatedness within Self-Determination Theory, and why is it important in shaping motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction influence the development of autonomous motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction or frustration affect individuals’ behaviour, such as engagement, persistence, and disengagement? * How do relationships and social environments affect relatedness, and what are the implications on motivation and behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Self-Determination Theory== [[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] is a macro-theory of psychology created by [[w:Edward Deci|Edward Deci]] and [[w:Richard Ryan|Richard Ryan]] relating to motivation, behaviour, and personality. Deci and Ryan published their first comprehensive guide to SDT in 1985 (Deci & Ryan, 1985). SDT utilises an organismic-dialectical approach, which assumes people are ‘active organisms’ who have tendencies toward growth, overcoming challenges, and integrating new experiences into their sense of self. SDT posits this inherent tendency toward growth as well as peoples’ innate psychological needs are the basis for self-motivation and personality integration. Ryan and Deci (2000), propose that humans have three basic psychological needs which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness and when these needs are met, they are essential to optimal personal growth, wellbeing, and [[W:intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivation]]. === Basic psychological needs theory === Basic psychological needs theory is a micro-theory within SDT. BPNT refers to the idea in SDT that people have three basic psychological needs that are central to wellbeing, growth and intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). [[w:Autonomy|Autonomy]] is the experience of ones actions as their own and personally-endorsed, as opposed to being controlled or imposed upon them. [[w:Competence|Competence]] is closely related to [[w:Self-Efficacy|self-efficacy]] and refers to the need to feel capable and effective and confident in your interactions with your environment, and to master challenges and achieve goals. Relatedness is the innate human need to develop meaningful relationships with those around you, and to feel a sense of mutual care, respect, and warmth between yourself and others. Relatedness also refers to experiencing a sense of belonging, community, and kinship with others. Social or cultural factors can either support or 'thwart' individuals' motivation, well-being, and personal growth. (Ryan & Deci, 2000). === Relationship motivation theory === Relationship motivation theory (RMT) is the sixth micro or mini theory within SDT that explains the development, function, and success of relationships (Deci & Ryan, 2000). RMT demonstrates that relatedness satisfaction alone is not sufficient for a succesful relationship. In relationships, the need for relatedness, autonomy, and competence must all be met, and both partners must support each others needs. Deci & Ryan (2000) note that although the need for relatedness is experiencing connection and belonging, a meaninful relationship is tied to the satisfaction of all three needs, and mutual-support of each others' needs. ==Cognitive evaluation theory== [[File:Muhammad Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation.png|300px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. The player on the left wants to win the trophy which is an example of extrinsic motivation. The player on the right is playing for his own enjoyment, indicating he is intrinsically motivated.]] Cognitive evaluation theory (CET) is a micro-theory within self-determination theory. Cognitive evaluation theory is essential in understanding motivation within SDT, specifically, intrinsic motivation which refers to motivation to engage in a task out of an inherent interest, enjoyment, and engagement, whereas extrinsic motivation refers to an individual being motivated by external rewards or reinforcement (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET suggests that intrinsic motivation is more valuable than extrinsic motivation, as those that are intrinsically motivated feel a sense of choice over what they are doing and gain a feeling of competence and enjoyment from the activities or tasks they complete. (Hagger et. al., 2020). The role of social and environmental influences such as rewards, feedback and communications, can either facilitate or undermine intrinsic motivation. CET considers intrinsic motivation to be socially and environmentally influenced. For example, when an individual receives positive feedback, they are more likely to be intrinsically motivated, and when an individual receives negative feedback, they are less likely to be intrinsically motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET also aims to specify that factors that explain the variability of intrinsic motivation. === Taxonomy of human motivation === Deci & Ryan (2000) propose a taxonomy of motivation (shown in the figure below) to explain for the variability of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. [[File:Taxonomy of motivation.png| center |600x600px|'''Figure 3.'''Ryan & Deci's (2000) taxonomy of moitvation. A visual spectrum of motivation]] The taxonomy of motivation highlights motivation as sitting on a spectrum of autonomy, beginning with a complete lack of motivation (motivation) and ending with doing an activity purely for its inherent satisfaction or interest (intrinsic regulation). This model also highlights the differences between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation versus controlled and autonomous motivation, introducing regulations to specify the nuances of motivation. Notably, autonomous motivation spans across both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Autonomous motivation is the same as intrinsic motivation: |type="(false)"} - True + False {Winning a trophy is an example of extrinsic motivation, and participating in a hobby that interests themselves is an example of intrinsic motivation: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Relatedness, motivation, and behaviour== CET focuses on the fundamental psychological needs for autonomy and competence and how they can enhance or thwart intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). SDT specifies that needs-supportive environments should lead to self-determined student motivation (Burea et. al., 2021). In a meta-analysis, Bureau et. al. (2021) found that competence was the strongest predictor for self-determined motivation, followed by autonomy and then relatedness. Although CET focuses on autonomy and competence as the main catalysts for intrinsic motivation, Ryan & Powelson (1991) explain that relatedness needs are not antithetical to competence or autonomy and suggests people feel most strongly related to people who are responsive to your expressions of autonomy. Relatedness plays a role especially in the social and environmental contexts which influence motivation and behaviour (Hagger et. al., 2020). The effects of relatedness satisfaction and frustration on motivation and behaviour has been investigated in literature thoroughly. === Wellbeing === The role of wellbeing in the relationship between relatedness, motivation and behaviour has been investigated. Slemp et. al (2024), found that having interpersonal supports for autonomy, competence, and relatedness were associated with the satisfaction of those psychological needs. Environmental support for psychological needs were associated with greater wellbeing, which then lead to improved performance (Slemp et. al., 2024). To test the effects of relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration on task learning, Kaefer & Chiviacowsky (2021) conducted an experiment in which adolescents were either put in a relatedness support condition, relatedness frustration condition, or a control group and tasks with learning how to hit a ball with a racket toward a target. Results showed that relatedness supports not only enhanced the task-learning of adolescents and affected motivation, but influence the affect of participants. === Education === [[File:A public high school teacher in a classroom in the United States 13.jpg|right|330px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Teacher relatedness can increase participation in education (Collie, 2024). ]] Relatedness has been found to influence students' engagement and performance in educational settings (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021; Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Behavioural engagement in education is essential to students' learning (Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that perceived relatedness satisfaction of students was positively associated with increased behavioural engagement in mathematics. When relatedness is supported, task-learning is perceived by students as more socially and emotionally meaningful and therefore motivates participation behaviours (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). Additionally, students; perceptions of relatedness with their teachers has been associated with better homework practices and lower behavioural disaffection (Collie, 2024). Burea et. al. (2021), note that the weaker role of relatedness in self-determined motivation in education may be context-dependant, noting that relatedness may more strongly influence self-determined motivation in leisure contexts. Hofverberg et. al. (2022) notes that although the literature commonly investigate links between the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and students' motivational regulations, but literature that utilises the full-model of SDT is limited. Specifically, more detailed research into the full chain of events that leads to higher quality engagement in education. Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that relatedness satisfaction predicted identified regulation which then, in turn, predicted engagement in mathematics. These findings highlight the importance of investigating the role of regulation in the understanding how relatedness functions within SDT to shape motivation and behaviour. ==Conclusion== * Relatedness is a key psychological need within self-determination theory. When this need is satisfied, psychological well-being is more likely to increase and individuals are more likely to develop greater self-determined motivation * Both relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration can influence the quality of motivation, not just its strength * Relatedness satisfaction can shape behaviour by facilitating greater engagement, participation, and persistence and sustain their behaviour for longer. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== *[[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Intrinsic motivation|Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Social relation|Relatedness]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to Student Motivation: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents of Autonomous and Controlled Motivations. Review of Educational Research, 92(1), 46-72. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426 Collie, R. J. (2024). Social-emotional need satisfaction and students’ academic engagement and social-emotional skills. Educational Psychology, 44(2), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2024.2324751 Hagger, M. S., Hankonen, N., Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., & Ryan, R. M. (2020). Changing Behavior Using Self-Determination Theory. In M. S. Hagger, L. D. Cameron, K. Hamilton, N. Hankonen, & T. Lintunen (Eds.), The Handbook of Behaviour Change (pp. 104–119). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677318.008 Hofverberg, A., Winberg, M., Palmberg, B., Andersson, C., & Palm, T. (2022). Relationships between basic psychological need satisfaction, regulations, and behavioral engagement in mathematics. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.829958 Kaefer, A., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2021). Relatedness support enhances motivation, positive affect, and motor learning in adolescents. Human Movement Science, 79, 102864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2021.102864 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). "The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. ''Psychological inquiry'', ''11''(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 127(5), 1012–1037. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459 Van Tuin, L., Schaufeli, W. B., & van Rhenen, W. (2020). The satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs in engaging leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 14(2), 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21695 Weinstein, N. (Ed.). (2014). Human Motivation and Interpersonal Relationships : Theory, Research, and Applications (1st ed. 2014.). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8542-6 }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci TEDX] (Youtube) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ Self-determination Theory] (Center for Self-determination Theory) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Relatedness]] 6uxxvhnq0y8xs2i8o1u282aqpzvpf1p 2840715 2840714 2026-10-16T15:20:46Z U3203283 3110021 /* Self-Determination Theory */ 2840715 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory:<br>How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Raise hand gesture occupy.svg|Raise_hand_gesture_occupy|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. A raised hand: Lauren's tutor encouraged students to ask for help and connect with each other. {{expand}}]] ; Imagine this Lauren is a first-year university student studying psychology who recently started a demanding course. During the first few weeks, she finds the workload difficult and is unsure whether she is capable of succeeding. She chose to study psychology because she is interested in the subject, however, she feels isolated because her classmates seem to already know one another. One of Lauren’s tutors makes an effort to learn about students, encourages them to contribute to discussions, and provides feedback. The tutor also organises small-group activities where students can get to know one another and emphasises that asking for help is a normal part of learning. Lauren engages with these opportunities. Over time, Lauren begins to feel that she belongs in the course and that both her tutor and classmates value her participation. As Lauren feels increasingly connected to the people around her, she becomes more willing to attend tutorials, participate in discussions, ask questions (see Figure 1), and seek feedback when she does not understand something. She also starts studying with classmates outside class. Lauren is no longer completing the course requirements only because she feels she has to. Her growing sense of belonging helps her internalise the value of the course, so she begins to think, “Psychology is important to me, and I want to do well because I see myself as part of this community.” This shift leads to more persistent, engaged behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Self-determination theory (SDT) suggests people are most effectively motivated when motivation is intrinsic. SDT argues people have an innate tendency toward growth, and three distinct basic needs. Within SDT is the basic psychological needs theory (BPNT or BNT), which suggests three psychological needs related to intrinsic motivation which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Relatedness refers to the human desire to form strong relationships and bonds with those around them. This chapter will examine how the concept of relatedness, within self-determination theory, shapes human motivation and behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2000) The goal contents theory (GCT) expands on the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and their impact on wellness. Extrinsic goals including financial success, fame, and physical appearance have been compared to intrinsic goals which include personal growth, forming strong, high-quality relationships, and community which are associated with higher well-being than the latter. The role of relatedness can be understood through another micro-theory of SDT; the relationship motivation theory (RMT), which suggests that closeness to others is not only preferable, but essential to wellbeing. Not only do high-quality relationships satisfy the need for relatedness, but they can also satisfy the need for autonomy and competence (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In a meta-analysis, Slempt et. al (2024), note that support from others likely facilitates people’s motivational processes, finding that interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs were small to moderately positively associated with performance. Slempt et. al (2024), {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the need for relatedness within Self-Determination Theory, and why is it important in shaping motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction influence the development of autonomous motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction or frustration affect individuals’ behaviour, such as engagement, persistence, and disengagement? * How do relationships and social environments affect relatedness, and what are the implications on motivation and behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Self-Determination Theory== [[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] is a macro-theory of psychology created by [[w:Edward Deci|Edward Deci]] and [[w:Richard Ryan|Richard Ryan]] relating to motivation, behaviour, and personality. Deci and Ryan published their first comprehensive work about SDT in 1985 (Deci & Ryan, 1985). SDT utilises an organismic-dialectical approach, which assumes people are ‘active organisms’ who have tendencies toward growth, overcoming challenges, and integrating new experiences into their sense of self. SDT posits this inherent tendency toward growth as well as peoples’ innate psychological needs are the basis for self-motivation and personality integration. Ryan and Deci (2000), propose that humans have three basic psychological needs which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness and when these needs are met, they are essential to optimal personal growth, wellbeing, and [[W:intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivation]]. SDT also considers the role of social or cultural factors in either supporting or 'thwarting' individuals' motivation, well-being, and personal growth. (Ryan & Deci, 2000). === Basic psychological needs theory === Basic psychological needs theory is a micro-theory within SDT. BPNT refers to the idea in SDT that people have three basic psychological needs that are central to wellbeing, growth and intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). [[w:Autonomy|Autonomy]] is the experience of ones actions as their own and personally-endorsed, as opposed to being controlled or imposed upon them. [[w:Competence|Competence]] is closely related to [[w:Self-Efficacy|self-efficacy]] and refers to the need to feel capable and effective and confident in your interactions with your environment, and to master challenges and achieve goals. Relatedness is the innate human need to develop meaningful relationships with those around you, and to feel a sense of mutual care, respect, and warmth between yourself and others. Relatedness also refers to experiencing a sense of belonging, community, and kinship with others. === Relationship motivation theory === Relationship motivation theory (RMT) is the sixth micro or mini theory within SDT that explains the development, function, and success of relationships (Deci & Ryan, 2000). RMT demonstrates that relatedness satisfaction alone is not sufficient for a succesful relationship. In relationships, the need for relatedness, autonomy, and competence must all be met, and both partners must support each others needs. Deci & Ryan (2000) note that although the need for relatedness is experiencing connection and belonging, a meaninful relationship is tied to the satisfaction of all three needs, and mutual-support of each others' needs. ==Cognitive evaluation theory== [[File:Muhammad Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation.png|300px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. The player on the left wants to win the trophy which is an example of extrinsic motivation. The player on the right is playing for his own enjoyment, indicating he is intrinsically motivated.]] Cognitive evaluation theory (CET) is a micro-theory within self-determination theory. Cognitive evaluation theory is essential in understanding motivation within SDT, specifically, intrinsic motivation which refers to motivation to engage in a task out of an inherent interest, enjoyment, and engagement, whereas extrinsic motivation refers to an individual being motivated by external rewards or reinforcement (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET suggests that intrinsic motivation is more valuable than extrinsic motivation, as those that are intrinsically motivated feel a sense of choice over what they are doing and gain a feeling of competence and enjoyment from the activities or tasks they complete. (Hagger et. al., 2020). The role of social and environmental influences such as rewards, feedback and communications, can either facilitate or undermine intrinsic motivation. CET considers intrinsic motivation to be socially and environmentally influenced. For example, when an individual receives positive feedback, they are more likely to be intrinsically motivated, and when an individual receives negative feedback, they are less likely to be intrinsically motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET also aims to specify that factors that explain the variability of intrinsic motivation. === Taxonomy of human motivation === Deci & Ryan (2000) propose a taxonomy of motivation (shown in the figure below) to explain for the variability of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. [[File:Taxonomy of motivation.png| center |600x600px|'''Figure 3.'''Ryan & Deci's (2000) taxonomy of moitvation. A visual spectrum of motivation]] The taxonomy of motivation highlights motivation as sitting on a spectrum of autonomy, beginning with a complete lack of motivation (motivation) and ending with doing an activity purely for its inherent satisfaction or interest (intrinsic regulation). This model also highlights the differences between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation versus controlled and autonomous motivation, introducing regulations to specify the nuances of motivation. Notably, autonomous motivation spans across both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Autonomous motivation is the same as intrinsic motivation: |type="(false)"} - True + False {Winning a trophy is an example of extrinsic motivation, and participating in a hobby that interests themselves is an example of intrinsic motivation: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Relatedness, motivation, and behaviour== CET focuses on the fundamental psychological needs for autonomy and competence and how they can enhance or thwart intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). SDT specifies that needs-supportive environments should lead to self-determined student motivation (Burea et. al., 2021). In a meta-analysis, Bureau et. al. (2021) found that competence was the strongest predictor for self-determined motivation, followed by autonomy and then relatedness. Although CET focuses on autonomy and competence as the main catalysts for intrinsic motivation, Ryan & Powelson (1991) explain that relatedness needs are not antithetical to competence or autonomy and suggests people feel most strongly related to people who are responsive to your expressions of autonomy. Relatedness plays a role especially in the social and environmental contexts which influence motivation and behaviour (Hagger et. al., 2020). The effects of relatedness satisfaction and frustration on motivation and behaviour has been investigated in literature thoroughly. === Wellbeing === The role of wellbeing in the relationship between relatedness, motivation and behaviour has been investigated. Slemp et. al (2024), found that having interpersonal supports for autonomy, competence, and relatedness were associated with the satisfaction of those psychological needs. Environmental support for psychological needs were associated with greater wellbeing, which then lead to improved performance (Slemp et. al., 2024). To test the effects of relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration on task learning, Kaefer & Chiviacowsky (2021) conducted an experiment in which adolescents were either put in a relatedness support condition, relatedness frustration condition, or a control group and tasks with learning how to hit a ball with a racket toward a target. Results showed that relatedness supports not only enhanced the task-learning of adolescents and affected motivation, but influence the affect of participants. === Education === [[File:A public high school teacher in a classroom in the United States 13.jpg|right|330px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Teacher relatedness can increase participation in education (Collie, 2024). ]] Relatedness has been found to influence students' engagement and performance in educational settings (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021; Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Behavioural engagement in education is essential to students' learning (Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that perceived relatedness satisfaction of students was positively associated with increased behavioural engagement in mathematics. When relatedness is supported, task-learning is perceived by students as more socially and emotionally meaningful and therefore motivates participation behaviours (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). Additionally, students; perceptions of relatedness with their teachers has been associated with better homework practices and lower behavioural disaffection (Collie, 2024). Burea et. al. (2021), note that the weaker role of relatedness in self-determined motivation in education may be context-dependant, noting that relatedness may more strongly influence self-determined motivation in leisure contexts. Hofverberg et. al. (2022) notes that although the literature commonly investigate links between the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and students' motivational regulations, but literature that utilises the full-model of SDT is limited. Specifically, more detailed research into the full chain of events that leads to higher quality engagement in education. Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that relatedness satisfaction predicted identified regulation which then, in turn, predicted engagement in mathematics. These findings highlight the importance of investigating the role of regulation in the understanding how relatedness functions within SDT to shape motivation and behaviour. ==Conclusion== * Relatedness is a key psychological need within self-determination theory. When this need is satisfied, psychological well-being is more likely to increase and individuals are more likely to develop greater self-determined motivation * Both relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration can influence the quality of motivation, not just its strength * Relatedness satisfaction can shape behaviour by facilitating greater engagement, participation, and persistence and sustain their behaviour for longer. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== *[[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Intrinsic motivation|Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Social relation|Relatedness]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to Student Motivation: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents of Autonomous and Controlled Motivations. Review of Educational Research, 92(1), 46-72. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426 Collie, R. J. (2024). Social-emotional need satisfaction and students’ academic engagement and social-emotional skills. Educational Psychology, 44(2), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2024.2324751 Hagger, M. S., Hankonen, N., Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., & Ryan, R. M. (2020). Changing Behavior Using Self-Determination Theory. In M. S. Hagger, L. D. Cameron, K. Hamilton, N. Hankonen, & T. Lintunen (Eds.), The Handbook of Behaviour Change (pp. 104–119). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677318.008 Hofverberg, A., Winberg, M., Palmberg, B., Andersson, C., & Palm, T. (2022). Relationships between basic psychological need satisfaction, regulations, and behavioral engagement in mathematics. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.829958 Kaefer, A., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2021). Relatedness support enhances motivation, positive affect, and motor learning in adolescents. Human Movement Science, 79, 102864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2021.102864 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). "The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. ''Psychological inquiry'', ''11''(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 127(5), 1012–1037. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459 Van Tuin, L., Schaufeli, W. B., & van Rhenen, W. (2020). The satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs in engaging leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 14(2), 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21695 Weinstein, N. (Ed.). (2014). Human Motivation and Interpersonal Relationships : Theory, Research, and Applications (1st ed. 2014.). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8542-6 }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci TEDX] (Youtube) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ Self-determination Theory] (Center for Self-determination Theory) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Relatedness]] 0jvfjjujqd3kvu8zn3dicv3c0ujfa85 2840716 2840715 2026-10-16T15:22:38Z U3203283 3110021 /* References */ 2840716 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory:<br>How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Raise hand gesture occupy.svg|Raise_hand_gesture_occupy|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. A raised hand: Lauren's tutor encouraged students to ask for help and connect with each other. {{expand}}]] ; Imagine this Lauren is a first-year university student studying psychology who recently started a demanding course. During the first few weeks, she finds the workload difficult and is unsure whether she is capable of succeeding. She chose to study psychology because she is interested in the subject, however, she feels isolated because her classmates seem to already know one another. One of Lauren’s tutors makes an effort to learn about students, encourages them to contribute to discussions, and provides feedback. The tutor also organises small-group activities where students can get to know one another and emphasises that asking for help is a normal part of learning. Lauren engages with these opportunities. Over time, Lauren begins to feel that she belongs in the course and that both her tutor and classmates value her participation. As Lauren feels increasingly connected to the people around her, she becomes more willing to attend tutorials, participate in discussions, ask questions (see Figure 1), and seek feedback when she does not understand something. She also starts studying with classmates outside class. Lauren is no longer completing the course requirements only because she feels she has to. Her growing sense of belonging helps her internalise the value of the course, so she begins to think, “Psychology is important to me, and I want to do well because I see myself as part of this community.” This shift leads to more persistent, engaged behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Self-determination theory (SDT) suggests people are most effectively motivated when motivation is intrinsic. SDT argues people have an innate tendency toward growth, and three distinct basic needs. Within SDT is the basic psychological needs theory (BPNT or BNT), which suggests three psychological needs related to intrinsic motivation which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Relatedness refers to the human desire to form strong relationships and bonds with those around them. This chapter will examine how the concept of relatedness, within self-determination theory, shapes human motivation and behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2000) The goal contents theory (GCT) expands on the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and their impact on wellness. Extrinsic goals including financial success, fame, and physical appearance have been compared to intrinsic goals which include personal growth, forming strong, high-quality relationships, and community which are associated with higher well-being than the latter. The role of relatedness can be understood through another micro-theory of SDT; the relationship motivation theory (RMT), which suggests that closeness to others is not only preferable, but essential to wellbeing. Not only do high-quality relationships satisfy the need for relatedness, but they can also satisfy the need for autonomy and competence (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In a meta-analysis, Slempt et. al (2024), note that support from others likely facilitates people’s motivational processes, finding that interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs were small to moderately positively associated with performance. Slempt et. al (2024), {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the need for relatedness within Self-Determination Theory, and why is it important in shaping motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction influence the development of autonomous motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction or frustration affect individuals’ behaviour, such as engagement, persistence, and disengagement? * How do relationships and social environments affect relatedness, and what are the implications on motivation and behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Self-Determination Theory== [[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] is a macro-theory of psychology created by [[w:Edward Deci|Edward Deci]] and [[w:Richard Ryan|Richard Ryan]] relating to motivation, behaviour, and personality. Deci and Ryan published their first comprehensive work about SDT in 1985 (Deci & Ryan, 1985). SDT utilises an organismic-dialectical approach, which assumes people are ‘active organisms’ who have tendencies toward growth, overcoming challenges, and integrating new experiences into their sense of self. SDT posits this inherent tendency toward growth as well as peoples’ innate psychological needs are the basis for self-motivation and personality integration. Ryan and Deci (2000), propose that humans have three basic psychological needs which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness and when these needs are met, they are essential to optimal personal growth, wellbeing, and [[W:intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivation]]. SDT also considers the role of social or cultural factors in either supporting or 'thwarting' individuals' motivation, well-being, and personal growth. (Ryan & Deci, 2000). === Basic psychological needs theory === Basic psychological needs theory is a micro-theory within SDT. BPNT refers to the idea in SDT that people have three basic psychological needs that are central to wellbeing, growth and intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). [[w:Autonomy|Autonomy]] is the experience of ones actions as their own and personally-endorsed, as opposed to being controlled or imposed upon them. [[w:Competence|Competence]] is closely related to [[w:Self-Efficacy|self-efficacy]] and refers to the need to feel capable and effective and confident in your interactions with your environment, and to master challenges and achieve goals. Relatedness is the innate human need to develop meaningful relationships with those around you, and to feel a sense of mutual care, respect, and warmth between yourself and others. Relatedness also refers to experiencing a sense of belonging, community, and kinship with others. === Relationship motivation theory === Relationship motivation theory (RMT) is the sixth micro or mini theory within SDT that explains the development, function, and success of relationships (Deci & Ryan, 2000). RMT demonstrates that relatedness satisfaction alone is not sufficient for a succesful relationship. In relationships, the need for relatedness, autonomy, and competence must all be met, and both partners must support each others needs. Deci & Ryan (2000) note that although the need for relatedness is experiencing connection and belonging, a meaninful relationship is tied to the satisfaction of all three needs, and mutual-support of each others' needs. ==Cognitive evaluation theory== [[File:Muhammad Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation.png|300px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. The player on the left wants to win the trophy which is an example of extrinsic motivation. The player on the right is playing for his own enjoyment, indicating he is intrinsically motivated.]] Cognitive evaluation theory (CET) is a micro-theory within self-determination theory. Cognitive evaluation theory is essential in understanding motivation within SDT, specifically, intrinsic motivation which refers to motivation to engage in a task out of an inherent interest, enjoyment, and engagement, whereas extrinsic motivation refers to an individual being motivated by external rewards or reinforcement (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET suggests that intrinsic motivation is more valuable than extrinsic motivation, as those that are intrinsically motivated feel a sense of choice over what they are doing and gain a feeling of competence and enjoyment from the activities or tasks they complete. (Hagger et. al., 2020). The role of social and environmental influences such as rewards, feedback and communications, can either facilitate or undermine intrinsic motivation. CET considers intrinsic motivation to be socially and environmentally influenced. For example, when an individual receives positive feedback, they are more likely to be intrinsically motivated, and when an individual receives negative feedback, they are less likely to be intrinsically motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET also aims to specify that factors that explain the variability of intrinsic motivation. === Taxonomy of human motivation === Deci & Ryan (2000) propose a taxonomy of motivation (shown in the figure below) to explain for the variability of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. [[File:Taxonomy of motivation.png| center |600x600px|'''Figure 3.'''Ryan & Deci's (2000) taxonomy of moitvation. A visual spectrum of motivation]] The taxonomy of motivation highlights motivation as sitting on a spectrum of autonomy, beginning with a complete lack of motivation (motivation) and ending with doing an activity purely for its inherent satisfaction or interest (intrinsic regulation). This model also highlights the differences between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation versus controlled and autonomous motivation, introducing regulations to specify the nuances of motivation. Notably, autonomous motivation spans across both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Autonomous motivation is the same as intrinsic motivation: |type="(false)"} - True + False {Winning a trophy is an example of extrinsic motivation, and participating in a hobby that interests themselves is an example of intrinsic motivation: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Relatedness, motivation, and behaviour== CET focuses on the fundamental psychological needs for autonomy and competence and how they can enhance or thwart intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). SDT specifies that needs-supportive environments should lead to self-determined student motivation (Burea et. al., 2021). In a meta-analysis, Bureau et. al. (2021) found that competence was the strongest predictor for self-determined motivation, followed by autonomy and then relatedness. Although CET focuses on autonomy and competence as the main catalysts for intrinsic motivation, Ryan & Powelson (1991) explain that relatedness needs are not antithetical to competence or autonomy and suggests people feel most strongly related to people who are responsive to your expressions of autonomy. Relatedness plays a role especially in the social and environmental contexts which influence motivation and behaviour (Hagger et. al., 2020). The effects of relatedness satisfaction and frustration on motivation and behaviour has been investigated in literature thoroughly. === Wellbeing === The role of wellbeing in the relationship between relatedness, motivation and behaviour has been investigated. Slemp et. al (2024), found that having interpersonal supports for autonomy, competence, and relatedness were associated with the satisfaction of those psychological needs. Environmental support for psychological needs were associated with greater wellbeing, which then lead to improved performance (Slemp et. al., 2024). To test the effects of relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration on task learning, Kaefer & Chiviacowsky (2021) conducted an experiment in which adolescents were either put in a relatedness support condition, relatedness frustration condition, or a control group and tasks with learning how to hit a ball with a racket toward a target. Results showed that relatedness supports not only enhanced the task-learning of adolescents and affected motivation, but influence the affect of participants. === Education === [[File:A public high school teacher in a classroom in the United States 13.jpg|right|330px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Teacher relatedness can increase participation in education (Collie, 2024). ]] Relatedness has been found to influence students' engagement and performance in educational settings (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021; Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Behavioural engagement in education is essential to students' learning (Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that perceived relatedness satisfaction of students was positively associated with increased behavioural engagement in mathematics. When relatedness is supported, task-learning is perceived by students as more socially and emotionally meaningful and therefore motivates participation behaviours (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). Additionally, students; perceptions of relatedness with their teachers has been associated with better homework practices and lower behavioural disaffection (Collie, 2024). Burea et. al. (2021), note that the weaker role of relatedness in self-determined motivation in education may be context-dependant, noting that relatedness may more strongly influence self-determined motivation in leisure contexts. Hofverberg et. al. (2022) notes that although the literature commonly investigate links between the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and students' motivational regulations, but literature that utilises the full-model of SDT is limited. Specifically, more detailed research into the full chain of events that leads to higher quality engagement in education. Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that relatedness satisfaction predicted identified regulation which then, in turn, predicted engagement in mathematics. These findings highlight the importance of investigating the role of regulation in the understanding how relatedness functions within SDT to shape motivation and behaviour. ==Conclusion== * Relatedness is a key psychological need within self-determination theory. When this need is satisfied, psychological well-being is more likely to increase and individuals are more likely to develop greater self-determined motivation * Both relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration can influence the quality of motivation, not just its strength * Relatedness satisfaction can shape behaviour by facilitating greater engagement, participation, and persistence and sustain their behaviour for longer. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== *[[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Intrinsic motivation|Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Social relation|Relatedness]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to Student Motivation: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents of Autonomous and Controlled Motivations. Review of Educational Research, 92(1), 46-72. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426 Collie, R. J. (2024). Social-emotional need satisfaction and students’ academic engagement and social-emotional skills. Educational Psychology, 44(2), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2024.2324751 Hagger, M. S., Hankonen, N., Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., & Ryan, R. M. (2020). Changing Behavior Using Self-Determination Theory. In M. S. Hagger, L. D. Cameron, K. Hamilton, N. Hankonen, & T. Lintunen (Eds.), The Handbook of Behaviour Change (pp. 104–119). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677318.008 Hofverberg, A., Winberg, M., Palmberg, B., Andersson, C., & Palm, T. (2022). Relationships between basic psychological need satisfaction, regulations, and behavioral engagement in mathematics. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.829958 Kaefer, A., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2021). Relatedness support enhances motivation, positive affect, and motor learning in adolescents. Human Movement Science, 79, 102864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2021.102864 Knee, C. R., Hadden, B. W., Porter, B., & Rodriguez, L. M. (2013). Self-determination theory and romantic relationship processes. Personality and social psychology review : an official journal of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc, 17(4), 307–324. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868313498000 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). "The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. ''Psychological inquiry'', ''11''(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 127(5), 1012–1037. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459 Van Tuin, L., Schaufeli, W. B., & van Rhenen, W. (2020). The satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs in engaging leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 14(2), 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21695 Weinstein, N. (Ed.). (2014). Human Motivation and Interpersonal Relationships : Theory, Research, and Applications (1st ed. 2014.). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8542-6 }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci TEDX] (Youtube) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ Self-determination Theory] (Center for Self-determination Theory) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Relatedness]] 961h4oqlss3qrir2bt49b4xsdombyui 2840717 2840716 2026-10-16T15:28:25Z U3203283 3110021 /* Relationship motivation theory */ 2840717 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory:<br>How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Raise hand gesture occupy.svg|Raise_hand_gesture_occupy|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. A raised hand: Lauren's tutor encouraged students to ask for help and connect with each other. {{expand}}]] ; Imagine this Lauren is a first-year university student studying psychology who recently started a demanding course. During the first few weeks, she finds the workload difficult and is unsure whether she is capable of succeeding. She chose to study psychology because she is interested in the subject, however, she feels isolated because her classmates seem to already know one another. One of Lauren’s tutors makes an effort to learn about students, encourages them to contribute to discussions, and provides feedback. The tutor also organises small-group activities where students can get to know one another and emphasises that asking for help is a normal part of learning. Lauren engages with these opportunities. Over time, Lauren begins to feel that she belongs in the course and that both her tutor and classmates value her participation. As Lauren feels increasingly connected to the people around her, she becomes more willing to attend tutorials, participate in discussions, ask questions (see Figure 1), and seek feedback when she does not understand something. She also starts studying with classmates outside class. Lauren is no longer completing the course requirements only because she feels she has to. Her growing sense of belonging helps her internalise the value of the course, so she begins to think, “Psychology is important to me, and I want to do well because I see myself as part of this community.” This shift leads to more persistent, engaged behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Self-determination theory (SDT) suggests people are most effectively motivated when motivation is intrinsic. SDT argues people have an innate tendency toward growth, and three distinct basic needs. Within SDT is the basic psychological needs theory (BPNT or BNT), which suggests three psychological needs related to intrinsic motivation which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Relatedness refers to the human desire to form strong relationships and bonds with those around them. This chapter will examine how the concept of relatedness, within self-determination theory, shapes human motivation and behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2000) The goal contents theory (GCT) expands on the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and their impact on wellness. Extrinsic goals including financial success, fame, and physical appearance have been compared to intrinsic goals which include personal growth, forming strong, high-quality relationships, and community which are associated with higher well-being than the latter. The role of relatedness can be understood through another micro-theory of SDT; the relationship motivation theory (RMT), which suggests that closeness to others is not only preferable, but essential to wellbeing. Not only do high-quality relationships satisfy the need for relatedness, but they can also satisfy the need for autonomy and competence (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In a meta-analysis, Slempt et. al (2024), note that support from others likely facilitates people’s motivational processes, finding that interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs were small to moderately positively associated with performance. Slempt et. al (2024), {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the need for relatedness within Self-Determination Theory, and why is it important in shaping motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction influence the development of autonomous motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction or frustration affect individuals’ behaviour, such as engagement, persistence, and disengagement? * How do relationships and social environments affect relatedness, and what are the implications on motivation and behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Self-Determination Theory== [[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] is a macro-theory of psychology created by [[w:Edward Deci|Edward Deci]] and [[w:Richard Ryan|Richard Ryan]] relating to motivation, behaviour, and personality. Deci and Ryan published their first comprehensive work about SDT in 1985 (Deci & Ryan, 1985). SDT utilises an organismic-dialectical approach, which assumes people are ‘active organisms’ who have tendencies toward growth, overcoming challenges, and integrating new experiences into their sense of self. SDT posits this inherent tendency toward growth as well as peoples’ innate psychological needs are the basis for self-motivation and personality integration. Ryan and Deci (2000), propose that humans have three basic psychological needs which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness and when these needs are met, they are essential to optimal personal growth, wellbeing, and [[W:intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivation]]. SDT also considers the role of social or cultural factors in either supporting or 'thwarting' individuals' motivation, well-being, and personal growth. (Ryan & Deci, 2000). === Basic psychological needs theory === Basic psychological needs theory is a micro-theory within SDT. BPNT refers to the idea in SDT that people have three basic psychological needs that are central to wellbeing, growth and intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). [[w:Autonomy|Autonomy]] is the experience of ones actions as their own and personally-endorsed, as opposed to being controlled or imposed upon them. [[w:Competence|Competence]] is closely related to [[w:Self-Efficacy|self-efficacy]] and refers to the need to feel capable and effective and confident in your interactions with your environment, and to master challenges and achieve goals. Relatedness is the innate human need to develop meaningful relationships with those around you, and to feel a sense of mutual care, respect, and warmth between yourself and others. Relatedness also refers to experiencing a sense of belonging, community, and kinship with others. === Relationship motivation theory === Relationship motivation theory (RMT) is the sixth micro or mini theory within SDT that explains the development, function, and success of relationships (Deci & Ryan, 2000). RMT demonstrates that relatedness satisfaction alone is not sufficient for a successful relationship. In relationships, the need for relatedness, autonomy, and competence must all be met, and both partners must support each others needs. Deci & Ryan (2000) note that although the need for relatedness is experiencing connection and belonging, a meaningful relationship is tied to the satisfaction of all three needs, and mutual-support of each others' needs. Knee et. al (2014) note that SDT can be viewed as the framework for an optimal romantic relationship. Romantic partners with relationship-contingent self-esteem leads to emotional insecurity, whereas partners with non-contingent self-esteem experience greater intimacy (Knee et. al., 2014). ==Cognitive evaluation theory== [[File:Muhammad Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation.png|300px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. The player on the left wants to win the trophy which is an example of extrinsic motivation. The player on the right is playing for his own enjoyment, indicating he is intrinsically motivated.]] Cognitive evaluation theory (CET) is a micro-theory within self-determination theory. Cognitive evaluation theory is essential in understanding motivation within SDT, specifically, intrinsic motivation which refers to motivation to engage in a task out of an inherent interest, enjoyment, and engagement, whereas extrinsic motivation refers to an individual being motivated by external rewards or reinforcement (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET suggests that intrinsic motivation is more valuable than extrinsic motivation, as those that are intrinsically motivated feel a sense of choice over what they are doing and gain a feeling of competence and enjoyment from the activities or tasks they complete. (Hagger et. al., 2020). The role of social and environmental influences such as rewards, feedback and communications, can either facilitate or undermine intrinsic motivation. CET considers intrinsic motivation to be socially and environmentally influenced. For example, when an individual receives positive feedback, they are more likely to be intrinsically motivated, and when an individual receives negative feedback, they are less likely to be intrinsically motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET also aims to specify that factors that explain the variability of intrinsic motivation. === Taxonomy of human motivation === Deci & Ryan (2000) propose a taxonomy of motivation (shown in the figure below) to explain for the variability of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. [[File:Taxonomy of motivation.png| center |600x600px|'''Figure 3.'''Ryan & Deci's (2000) taxonomy of moitvation. A visual spectrum of motivation]] The taxonomy of motivation highlights motivation as sitting on a spectrum of autonomy, beginning with a complete lack of motivation (motivation) and ending with doing an activity purely for its inherent satisfaction or interest (intrinsic regulation). This model also highlights the differences between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation versus controlled and autonomous motivation, introducing regulations to specify the nuances of motivation. Notably, autonomous motivation spans across both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Autonomous motivation is the same as intrinsic motivation: |type="(false)"} - True + False {Winning a trophy is an example of extrinsic motivation, and participating in a hobby that interests themselves is an example of intrinsic motivation: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Relatedness, motivation, and behaviour== CET focuses on the fundamental psychological needs for autonomy and competence and how they can enhance or thwart intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). SDT specifies that needs-supportive environments should lead to self-determined student motivation (Burea et. al., 2021). In a meta-analysis, Bureau et. al. (2021) found that competence was the strongest predictor for self-determined motivation, followed by autonomy and then relatedness. Although CET focuses on autonomy and competence as the main catalysts for intrinsic motivation, Ryan & Powelson (1991) explain that relatedness needs are not antithetical to competence or autonomy and suggests people feel most strongly related to people who are responsive to your expressions of autonomy. Relatedness plays a role especially in the social and environmental contexts which influence motivation and behaviour (Hagger et. al., 2020). The effects of relatedness satisfaction and frustration on motivation and behaviour has been investigated in literature thoroughly. === Wellbeing === The role of wellbeing in the relationship between relatedness, motivation and behaviour has been investigated. Slemp et. al (2024), found that having interpersonal supports for autonomy, competence, and relatedness were associated with the satisfaction of those psychological needs. Environmental support for psychological needs were associated with greater wellbeing, which then lead to improved performance (Slemp et. al., 2024). To test the effects of relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration on task learning, Kaefer & Chiviacowsky (2021) conducted an experiment in which adolescents were either put in a relatedness support condition, relatedness frustration condition, or a control group and tasks with learning how to hit a ball with a racket toward a target. Results showed that relatedness supports not only enhanced the task-learning of adolescents and affected motivation, but influence the affect of participants, suggesting that wellbeing was a mediating factor in task-learning. === Education === [[File:A public high school teacher in a classroom in the United States 13.jpg|right|330px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Teacher relatedness can increase participation in education (Collie, 2024). ]] Relatedness has been found to influence students' engagement and performance in educational settings (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021; Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Behavioural engagement in education is essential to students' learning (Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that perceived relatedness satisfaction of students was positively associated with increased behavioural engagement in mathematics. When relatedness is supported, task-learning is perceived by students as more socially and emotionally meaningful and therefore motivates participation behaviours (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). Additionally, students; perceptions of relatedness with their teachers has been associated with better homework practices and lower behavioural disaffection (Collie, 2024). Burea et. al. (2021), note that the weaker role of relatedness in self-determined motivation in education may be context-dependant, noting that relatedness may more strongly influence self-determined motivation in leisure contexts. Hofverberg et. al. (2022) notes that although the literature commonly investigate links between the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and students' motivational regulations, but literature that utilises the full-model of SDT is limited. Specifically, more detailed research into the full chain of events that leads to higher quality engagement in education. Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that relatedness satisfaction predicted identified regulation which then, in turn, predicted engagement in mathematics. These findings highlight the importance of investigating the role of regulation in the understanding how relatedness functions within SDT to shape motivation and behaviour. ==Conclusion== * Relatedness is a key psychological need within self-determination theory. When this need is satisfied, psychological well-being is more likely to increase and individuals are more likely to develop greater self-determined motivation * Both relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration can influence the quality of motivation, not just its strength * Relatedness satisfaction can shape behaviour by facilitating greater engagement, participation, and persistence and sustain their behaviour for longer. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== *[[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Intrinsic motivation|Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Social relation|Relatedness]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to Student Motivation: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents of Autonomous and Controlled Motivations. Review of Educational Research, 92(1), 46-72. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426 Collie, R. J. (2024). Social-emotional need satisfaction and students’ academic engagement and social-emotional skills. Educational Psychology, 44(2), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2024.2324751 Hagger, M. S., Hankonen, N., Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., & Ryan, R. M. (2020). Changing Behavior Using Self-Determination Theory. In M. S. Hagger, L. D. Cameron, K. Hamilton, N. Hankonen, & T. Lintunen (Eds.), The Handbook of Behaviour Change (pp. 104–119). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677318.008 Hofverberg, A., Winberg, M., Palmberg, B., Andersson, C., & Palm, T. (2022). Relationships between basic psychological need satisfaction, regulations, and behavioral engagement in mathematics. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.829958 Kaefer, A., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2021). Relatedness support enhances motivation, positive affect, and motor learning in adolescents. Human Movement Science, 79, 102864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2021.102864 Knee, C. R., Hadden, B. W., Porter, B., & Rodriguez, L. M. (2013). Self-determination theory and romantic relationship processes. Personality and social psychology review : an official journal of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc, 17(4), 307–324. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868313498000 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). "The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. ''Psychological inquiry'', ''11''(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 127(5), 1012–1037. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459 Van Tuin, L., Schaufeli, W. B., & van Rhenen, W. (2020). The satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs in engaging leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 14(2), 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21695 Weinstein, N. (Ed.). (2014). Human Motivation and Interpersonal Relationships : Theory, Research, and Applications (1st ed. 2014.). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8542-6 }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci TEDX] (Youtube) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ Self-determination Theory] (Center for Self-determination Theory) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Relatedness]] h4f6q73aqbc74j4ovr7zddppvl3m1ro 2840719 2840717 2026-10-16T16:05:24Z U3203283 3110021 /* Conclusion */ 2840719 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory:<br>How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Raise hand gesture occupy.svg|Raise_hand_gesture_occupy|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. A raised hand: Lauren's tutor encouraged students to ask for help and connect with each other. {{expand}}]] ; Imagine this Lauren is a first-year university student studying psychology who recently started a demanding course. During the first few weeks, she finds the workload difficult and is unsure whether she is capable of succeeding. She chose to study psychology because she is interested in the subject, however, she feels isolated because her classmates seem to already know one another. One of Lauren’s tutors makes an effort to learn about students, encourages them to contribute to discussions, and provides feedback. The tutor also organises small-group activities where students can get to know one another and emphasises that asking for help is a normal part of learning. Lauren engages with these opportunities. Over time, Lauren begins to feel that she belongs in the course and that both her tutor and classmates value her participation. As Lauren feels increasingly connected to the people around her, she becomes more willing to attend tutorials, participate in discussions, ask questions (see Figure 1), and seek feedback when she does not understand something. She also starts studying with classmates outside class. Lauren is no longer completing the course requirements only because she feels she has to. Her growing sense of belonging helps her internalise the value of the course, so she begins to think, “Psychology is important to me, and I want to do well because I see myself as part of this community.” This shift leads to more persistent, engaged behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Self-determination theory (SDT) suggests people are most effectively motivated when motivation is intrinsic. SDT argues people have an innate tendency toward growth, and three distinct basic needs. Within SDT is the basic psychological needs theory (BPNT or BNT), which suggests three psychological needs related to intrinsic motivation which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Relatedness refers to the human desire to form strong relationships and bonds with those around them. This chapter will examine how the concept of relatedness, within self-determination theory, shapes human motivation and behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2000) The goal contents theory (GCT) expands on the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and their impact on wellness. Extrinsic goals including financial success, fame, and physical appearance have been compared to intrinsic goals which include personal growth, forming strong, high-quality relationships, and community which are associated with higher well-being than the latter. The role of relatedness can be understood through another micro-theory of SDT; the relationship motivation theory (RMT), which suggests that closeness to others is not only preferable, but essential to wellbeing. Not only do high-quality relationships satisfy the need for relatedness, but they can also satisfy the need for autonomy and competence (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In a meta-analysis, Slempt et. al (2024), note that support from others likely facilitates people’s motivational processes, finding that interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs were small to moderately positively associated with performance. Slempt et. al (2024), {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the need for relatedness within Self-Determination Theory, and why is it important in shaping motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction influence the development of autonomous motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction or frustration affect individuals’ behaviour, such as engagement, persistence, and disengagement? * How do relationships and social environments affect relatedness, and what are the implications on motivation and behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Self-Determination Theory== [[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] is a macro-theory of psychology created by [[w:Edward Deci|Edward Deci]] and [[w:Richard Ryan|Richard Ryan]] relating to motivation, behaviour, and personality. Deci and Ryan published their first comprehensive work about SDT in 1985 (Deci & Ryan, 1985). SDT utilises an organismic-dialectical approach, which assumes people are ‘active organisms’ who have tendencies toward growth, overcoming challenges, and integrating new experiences into their sense of self. SDT posits this inherent tendency toward growth as well as peoples’ innate psychological needs are the basis for self-motivation and personality integration. Ryan and Deci (2000), propose that humans have three basic psychological needs which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness and when these needs are met, they are essential to optimal personal growth, wellbeing, and [[W:intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivation]]. SDT also considers the role of social or cultural factors in either supporting or 'thwarting' individuals' motivation, well-being, and personal growth. (Ryan & Deci, 2000). === Basic psychological needs theory === Basic psychological needs theory is a micro-theory within SDT. BPNT refers to the idea in SDT that people have three basic psychological needs that are central to wellbeing, growth and intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). [[w:Autonomy|Autonomy]] is the experience of ones actions as their own and personally-endorsed, as opposed to being controlled or imposed upon them. [[w:Competence|Competence]] is closely related to [[w:Self-Efficacy|self-efficacy]] and refers to the need to feel capable and effective and confident in your interactions with your environment, and to master challenges and achieve goals. Relatedness is the innate human need to develop meaningful relationships with those around you, and to feel a sense of mutual care, respect, and warmth between yourself and others. Relatedness also refers to experiencing a sense of belonging, community, and kinship with others. === Relationship motivation theory === Relationship motivation theory (RMT) is the sixth micro or mini theory within SDT that explains the development, function, and success of relationships (Deci & Ryan, 2000). RMT demonstrates that relatedness satisfaction alone is not sufficient for a successful relationship. In relationships, the need for relatedness, autonomy, and competence must all be met, and both partners must support each others needs. Deci & Ryan (2000) note that although the need for relatedness is experiencing connection and belonging, a meaningful relationship is tied to the satisfaction of all three needs, and mutual-support of each others' needs. Knee et. al (2014) note that SDT can be viewed as the framework for an optimal romantic relationship. Romantic partners with relationship-contingent self-esteem leads to emotional insecurity, whereas partners with non-contingent self-esteem experience greater intimacy (Knee et. al., 2014). ==Cognitive evaluation theory== [[File:Muhammad Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation.png|300px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. The player on the left wants to win the trophy which is an example of extrinsic motivation. The player on the right is playing for his own enjoyment, indicating he is intrinsically motivated.]] Cognitive evaluation theory (CET) is a micro-theory within self-determination theory. Cognitive evaluation theory is essential in understanding motivation within SDT, specifically, intrinsic motivation which refers to motivation to engage in a task out of an inherent interest, enjoyment, and engagement, whereas extrinsic motivation refers to an individual being motivated by external rewards or reinforcement (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET suggests that intrinsic motivation is more valuable than extrinsic motivation, as those that are intrinsically motivated feel a sense of choice over what they are doing and gain a feeling of competence and enjoyment from the activities or tasks they complete. (Hagger et. al., 2020). The role of social and environmental influences such as rewards, feedback and communications, can either facilitate or undermine intrinsic motivation. CET considers intrinsic motivation to be socially and environmentally influenced. For example, when an individual receives positive feedback, they are more likely to be intrinsically motivated, and when an individual receives negative feedback, they are less likely to be intrinsically motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET also aims to specify that factors that explain the variability of intrinsic motivation. === Taxonomy of human motivation === Deci & Ryan (2000) propose a taxonomy of motivation (shown in the figure below) to explain for the variability of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. [[File:Taxonomy of motivation.png| center |600x600px|'''Figure 3.'''Ryan & Deci's (2000) taxonomy of moitvation. A visual spectrum of motivation]] The taxonomy of motivation highlights motivation as sitting on a spectrum of autonomy, beginning with a complete lack of motivation (motivation) and ending with doing an activity purely for its inherent satisfaction or interest (intrinsic regulation). This model also highlights the differences between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation versus controlled and autonomous motivation, introducing regulations to specify the nuances of motivation. Notably, autonomous motivation spans across both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Autonomous motivation is the same as intrinsic motivation: |type="(false)"} - True + False {Winning a trophy is an example of extrinsic motivation, and participating in a hobby that interests themselves is an example of intrinsic motivation: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Relatedness, motivation, and behaviour== CET focuses on the fundamental psychological needs for autonomy and competence and how they can enhance or thwart intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). SDT specifies that needs-supportive environments should lead to self-determined student motivation (Burea et. al., 2021). In a meta-analysis, Bureau et. al. (2021) found that competence was the strongest predictor for self-determined motivation, followed by autonomy and then relatedness. Although CET focuses on autonomy and competence as the main catalysts for intrinsic motivation, Ryan & Powelson (1991) explain that relatedness needs are not antithetical to competence or autonomy and suggests people feel most strongly related to people who are responsive to your expressions of autonomy. Relatedness plays a role especially in the social and environmental contexts which influence motivation and behaviour (Hagger et. al., 2020). The effects of relatedness satisfaction and frustration on motivation and behaviour has been investigated in literature thoroughly. === Wellbeing === The role of wellbeing in the relationship between relatedness, motivation and behaviour has been investigated. Slemp et. al (2024), found that having interpersonal supports for autonomy, competence, and relatedness were associated with the satisfaction of those psychological needs. Environmental support for psychological needs were associated with greater wellbeing, which then lead to improved performance (Slemp et. al., 2024). To test the effects of relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration on task learning, Kaefer & Chiviacowsky (2021) conducted an experiment in which adolescents were either put in a relatedness support condition, relatedness frustration condition, or a control group and tasks with learning how to hit a ball with a racket toward a target. Results showed that relatedness supports not only enhanced the task-learning of adolescents and affected motivation, but influence the affect of participants, suggesting that wellbeing was a mediating factor in task-learning. === Education === [[File:A public high school teacher in a classroom in the United States 13.jpg|right|330px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Teacher relatedness can increase participation in education (Collie, 2024). ]] Relatedness has been found to influence students' engagement and performance in educational settings (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021; Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Behavioural engagement in education is essential to students' learning (Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that perceived relatedness satisfaction of students was positively associated with increased behavioural engagement in mathematics. When relatedness is supported, task-learning is perceived by students as more socially and emotionally meaningful and therefore motivates participation behaviours (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). Additionally, students; perceptions of relatedness with their teachers has been associated with better homework practices and lower behavioural disaffection (Collie, 2024). Burea et. al. (2021), note that the weaker role of relatedness in self-determined motivation in education may be context-dependant, noting that relatedness may more strongly influence self-determined motivation in leisure contexts. Hofverberg et. al. (2022) notes that although the literature commonly investigate links between the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and students' motivational regulations, but literature that utilises the full-model of SDT is limited. Specifically, more detailed research into the full chain of events that leads to higher quality engagement in education. Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that relatedness satisfaction predicted identified regulation which then, in turn, predicted engagement in mathematics. These findings highlight the importance of investigating the role of regulation in the understanding how relatedness functions within SDT to shape motivation and behaviour. ==Conclusion== * Relatedness is a key psychological need within self-determination theory. When this need is satisfied, psychological well-being is more likely to increase and individuals are more likely to develop greater self-determined motivation * Both relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration can influence the quality of motivation, not just its strength * Relatedness satisfaction can shape behaviour by facilitating greater engagement, participation, and persistence and sustain their behaviour for longer. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the need for relatedness within Self-Determination Theory, and why is it important in shaping motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction influence the development of autonomous motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction or frustration affect individuals’ behaviour, such as engagement, persistence, and disengagement? * How do relationships and social environments affect relatedness, and what are the implications on motivation and behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Relatedness is a key psychological need within self-determination theory, and it influences individuals' motivation and engagement with their environment. When individuals experience meaningful relationships and a sense of belonging and mutual care, they are more likely to be autonomously motivated (Hovferberg. et. al., 2022). Hovferberg found that relatedness satisfaction predicted students' identified regulation, which subsequently predicted behavioural engagement in mathematics. Although relatedness contributes to shaping motivation, the satisfaction of competence and autonomy in conjunction with relatedness satisfaction are essential to self-determined motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Relatedness satisfaction has been found to influence behaviours such as engagement and persistence (Slemp et. al., 2024). Individuals are more likely to experience positive emotions when relatedness is satisfied as well as being more likely to participate and persist with challenging tasks (Slemp et. al., 2024). Relatedness support was found to enhance adolescents' motivation, positive affect, and motor learning. When the adolescents experienced a lack or belonging and support from peers, an decrease in participation and motivation may be undermined (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). Relatedness frustration can therefore contribute to disengagement, although behavioural outcomes also depend on other psychological needs being satisfied and contextual factors (Burea et. al., 2021). Relationships and social environments play a significant role in determining whether relatedness is satisfied or frustrated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Supportive relationships with teachers, peers, family members, colleagues, and romantic partners can foster belonging and create environments in which individuals feel valued and encouraged (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Collie (2024) associated students’ social-emotional need satisfaction with academic engagement and social-emotional skills, while Slemp et al. (2024) found that interpersonal support for basic psychological needs was associated with greater need satisfaction and well-being, as well as improved performance. These findings highlight the practical importance of creating inclusive, respectful, and supportive social environments in educational, workplace, and interpersonal settings. Relatedness not only shapes the extent of motivation but also its quality and its expression in behaviour (Burea et. al, 2021; Slemp et. al, 2024). Fostering meaningful connections can support autonomous motivation, well-being, engagement, and persistence, whereas environments that undermine belonging may weaken these outcomes (Collie, 2024; Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). However, relatedness should not be considered in isolation. Supporting autonomy and competence alongside relatedness is important for promoting sustained motivation, positive development, and effective functioning (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Ryan & Powelson, 1991).{{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== *[[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Intrinsic motivation|Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Social relation|Relatedness]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to Student Motivation: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents of Autonomous and Controlled Motivations. Review of Educational Research, 92(1), 46-72. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426 Collie, R. J. (2024). Social-emotional need satisfaction and students’ academic engagement and social-emotional skills. Educational Psychology, 44(2), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2024.2324751 Hagger, M. S., Hankonen, N., Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., & Ryan, R. M. (2020). Changing Behavior Using Self-Determination Theory. In M. S. Hagger, L. D. Cameron, K. Hamilton, N. Hankonen, & T. Lintunen (Eds.), The Handbook of Behaviour Change (pp. 104–119). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677318.008 Hofverberg, A., Winberg, M., Palmberg, B., Andersson, C., & Palm, T. (2022). Relationships between basic psychological need satisfaction, regulations, and behavioral engagement in mathematics. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.829958 Kaefer, A., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2021). Relatedness support enhances motivation, positive affect, and motor learning in adolescents. Human Movement Science, 79, 102864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2021.102864 Knee, C. R., Hadden, B. W., Porter, B., & Rodriguez, L. M. (2013). Self-determination theory and romantic relationship processes. Personality and social psychology review : an official journal of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc, 17(4), 307–324. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868313498000 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). "The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. ''Psychological inquiry'', ''11''(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 127(5), 1012–1037. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459 Van Tuin, L., Schaufeli, W. B., & van Rhenen, W. (2020). The satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs in engaging leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 14(2), 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21695 Weinstein, N. (Ed.). (2014). Human Motivation and Interpersonal Relationships : Theory, Research, and Applications (1st ed. 2014.). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8542-6 }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci TEDX] (Youtube) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ Self-determination Theory] (Center for Self-determination Theory) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Relatedness]] el70mh3xpwx4r95jz1biqflr3ltvm3a 2840720 2840719 2026-10-16T16:06:11Z U3203283 3110021 /* Conclusion */ 2840720 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory:<br>How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Raise hand gesture occupy.svg|Raise_hand_gesture_occupy|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. A raised hand: Lauren's tutor encouraged students to ask for help and connect with each other. {{expand}}]] ; Imagine this Lauren is a first-year university student studying psychology who recently started a demanding course. During the first few weeks, she finds the workload difficult and is unsure whether she is capable of succeeding. She chose to study psychology because she is interested in the subject, however, she feels isolated because her classmates seem to already know one another. One of Lauren’s tutors makes an effort to learn about students, encourages them to contribute to discussions, and provides feedback. The tutor also organises small-group activities where students can get to know one another and emphasises that asking for help is a normal part of learning. Lauren engages with these opportunities. Over time, Lauren begins to feel that she belongs in the course and that both her tutor and classmates value her participation. As Lauren feels increasingly connected to the people around her, she becomes more willing to attend tutorials, participate in discussions, ask questions (see Figure 1), and seek feedback when she does not understand something. She also starts studying with classmates outside class. Lauren is no longer completing the course requirements only because she feels she has to. Her growing sense of belonging helps her internalise the value of the course, so she begins to think, “Psychology is important to me, and I want to do well because I see myself as part of this community.” This shift leads to more persistent, engaged behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Self-determination theory (SDT) suggests people are most effectively motivated when motivation is intrinsic. SDT argues people have an innate tendency toward growth, and three distinct basic needs. Within SDT is the basic psychological needs theory (BPNT or BNT), which suggests three psychological needs related to intrinsic motivation which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Relatedness refers to the human desire to form strong relationships and bonds with those around them. This chapter will examine how the concept of relatedness, within self-determination theory, shapes human motivation and behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2000) The goal contents theory (GCT) expands on the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and their impact on wellness. Extrinsic goals including financial success, fame, and physical appearance have been compared to intrinsic goals which include personal growth, forming strong, high-quality relationships, and community which are associated with higher well-being than the latter. The role of relatedness can be understood through another micro-theory of SDT; the relationship motivation theory (RMT), which suggests that closeness to others is not only preferable, but essential to wellbeing. Not only do high-quality relationships satisfy the need for relatedness, but they can also satisfy the need for autonomy and competence (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In a meta-analysis, Slempt et. al (2024), note that support from others likely facilitates people’s motivational processes, finding that interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs were small to moderately positively associated with performance. Slempt et. al (2024), {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the need for relatedness within Self-Determination Theory, and why is it important in shaping motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction influence the development of autonomous motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction or frustration affect individuals’ behaviour, such as engagement, persistence, and disengagement? * How do relationships and social environments affect relatedness, and what are the implications on motivation and behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Self-Determination Theory== [[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] is a macro-theory of psychology created by [[w:Edward Deci|Edward Deci]] and [[w:Richard Ryan|Richard Ryan]] relating to motivation, behaviour, and personality. Deci and Ryan published their first comprehensive work about SDT in 1985 (Deci & Ryan, 1985). SDT utilises an organismic-dialectical approach, which assumes people are ‘active organisms’ who have tendencies toward growth, overcoming challenges, and integrating new experiences into their sense of self. SDT posits this inherent tendency toward growth as well as peoples’ innate psychological needs are the basis for self-motivation and personality integration. Ryan and Deci (2000), propose that humans have three basic psychological needs which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness and when these needs are met, they are essential to optimal personal growth, wellbeing, and [[W:intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivation]]. SDT also considers the role of social or cultural factors in either supporting or 'thwarting' individuals' motivation, well-being, and personal growth. (Ryan & Deci, 2000). === Basic psychological needs theory === Basic psychological needs theory is a micro-theory within SDT. BPNT refers to the idea in SDT that people have three basic psychological needs that are central to wellbeing, growth and intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). [[w:Autonomy|Autonomy]] is the experience of ones actions as their own and personally-endorsed, as opposed to being controlled or imposed upon them. [[w:Competence|Competence]] is closely related to [[w:Self-Efficacy|self-efficacy]] and refers to the need to feel capable and effective and confident in your interactions with your environment, and to master challenges and achieve goals. Relatedness is the innate human need to develop meaningful relationships with those around you, and to feel a sense of mutual care, respect, and warmth between yourself and others. Relatedness also refers to experiencing a sense of belonging, community, and kinship with others. === Relationship motivation theory === Relationship motivation theory (RMT) is the sixth micro or mini theory within SDT that explains the development, function, and success of relationships (Deci & Ryan, 2000). RMT demonstrates that relatedness satisfaction alone is not sufficient for a successful relationship. In relationships, the need for relatedness, autonomy, and competence must all be met, and both partners must support each others needs. Deci & Ryan (2000) note that although the need for relatedness is experiencing connection and belonging, a meaningful relationship is tied to the satisfaction of all three needs, and mutual-support of each others' needs. Knee et. al (2014) note that SDT can be viewed as the framework for an optimal romantic relationship. Romantic partners with relationship-contingent self-esteem leads to emotional insecurity, whereas partners with non-contingent self-esteem experience greater intimacy (Knee et. al., 2014). ==Cognitive evaluation theory== [[File:Muhammad Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation.png|300px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. The player on the left wants to win the trophy which is an example of extrinsic motivation. The player on the right is playing for his own enjoyment, indicating he is intrinsically motivated.]] Cognitive evaluation theory (CET) is a micro-theory within self-determination theory. Cognitive evaluation theory is essential in understanding motivation within SDT, specifically, intrinsic motivation which refers to motivation to engage in a task out of an inherent interest, enjoyment, and engagement, whereas extrinsic motivation refers to an individual being motivated by external rewards or reinforcement (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET suggests that intrinsic motivation is more valuable than extrinsic motivation, as those that are intrinsically motivated feel a sense of choice over what they are doing and gain a feeling of competence and enjoyment from the activities or tasks they complete. (Hagger et. al., 2020). The role of social and environmental influences such as rewards, feedback and communications, can either facilitate or undermine intrinsic motivation. CET considers intrinsic motivation to be socially and environmentally influenced. For example, when an individual receives positive feedback, they are more likely to be intrinsically motivated, and when an individual receives negative feedback, they are less likely to be intrinsically motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET also aims to specify that factors that explain the variability of intrinsic motivation. === Taxonomy of human motivation === Deci & Ryan (2000) propose a taxonomy of motivation (shown in the figure below) to explain for the variability of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. [[File:Taxonomy of motivation.png| center |600x600px|'''Figure 3.'''Ryan & Deci's (2000) taxonomy of moitvation. A visual spectrum of motivation]] The taxonomy of motivation highlights motivation as sitting on a spectrum of autonomy, beginning with a complete lack of motivation (motivation) and ending with doing an activity purely for its inherent satisfaction or interest (intrinsic regulation). This model also highlights the differences between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation versus controlled and autonomous motivation, introducing regulations to specify the nuances of motivation. Notably, autonomous motivation spans across both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Autonomous motivation is the same as intrinsic motivation: |type="(false)"} - True + False {Winning a trophy is an example of extrinsic motivation, and participating in a hobby that interests themselves is an example of intrinsic motivation: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Relatedness, motivation, and behaviour== CET focuses on the fundamental psychological needs for autonomy and competence and how they can enhance or thwart intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). SDT specifies that needs-supportive environments should lead to self-determined student motivation (Burea et. al., 2021). In a meta-analysis, Bureau et. al. (2021) found that competence was the strongest predictor for self-determined motivation, followed by autonomy and then relatedness. Although CET focuses on autonomy and competence as the main catalysts for intrinsic motivation, Ryan & Powelson (1991) explain that relatedness needs are not antithetical to competence or autonomy and suggests people feel most strongly related to people who are responsive to your expressions of autonomy. Relatedness plays a role especially in the social and environmental contexts which influence motivation and behaviour (Hagger et. al., 2020). The effects of relatedness satisfaction and frustration on motivation and behaviour has been investigated in literature thoroughly. === Wellbeing === The role of wellbeing in the relationship between relatedness, motivation and behaviour has been investigated. Slemp et. al (2024), found that having interpersonal supports for autonomy, competence, and relatedness were associated with the satisfaction of those psychological needs. Environmental support for psychological needs were associated with greater wellbeing, which then lead to improved performance (Slemp et. al., 2024). To test the effects of relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration on task learning, Kaefer & Chiviacowsky (2021) conducted an experiment in which adolescents were either put in a relatedness support condition, relatedness frustration condition, or a control group and tasks with learning how to hit a ball with a racket toward a target. Results showed that relatedness supports not only enhanced the task-learning of adolescents and affected motivation, but influence the affect of participants, suggesting that wellbeing was a mediating factor in task-learning. === Education === [[File:A public high school teacher in a classroom in the United States 13.jpg|right|330px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Teacher relatedness can increase participation in education (Collie, 2024). ]] Relatedness has been found to influence students' engagement and performance in educational settings (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021; Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Behavioural engagement in education is essential to students' learning (Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that perceived relatedness satisfaction of students was positively associated with increased behavioural engagement in mathematics. When relatedness is supported, task-learning is perceived by students as more socially and emotionally meaningful and therefore motivates participation behaviours (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). Additionally, students; perceptions of relatedness with their teachers has been associated with better homework practices and lower behavioural disaffection (Collie, 2024). Burea et. al. (2021), note that the weaker role of relatedness in self-determined motivation in education may be context-dependant, noting that relatedness may more strongly influence self-determined motivation in leisure contexts. Hofverberg et. al. (2022) notes that although the literature commonly investigate links between the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and students' motivational regulations, but literature that utilises the full-model of SDT is limited. Specifically, more detailed research into the full chain of events that leads to higher quality engagement in education. Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that relatedness satisfaction predicted identified regulation which then, in turn, predicted engagement in mathematics. These findings highlight the importance of investigating the role of regulation in the understanding how relatedness functions within SDT to shape motivation and behaviour. ==Conclusion== Relatedness is a key psychological need within self-determination theory, and it influences individuals' motivation and engagement with their environment. When individuals experience meaningful relationships and a sense of belonging and mutual care, they are more likely to be autonomously motivated (Hovferberg. et. al., 2022). Hovferberg found that relatedness satisfaction predicted students' identified regulation, which subsequently predicted behavioural engagement in mathematics. Although relatedness contributes to shaping motivation, the satisfaction of competence and autonomy in conjunction with relatedness satisfaction are essential to self-determined motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Relatedness satisfaction has been found to influence behaviours such as engagement and persistence (Slemp et. al., 2024). Individuals are more likely to experience positive emotions when relatedness is satisfied as well as being more likely to participate and persist with challenging tasks (Slemp et. al., 2024). Relatedness support was found to enhance adolescents' motivation, positive affect, and motor learning. When the adolescents experienced a lack or belonging and support from peers, an decrease in participation and motivation may be undermined (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). Relatedness frustration can therefore contribute to disengagement, although behavioural outcomes also depend on other psychological needs being satisfied and contextual factors (Burea et. al., 2021). Relationships and social environments play a significant role in determining whether relatedness is satisfied or frustrated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Supportive relationships with teachers, peers, family members, colleagues, and romantic partners can foster belonging and create environments in which individuals feel valued and encouraged (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Collie (2024) associated students’ social-emotional need satisfaction with academic engagement and social-emotional skills, while Slemp et al. (2024) found that interpersonal support for basic psychological needs was associated with greater need satisfaction and well-being, as well as improved performance. These findings highlight the practical importance of creating inclusive, respectful, and supportive social environments in educational, workplace, and interpersonal settings. Relatedness not only shapes the extent of motivation but also its quality and its expression in behaviour (Burea et. al, 2021; Slemp et. al, 2024). Fostering meaningful connections can support autonomous motivation, well-being, engagement, and persistence, whereas environments that undermine belonging may weaken these outcomes (Collie, 2024; Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). However, relatedness should not be considered in isolation. Supporting autonomy and competence alongside relatedness is important for promoting sustained motivation, positive development, and effective functioning (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Ryan & Powelson, 1991). ==See also== *[[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Intrinsic motivation|Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Social relation|Relatedness]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to Student Motivation: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents of Autonomous and Controlled Motivations. Review of Educational Research, 92(1), 46-72. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426 Collie, R. J. (2024). Social-emotional need satisfaction and students’ academic engagement and social-emotional skills. Educational Psychology, 44(2), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2024.2324751 Hagger, M. S., Hankonen, N., Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., & Ryan, R. M. (2020). Changing Behavior Using Self-Determination Theory. In M. S. Hagger, L. D. Cameron, K. Hamilton, N. Hankonen, & T. Lintunen (Eds.), The Handbook of Behaviour Change (pp. 104–119). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677318.008 Hofverberg, A., Winberg, M., Palmberg, B., Andersson, C., & Palm, T. (2022). Relationships between basic psychological need satisfaction, regulations, and behavioral engagement in mathematics. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.829958 Kaefer, A., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2021). Relatedness support enhances motivation, positive affect, and motor learning in adolescents. Human Movement Science, 79, 102864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2021.102864 Knee, C. R., Hadden, B. W., Porter, B., & Rodriguez, L. M. (2013). Self-determination theory and romantic relationship processes. Personality and social psychology review : an official journal of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc, 17(4), 307–324. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868313498000 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). "The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. ''Psychological inquiry'', ''11''(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 127(5), 1012–1037. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459 Van Tuin, L., Schaufeli, W. B., & van Rhenen, W. (2020). The satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs in engaging leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 14(2), 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21695 Weinstein, N. (Ed.). (2014). Human Motivation and Interpersonal Relationships : Theory, Research, and Applications (1st ed. 2014.). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8542-6 }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci TEDX] (Youtube) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ Self-determination Theory] (Center for Self-determination Theory) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Relatedness]] g3ndmlnqfuyiqaloyfuymotq1q2qj5o 2840721 2840720 2026-10-16T16:07:13Z U3203283 3110021 /* Basic psychological needs theory */ 2840721 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory:<br>How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Raise hand gesture occupy.svg|Raise_hand_gesture_occupy|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. A raised hand: Lauren's tutor encouraged students to ask for help and connect with each other. {{expand}}]] ; Imagine this Lauren is a first-year university student studying psychology who recently started a demanding course. During the first few weeks, she finds the workload difficult and is unsure whether she is capable of succeeding. She chose to study psychology because she is interested in the subject, however, she feels isolated because her classmates seem to already know one another. One of Lauren’s tutors makes an effort to learn about students, encourages them to contribute to discussions, and provides feedback. The tutor also organises small-group activities where students can get to know one another and emphasises that asking for help is a normal part of learning. Lauren engages with these opportunities. Over time, Lauren begins to feel that she belongs in the course and that both her tutor and classmates value her participation. As Lauren feels increasingly connected to the people around her, she becomes more willing to attend tutorials, participate in discussions, ask questions (see Figure 1), and seek feedback when she does not understand something. She also starts studying with classmates outside class. Lauren is no longer completing the course requirements only because she feels she has to. Her growing sense of belonging helps her internalise the value of the course, so she begins to think, “Psychology is important to me, and I want to do well because I see myself as part of this community.” This shift leads to more persistent, engaged behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Self-determination theory (SDT) suggests people are most effectively motivated when motivation is intrinsic. SDT argues people have an innate tendency toward growth, and three distinct basic needs. Within SDT is the basic psychological needs theory (BPNT or BNT), which suggests three psychological needs related to intrinsic motivation which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Relatedness refers to the human desire to form strong relationships and bonds with those around them. This chapter will examine how the concept of relatedness, within self-determination theory, shapes human motivation and behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2000) The goal contents theory (GCT) expands on the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and their impact on wellness. Extrinsic goals including financial success, fame, and physical appearance have been compared to intrinsic goals which include personal growth, forming strong, high-quality relationships, and community which are associated with higher well-being than the latter. The role of relatedness can be understood through another micro-theory of SDT; the relationship motivation theory (RMT), which suggests that closeness to others is not only preferable, but essential to wellbeing. Not only do high-quality relationships satisfy the need for relatedness, but they can also satisfy the need for autonomy and competence (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In a meta-analysis, Slempt et. al (2024), note that support from others likely facilitates people’s motivational processes, finding that interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs were small to moderately positively associated with performance. Slempt et. al (2024), {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the need for relatedness within Self-Determination Theory, and why is it important in shaping motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction influence the development of autonomous motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction or frustration affect individuals’ behaviour, such as engagement, persistence, and disengagement? * How do relationships and social environments affect relatedness, and what are the implications on motivation and behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Self-Determination Theory== [[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] is a macro-theory of psychology created by [[w:Edward Deci|Edward Deci]] and [[w:Richard Ryan|Richard Ryan]] relating to motivation, behaviour, and personality. Deci and Ryan published their first comprehensive work about SDT in 1985 (Deci & Ryan, 1985). SDT utilises an organismic-dialectical approach, which assumes people are ‘active organisms’ who have tendencies toward growth, overcoming challenges, and integrating new experiences into their sense of self. SDT posits this inherent tendency toward growth as well as peoples’ innate psychological needs are the basis for self-motivation and personality integration. Ryan and Deci (2000), propose that humans have three basic psychological needs which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness and when these needs are met, they are essential to optimal personal growth, wellbeing, and [[W:intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivation]]. SDT also considers the role of social or cultural factors in either supporting or 'thwarting' individuals' motivation, well-being, and personal growth. (Ryan & Deci, 2000). === Basic psychological needs theory === Basic psychological needs theory is a micro-theory within SDT. BPNT refers to the idea in SDT that people have three basic psychological needs that are central to wellbeing, growth and intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). [[w:Autonomy|Autonomy]] is the experience of ones actions as their own and personally-endorsed, as opposed to being controlled or imposed upon them. [[w:Competence|Competence]] is closely related to [[w:Self-Efficacy|self-efficacy]] and refers to the need to feel capable and effective and confident in your interactions with your environment, and to master challenges and achieve goals. Relatedness is the innate human need to develop meaningful relationships with those around you, and to feel a sense of mutual care, respect, and warmth between yourself and others. Relatedness also refers to experiencing a sense of belonging, community, and kinship with others (Ryan & Deci, 2000). === Relationship motivation theory === Relationship motivation theory (RMT) is the sixth micro or mini theory within SDT that explains the development, function, and success of relationships (Deci & Ryan, 2000). RMT demonstrates that relatedness satisfaction alone is not sufficient for a successful relationship. In relationships, the need for relatedness, autonomy, and competence must all be met, and both partners must support each others needs. Deci & Ryan (2000) note that although the need for relatedness is experiencing connection and belonging, a meaningful relationship is tied to the satisfaction of all three needs, and mutual-support of each others' needs. Knee et. al (2014) note that SDT can be viewed as the framework for an optimal romantic relationship. Romantic partners with relationship-contingent self-esteem leads to emotional insecurity, whereas partners with non-contingent self-esteem experience greater intimacy (Knee et. al., 2014). ==Cognitive evaluation theory== [[File:Muhammad Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation.png|300px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. The player on the left wants to win the trophy which is an example of extrinsic motivation. The player on the right is playing for his own enjoyment, indicating he is intrinsically motivated.]] Cognitive evaluation theory (CET) is a micro-theory within self-determination theory. Cognitive evaluation theory is essential in understanding motivation within SDT, specifically, intrinsic motivation which refers to motivation to engage in a task out of an inherent interest, enjoyment, and engagement, whereas extrinsic motivation refers to an individual being motivated by external rewards or reinforcement (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET suggests that intrinsic motivation is more valuable than extrinsic motivation, as those that are intrinsically motivated feel a sense of choice over what they are doing and gain a feeling of competence and enjoyment from the activities or tasks they complete. (Hagger et. al., 2020). The role of social and environmental influences such as rewards, feedback and communications, can either facilitate or undermine intrinsic motivation. CET considers intrinsic motivation to be socially and environmentally influenced. For example, when an individual receives positive feedback, they are more likely to be intrinsically motivated, and when an individual receives negative feedback, they are less likely to be intrinsically motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET also aims to specify that factors that explain the variability of intrinsic motivation. === Taxonomy of human motivation === Deci & Ryan (2000) propose a taxonomy of motivation (shown in the figure below) to explain for the variability of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. [[File:Taxonomy of motivation.png| center |600x600px|'''Figure 3.'''Ryan & Deci's (2000) taxonomy of moitvation. A visual spectrum of motivation]] The taxonomy of motivation highlights motivation as sitting on a spectrum of autonomy, beginning with a complete lack of motivation (motivation) and ending with doing an activity purely for its inherent satisfaction or interest (intrinsic regulation). This model also highlights the differences between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation versus controlled and autonomous motivation, introducing regulations to specify the nuances of motivation. Notably, autonomous motivation spans across both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Autonomous motivation is the same as intrinsic motivation: |type="(false)"} - True + False {Winning a trophy is an example of extrinsic motivation, and participating in a hobby that interests themselves is an example of intrinsic motivation: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Relatedness, motivation, and behaviour== CET focuses on the fundamental psychological needs for autonomy and competence and how they can enhance or thwart intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). SDT specifies that needs-supportive environments should lead to self-determined student motivation (Burea et. al., 2021). In a meta-analysis, Bureau et. al. (2021) found that competence was the strongest predictor for self-determined motivation, followed by autonomy and then relatedness. Although CET focuses on autonomy and competence as the main catalysts for intrinsic motivation, Ryan & Powelson (1991) explain that relatedness needs are not antithetical to competence or autonomy and suggests people feel most strongly related to people who are responsive to your expressions of autonomy. Relatedness plays a role especially in the social and environmental contexts which influence motivation and behaviour (Hagger et. al., 2020). The effects of relatedness satisfaction and frustration on motivation and behaviour has been investigated in literature thoroughly. === Wellbeing === The role of wellbeing in the relationship between relatedness, motivation and behaviour has been investigated. Slemp et. al (2024), found that having interpersonal supports for autonomy, competence, and relatedness were associated with the satisfaction of those psychological needs. Environmental support for psychological needs were associated with greater wellbeing, which then lead to improved performance (Slemp et. al., 2024). To test the effects of relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration on task learning, Kaefer & Chiviacowsky (2021) conducted an experiment in which adolescents were either put in a relatedness support condition, relatedness frustration condition, or a control group and tasks with learning how to hit a ball with a racket toward a target. Results showed that relatedness supports not only enhanced the task-learning of adolescents and affected motivation, but influence the affect of participants, suggesting that wellbeing was a mediating factor in task-learning. === Education === [[File:A public high school teacher in a classroom in the United States 13.jpg|right|330px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Teacher relatedness can increase participation in education (Collie, 2024). ]] Relatedness has been found to influence students' engagement and performance in educational settings (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021; Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Behavioural engagement in education is essential to students' learning (Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that perceived relatedness satisfaction of students was positively associated with increased behavioural engagement in mathematics. When relatedness is supported, task-learning is perceived by students as more socially and emotionally meaningful and therefore motivates participation behaviours (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). Additionally, students; perceptions of relatedness with their teachers has been associated with better homework practices and lower behavioural disaffection (Collie, 2024). Burea et. al. (2021), note that the weaker role of relatedness in self-determined motivation in education may be context-dependant, noting that relatedness may more strongly influence self-determined motivation in leisure contexts. Hofverberg et. al. (2022) notes that although the literature commonly investigate links between the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and students' motivational regulations, but literature that utilises the full-model of SDT is limited. Specifically, more detailed research into the full chain of events that leads to higher quality engagement in education. Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that relatedness satisfaction predicted identified regulation which then, in turn, predicted engagement in mathematics. These findings highlight the importance of investigating the role of regulation in the understanding how relatedness functions within SDT to shape motivation and behaviour. ==Conclusion== Relatedness is a key psychological need within self-determination theory, and it influences individuals' motivation and engagement with their environment. When individuals experience meaningful relationships and a sense of belonging and mutual care, they are more likely to be autonomously motivated (Hovferberg. et. al., 2022). Hovferberg found that relatedness satisfaction predicted students' identified regulation, which subsequently predicted behavioural engagement in mathematics. Although relatedness contributes to shaping motivation, the satisfaction of competence and autonomy in conjunction with relatedness satisfaction are essential to self-determined motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Relatedness satisfaction has been found to influence behaviours such as engagement and persistence (Slemp et. al., 2024). Individuals are more likely to experience positive emotions when relatedness is satisfied as well as being more likely to participate and persist with challenging tasks (Slemp et. al., 2024). Relatedness support was found to enhance adolescents' motivation, positive affect, and motor learning. When the adolescents experienced a lack or belonging and support from peers, an decrease in participation and motivation may be undermined (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). Relatedness frustration can therefore contribute to disengagement, although behavioural outcomes also depend on other psychological needs being satisfied and contextual factors (Burea et. al., 2021). Relationships and social environments play a significant role in determining whether relatedness is satisfied or frustrated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Supportive relationships with teachers, peers, family members, colleagues, and romantic partners can foster belonging and create environments in which individuals feel valued and encouraged (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Collie (2024) associated students’ social-emotional need satisfaction with academic engagement and social-emotional skills, while Slemp et al. (2024) found that interpersonal support for basic psychological needs was associated with greater need satisfaction and well-being, as well as improved performance. These findings highlight the practical importance of creating inclusive, respectful, and supportive social environments in educational, workplace, and interpersonal settings. Relatedness not only shapes the extent of motivation but also its quality and its expression in behaviour (Burea et. al, 2021; Slemp et. al, 2024). Fostering meaningful connections can support autonomous motivation, well-being, engagement, and persistence, whereas environments that undermine belonging may weaken these outcomes (Collie, 2024; Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). However, relatedness should not be considered in isolation. Supporting autonomy and competence alongside relatedness is important for promoting sustained motivation, positive development, and effective functioning (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Ryan & Powelson, 1991). ==See also== *[[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Intrinsic motivation|Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Social relation|Relatedness]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to Student Motivation: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents of Autonomous and Controlled Motivations. Review of Educational Research, 92(1), 46-72. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426 Collie, R. J. (2024). Social-emotional need satisfaction and students’ academic engagement and social-emotional skills. Educational Psychology, 44(2), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2024.2324751 Hagger, M. S., Hankonen, N., Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., & Ryan, R. M. (2020). Changing Behavior Using Self-Determination Theory. In M. S. Hagger, L. D. Cameron, K. Hamilton, N. Hankonen, & T. Lintunen (Eds.), The Handbook of Behaviour Change (pp. 104–119). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677318.008 Hofverberg, A., Winberg, M., Palmberg, B., Andersson, C., & Palm, T. (2022). Relationships between basic psychological need satisfaction, regulations, and behavioral engagement in mathematics. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.829958 Kaefer, A., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2021). Relatedness support enhances motivation, positive affect, and motor learning in adolescents. Human Movement Science, 79, 102864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2021.102864 Knee, C. R., Hadden, B. W., Porter, B., & Rodriguez, L. M. (2013). Self-determination theory and romantic relationship processes. Personality and social psychology review : an official journal of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc, 17(4), 307–324. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868313498000 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). "The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. ''Psychological inquiry'', ''11''(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 127(5), 1012–1037. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459 Van Tuin, L., Schaufeli, W. B., & van Rhenen, W. (2020). The satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs in engaging leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 14(2), 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21695 Weinstein, N. (Ed.). (2014). Human Motivation and Interpersonal Relationships : Theory, Research, and Applications (1st ed. 2014.). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8542-6 }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci TEDX] (Youtube) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ Self-determination Theory] (Center for Self-determination Theory) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Relatedness]] 7qdvmqwfe4i75tfgyg64625t334yzo8 2840722 2840721 2026-10-16T16:14:05Z U3203283 3110021 Redoing summary and making better 2840722 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory:<br>How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Raise hand gesture occupy.svg|Raise_hand_gesture_occupy|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. A raised hand: Lauren's tutor encouraged students to ask for help and connect with each other. {{expand}}]] ; Imagine this Lauren is a first-year university student studying psychology who recently started a demanding course. During the first few weeks, she finds the workload difficult and is unsure whether she is capable of succeeding. She chose to study psychology because she is interested in the subject, however, she feels isolated because her classmates seem to already know one another. One of Lauren’s tutors makes an effort to learn about students, encourages them to contribute to discussions, and provides feedback. The tutor also organises small-group activities where students can get to know one another and emphasises that asking for help is a normal part of learning. Lauren engages with these opportunities. Over time, Lauren begins to feel that she belongs in the course and that both her tutor and classmates value her participation. As Lauren feels increasingly connected to the people around her, she becomes more willing to attend tutorials, participate in discussions, ask questions (see Figure 1), and seek feedback when she does not understand something. She also starts studying with classmates outside class. Lauren is no longer completing the course requirements only because she feels she has to. Her growing sense of belonging helps her internalise the value of the course, so she begins to think, “Psychology is important to me, and I want to do well because I see myself as part of this community.” This shift leads to more persistent, engaged behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Self-determination theory (SDT) is a psychological theory that explains how social and environmental factors influence human motivation, behaviour, personal development, and psychological well-being (Ryan & Deci, 1985). According to SDT, three basic psychological needs—autonomy, competence, and relatedness—are important for psychological growth and optimal functioning (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Autonomy refers to experiencing a sense of choice and personal endorsement over one’s actions, while competence involves feeling capable and effective when interacting with the environment. Relatedness refers to feeling connected to others and experiencing a sense of belonging, care, and mutual respect (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Although all three needs contribute to motivation, this chapter focuses on how the satisfaction and frustration of relatedness influence the development of motivation and the behaviours that follow. Within SDT, relatedness can influence motivation by shaping how individuals experience and internalise the activities, expectations, and values present in their social environments (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Slemp et. al, 2024). When individuals feel accepted, supported, and valued by others, they may be more willing to participate in activities, identify with their purpose, and sustain their involvement. Autonomous motivation can include both intrinsic motivation, in which an activity is undertaken because it is enjoyable or interesting, and internalised extrinsic motivation, in which an activity is undertaken because its value has been personally accepted (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Research has linked relatedness satisfaction with students’ identified regulation and subsequent behavioural engagement in mathematics (Hofverberg et al., 2022). Relatedness support has also been associated with improvements in adolescents’ motivation, positive affect, and motor learning (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). In contrast, relatedness frustration may occur when individuals experience exclusion, rejection, or a lack of meaningful social connection. Such experiences can undermine motivation and well-being and may contribute to reduced engagement or withdrawal (Hofverberg et al., 2022; Slemp et. al., 2024). However, the effects of relatedness are not uniform across individuals or contexts, and relatedness should not be considered independently of autonomy and competence. Research on interpersonal support for basic psychological needs indicates that supportive social environments are associated with greater need satisfaction, well-being, and performance (Slemp et al., 2024). Understanding relatedness therefore requires consideration of the relationships and environments in which individuals learn, work, and interact with others. This chapter examines the role of relatedness within SDT and considers how relatedness satisfaction and frustration shape autonomous motivation and behaviour. It explores relevant theoretical concepts and mini-theories of SDT, including basic psychological needs theory and relationship motivation theory, before examining research findings across contexts. The chapter also considers how relationships and social environments can support or thwart relatedness, and discusses the implications for engagement, persistence, well-being, and effective participation. Overall, the chapter aims to explain why meaningful social connections are an important part of understanding human motivation and behaviour.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the need for relatedness within Self-Determination Theory, and why is it important in shaping motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction influence the development of autonomous motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction or frustration affect individuals’ behaviour, such as engagement, persistence, and disengagement? * How do relationships and social environments affect relatedness, and what are the implications on motivation and behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Self-Determination Theory== [[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] is a macro-theory of psychology created by [[w:Edward Deci|Edward Deci]] and [[w:Richard Ryan|Richard Ryan]] relating to motivation, behaviour, and personality. Deci and Ryan published their first comprehensive work about SDT in 1985 (Deci & Ryan, 1985). SDT utilises an organismic-dialectical approach, which assumes people are ‘active organisms’ who have tendencies toward growth, overcoming challenges, and integrating new experiences into their sense of self. SDT posits this inherent tendency toward growth as well as peoples’ innate psychological needs are the basis for self-motivation and personality integration. Ryan and Deci (2000), propose that humans have three basic psychological needs which include autonomy, competence, and relatedness and when these needs are met, they are essential to optimal personal growth, wellbeing, and [[W:intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivation]]. SDT also considers the role of social or cultural factors in either supporting or 'thwarting' individuals' motivation, well-being, and personal growth. (Ryan & Deci, 2000). === Basic psychological needs theory === Basic psychological needs theory is a micro-theory within SDT. BPNT refers to the idea in SDT that people have three basic psychological needs that are central to wellbeing, growth and intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). [[w:Autonomy|Autonomy]] is the experience of ones actions as their own and personally-endorsed, as opposed to being controlled or imposed upon them. [[w:Competence|Competence]] is closely related to [[w:Self-Efficacy|self-efficacy]] and refers to the need to feel capable and effective and confident in your interactions with your environment, and to master challenges and achieve goals. Relatedness is the innate human need to develop meaningful relationships with those around you, and to feel a sense of mutual care, respect, and warmth between yourself and others. Relatedness also refers to experiencing a sense of belonging, community, and kinship with others (Ryan & Deci, 2000). === Relationship motivation theory === Relationship motivation theory (RMT) is the sixth micro or mini theory within SDT that explains the development, function, and success of relationships (Deci & Ryan, 2000). RMT demonstrates that relatedness satisfaction alone is not sufficient for a successful relationship. In relationships, the need for relatedness, autonomy, and competence must all be met, and both partners must support each others needs. Deci & Ryan (2000) note that although the need for relatedness is experiencing connection and belonging, a meaningful relationship is tied to the satisfaction of all three needs, and mutual-support of each others' needs. Knee et. al (2014) note that SDT can be viewed as the framework for an optimal romantic relationship. Romantic partners with relationship-contingent self-esteem leads to emotional insecurity, whereas partners with non-contingent self-esteem experience greater intimacy (Knee et. al., 2014). ==Cognitive evaluation theory== [[File:Muhammad Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation.png|300px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. The player on the left wants to win the trophy which is an example of extrinsic motivation. The player on the right is playing for his own enjoyment, indicating he is intrinsically motivated.]] Cognitive evaluation theory (CET) is a micro-theory within self-determination theory. Cognitive evaluation theory is essential in understanding motivation within SDT, specifically, intrinsic motivation which refers to motivation to engage in a task out of an inherent interest, enjoyment, and engagement, whereas extrinsic motivation refers to an individual being motivated by external rewards or reinforcement (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET suggests that intrinsic motivation is more valuable than extrinsic motivation, as those that are intrinsically motivated feel a sense of choice over what they are doing and gain a feeling of competence and enjoyment from the activities or tasks they complete. (Hagger et. al., 2020). The role of social and environmental influences such as rewards, feedback and communications, can either facilitate or undermine intrinsic motivation. CET considers intrinsic motivation to be socially and environmentally influenced. For example, when an individual receives positive feedback, they are more likely to be intrinsically motivated, and when an individual receives negative feedback, they are less likely to be intrinsically motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET also aims to specify that factors that explain the variability of intrinsic motivation. === Taxonomy of human motivation === Deci & Ryan (2000) propose a taxonomy of motivation (shown in the figure below) to explain for the variability of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. [[File:Taxonomy of motivation.png| center |600x600px|'''Figure 3.'''Ryan & Deci's (2000) taxonomy of moitvation. A visual spectrum of motivation]] The taxonomy of motivation highlights motivation as sitting on a spectrum of autonomy, beginning with a complete lack of motivation (motivation) and ending with doing an activity purely for its inherent satisfaction or interest (intrinsic regulation). This model also highlights the differences between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation versus controlled and autonomous motivation, introducing regulations to specify the nuances of motivation. Notably, autonomous motivation spans across both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Autonomous motivation is the same as intrinsic motivation: |type="(false)"} - True + False {Winning a trophy is an example of extrinsic motivation, and participating in a hobby that interests themselves is an example of intrinsic motivation: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Relatedness, motivation, and behaviour== CET focuses on the fundamental psychological needs for autonomy and competence and how they can enhance or thwart intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). SDT specifies that needs-supportive environments should lead to self-determined student motivation (Burea et. al., 2021). In a meta-analysis, Bureau et. al. (2021) found that competence was the strongest predictor for self-determined motivation, followed by autonomy and then relatedness. Although CET focuses on autonomy and competence as the main catalysts for intrinsic motivation, Ryan & Powelson (1991) explain that relatedness needs are not antithetical to competence or autonomy and suggests people feel most strongly related to people who are responsive to your expressions of autonomy. Relatedness plays a role especially in the social and environmental contexts which influence motivation and behaviour (Hagger et. al., 2020). The effects of relatedness satisfaction and frustration on motivation and behaviour has been investigated in literature thoroughly. === Wellbeing === The role of wellbeing in the relationship between relatedness, motivation and behaviour has been investigated. Slemp et. al (2024), found that having interpersonal supports for autonomy, competence, and relatedness were associated with the satisfaction of those psychological needs. Environmental support for psychological needs were associated with greater wellbeing, which then lead to improved performance (Slemp et. al., 2024). To test the effects of relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration on task learning, Kaefer & Chiviacowsky (2021) conducted an experiment in which adolescents were either put in a relatedness support condition, relatedness frustration condition, or a control group and tasks with learning how to hit a ball with a racket toward a target. Results showed that relatedness supports not only enhanced the task-learning of adolescents and affected motivation, but influence the affect of participants, suggesting that wellbeing was a mediating factor in task-learning. === Education === [[File:A public high school teacher in a classroom in the United States 13.jpg|right|330px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Teacher relatedness can increase participation in education (Collie, 2024). ]] Relatedness has been found to influence students' engagement and performance in educational settings (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021; Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Behavioural engagement in education is essential to students' learning (Hofverberg et. al., 2022). Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that perceived relatedness satisfaction of students was positively associated with increased behavioural engagement in mathematics. When relatedness is supported, task-learning is perceived by students as more socially and emotionally meaningful and therefore motivates participation behaviours (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). Additionally, students; perceptions of relatedness with their teachers has been associated with better homework practices and lower behavioural disaffection (Collie, 2024). Burea et. al. (2021), note that the weaker role of relatedness in self-determined motivation in education may be context-dependant, noting that relatedness may more strongly influence self-determined motivation in leisure contexts. Hofverberg et. al. (2022) notes that although the literature commonly investigate links between the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and students' motivational regulations, but literature that utilises the full-model of SDT is limited. Specifically, more detailed research into the full chain of events that leads to higher quality engagement in education. Hofverberg et. al. (2022) found that relatedness satisfaction predicted identified regulation which then, in turn, predicted engagement in mathematics. These findings highlight the importance of investigating the role of regulation in the understanding how relatedness functions within SDT to shape motivation and behaviour. ==Conclusion== Relatedness is a key psychological need within self-determination theory, and it influences individuals' motivation and engagement with their environment. When individuals experience meaningful relationships and a sense of belonging and mutual care, they are more likely to be autonomously motivated (Hovferberg. et. al., 2022). Hovferberg found that relatedness satisfaction predicted students' identified regulation, which subsequently predicted behavioural engagement in mathematics. Although relatedness contributes to shaping motivation, the satisfaction of competence and autonomy in conjunction with relatedness satisfaction are essential to self-determined motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Relatedness satisfaction has been found to influence behaviours such as engagement and persistence (Slemp et. al., 2024). Individuals are more likely to experience positive emotions when relatedness is satisfied as well as being more likely to participate and persist with challenging tasks (Slemp et. al., 2024). Relatedness support was found to enhance adolescents' motivation, positive affect, and motor learning. When the adolescents experienced a lack or belonging and support from peers, an decrease in participation and motivation may be undermined (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). Relatedness frustration can therefore contribute to disengagement, although behavioural outcomes also depend on other psychological needs being satisfied and contextual factors (Burea et. al., 2021). Relationships and social environments play a significant role in determining whether relatedness is satisfied or frustrated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Supportive relationships with teachers, peers, family members, colleagues, and romantic partners can foster belonging and create environments in which individuals feel valued and encouraged (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Collie (2024) associated students’ social-emotional need satisfaction with academic engagement and social-emotional skills, while Slemp et al. (2024) found that interpersonal support for basic psychological needs was associated with greater need satisfaction and well-being, as well as improved performance. These findings highlight the practical importance of creating inclusive, respectful, and supportive social environments in educational, workplace, and interpersonal settings. Relatedness not only shapes the extent of motivation but also its quality and its expression in behaviour (Burea et. al, 2021; Slemp et. al, 2024). Fostering meaningful connections can support autonomous motivation, well-being, engagement, and persistence, whereas environments that undermine belonging may weaken these outcomes (Collie, 2024; Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). However, relatedness should not be considered in isolation. Supporting autonomy and competence alongside relatedness is important for promoting sustained motivation, positive development, and effective functioning (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Ryan & Powelson, 1991). ==See also== *[[w:Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Intrinsic motivation|Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Social relation|Relatedness]] (Wikipedia) *[[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to Student Motivation: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents of Autonomous and Controlled Motivations. Review of Educational Research, 92(1), 46-72. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426 Collie, R. J. (2024). Social-emotional need satisfaction and students’ academic engagement and social-emotional skills. Educational Psychology, 44(2), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2024.2324751 Hagger, M. S., Hankonen, N., Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., & Ryan, R. M. (2020). Changing Behavior Using Self-Determination Theory. In M. S. Hagger, L. D. Cameron, K. Hamilton, N. Hankonen, & T. Lintunen (Eds.), The Handbook of Behaviour Change (pp. 104–119). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677318.008 Hofverberg, A., Winberg, M., Palmberg, B., Andersson, C., & Palm, T. (2022). Relationships between basic psychological need satisfaction, regulations, and behavioral engagement in mathematics. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.829958 Kaefer, A., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2021). Relatedness support enhances motivation, positive affect, and motor learning in adolescents. Human Movement Science, 79, 102864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2021.102864 Knee, C. R., Hadden, B. W., Porter, B., & Rodriguez, L. M. (2013). Self-determination theory and romantic relationship processes. Personality and social psychology review : an official journal of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc, 17(4), 307–324. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868313498000 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). "The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. ''Psychological inquiry'', ''11''(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 127(5), 1012–1037. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459 Van Tuin, L., Schaufeli, W. B., & van Rhenen, W. (2020). The satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs in engaging leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 14(2), 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21695 Weinstein, N. (Ed.). (2014). Human Motivation and Interpersonal Relationships : Theory, Research, and Applications (1st ed. 2014.). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8542-6 }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci TEDX] (Youtube) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ Self-determination Theory] (Center for Self-determination Theory) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Relatedness]] pm63gzlf9iha0xfi9tz7lhbyq7pj9oz 1 331752 2840751 2830057 2026-10-16T22:02:23Z Jtneill 10242 Book chapter feedback 2840751 wikitext text/x-wiki == Generative AI statement == I used generative AI in the development of this book chapter to assist in brainstorming, synthesising ideas, organising chapter structure through prompts based on professional sources as well as to refine written statements. All AI generated suggestions were reviewed and altered to ensure they reflect my own concepts and ideas. I also reviewed the University academic integrity and generative AI requirements before the book chapters due date. <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and subtitle are correctly worded and use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] # Title and/or subtitle not correctly worded and/or didn't use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] (fixed) # User name removed from the page; for authorship see [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page's edit history]] |2= <!-- Headings --> <!-- 1-level --> # Promising [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|1-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development (e.g., consider using subheadings) <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Develop closer alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings |3= <!-- Overview--> # Very good <!-- Scenario --> # A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box at the start of this section; add an image to the scenario to help attract reader interest <!-- Description --> # A promising description of the problem/topic is planned or presented <!-- Focus questions --> # Develop closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings # Focus on self-stigma and emotion (that's the topic), rather than on motivation # Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Key points are well developed for each section # Highlight the most relevant theories and synthesise the best research on the topic <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion is well underway # What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions) |5= <!-- Figure --> # An image is embedded, however, a clearly relevant figure is not presented and cited using APA style (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Add in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Promising use of examples # University student mental health examples are over-used; write for an international audience; less than 5% of the world population are university students. Also use some non-university, non-mental health examples or self-stigma to show a broader and deeper understanding of how self-stigma applies in a wider range of real-world scenarios. <!-- Quiz --> # Promising use of quiz question(s) # Use wiki-style quizzes for interactivity <!-- Tables --> # Promising use of table(s) # Note that a table is not a figure # Include citation for source of information in table |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Basic <!-- Systematic reviews --> # What are the most relevant systematic reviews/meta-analyses about this topic? <!-- Move --> # Move non-academic / non-peer reviewed sources to the "External links" section <!-- APA style --> # Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]: ## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]] |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## Excellent <!-- External links --> # External links ## To be developed (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Link to the most relevant external resources about this topic |9= <!-- User page --> # Good <!-- Description about self --> # Description about self provided <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # A link to the book chapter is provided # Rename the link to the book chapter to make it more user-friendly (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # One out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other types of contribution are making: #* direct improvements to other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]] #* posts about the unit or project on the {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion forum # Use a numbered list (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 01:57, 1 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is a basic chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* broaden the conceptualisation of self-stigma beyond mental health (e.g., to include physical difference) #* provide more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression can be improved in some places #* more careful citation to best available peer-reviewed psychological science is needed #* several basic aspects of presentation using a wiki format, as taught in Tutorial 2, were not applied (e.g., bullet-points) #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of genAI—express more in your own words; watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]] <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* Use [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] to briefly describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI, with insufficient acknowledged in edit summaries when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Basic use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims; in some cases, citations are not in references; in some cases, the citations don't support the claims. This suggests that close reading of primary sources was lacking. # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FSelf-stigma_and_emotion&diff=2840750&oldid=2836913 these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Reasonably good <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Figure 1 is not relevant to the scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Scenario uses an appropriate feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well # The Overview scenario and opening sentence about the problem implies that the chapter focuses on self-stigma and mental health, but mental health is not part of the title or sub-title (misalignment of topic and content) <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are clear and relevant, but are not aligned with the heading structure |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A surprisingly narrow conceptualisation of self-stigma as only applying to mental health stereotypes is implied and applied in this chapter. Thus, this chapter has limited scope. # The examples are overly concentrated on (a) anxiety; (b) a university student, rather than using a wider variety of types of self-stigma and people who might experience self-stigma. <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds on a few [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Basic depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Very good use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # In many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Reasonably good use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Basic review of relevant research # Promising emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses, but more ideal would be ideal (e.g., how strong are the observed effects and are they correlational or causal?) # More detail about key studies would be ideal # In some places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Basic integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Basic summary and conclusion # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are summarised in a basic way <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Add practical, take-home message(s) |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is basic <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Check and make [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ correct use of commas] <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Several sub-headings were in text rather than wiki heading style (fixed). This is a sign that the skills taught Tutorial 2 weren't developed. ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bold, and/or change in font size) <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only introduce abbreviations (e.g., CBT) which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. How to caption figures was taught in Tutorial 2. <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Well captioned <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Ideally, use a wider range of peer-reviewed sources (there is over-reliance on some sources) ### Some citations are missing from References (e.g., Firmin, 2016) ### Include dois for all sources where available ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Basic use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Basic use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Basic use of figure(s) # Reasonably good use of table(s) # Basic use of feature box(es) # Reasonably good use of scenarios, case studies, or examples <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Insufficient use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Add more links <!-- Learning features – External links --> # No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~2 logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~2 logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 22:02, 16 October 2026 (UTC) rbusbk2d1jf8iv21nrtgd3ye7d2m7y9 0 331771 2840741 2840313 2026-10-16T21:33:38Z Dick Bos 24466 bio and some add. Works 2840741 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Portrait of David Ricardo by Thomas Phillips.jpg|left|250px|thumb|Portrait of David Ricardo by Thomas Phillips (around 1820)]] {{20% done}} Welcome to the pages about '''David Ricardo'''. David Ricardo (1772–1823) was an English stockbroker, economist and politician. He made particularly significant contributions to the development of classical political economy, and later of economy as a science and he is often mentioned in the same breath as the "founder of economics", [[Adam Smith]] (1723–1790). He maintained close contact with contemporaries such as [[Thomas Robert Malthus]] and [[James Mill]] and his son [[John Stuart Mill]]. == Biographical notes == David Ricardo was born in London. His father, a Sephardic Jew of Portuguese origin, was a successful stockbroker. David Ricardo had a traditional Jewish upbringing, and received little formal education. In the years from 1783 to 1785 he stayed in Amsterdam. After he returned to London, he started working with his father at the age of 14. When he was 21 years old, he learned to know Priscilla Anne Wilkinson. She was a Quaker. And when David Ricardo married her, that led to a major rift with his family. He went into business of his own. "As a trustee of the early modern Stock Exchange, he was a member of the Committee of Proprietors that decided in 1801 to reconstitute it on a private subscription basis and subsequently helped oversee the execution of the plan. He later played a leading role in syndicates contracting loans that financed the Napoleonic wars. He made the bulk of his fortune speculating on the outcome of the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, when he reportedly ‘netted upwards of a million sterling’–an impressive sum at the time."<ref name=Comerford>{{cite web | last = Comerford | first = Patrick | url = https://www.patrickcomerford.com/2025/06/a-discreet-plaque-in-london-remembers.html | title = A discreet plaque in London remembers David Ricardo | website = Comerford Way |access-date = 2026-10-14 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20260622011359/https://www.patrickcomerford.com/2025/06/a-discreet-plaque-in-london-remembers.html | archive-date = 2026-06-22 }}</ref> Ricardo retired immediately and bought Gatcombe Park, an estate in Gloucestershire now owned by Princess Anne. == Works == His first work in print: * {{cite book | last = Ricardo | first = David | authorlink = David Ricardo | date = 1810 | title = The High Price of Bullion, a Proof of the Depreciation of Bank Notes | location = London | publisher = John Murray }}<ref name=bul>''The High Price of Bullion'' (1810): [[:s:en:The High Price of Bullion | Third edition ("with additions", 1810)]] on [[Image:wikisource-logo.svg|16x16px]] WikiSource.</ref> After his (very early) retirement Ricardo fully developed his interest in economic theory. He read Adam Smith's ''Wealth of Nations'' and subsequently published some articles in newspapers and pamphlets: * —— (1815). ''[[David Ricardo/An Essay on Profits|An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock]]'' (often shortly named ''(An) Essay on Profits''). A few years later his Magnum Opus was first published: * {{cite book | last = Ricardo | first = David | author-link = David Ricardo | author-mask = 2 | date = 1817 | title = On the Principles of Political Economy; And Taxation | location = London | publisher = John Murray | ref = harv }}<ref name=Principles1>First edition of the ''Principles'' (1817) online available at (English) [[Image:wikisource-logo.svg|16x16px]] Wikisource: [[:s:en:On the Principles of Political Economy, and Taxation|''On the Principles of Political Economy, and Taxation'']]</ref> His collected works were first published in 1852 by John Ramsay McCulloch: * {{cite book |last=Ricardo|first=David|editor-last = McCulloch | editor-first = J.R.|editor-link=:w:en:John Ramsay McCulloch |title=The Works of David Ricardo : with a Notice of the Life and Writings of the Author |url=https://preserver.beic.it:443/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE6470169 |year=1852|publisher=John Murray|location=London}}<ref name=works18868>[https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/100340294 1886] and [https://archive.org/details/worksofdavidrica01rica 1888] editions of McCulloch's ''The Works of David Ricardo''.</ref> His works and writings were collected from 1951 onwards by Piero Sraffa, with the collaboration of Maurice Dobb: * {{Cite book |last=Ricardo|first=David| editor1-last = Sraffa | editor1-first = Piero | editor1-link = :w:en:Piero Sraffa |editor2-last = Dobb |editor2-first = Maurice Herbert | editor2-link = :w:en:Maurice Dobb |title=The Works and Correspondence of David Ricardo |date=1981|origyear=1951 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0521285054 |oclc=10251383}} (first paperback edition, in 11 volumes) This is the collection, that is mostly used nowadays: === ''The Works and Correspondence of David Ricardo'' === ''The Works and Correspondence of David Ricardo,'' in 11 volumes (1951-1973) was edited by [[w:en:Piero Sraffa|Piero Sraffa]], with the cooperation of [[w:en:Maurice Dobb|Maurice Dobb]]. It was published for the Royal Economic Society, by Cambridge University Press. * The first volume (1951)<ref name=Works01>[https://archive.org/details/workscorresponde0001rica_n2f1/page/n3/mode/1up Works etc. vol. 1] online available after free registration at [[:w:en:Internet Archive|Internet Archive]]. See also [https://archive.org/details/workscorresponde0001unse/page/n6/mode/1up this copy of Works vol. 1] online (at IA).</ref> holds: ** An "'Introduction" by Sraffa (p. xiii – lxii + 2 tables) ** ''The Principles of Political Economy, and Taxation'' (the edition follows the 3rd edition of 1821)<ref name=principlesed>For other editions of the ''Principles'' see: …..e.g. first edition in ws…</ref> * vol. 2 (1957): Notes on Malthus<ref name=Works02>[https://archive.org/details/workscorresponde0000rica/page/n8/mode/1up Works vol. 2] online.</ref> * vol. 3 : Pamphlets and Papers, 1809–1811<ref name=Works03>vol. 3 online.</ref> * vol. 4 (1962): Pamphlets and Papers, 1815-1823<ref name=Works04>[https://archive.org/details/workscorresponde0004rica Works vol. 4] online.</ref> * vol. 5 (1962): Speeches and Evidence<ref name=Works05>[https://archive.org/details/workscorresponde0000rica_c0y0/page/n8/mode/1up Works vol. 5] online. See also [https://archive.org/details/workscorresponde0005unse/page/n8/mode/1up this copy of Works vol. 5] online (at IA)</ref> * vol. 6 (1962):Letters 1810–1815<ref name=Works06>[https://archive.org/details/workscorresponde0000rica_v5n8/page/n6/mode/1up Works vol. 6] online. See also [https://archive.org/details/workscorresponde0006unse_i2q2/mode/1up this copy of Works vol. 6] online (at IA).</ref> * vol. 7 * vol. 8 * vol. 9 (1962): Letters, July 1821-1823<ref name=Works09>[https://archive.org/details/workscorresponde0009unse Works vol. 9] online. See also [https://archive.org/details/workscorresponde0009rica this copy of Works vol. 9] online (at IA).</ref> * vol. 10 * vol. 11 (1973): General Index<ref name=Works11>[https://archive.org/details/workscorresponde0011rica Works vol. 11 (Index)] online.</ref> == Philosophy and Method == van der Pol makes some remarks on the "philosophical premises" of Ricardo's theory. He says, that among scholars, there is "little disagreement regarding its content, although opinions differ as to the influence of those premises on the various parts of Ricardo's theory."{{sfnp|van der Pol|1981|p=20}} Ricardo does not explicitly address the philosophical foundations of his theory anywhere. It can, however, be inferred from various passages that Ricardo regards the economic process as one governed by the laws of nature. In Ricardo’s theory, the economic process–which encompasses production, distribution and exchange–does not unfold in a random and chaotic manner, but according to an order determined by the laws of nature. These laws form the framework within which economic activities take place.{{sfnp|van der Pol|1981|p=20}} For instance concerning the (fall of the) rate of profit: "This will necessarily be rendered permanent by the laws of nature, which have limited the productive powers of the land."{{sfnp|Ricardo|1817|p=126}} Ricardo's approach implies that there is little room for the analysis of historically specific phenomena and characteristics.{{sfnp|van der Pol|1981|p=20–21}} The first thing that must be mentioned, concerning Ricardo's '''method''' is his strong deductive approach. It has led many scholars to what is sometimes called the "Ricardian vice," or "Ricardo's dream." Writing about the ''Principles'' Huf<ref name=Huf2017>{{cite web | url = https://history.cass.anu.edu.au/news/rents-profits-wages-bicentenary-ricardos-principles-and-making-economics | date = 2017-04-03 | title = "Rents, Profits, Wages": The Bicentenary of Ricardo's Principles and the making of economics | website = Australian National University / School of History }}</ref> says: "The book was notable for its brevity and theoretical, ‘deductive method’, contrasting greatly with Smith’s broad sociological-historical analysis (only aspects of which Ricardo saw himself refining), and to the prophetic appeal of Marx’s Capital or philosophical breadth of J.S. Mill’s Principles, both of which were deeply indebted to Ricardo’s framework." == Additional resources == * [[:w:en:David Ricardo|David Ricardo]] at English [[File:Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg|16px|alt=16 px Wikipedia logo]] Wikipedia * [[:s:en:Author:David Ricardo|David Ricardo]] at English [[Image:wikisource-logo.svg|16x16px]] Wikisource == Sources and further reading == * {{cite book | last = van der Pol | first = Kick | date = 1981 | title = Marx contra Ricardo : De wet van de dalende winstvoet | language = nl | location = Groningen | publisher = Wolters-Noordhoff | ISBN = 90 01 71290 8 | ref = harv }} == References == {{references}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Ricardo, David}} [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:History of Economic Thought]] qm596kszj8oj00wx8rdkxnv8xp0u8dv 2840746 2840741 2026-10-16T21:44:22Z Dick Bos 24466 OLL 2840746 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Portrait of David Ricardo by Thomas Phillips.jpg|left|250px|thumb|Portrait of David Ricardo by Thomas Phillips (around 1820)]] {{20% done}} Welcome to the pages about '''David Ricardo'''. David Ricardo (1772–1823) was an English stockbroker, economist and politician. He made particularly significant contributions to the development of classical political economy, and later of economy as a science and he is often mentioned in the same breath as the "founder of economics", [[Adam Smith]] (1723–1790). He maintained close contact with contemporaries such as [[Thomas Robert Malthus]] and [[James Mill]] and his son [[John Stuart Mill]]. == Biographical notes == David Ricardo was born in London. His father, a Sephardic Jew of Portuguese origin, was a successful stockbroker. David Ricardo had a traditional Jewish upbringing, and received little formal education. In the years from 1783 to 1785 he stayed in Amsterdam. After he returned to London, he started working with his father at the age of 14. When he was 21 years old, he learned to know Priscilla Anne Wilkinson. She was a Quaker. And when David Ricardo married her, that led to a major rift with his family. He went into business of his own. "As a trustee of the early modern Stock Exchange, he was a member of the Committee of Proprietors that decided in 1801 to reconstitute it on a private subscription basis and subsequently helped oversee the execution of the plan. He later played a leading role in syndicates contracting loans that financed the Napoleonic wars. He made the bulk of his fortune speculating on the outcome of the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, when he reportedly ‘netted upwards of a million sterling’–an impressive sum at the time."<ref name=Comerford>{{cite web | last = Comerford | first = Patrick | url = https://www.patrickcomerford.com/2025/06/a-discreet-plaque-in-london-remembers.html | title = A discreet plaque in London remembers David Ricardo | website = Comerford Way |access-date = 2026-10-14 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20260622011359/https://www.patrickcomerford.com/2025/06/a-discreet-plaque-in-london-remembers.html | archive-date = 2026-06-22 }}</ref> Ricardo retired immediately and bought Gatcombe Park, an estate in Gloucestershire now owned by Princess Anne. == Works == His first work in print: * {{cite book | last = Ricardo | first = David | authorlink = David Ricardo | date = 1810 | title = The High Price of Bullion, a Proof of the Depreciation of Bank Notes | location = London | publisher = John Murray }}<ref name=bul>''The High Price of Bullion'' (1810): [[:s:en:The High Price of Bullion | Third edition ("with additions", 1810)]] on [[Image:wikisource-logo.svg|16x16px]] WikiSource.</ref> After his (very early) retirement Ricardo fully developed his interest in economic theory. He read Adam Smith's ''Wealth of Nations'' and subsequently published some articles in newspapers and pamphlets: * —— (1815). ''[[David Ricardo/An Essay on Profits|An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock]]'' (often shortly named ''(An) Essay on Profits''). A few years later his Magnum Opus was first published: * {{cite book | last = Ricardo | first = David | author-link = David Ricardo | author-mask = 2 | date = 1817 | title = On the Principles of Political Economy; And Taxation | location = London | publisher = John Murray | ref = harv }}<ref name=Principles1>First edition of the ''Principles'' (1817) online available at (English) [[Image:wikisource-logo.svg|16x16px]] Wikisource: [[:s:en:On the Principles of Political Economy, and Taxation|''On the Principles of Political Economy, and Taxation'']]</ref> His collected works were first published in 1852 by John Ramsay McCulloch: * {{cite book |last=Ricardo|first=David|editor-last = McCulloch | editor-first = J.R.|editor-link=:w:en:John Ramsay McCulloch |title=The Works of David Ricardo : with a Notice of the Life and Writings of the Author |url=https://preserver.beic.it:443/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE6470169 |year=1852|publisher=John Murray|location=London}}<ref name=works18868>[https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/100340294 1886] and [https://archive.org/details/worksofdavidrica01rica 1888] editions of McCulloch's ''The Works of David Ricardo''.</ref> His works and writings were collected from 1951 onwards by Piero Sraffa, with the collaboration of Maurice Dobb: * {{Cite book |last=Ricardo|first=David| editor1-last = Sraffa | editor1-first = Piero | editor1-link = :w:en:Piero Sraffa |editor2-last = Dobb |editor2-first = Maurice Herbert | editor2-link = :w:en:Maurice Dobb |title=The Works and Correspondence of David Ricardo |date=1981|origyear=1951 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0521285054 |oclc=10251383}} (first paperback edition, in 11 volumes) This is the collection, that is mostly used nowadays: === ''The Works and Correspondence of David Ricardo'' === ''The Works and Correspondence of David Ricardo,'' in 11 volumes (1951-1973) was edited by [[w:en:Piero Sraffa|Piero Sraffa]], with the cooperation of [[w:en:Maurice Dobb|Maurice Dobb]]. It was published for the Royal Economic Society, by Cambridge University Press.<ref name=OLL>See also: [https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/ricardo-the-works-and-correspondence-of-david-ricardo-11-vols-sraffa-ed The Works etc. in 11 vols.] at the Online Library of Liberty (OLL).</ref> * The first volume (1951)<ref name=Works01>[https://archive.org/details/workscorresponde0001rica_n2f1/page/n3/mode/1up Works etc. vol. 1] online available after free registration at [[:w:en:Internet Archive|Internet Archive]]. See also [https://archive.org/details/workscorresponde0001unse/page/n6/mode/1up this copy of Works vol. 1] online (at IA).</ref> holds: ** An "'Introduction" by Sraffa (p. xiii – lxii + 2 tables) ** ''The Principles of Political Economy, and Taxation'' (the edition follows the 3rd edition of 1821)<ref name=principlesed>For other editions of the ''Principles'' see: …..e.g. first edition in ws…</ref> * vol. 2 (1957): Notes on Malthus<ref name=Works02>[https://archive.org/details/workscorresponde0000rica/page/n8/mode/1up Works vol. 2] online.</ref> * vol. 3 : Pamphlets and Papers, 1809–1811<ref name=Works03>vol. 3 online.</ref> * vol. 4 (1962): Pamphlets and Papers, 1815-1823<ref name=Works04>[https://archive.org/details/workscorresponde0004rica Works vol. 4] online.</ref> * vol. 5 (1962): Speeches and Evidence<ref name=Works05>[https://archive.org/details/workscorresponde0000rica_c0y0/page/n8/mode/1up Works vol. 5] online. See also [https://archive.org/details/workscorresponde0005unse/page/n8/mode/1up this copy of Works vol. 5] online (at IA)</ref> * vol. 6 (1962):Letters 1810–1815<ref name=Works06>[https://archive.org/details/workscorresponde0000rica_v5n8/page/n6/mode/1up Works vol. 6] online. See also [https://archive.org/details/workscorresponde0006unse_i2q2/mode/1up this copy of Works vol. 6] online (at IA).</ref> * vol. 7 * vol. 8 * vol. 9 (1962): Letters, July 1821-1823<ref name=Works09>[https://archive.org/details/workscorresponde0009unse Works vol. 9] online. See also [https://archive.org/details/workscorresponde0009rica this copy of Works vol. 9] online (at IA).</ref> * vol. 10 * vol. 11 (1973): General Index<ref name=Works11>[https://archive.org/details/workscorresponde0011rica Works vol. 11 (Index)] online.</ref> == Philosophy and Method == van der Pol makes some remarks on the "philosophical premises" of Ricardo's theory. He says, that among scholars, there is "little disagreement regarding its content, although opinions differ as to the influence of those premises on the various parts of Ricardo's theory."{{sfnp|van der Pol|1981|p=20}} Ricardo does not explicitly address the philosophical foundations of his theory anywhere. It can, however, be inferred from various passages that Ricardo regards the economic process as one governed by the laws of nature. In Ricardo’s theory, the economic process–which encompasses production, distribution and exchange–does not unfold in a random and chaotic manner, but according to an order determined by the laws of nature. These laws form the framework within which economic activities take place.{{sfnp|van der Pol|1981|p=20}} For instance concerning the (fall of the) rate of profit: "This will necessarily be rendered permanent by the laws of nature, which have limited the productive powers of the land."{{sfnp|Ricardo|1817|p=126}} Ricardo's approach implies that there is little room for the analysis of historically specific phenomena and characteristics.{{sfnp|van der Pol|1981|p=20–21}} The first thing that must be mentioned, concerning Ricardo's '''method''' is his strong deductive approach. It has led many scholars to what is sometimes called the "Ricardian vice," or "Ricardo's dream." Writing about the ''Principles'' Huf<ref name=Huf2017>{{cite web | url = https://history.cass.anu.edu.au/news/rents-profits-wages-bicentenary-ricardos-principles-and-making-economics | date = 2017-04-03 | title = "Rents, Profits, Wages": The Bicentenary of Ricardo's Principles and the making of economics | website = Australian National University / School of History }}</ref> says: "The book was notable for its brevity and theoretical, ‘deductive method’, contrasting greatly with Smith’s broad sociological-historical analysis (only aspects of which Ricardo saw himself refining), and to the prophetic appeal of Marx’s Capital or philosophical breadth of J.S. Mill’s Principles, both of which were deeply indebted to Ricardo’s framework." == Additional resources == * [[:w:en:David Ricardo|David Ricardo]] at English [[File:Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg|16px|alt=16 px Wikipedia logo]] Wikipedia * [[:s:en:Author:David Ricardo|David Ricardo]] at English [[Image:wikisource-logo.svg|16x16px]] Wikisource == Sources and further reading == * {{cite book | last = van der Pol | first = Kick | date = 1981 | title = Marx contra Ricardo : De wet van de dalende winstvoet | language = nl | location = Groningen | publisher = Wolters-Noordhoff | ISBN = 90 01 71290 8 | ref = harv }} == References == {{references}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Ricardo, David}} [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:History of Economic Thought]] kgq1725ewm22vzygk0k6ppq2g8w6cu9 1 332004 2840879 2832895 2026-10-17T06:41:13Z U3228742 3005570 /* Emotion Dysregulation research suggestion */ new section 2840879 wikitext text/x-wiki == Heading casing == {| style="float: center; background:transparent;color:inherit;" |- | [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|48px|left]] | {{#if:Leilab23|Hi [[User:Leilab23|Leilab23]].|}} FYI, the recommended [[Wikiversity]] heading style uses [[w:Letter case#Sentence_case|sentence casing]]. For example:<br> <big><big>Self-determination theory</big></big> rather than <big><big>Self-Determination Theory</big></big> Here's an example chapter with correct heading casing: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Growth mindset development|Growth mindset development]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 05:50, 12 September 2026 (UTC) |} <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and subtitle are correctly worded and use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] |2= <!-- Headings --> # See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|heading casing]] <!-- Heading structure --> <!-- 2-level --> # Promising [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development and/or refinement # The structure may be planning too much background info and too little emphasis on integrating the best theory and research about the topic (psychedelic treatment of EDs) # Provide a more descriptive heading for the most important section: Trip to...ED Recovery? <!-- Other ---> # Remove [[wikt:acronym#Noun|acronym]]s from headings <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Insufficient alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings |3= <!-- Overview--> # Good <!-- Scenario --> # A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box with an image at the start of this section # Make the scenario concrete and down-to-earth, using a realistic real-world example of the target psychological phenomenon rather than an abstract description. <!-- Description --> # A description of the problem/topic is planned or presented, but it is overly focused on EDs in general (there are other chapters about this; link to them for further info) and insufficiently focused on EDs and psychedelics <!-- Focus questions --> # Develop closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings # Use open- rather then close-ended focus questions |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> ## Promising development # Overly broad/comprehensive; not sufficiently focused/targetted on the topic; <!-- Scope --> # All planned aspects cannot reasonably be covered within the book chapter word count, so be selective and concentrate on the most important aspects which address the question in the sub-title <!-- Theory and research --> # Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples. # Consider using Studiosity Writing Feedback+ or a similar writing-support service (e.g., Grammarly) to improve the quality of written expression and check for grammatical and spelling errors in the book chapter draft. <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion is underdeveloped # There is no planned mention of psychedelic treatment of EDs # What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions) |5= <!-- Figure --> # Excellent - Relevant figure(s) presented, captioned, and cited <!-- Caption --> # Figure caption(s) could better explain how the image connects to key points being made in the main text <!-- Cite --> # Figure(s) are cited at least once in the main text |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Add in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Consider incorporating additional scenarios, examples, or case studies to illustrate key concepts. These could build on the Overview scenario or introduce new real-world situations in the main body of the chapter to demonstrate how the concepts apply in practice. <!-- Quiz --> # Placeholder use of quiz question(s) and tables # Consider including quiz question(s) and tables about the take-home messages |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Excellent # Very good # Good # Basic # Insufficient # To be developed <!-- Systematic reviews --> # Well done on identifying relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses <!-- APA style --> # Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]: ## capitalisation ## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]] |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## One of two link types provided ### Link to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]] using internal links as shown in Tutorial 2 ### Also link to relevant [[w:|Wikipedia]] pages <!-- External links --> # External links ## Excellent ## Use alphabetical order <!-- User page --> # Basic <!-- Description about self --> # Description about self provided <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # Add link to book chapter |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # Good – two out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other type of contribution is making: #* direct improvements to other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]] # To add direct links to evidence of Wikiversity edits or comments: view the page history, select the version of the page before and after your contributions, click "compare selected revisions", and paste the comparison URL on your user page. For more info, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising social contributions|Making and summarising social contributions]]. This was demonstrated in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing#Social contributions|Tutorial 2]]. }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 05:50, 12 September 2026 (UTC) == Emotion Dysregulation research suggestion == Hello, this is such an interesting topic and I like how you have set it out. You mention emotion dysregulation and it's influence on eating disorders. I wonder if there is a link between comorbid conditions to eating disorders that impact the emotional regulation (for example PTSD). Best of luck with your page. [[User:U3228742|U3228742]] ([[User talk:U3228742|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3228742|contribs]]) 06:41, 17 October 2026 (UTC) 1wy8mpg0wgxutupyx34wlsx4mjr79ui 0 332412 2840734 2839923 2026-10-16T20:23:23Z Scogdill 1331941 /* Anthology */ 2840734 wikitext text/x-wiki =Event= International championship boxing match between British Jem Smith and Australian Frank Slavin on 23 December 1889 in Bruges, Belgium. ==Overview== On 23 December 1889 a boxing match in Bruges did not end with integrity: British Jim Smith was losing, so his supporters entered the ring, pinned Australian Frank Slavin's arms and beat him up. The referee called it a draw to prevent Slavin from being killed, and then fled. The Cork Constitution called it "the Smith-Slavin piece of brutality."<ref>"Mr. Abington." ''Cork Constitution'' 14 January 1890, Tuesday: 7 [of 8], Col. 5b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive''https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001648%2F18900114&page=7&article=099&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same title and p.</ref> ==Logistics== * 23 December 1889, 8:00 a.m. * Stakes: £1,000 ==Related Events== * [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Pelican Club Meeting Smith-Slavin match|Pelican Club Meeting about the Smith-Slavin match]] * the "[[Social Victorians/Boxing/Fracas at the Trocadero|Fracas at the Trocadero]]" ==Who Was Present== # [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Kim Montagu, Viscount Mandeville]] # Jem Smith, British boxer # Frank Slavin, Australian boxer # Lord Rosslyn # Sir M. Sandys # Mr. G. Abington Baird, Smith's manager? and horseman (see description in Anthology) ==Entertainment== ==Anthology== This report from the ''Colonial Standard and Jamaica Despatch'' mentions fighting in the streets (at a corner in Fleet Street) and tosses in an unrelated sentence about an upcoming match between a West Indian and J. L. Sullivan:<blockquote>The disgraceful affair, called by courtesy and [sic] "International Prize Fight," which desecrated the peaceful dignity of the quaint old city of Bruges on Monday morning ought to convince people that there is nothing left to hope for in the Prize Ring. [2c–3a] At eight o'clock in the morning, Jem Smith, self-styled Champion of England, and Frank Slavin, the Australian Champion, with their seconds and parties, met in the grounds of a private gentleman to try conclusions. The "fight" lasted for twenty-five minutes, and was then brought to an abrupt conclusion by the referee declaring it drawn — he would have been killed had he given it to Slavin, who proved to be incomparably the better man. Fourteen rounds were fought in all, during the whole of which time Smith's friends and Smith's seconds worried, and at last assaulted, the Australian, who behaved quite pluckily. It is a disgrace to the name of Englishmen that this brutal scene should go forth to the world. Smith's backers knew well that he had no chance of winning, so they laid their plans to smash Slavin on their own account. It is a wonder that he was not killed — as was reported in Fleet-street at ten o'clock — for Smith's roughs struck and kicked him whenever he came near their corner. Although Lord Mandeville, Lord Rosslyn, Sir M. Sandys, and a few other members of the upper circle, were present at the fight, the bulk of the spectators were the refuse of the gambling rings of London, blackguards and ruffians of the deepest dye. The stakes were £1,000. So great an amount of indignation has been expressed on all sides at the treatment to which the Australian was exposed, that a subscription has been opened up for him. The West Indian, Jackson, is just leaving London for San Francisco, in order to get ready to meet J. L. Sullivan.<ref>"London." ''Colonial Standard and Jamaica Despatch'' 16 January 1890, Thursday: 2 [of 4], Col. 2c–3a [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0004059%2F18900116&page=2&article=019&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, n.p.</ref></blockquote>Reynolds's Newspaper quotes J. L. Sullivan on the Smith-Slavin match:<blockquote>Mr. John L. Sullivan has been speaking his mind on the Smith-Slavin fight to some purpose. "I can't see how an English fighter can be beaten," he said. "This man Smith is little better than a middle-weight, and I haven't the slightest doubt that Slavin beat him fairly. Some people wonder why I did not go to England to fight Smith. Now you can understand why I insisted on meeting him in this country. In England fair play is unknown. The man with the greatest number of "heelers" always wins or saves himself from defeat. Slavin or Jackson will in all probability look for a match with me when they arrive in this country, and I am perfectly willing to meet either or both of them for a proper consideration. I went a big purse, and I am not particular where I fight so long as it is in a club-house. No more law-breaking for me."<ref>"The Recent Prize Fight." ''Reynolds's Newspaper'' 12 January 1890, Sunday: 6 [of 8], Col. 4a–b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000101%2F18900112&page=6&article=053&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote>About Mr G Baird (Mr. Abington) from the ''Cork Constitution'':, referring at the end to the [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Fracas at the Trocadero|Fracas at the Trocadero]] or a restaurant:<blockquote>This well-known sportsman (Mr G Baird) who is occupying an unenviable position owing to his conduct at the Smith-Slavin piece of brutality, is the largest owner of race horses in England. He has no less than 100 horses in training, and though he won £10,000 in stakes last year it is computed that he should have won £25,000 additional to even pay his way. Anent that fight which has caused such indignation in the country, a London music hall was last week the scene of a pretty disturbance. Mr Abington and Lord Mandeville occupied a box during the entertainment, and received, amongst others, Charlie Mitchell, the well-known pugilist; an angry discussion ''re'' the fight ensued, and concluded by the peer measuring himself on the floor from one Mitchell’s "lefts."<ref>"Mr. Abington." ''Cork Constitution'' 14 January 1890, Tuesday: 7 [of 8], Col. 5b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001648%2F18900114&page=7&article=099&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same title and p.</ref></blockquote>After the Pelican Club meetings, Slavin comments:<blockquote>On Wednesday at Westminster Aquarium, F.  P. Slavin, the colonial pugilist, who received such bad treatment at the hands of roughs in his recent prize-fight with Jem Smith, the English "champion," made his first public appearance since the fight. Mr. Frank Hinde, in introducing Slavin, said he would give an exhibition with Cosnett of Birmingham, who seconded him in his fight. Slavin was the gamest man that ever  stepped into a ring, he hoped the audience would rive him a good old English welcome. On appearing on the stage Slavin met with a most enthusiastic reception, and the three rounds' sparring with Cosnett was much appreciated. At the conclusion Slavin, in response to loud calls, bowed his acknowledgments.<ref>"Slavin at the Royal Acquarium." ''Liverpool Weekly Courier'' 11 January 1890, Saturday: 3 [of 8], Col. 5a [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0003067%2F18900111&page=3&article=042&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> == Notes and Questions == # ==References== {{reflist}} 13u7lpmvf4qguv7hwpttwqlknivkhrf 2840740 2840734 2026-10-16T21:20:18Z Scogdill 1331941 2840740 wikitext text/x-wiki =Event= International championship boxing match between British Jem Smith and Australian Frank Slavin on 23 December 1889 in Bruges, Belgium. ==Overview== On 23 December 1889 a boxing match in Bruges did not end with integrity: British Jim Smith was losing, so his supporters entered the ring, pinned Australian Frank Slavin's arms and beat him up. The referee called it a draw to prevent Slavin from being killed, and then fled. The Cork Constitution called it "the Smith-Slavin piece of brutality."<ref>"Mr. Abington." ''Cork Constitution'' 14 January 1890, Tuesday: 7 [of 8], Col. 5b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive''https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001648%2F18900114&page=7&article=099&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same title and p.</ref> ==Logistics== * 23 December 1889, 8:00 a.m. * Stakes: £1,000 ==Related Events== * [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Pelican Club Meeting Smith-Slavin match|Pelican Club Meeting about the Smith-Slavin match]] * the "[[Social Victorians/Boxing/Fracas at the Trocadero|Fracas at the Trocadero]]" ==Who Was Present== # [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Kim Montagu, Viscount Mandeville]] # Jem Smith, British boxer # Frank Slavin, Australian boxer # Lord Rosslyn # Sir M. Sandys # Mr. G. Abington Baird, Smith's manager? and horseman (see description in Anthology) ==Entertainment== ==Anthology== The 10 January 1890 Huddersfield Daily Chronicle says,<blockquote> Mitchell and Lord Mandeville. As an addendum to the important meeting of the Pelican Club committee, on Wednesday, came a gathering of "sports" at the Trocadero, Piccadilly Circus. Lord Mandeville and Mr. Abington., who had been in attendance at Denman-street, were joined by "Pony" Moore, his son-in-law, C. Mitchell, J. Carney (the Birmingham light-weight), J. Baldock, B. Habbijam, C. Bates, &c. The party, who occupied seats in the stalls, naturally discussed things pugilistic, the talk being mostly devoted to the recent international fight between Frank P. Slavin and Jem Smith. " [sic] The Squire's opinions on the matter happened not to coincide with those of Mitchell, and high words were exchanged between the pair. Suddenly the Birmingham boxer jumped up and "went for" Mr. Abington, but did not strike him. Lord Mandeville immediately interposed and asked Mitchell to be quiet, whereupon the latter directed his attention to his lordship, and struck him sharply on the forehead. Carney and Baldock sprang to his lordship's assistance, and Mitchell and "Pony" Moore at once left the building, the whole proceedings not lasting longer than a few seconds. It soon became noised abroad that there was "something up," and a crowd gathered, but the police saw Mitchell and Mr. G. W. Moore safely across the road.<ref>"The Smith-Slavin Fight." ''Huddersfield Daily Chronicle'' 10 January 1890, Friday: 4 [of 4], Col. 6b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0002876%2F18900110&page=4&article=071&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> After the Pelican Club meetings, Slavin comments:<blockquote>On Wednesday at Westminster Aquarium, F.  P. Slavin, the colonial pugilist, who received such bad treatment at the hands of roughs in his recent prize-fight with Jem Smith, the English "champion," made his first public appearance since the fight. Mr. Frank Hinde, in introducing Slavin, said he would give an exhibition with Cosnett of Birmingham, who seconded him in his fight. Slavin was the gamest man that ever  stepped into a ring, he hoped the audience would rive him a good old English welcome. On appearing on the stage Slavin met with a most enthusiastic reception, and the three rounds' sparring with Cosnett was much appreciated. At the conclusion Slavin, in response to loud calls, bowed his acknowledgments.<ref>"Slavin at the Royal Acquarium." ''Liverpool Weekly Courier'' 11 January 1890, Saturday: 3 [of 8], Col. 5a [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0003067%2F18900111&page=3&article=042&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote>Reynolds's Newspaper quotes J. L. Sullivan on the Smith-Slavin match:<blockquote>Mr. John L. Sullivan has been speaking his mind on the Smith-Slavin fight to some purpose. "I can't see how an English fighter can be beaten," he said. "This man Smith is little better than a middle-weight, and I haven't the slightest doubt that Slavin beat him fairly. Some people wonder why I did not go to England to fight Smith. Now you can understand why I insisted on meeting him in this country. In England fair play is unknown. The man with the greatest number of "heelers" always wins or saves himself from defeat. Slavin or Jackson will in all probability look for a match with me when they arrive in this country, and I am perfectly willing to meet either or both of them for a proper consideration. I went a big purse, and I am not particular where I fight so long as it is in a club-house. No more law-breaking for me."<ref>"The Recent Prize Fight." ''Reynolds's Newspaper'' 12 January 1890, Sunday: 6 [of 8], Col. 4a–b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000101%2F18900112&page=6&article=053&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote>About Mr G Baird (Mr. Abington) from the ''Cork Constitution'':, referring at the end to the [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Fracas at the Trocadero|Fracas at the Trocadero]] or a restaurant:<blockquote>This well-known sportsman (Mr G Baird) who is occupying an unenviable position owing to his conduct at the Smith-Slavin piece of brutality, is the largest owner of race horses in England. He has no less than 100 horses in training, and though he won £10,000 in stakes last year it is computed that he should have won £25,000 additional to even pay his way. Anent that fight which has caused such indignation in the country, a London music hall was last week the scene of a pretty disturbance. Mr Abington and Lord Mandeville occupied a box during the entertainment, and received, amongst others, Charlie Mitchell, the well-known pugilist; an angry discussion ''re'' the fight ensued, and concluded by the peer measuring himself on the floor from one Mitchell’s "lefts."<ref>"Mr. Abington." ''Cork Constitution'' 14 January 1890, Tuesday: 7 [of 8], Col. 5b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001648%2F18900114&page=7&article=099&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same title and p.</ref></blockquote>This report from the ''Colonial Standard and Jamaica Despatch'' mentions fighting in the streets (at a corner in Fleet Street) and tosses in an unrelated sentence about an upcoming match between a West Indian and J. L. Sullivan:<blockquote>The disgraceful affair, called by courtesy and [sic] "International Prize Fight," which desecrated the peaceful dignity of the quaint old city of Bruges on Monday morning ought to convince people that there is nothing left to hope for in the Prize Ring. [2c–3a] At eight o'clock in the morning, Jem Smith, self-styled Champion of England, and Frank Slavin, the Australian Champion, with their seconds and parties, met in the grounds of a private gentleman to try conclusions. The "fight" lasted for twenty-five minutes, and was then brought to an abrupt conclusion by the referee declaring it drawn — he would have been killed had he given it to Slavin, who proved to be incomparably the better man. Fourteen rounds were fought in all, during the whole of which time Smith's friends and Smith's seconds worried, and at last assaulted, the Australian, who behaved quite pluckily. It is a disgrace to the name of Englishmen that this brutal scene should go forth to the world. Smith's backers knew well that he had no chance of winning, so they laid their plans to smash Slavin on their own account. It is a wonder that he was not killed — as was reported in Fleet-street at ten o'clock — for Smith's roughs struck and kicked him whenever he came near their corner. Although Lord Mandeville, Lord Rosslyn, Sir M. Sandys, and a few other members of the upper circle, were present at the fight, the bulk of the spectators were the refuse of the gambling rings of London, blackguards and ruffians of the deepest dye. The stakes were £1,000. So great an amount of indignation has been expressed on all sides at the treatment to which the Australian was exposed, that a subscription has been opened up for him. The West Indian, Jackson, is just leaving London for San Francisco, in order to get ready to meet J. L. Sullivan.<ref>"London." ''Colonial Standard and Jamaica Despatch'' 16 January 1890, Thursday: 2 [of 4], Col. 2c–3a [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0004059%2F18900116&page=2&article=019&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, n.p.</ref></blockquote> == Notes and Questions == # ==References== {{reflist}} 2y2gpasj6mrgsy1hd6n83ikb27p6azk 0 332413 2840757 2839909 2026-10-16T23:12:24Z Scogdill 1331941 2840757 wikitext text/x-wiki =Event= Meetings at the Pelican Club about the Smith-Slavin match ==Overview== Meetings at the London Pelican Club, which had members associated with boxing, to hear about the [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Smith-Slavin 1889-12-23|Smith-Slavin match]] in Bruges, Belgium, on 23 December 1890. ==Logistics== * Tuesday afternoon, when people were questioned * Wednesday ==Related Events== * The [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Smith-Slavin 1889-12-23|Smith-Slavin Fight]], 23 December 1889 * The Pelican Club Meetings * The [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Fracas at the Trocadero|Fracas at the Trocadero]] ==Who Was Present== === Tuesday Afternoon === # The Marquis of Queensberry # Sir John D. Astley, president # Captain Archibald Drummond # Kim Montagu, Viscount Mandeville # Mr. G. A. Baird ("Mr. Abington"), Smith's backer # Mr. Fleming, Smith's manager # Frank Slavin ===Wednesday=== # Sir John D. Astley, president # Marquis of Queensberry # Captain Archibald Drummond # Sir W. Gordon-Cumming # Mr. Robert Martin # Mr. John Corlett # Mr. Walter Dickson # Mr. Cecil Raleigh (Hon. Sec.) # Mr. Charles Hawtrey ==Entertainment== ==Anthology== Newspaper articles are in chronological order by date of publication in the newspaper cited. So many newspapers printed reports, and so many of those reports are word-for-word the same, in all or in part, the following is a selection hoping to be representative rather than comprehensive or complete. The Thursday, 9 January 1890 ''Evening News and Post'', first-page, above-the-fold story:<blockquote>Last night a meeting of the members of the Pelican Club was held to receive and consider the report of the committee which had been appointed to inquire into the circumstances of the disgraceful scenes at Bruges on the occaaion of the fight between Jem Smith, Champion of England, and Frank P. Slavin. Champion of Australia. There was a crowded attendance. Sir J. D. Astley presided, and amongst those present were the Marquis of Queensberry, Viscount Mandeville, Lord Chursten, Capt. Archibald Drummond, Col. Brabazon, Major Winter, Capt. de Wyndt [?], Hon. T. Willoughby, Messrs. John Corlett, Walter Dickson, Hugh Drummond Walter Pallant, George Edwardes, Charles Harris, David James, Robert Martin, Arthur Roberts, [J.?] L. Shine, C. Bertram, C. Coborn, C. Collette, W. '''Cosier'''. A. Crocker. C. Denby. A. de Vim-Smith,  C. Disraeli, C. H. Ilawtrey, Headline, C.  B. B. Johnson, W. J. A. Knowles, J. F. M'Adano,  T. Lumley. Cecil Raleigh (tam. secretary), W. E.  Shine. J. M. Meal, S. Smith, E. K  Ellis. A. E. Welts of aletlq. and  W. K. Wick.  The Chairman, opening the proceedings, said  that the reama a the general meeting being  summoned was in the interests of the noble art,  and to endeavour to find out who brought the  roughs to the ringside, and who provided the funds  for the purpose. Three or four committee meetings  had been held, and the result would be laid  them. Many melt say they ought to have  dent more, but he could them that  the committee had dune their best to  out sad thorough:) , sift matters to the bottom.  nom who would pay a sufficient stun for the  purpose is view would undoubtedly keep the thing  as dark as possible. There was not use slightest  question that money flowed freely, and that roughs  were fintbcoming. testimony had been  brought before the committee, but he regretted to  say that he did not think all had spoken truly. The  public were oaly too to imagine wrong  upon the stateliest circumstantial evidence, but  he was certain that they could sot be trusted  judging matters of wrong-doing, and they were  net almqs correct. This was erten the case in  racing as well as in other sports, which, he need  hardly tell them, he could personally vouch for.  was to be done was to put the world at large  in lull knowledge ot the disgraceful proceedings  which occurred at Bruges in the course of the late  fight. In the first Mace, a sub-committee had  been formed, who had submitted to the fu.l coatarmee  a resolution which had been drawn up.  COMM - MILES r.  The conou.tteo's report oaf thyn read as  lohows :  bientlemen—Vou have been called together ia  order that the committee, may loam you of the  with regard to the recent Hue fight  between Frank Slaton and Jens Smith, his  hardly necessary to remind you that the Pelican  Club, as the Pelican Club, has nothing whatever  to do uith prize lighting. Individual members of  this or of any other club are, of course, permed,  fete to pabron-se tights it they desire  to do so. But the Pelican Club, in its  corporate capacity, does not cavern itself  with theta in any way, and does not desire,  as it has obviously no right, to interiere with  them or whatever may pertain to therm U.  fortunately. however, it appeared that in conneetioa  with the tight betwees Sisvin and Smith  certain things occurred ot which it became the duty  ist the Peoc,.n to take not.ou And, to beg it  with, Mr. John Fleming. an official of the club,  was present in the cauacity of Smith's manager.  The report 01 the fight reached London, as you  are aware, early on kitooday. December 2.3. No  sooner was attention called to the iact that Slants  had treated w.th brutality, which every mainbee  of this club and every honest Lnglishinan  cannot toostrongly reprehend, than a special meeting  of the committee was convened by telegraph.  The honorary secretary in the meantime wrote a  letter to the papers repudiating any connection of  the Pelican i_lub with the tight, and at the meeting  ist the committee Mr. ilesu.ng was called to appear  in person. lie was at once intormed that he was  suspended from the performance of his USILIi duties  here, and be was requested to state to writing the  nature of his association with the tight in question,  and what he kaew regarding it. bine.: that day  the committee have sat many times and for many  hones. ate in receipt of a large mass 01  correspondence—some very emphatic, - but,  tunateiyanonynsons. They have examined on several  occasions a number ot eye-witnesses of the fight,  and they are, they believe, in lull possession of  every fact of importance in connection with the  fight. With regard to Mr. Fleming, his statement  practically amounts to this : The preliminaries of  the fight between Slavin and Smith were concluded  on September 16. 1889. that is, long anterior to the  glove contest between Smith and Jackson. and  'although Mr. Fleming determined to sever his connection  with Smith aster the glove tight, he felt  himself in duty bound to carry the fight with Slavin  through to a conclusion, as his last action in the  capacity of Smith's manager, and in this the committee  did not consider him to blame. Smith went  into training at Newmarket, where Mr. Fleming  saw Smith occasionally, and meantime Mr. Fleeting  went to Belgium, in connection with Mr.  Dunning of the S;artimen newspaper, they made  arrangements that the fight should be sought on  the private ground of a gentleman near Bruges,  and with that gentleman they made the following  agreement. [This is to the effect that they underno  rough element should be present, no noise  should be made, and it anything untoward  should occur they should indemnify the gentleman  question against all damages and pay any  expenses which might be paid by him.] It is of  course impossible to say what is passing is the  mind of any man, but it seems fair and reasonable  to assume that neither Mr. Fleming not Mr. Dunning  contemplated the presence of roughs when  thr, signed the agreLment. Subsequently, however,  • rumour did reach Mr. Fleming that both  sides had organized what is known as a "corner,"  and be went straight to his partner in the agreement.  Mr. Dunning. and him what he had  heard. Mr. Chinning informed him that be also  had beard similar reports. but he had been able to  assure himself that Slavin at least bad no intention  of employing roughs and, as we all know, Mr.  Dunning s intormation has been justified by facts.  Mr. Flemming then sought Smith, and Stank  said that as long as Slavin did not have •  "corner" be(bmithYdid not want one. Mr. Fleming.  however, continued to feel some on the  subject, and took every possible precaution to keep  the a secret. NVhether his effects were  intentionally thwarted cannot be said, but on the  morning of the fight there were present in  a number of roughs who obviously Lad not come  all that way tor their own diversion, and  who could not have paid their own way  thither had they so desired. Mr. Fleming had  kept himself steadily aloof from Smith's seconds up  to this point. He crossed to Belgium with several  members of thus club ; with them he remained,  and with them he returned. When, however, he  found the rough element that he had feared was  actually in Brugues, he apprised the owner of the  ground where the fight was to take place of this  tact. He said plainly, " The roughs are her,; it  is entirely for you to say whether you will allow  the fight to proceed or not.' The gentleman in  question replied that he would let the fight go  on, but if there wan any row be would send for  the police instantly. Now this is not the simple  unsubstantial explanation of Mr. Fleming. These  facts have been verified most completely by independent  winner= el and character, whoes  words it is impossible se doubt. These witnesses  have spoken, moreswer, very fully of Mr. Fleming 's  conduct in ths natter, also of the personal  he received of his absenting himself from  Smith's party at the ring and completely din.  awe:a:lag himself Smith's party altogether.  The committee have sith,ected Mr. Fleming 's  statement, and his whole actions so far  they can inferno themselves of them, apart  kens his statement. te the most searching inquiry,  and as • result, at the committee bed cis  January 1. when scarcely a single member a s.  absent, it was proposed be Mr. Burton ar.d seconded  Mr. Beckett, " That ibis committee, after bearing  Mr. 1 , leming's statement. and the evidence of  gentlemen of undoubted character who were present  at ring side. arc of °piston that Mr.  / leaning is in no way responsible for the ruffianism  that took place at the Smith and fight."  This resolution was carried onanimomily. it is  with very great resort that the committee find it  their duty to that in the course of their  investigation the name of a member of this club.  Mr. li. Baird. has frequently been enenikmed. The  committee have most anxiously considered  whether the condinet of Mr. Baird ought properly  to come within the scope of their inquiry. but in the  of 17. they bare telt it necessary to proceed.  [This ride is the crdinary dub rule, which provides  that if the ef • member the  crab • the  , boos /MN le ma epos him se Tim  mutes would kid great satisfaction if they  explicitly that any gives man had actually  paid themes who betrayed so disgmeetally in  carrier but such a is very difficult  of absolute proof. The committee do nut  pate to Mr. Baird that be paid the :he may  not have known they were going to the fight at all.  But d does appear that be did make use to Slavin  of language unbecoming a gentlensaa member  of this club. The varied and entirely independent  evidence before the committee on this point is absolutely  coeclueive.  dlt this point the report ceased, sad Sir lobs  Astley informed the meeting that, in view of  eyadinoi they bad takes, the following resolutlon  had been unanimously carried by the committee:  That the committee, while regretting Mr.  Bawds individual conduct at the light. do not  say evidence hi been brought before them to  justify them in finding that Mr. Baird was in any  way responsible tor the appearance of the roughs  at ring aide in Belgium who prevested the  fight from being fought to a conclusion."  Mr. Clatirles Hawtrey at tams stage asloed a  Dumber of quesuons, which were answered by  the _  Queensberry, somewhat to the surprise of  his brother anarsitteensen. then and said that  it was with a mrtam amount of and  pain that be proposed:  " That the isiquiry Mr. 13airds conduct  be continued from the point where the OD a Ins aloe  ha‘e left ofr"  Mr. Jibe pc ieseed tbe Mien of  Lord Queensberry, who, he remarked, was a  member of the committee which bed adopted the  report and previous resolution. He (Mr. Corlett)  did not think any funher action was notified, seeing  what evidence they hod had before them and  the MlScuhy of obtaining evidence. in. view of the  tact that they were a legal body, and could  no take evulenos on oath.  Mmor N proposed. and asked Lard Qiseettsberry  to accept, as as amendment. the following :  Resolved that the conduct of Mr. Baird be referred  back to the committee for further consideration.  and they be instructed to report to the  general meeting to be convened one month front  this date.  The committee. with the exception of Lord  Queensberry, regarded this a; a distinct vote of  want of confidence.  Captains Drummond and Mr. Hugh Drummond  having spoken, a show of hands taken. from  which it was obvious that the majority of the members  accepted the amendment of Major Noah.  Sir John Astley then announced that the committee  would resign, and that day fortnight anotlicr  general meeting would be held, when the members  of the club would be asked to oppoint another  committee. A good deal of discussion took place.  and many gentlemen protested against the vote  being regarded as one of want of confidence in the  corainittee.—ln reply, the committee and secretary  pointed out the difficulty of obtaining an  liki. definite '''evidence''' in such a ease as  present. —The matter, taerefore, now stands over  a formglat.<ref>"The Smith-Slavin Fight. Who Paid the Roughs? — Resignation of the Pelican Club Committee." ''Evening News''(London) 9 January 1890, Thursday: 1 [of 4], Col. 2a–3a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive''https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0003283%2F18900109&page=1&article=007&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Evening News and Post'', n.p.</ref></blockquote>The Thursday, 9 January 1890 ''Evening Star'':<blockquote>The proceedings at the special general meeting of the Pelican Club yesterday evening in connection with the late Championship Fight at Bruges were of a very  lively nature, and it looks as if some of the members were rather startled when the conduct of Mr. (Abington) Baird at the fight was called in question. The Committee presented a report exonerating both Mr. G. A. Baird (Smith’s backer) and Mr. John Fleming (Smith’s manager), but the meeting seemed to think that due inquiry had not been made into the conduct of Mr. Baird, and after a heated discussion referred back that part of the report relating to him. The fat was then in the fire, and the committee thereupon resigned in a body, and a general meeting will be held on the 22nd inst. to elect a new committee. The proceedings from the first were of an exciting nature, and great confusion prevailed at the finish, the meeting dissolving without the usual vote of thanks to the chairman. Mr. John Corlett could not see that anything had transpired to incriminate the "Squire," but even the endeavours of the proprietor of ''Pink 'Un'' to "make things pleasant" were of no avail, and the Marquis of Queensbury and his friends carried the day. These pugilists and their “noble" patrons seem to be going from bad to worse. After the Pelican meeting it appears that there was a fracas in the Trocadero Music Hall, in which Lord Mandeville, Mr. Abington, Charley Mitchell, "Pony" Moore, Jack Baldock (such names mingled !), and two or three other professional boxers were engaged [sic] It appears that "The Squire's" opinions on the late fight  happened not to coincide with those of Mitchell, and high words were exchanged between the pair. Suddenly the Birmingham boxer jumped up and "went for" Mr. Abington, but did not strike him. Lord Mandeville immediately interposed and asked Mitchell to be quiet, whereupon the latter directed his attention to his lordship, and struck him sharply on the forehead. The ''Sportsman'' adds that Carney and Bates then sprang to the assistance of his lordship, and Mitchell and Moore left the building, but it is thought this will not be the end of the affair.<ref>"Sporting Twinkles." ''Evening Star'' 9 January 1890, Thursday: 3 [of 4], Col. 3c [of 5]. ''British Newspaper Archive''https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001707%2F18900109&page=3&article=033&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Star of the East'', p. 3.</ref></blockquote> The Saturday, 11 January 1890, ''Liverpool Weekly Courier'':<blockquote>The committee of the Pelican Club (Sir John Astley in the chair) was occupied for many hours in investigating the circumstances of the recent disgraceful prize-fight near Bruges. Among the witnesess examined were Mr. Vezey (the referee), Mr. G. Abington Baird, Lord Mandeville, and Slavin. The evidence of the latter was so favourable to Mr. Baird that this gentleman was exonerated from the charge of having aided, abetted, or paid the Birmingham roughs who assisted the contest with knuckle-dusters and blows. It would seem that their services had been requisitioned by others for the especial benefit of an obnoxious pugilist, who did not, however, put in an appearance. On Wednesday a special general meeting of the members of the Pelican Cub was held at the clubhouse, Denman-street, Piccadilly, for the purpose of considering the report of the committee of proceedings in connection with the recent prize-fight between Smith and Slavin. The meeting was private, but the following account of the proceedings was officially furnished:— John Astley, Bart., presided. The report of the committee stated that the Pelican Club, as a club, had nothing whatever to do with the prize-fight. Unfortunately, however, it appeared that in connection with the fight certain things occurred of which it became the duty of the club to take notice. To begin with, Mr. John Fleming, an official of the club, was present in the capacity of Smith's manager. The report of the fight reached London early on Monday, December 23d. No sooner was attention called to the fact that Slavin had been treated with brutality, which every member of the club and every honest Englishman could not too strongly condemn, than a special meeting of the committee was convened. The hon. secretary in the meantime wrote a letter to the papers repudiating any connection of the Pelican Club with the fight, and at a meeting of the committee Mr. Fleming was called to appear in person. He was at once informed that he was suspended from the performance of his usual duties at the club, and was requested to state in writing the nature of his association with the fight and what he knew of it. Since that day the committee had sat many times. They had been in receipt of a mass of correspondence, some very emphatic, but unfortunately anonymous. They had examined on several occasions a number of eyewitnesses of the fight, and were, they believed, in full possession of every fact of importance with regard to Mr. Fleming. His statement practically amounted to this, the preliminaries of the fight between Slavin and Smith were concluded on September 16th last, long anterior to the glove contest between Smith and Jackson, and although Mr. Fleming determined to sever his connection with Smith after the glove fight, he felt himself in duty bound to carry the fight with Slavin through to a conclusion. In this the committee did not consider him to blame. It seemed, furthermore, only fair and reasonable to assume that Mr. Fleming never contemplated the presence of the roughs when the agreement was signed. Subsequently, however, a rumour did reach Mr. Fleming that both sides had organised what is known as a "corner," and he took every possible precaution to keep the place selected a secret. Whether his efforts were intentionally thwarted could not be said, but on the morning of the fight there were present in Bruges a number of roughs, who obviously had not come all that way for their own diversion, and who could not have paid their own way thither, had they so desired. Mr. Fleming, on discovering this, informed the owner of the ground of the fact. That gentleman said he would let the fight go on, but if there was any row he would send for the police instantly. The committee had consequently arrived at the conclusion that Mr. Fleming was in no way responsible for the ruffianism that took place. The committee, however, regretted to state that in the course of their investigations the name of a member of the club, Mr. G. W. Baird, was frequently mentioned. The committee had most anxiously considered whether the conduct of Mr. Baird ought properly to come within the scope of their inquiry, but in face of the club rules they felt it necessary to proceed. The committee would feel great satisfaction if they could state explicitly that any given man had actually paid the men who behaved so disgracefully in Smith's "corner,"  but such a transaction was very difficult of absolute proof. The committee did not impute to Mr. Baird that he paid the ruffians in question. He  may not have known they were going to the fight at all. But it did appear that he made use to Slavin of language unbecoming a gentleman and a member of that club. The evidence before the committee on this point was absolutely conclusive. Sir John Ashley informed the meeting that in view of the evidence they had taken the committee had unanimously resolved that while regretting Mr. Baird's conduct at the fight, they did not find [Col. c–a] that any evidence had been brought before them to justify them in finding Mr. Baird was in any way responsible for the appearance of the roughs at the ring ride who prevented the fight from being fought to a conclusion. The Marquis of Queensberry moved an amendment to the resolution that the inquiry into Mr. Baird's conduct be continued from the point where the committee have left off[.] Mr. J. Corlett protested against the action of Lord Queensberry, who was a member of the committee which had adopted the report and resolution. Mr. Noah proposed that the conduct of Mr. Baird be referred back to the committee for further consideration, and that they be instructed to report to a general meeting to be convened one month from this date. The committee, with the  exception of Lord Queensberry, regarded this as a vote of want of confidence. On a show of hands being taken it was obvious that the majority of the members accepted the amendment of Mr. Noah. Sir John Astley then announzed [sic?] that the commmittee would resign, and the meeting was adjourned for a fortnight.<ref>"The Slavin-Smith Prize Fight. Action of the Pelican Club." ''Liverpool Weekly Courier'' 11 January 1890, Saturday: 3 [of 8], Col. 4b–5a [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0003067%2F18900111&page=3&article=042&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote>The Sunday, 12 January 1890, ''Reynolds's Newspaper'' has a longish report on the Pelican Club meeting and the fracas at the Trocadero:<blockquote>A special general meeting of the Pelican Club, convened by the committee with reference to the Smith-Slavin fight, near Bruges, drew a very full attendance of members. Sir John Astley (the president) took the chair, and was supported by the Marquis of Queensberry, Captain Archibald Drummond, Sir W. Gordon-Cumming, Mr. Robert Martin, Mr. John Corlett, Mr. Walter Dickson, and others, including Mr. Cecil Raleigh (hon. sec.) A resolution of the committee, stating that while they censured the language used by Mr. Abington Baird at the fight, yet they could not on the evidence before them connect him with the hiring of roughs, was first read; and then the opposition was led by Mr. Charles Hawtrey, who put some most pertinent questions to the Chairman. An unexpected mine was immediately afterwards sprung by Lord Queensberry, who declared that as a member of the committee he agreed with the decision of that body, yet nevertheless as a private individual he thought further investigation desirable.<p> Some very strong remarks from Mr. John Corlett and a forcible speech by Mr. Hugh Drummond caused great excitement. Finally, Major Noah proposed, and the Marquis of Queensberry seconded, the following amendment: — "That this inquiry into Mr. Baird's conduct be referred back to the committee with instructions to report to a general meeting to be convened one month from date." Amid intense commotion this was carried by a majority of at least three to one. Some desultory speaking followed, and then Sir John Astley announced that the amendment would be taken by the committee as a vote of censure, and that, consequently, he and his colleagues, would resign there and then. This determination was adhered to, despite the vehement protests of those who had voted with the majority that they had every confidence in the committee, but only wished for further inquiry into Mr. Baird's conduct.<ref>"The Recent Prize Fight." ''Reynolds's Newspaper'' 12 January 1890, Sunday: 6 [of 8], Col. 4a–b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000101%2F18900112&page=6&article=053&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote>This report is from the Sunday, 12 January 1890, ''Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper'':<blockquote>A meeting of the committee of the Pelican club was held on Tuesday afternoon, Sir John D. Astley presiding, to consider the action of certain parties in connection with the brutality displayed by some hired ruffians at the recent championship prize fight between Jem Smith and Frank Slavin at Bruges, and among the members present were the Marquis of Queensberry and Captain Hugh Drummond. Lord Mandeville, Mr. G. A. Baird ("Mr. Abington"), Mr. Fleming, Frank Slavin, and others were examined, and, after a long discussion, it was decided by the committee to exonerate "Mr. Abington" (Smith's backer) and Mr. Fleming (Smith's manager) from all blame. A special general meeting of the club, convened for Wednesday, drew a very full attendance of members. Sir John Astley (the president) took the chair, and was supported by the Marquis of Queensberry, Captain Archibald Drummond, Sir W. Gordon-Cumming, Mr. Robert Martin, Mr. John Corlett, Mr. Walter Dickson, and others, including Mr. Cecil Raleigh, the honorary secretary. A resolution of the committee, stating that while they censured the language used by Mr. Abington Baird at the fight, yet they could not on the evidence before them connect him with the hiring of roughs, was first read; and then the opposition was led by Mr. Charles Hawtrey, who put some most pertinent questions to the chairman. An unexpected mine was immediately afterwards sprung by Lord Queensberry, who declared that as a member of the committee he agreed with the decision of that body, yet nevertheless as a private individual he thought further investigation desirable.<ref>"The Pelican Club and the Fight." ''Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper'' 12 January 1890, Sunday: 1 [of 12], Col. 5a [of 5]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000079%2F18900112&page=1&article=005&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, n.p.</ref></blockquote> == Notes and Questions == # ==References== {{reflist}} 81c24urn182z5ct42pm5qgxusmawxjg 2840760 2840757 2026-10-16T23:16:31Z Scogdill 1331941 /* Anthology */ 2840760 wikitext text/x-wiki =Event= Meetings at the Pelican Club about the Smith-Slavin match ==Overview== Meetings at the London Pelican Club, which had members associated with boxing, to hear about the [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Smith-Slavin 1889-12-23|Smith-Slavin match]] in Bruges, Belgium, on 23 December 1890. ==Logistics== * Tuesday afternoon, when people were questioned * Wednesday ==Related Events== * The [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Smith-Slavin 1889-12-23|Smith-Slavin Fight]], 23 December 1889 * The Pelican Club Meetings * The [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Fracas at the Trocadero|Fracas at the Trocadero]] ==Who Was Present== === Tuesday Afternoon === # The Marquis of Queensberry # Sir John D. Astley, president # Captain Archibald Drummond # Kim Montagu, Viscount Mandeville # Mr. G. A. Baird ("Mr. Abington"), Smith's backer # Mr. Fleming, Smith's manager # Frank Slavin ===Wednesday=== # Sir John D. Astley, president # Marquis of Queensberry # Captain Archibald Drummond # Sir W. Gordon-Cumming # Mr. Robert Martin # Mr. John Corlett # Mr. Walter Dickson # Mr. Cecil Raleigh (Hon. Sec.) # Mr. Charles Hawtrey ==Entertainment== ==Anthology== Newspaper articles are in chronological order by date of publication in the newspaper cited. So many newspapers printed reports, and so many of those reports are word-for-word the same, in all or in part, the following is a selection hoping to be representative rather than comprehensive or complete. The Thursday, 9 January 1890 ''Evening News and Post'', first-page, above-the-fold story:<blockquote>Last night a meeting of the members of the Pelican Club was held to receive and consider the report of the committee which had been appointed to inquire into the circumstances of the disgraceful scenes at Bruges on the occaaion of the fight between Jem Smith, Champion of England, and Frank P. Slavin. Champion of Australia. There was a crowded attendance. Sir J. D. Astley presided, and amongst those present were the Marquis of Queensberry, Viscount Mandeville, Lord Chursten, Capt. Archibald Drummond, Col. Brabazon, Major Winter, Capt. de Wyndt [?], Hon. T. Willoughby, Messrs. John Corlett, Walter Dickson, Hugh Drummond, Walter Pallant, George Edwardes, Charles Harris, David James, Robert Martin, Arthur Roberts, [J.?] L. Shine, C. Bertram, C. Coborn, C. Collette, W. '''Cosier'''. A. Crocker. C. Denby. A. de Vim-Smith,  C. Disraeli, C. H. Ilawtrey, Headline, C.  B. B. Johnson, W. J. A. Knowles, J. F. M'Adano,  T. Lumley. Cecil Raleigh (tam. secretary), W. E.  Shine. J. M. Meal, S. Smith, E. K  Ellis. A. E. Welts of aletlq. and  W. K. Wick.  The Chairman, opening the proceedings, said  that the reama a the general meeting being  summoned was in the interests of the noble art,  and to endeavour to find out who brought the  roughs to the ringside, and who provided the funds  for the purpose. Three or four committee meetings  had been held, and the result would be laid  them. Many melt say they ought to have  dent more, but he could them that  the committee had dune their best to  out sad thorough:) , sift matters to the bottom.  nom who would pay a sufficient stun for the  purpose is view would undoubtedly keep the thing  as dark as possible. There was not use slightest  question that money flowed freely, and that roughs  were fintbcoming. testimony had been  brought before the committee, but he regretted to  say that he did not think all had spoken truly. The  public were oaly too to imagine wrong  upon the stateliest circumstantial evidence, but  he was certain that they could sot be trusted  judging matters of wrong-doing, and they were  net almqs correct. This was erten the case in  racing as well as in other sports, which, he need  hardly tell them, he could personally vouch for.  was to be done was to put the world at large  in lull knowledge ot the disgraceful proceedings  which occurred at Bruges in the course of the late  fight. In the first Mace, a sub-committee had  been formed, who had submitted to the fu.l coatarmee  a resolution which had been drawn up.  COMM - MILES r.  The conou.tteo's report oaf thyn read as  lohows :  bientlemen—Vou have been called together ia  order that the committee, may loam you of the  with regard to the recent Hue fight  between Frank Slaton and Jens Smith, his  hardly necessary to remind you that the Pelican  Club, as the Pelican Club, has nothing whatever  to do uith prize lighting. Individual members of  this or of any other club are, of course, permed,  fete to pabron-se tights it they desire  to do so. But the Pelican Club, in its  corporate capacity, does not cavern itself  with theta in any way, and does not desire,  as it has obviously no right, to interiere with  them or whatever may pertain to therm U.  fortunately. however, it appeared that in conneetioa  with the tight betwees Sisvin and Smith  certain things occurred ot which it became the duty  ist the Peoc,.n to take not.ou And, to beg it  with, Mr. John Fleming. an official of the club,  was present in the cauacity of Smith's manager.  The report 01 the fight reached London, as you  are aware, early on kitooday. December 2.3. No  sooner was attention called to the iact that Slants  had treated w.th brutality, which every mainbee  of this club and every honest Lnglishinan  cannot toostrongly reprehend, than a special meeting  of the committee was convened by telegraph.  The honorary secretary in the meantime wrote a  letter to the papers repudiating any connection of  the Pelican i_lub with the tight, and at the meeting  ist the committee Mr. ilesu.ng was called to appear  in person. lie was at once intormed that he was  suspended from the performance of his USILIi duties  here, and be was requested to state to writing the  nature of his association with the tight in question,  and what he kaew regarding it. bine.: that day  the committee have sat many times and for many  hones. ate in receipt of a large mass 01  correspondence—some very emphatic, - but,  tunateiyanonynsons. They have examined on several  occasions a number ot eye-witnesses of the fight,  and they are, they believe, in lull possession of  every fact of importance in connection with the  fight. With regard to Mr. Fleming, his statement  practically amounts to this : The preliminaries of  the fight between Slavin and Smith were concluded  on September 16. 1889. that is, long anterior to the  glove contest between Smith and Jackson. and  'although Mr. Fleming determined to sever his connection  with Smith aster the glove tight, he felt  himself in duty bound to carry the fight with Slavin  through to a conclusion, as his last action in the  capacity of Smith's manager, and in this the committee  did not consider him to blame. Smith went  into training at Newmarket, where Mr. Fleming  saw Smith occasionally, and meantime Mr. Fleeting  went to Belgium, in connection with Mr.  Dunning of the S;artimen newspaper, they made  arrangements that the fight should be sought on  the private ground of a gentleman near Bruges,  and with that gentleman they made the following  agreement. [This is to the effect that they underno  rough element should be present, no noise  should be made, and it anything untoward  should occur they should indemnify the gentleman  question against all damages and pay any  expenses which might be paid by him.] It is of  course impossible to say what is passing is the  mind of any man, but it seems fair and reasonable  to assume that neither Mr. Fleming not Mr. Dunning  contemplated the presence of roughs when  thr, signed the agreLment. Subsequently, however,  • rumour did reach Mr. Fleming that both  sides had organized what is known as a "corner,"  and be went straight to his partner in the agreement.  Mr. Dunning. and him what he had  heard. Mr. Chinning informed him that be also  had beard similar reports. but he had been able to  assure himself that Slavin at least bad no intention  of employing roughs and, as we all know, Mr.  Dunning s intormation has been justified by facts.  Mr. Flemming then sought Smith, and Stank  said that as long as Slavin did not have •  "corner" be(bmithYdid not want one. Mr. Fleming.  however, continued to feel some on the  subject, and took every possible precaution to keep  the a secret. NVhether his effects were  intentionally thwarted cannot be said, but on the  morning of the fight there were present in  a number of roughs who obviously Lad not come  all that way tor their own diversion, and  who could not have paid their own way  thither had they so desired. Mr. Fleming had  kept himself steadily aloof from Smith's seconds up  to this point. He crossed to Belgium with several  members of thus club ; with them he remained,  and with them he returned. When, however, he  found the rough element that he had feared was  actually in Brugues, he apprised the owner of the  ground where the fight was to take place of this  tact. He said plainly, " The roughs are her,; it  is entirely for you to say whether you will allow  the fight to proceed or not.' The gentleman in  question replied that he would let the fight go  on, but if there wan any row be would send for  the police instantly. Now this is not the simple  unsubstantial explanation of Mr. Fleming. These  facts have been verified most completely by independent  winner= el and character, whoes  words it is impossible se doubt. These witnesses  have spoken, moreswer, very fully of Mr. Fleming 's  conduct in ths natter, also of the personal  he received of his absenting himself from  Smith's party at the ring and completely din.  awe:a:lag himself Smith's party altogether.  The committee have sith,ected Mr. Fleming 's  statement, and his whole actions so far  they can inferno themselves of them, apart  kens his statement. te the most searching inquiry,  and as • result, at the committee bed cis  January 1. when scarcely a single member a s.  absent, it was proposed be Mr. Burton ar.d seconded  Mr. Beckett, " That ibis committee, after bearing  Mr. 1 , leming's statement. and the evidence of  gentlemen of undoubted character who were present  at ring side. arc of °piston that Mr.  / leaning is in no way responsible for the ruffianism  that took place at the Smith and fight."  This resolution was carried onanimomily. it is  with very great resort that the committee find it  their duty to that in the course of their  investigation the name of a member of this club.  Mr. li. Baird. has frequently been enenikmed. The  committee have most anxiously considered  whether the condinet of Mr. Baird ought properly  to come within the scope of their inquiry. but in the  of 17. they bare telt it necessary to proceed.  [This ride is the crdinary dub rule, which provides  that if the ef • member the  crab • the  , boos /MN le ma epos him se Tim  mutes would kid great satisfaction if they  explicitly that any gives man had actually  paid themes who betrayed so disgmeetally in  carrier but such a is very difficult  of absolute proof. The committee do nut  pate to Mr. Baird that be paid the :he may  not have known they were going to the fight at all.  But d does appear that be did make use to Slavin  of language unbecoming a gentlensaa member  of this club. The varied and entirely independent  evidence before the committee on this point is absolutely  coeclueive.  dlt this point the report ceased, sad Sir lobs  Astley informed the meeting that, in view of  eyadinoi they bad takes, the following resolutlon  had been unanimously carried by the committee:  That the committee, while regretting Mr.  Bawds individual conduct at the light. do not  say evidence hi been brought before them to  justify them in finding that Mr. Baird was in any  way responsible tor the appearance of the roughs  at ring aide in Belgium who prevested the  fight from being fought to a conclusion."  Mr. Clatirles Hawtrey at tams stage asloed a  Dumber of quesuons, which were answered by  the _  Queensberry, somewhat to the surprise of  his brother anarsitteensen. then and said that  it was with a mrtam amount of and  pain that be proposed:  " That the isiquiry Mr. 13airds conduct  be continued from the point where the OD a Ins aloe  ha‘e left ofr"  Mr. Jibe pc ieseed tbe Mien of  Lord Queensberry, who, he remarked, was a  member of the committee which bed adopted the  report and previous resolution. He (Mr. Corlett)  did not think any funher action was notified, seeing  what evidence they hod had before them and  the MlScuhy of obtaining evidence. in. view of the  tact that they were a legal body, and could  no take evulenos on oath.  Mmor N proposed. and asked Lard Qiseettsberry  to accept, as as amendment. the following :  Resolved that the conduct of Mr. Baird be referred  back to the committee for further consideration.  and they be instructed to report to the  general meeting to be convened one month front  this date.  The committee. with the exception of Lord  Queensberry, regarded this a; a distinct vote of  want of confidence.  Captains Drummond and Mr. Hugh Drummond  having spoken, a show of hands taken. from  which it was obvious that the majority of the members  accepted the amendment of Major Noah.  Sir John Astley then announced that the committee  would resign, and that day fortnight anotlicr  general meeting would be held, when the members  of the club would be asked to oppoint another  committee. A good deal of discussion took place.  and many gentlemen protested against the vote  being regarded as one of want of confidence in the  corainittee.—ln reply, the committee and secretary  pointed out the difficulty of obtaining an  liki. definite '''evidence''' in such a ease as  present. —The matter, taerefore, now stands over  a formglat.<ref>"The Smith-Slavin Fight. Who Paid the Roughs? — Resignation of the Pelican Club Committee." ''Evening News''(London) 9 January 1890, Thursday: 1 [of 4], Col. 2a–3a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive''https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0003283%2F18900109&page=1&article=007&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Evening News and Post'', n.p.</ref></blockquote>The Thursday, 9 January 1890 ''Evening Star'':<blockquote>The proceedings at the special general meeting of the Pelican Club yesterday evening in connection with the late Championship Fight at Bruges were of a very  lively nature, and it looks as if some of the members were rather startled when the conduct of Mr. (Abington) Baird at the fight was called in question. The Committee presented a report exonerating both Mr. G. A. Baird (Smith’s backer) and Mr. John Fleming (Smith’s manager), but the meeting seemed to think that due inquiry had not been made into the conduct of Mr. Baird, and after a heated discussion referred back that part of the report relating to him. The fat was then in the fire, and the committee thereupon resigned in a body, and a general meeting will be held on the 22nd inst. to elect a new committee. The proceedings from the first were of an exciting nature, and great confusion prevailed at the finish, the meeting dissolving without the usual vote of thanks to the chairman. Mr. John Corlett could not see that anything had transpired to incriminate the "Squire," but even the endeavours of the proprietor of ''Pink 'Un'' to "make things pleasant" were of no avail, and the Marquis of Queensbury and his friends carried the day. These pugilists and their “noble" patrons seem to be going from bad to worse. After the Pelican meeting it appears that there was a fracas in the Trocadero Music Hall, in which Lord Mandeville, Mr. Abington, Charley Mitchell, "Pony" Moore, Jack Baldock (such names mingled !), and two or three other professional boxers were engaged [sic] It appears that "The Squire's" opinions on the late fight  happened not to coincide with those of Mitchell, and high words were exchanged between the pair. Suddenly the Birmingham boxer jumped up and "went for" Mr. Abington, but did not strike him. Lord Mandeville immediately interposed and asked Mitchell to be quiet, whereupon the latter directed his attention to his lordship, and struck him sharply on the forehead. The ''Sportsman'' adds that Carney and Bates then sprang to the assistance of his lordship, and Mitchell and Moore left the building, but it is thought this will not be the end of the affair.<ref>"Sporting Twinkles." ''Evening Star'' 9 January 1890, Thursday: 3 [of 4], Col. 3c [of 5]. ''British Newspaper Archive''https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001707%2F18900109&page=3&article=033&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Star of the East'', p. 3.</ref></blockquote> The Saturday, 11 January 1890, ''Liverpool Weekly Courier'':<blockquote>The committee of the Pelican Club (Sir John Astley in the chair) was occupied for many hours in investigating the circumstances of the recent disgraceful prize-fight near Bruges. Among the witnesess examined were Mr. Vezey (the referee), Mr. G. Abington Baird, Lord Mandeville, and Slavin. The evidence of the latter was so favourable to Mr. Baird that this gentleman was exonerated from the charge of having aided, abetted, or paid the Birmingham roughs who assisted the contest with knuckle-dusters and blows. It would seem that their services had been requisitioned by others for the especial benefit of an obnoxious pugilist, who did not, however, put in an appearance. On Wednesday a special general meeting of the members of the Pelican Cub was held at the clubhouse, Denman-street, Piccadilly, for the purpose of considering the report of the committee of proceedings in connection with the recent prize-fight between Smith and Slavin. The meeting was private, but the following account of the proceedings was officially furnished:— John Astley, Bart., presided. The report of the committee stated that the Pelican Club, as a club, had nothing whatever to do with the prize-fight. Unfortunately, however, it appeared that in connection with the fight certain things occurred of which it became the duty of the club to take notice. To begin with, Mr. John Fleming, an official of the club, was present in the capacity of Smith's manager. The report of the fight reached London early on Monday, December 23d. No sooner was attention called to the fact that Slavin had been treated with brutality, which every member of the club and every honest Englishman could not too strongly condemn, than a special meeting of the committee was convened. The hon. secretary in the meantime wrote a letter to the papers repudiating any connection of the Pelican Club with the fight, and at a meeting of the committee Mr. Fleming was called to appear in person. He was at once informed that he was suspended from the performance of his usual duties at the club, and was requested to state in writing the nature of his association with the fight and what he knew of it. Since that day the committee had sat many times. They had been in receipt of a mass of correspondence, some very emphatic, but unfortunately anonymous. They had examined on several occasions a number of eyewitnesses of the fight, and were, they believed, in full possession of every fact of importance with regard to Mr. Fleming. His statement practically amounted to this, the preliminaries of the fight between Slavin and Smith were concluded on September 16th last, long anterior to the glove contest between Smith and Jackson, and although Mr. Fleming determined to sever his connection with Smith after the glove fight, he felt himself in duty bound to carry the fight with Slavin through to a conclusion. In this the committee did not consider him to blame. It seemed, furthermore, only fair and reasonable to assume that Mr. Fleming never contemplated the presence of the roughs when the agreement was signed. Subsequently, however, a rumour did reach Mr. Fleming that both sides had organised what is known as a "corner," and he took every possible precaution to keep the place selected a secret. Whether his efforts were intentionally thwarted could not be said, but on the morning of the fight there were present in Bruges a number of roughs, who obviously had not come all that way for their own diversion, and who could not have paid their own way thither, had they so desired. Mr. Fleming, on discovering this, informed the owner of the ground of the fact. That gentleman said he would let the fight go on, but if there was any row he would send for the police instantly. The committee had consequently arrived at the conclusion that Mr. Fleming was in no way responsible for the ruffianism that took place. The committee, however, regretted to state that in the course of their investigations the name of a member of the club, Mr. G. W. Baird, was frequently mentioned. The committee had most anxiously considered whether the conduct of Mr. Baird ought properly to come within the scope of their inquiry, but in face of the club rules they felt it necessary to proceed. The committee would feel great satisfaction if they could state explicitly that any given man had actually paid the men who behaved so disgracefully in Smith's "corner,"  but such a transaction was very difficult of absolute proof. The committee did not impute to Mr. Baird that he paid the ruffians in question. He  may not have known they were going to the fight at all. But it did appear that he made use to Slavin of language unbecoming a gentleman and a member of that club. The evidence before the committee on this point was absolutely conclusive. Sir John Ashley informed the meeting that in view of the evidence they had taken the committee had unanimously resolved that while regretting Mr. Baird's conduct at the fight, they did not find [Col. c–a] that any evidence had been brought before them to justify them in finding Mr. Baird was in any way responsible for the appearance of the roughs at the ring ride who prevented the fight from being fought to a conclusion. The Marquis of Queensberry moved an amendment to the resolution that the inquiry into Mr. Baird's conduct be continued from the point where the committee have left off[.] Mr. J. Corlett protested against the action of Lord Queensberry, who was a member of the committee which had adopted the report and resolution. Mr. Noah proposed that the conduct of Mr. Baird be referred back to the committee for further consideration, and that they be instructed to report to a general meeting to be convened one month from this date. The committee, with the  exception of Lord Queensberry, regarded this as a vote of want of confidence. On a show of hands being taken it was obvious that the majority of the members accepted the amendment of Mr. Noah. Sir John Astley then announzed [sic?] that the commmittee would resign, and the meeting was adjourned for a fortnight.<ref>"The Slavin-Smith Prize Fight. Action of the Pelican Club." ''Liverpool Weekly Courier'' 11 January 1890, Saturday: 3 [of 8], Col. 4b–5a [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0003067%2F18900111&page=3&article=042&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote>The Sunday, 12 January 1890, ''Reynolds's Newspaper'' has a longish report on the Pelican Club meeting and the fracas at the Trocadero:<blockquote>A special general meeting of the Pelican Club, convened by the committee with reference to the Smith-Slavin fight, near Bruges, drew a very full attendance of members. Sir John Astley (the president) took the chair, and was supported by the Marquis of Queensberry, Captain Archibald Drummond, Sir W. Gordon-Cumming, Mr. Robert Martin, Mr. John Corlett, Mr. Walter Dickson, and others, including Mr. Cecil Raleigh (hon. sec.) A resolution of the committee, stating that while they censured the language used by Mr. Abington Baird at the fight, yet they could not on the evidence before them connect him with the hiring of roughs, was first read; and then the opposition was led by Mr. Charles Hawtrey, who put some most pertinent questions to the Chairman. An unexpected mine was immediately afterwards sprung by Lord Queensberry, who declared that as a member of the committee he agreed with the decision of that body, yet nevertheless as a private individual he thought further investigation desirable.<p> Some very strong remarks from Mr. John Corlett and a forcible speech by Mr. Hugh Drummond caused great excitement. Finally, Major Noah proposed, and the Marquis of Queensberry seconded, the following amendment: — "That this inquiry into Mr. Baird's conduct be referred back to the committee with instructions to report to a general meeting to be convened one month from date." Amid intense commotion this was carried by a majority of at least three to one. Some desultory speaking followed, and then Sir John Astley announced that the amendment would be taken by the committee as a vote of censure, and that, consequently, he and his colleagues, would resign there and then. This determination was adhered to, despite the vehement protests of those who had voted with the majority that they had every confidence in the committee, but only wished for further inquiry into Mr. Baird's conduct.<ref>"The Recent Prize Fight." ''Reynolds's Newspaper'' 12 January 1890, Sunday: 6 [of 8], Col. 4a–b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000101%2F18900112&page=6&article=053&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote>This report is from the Sunday, 12 January 1890, ''Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper'':<blockquote>A meeting of the committee of the Pelican club was held on Tuesday afternoon, Sir John D. Astley presiding, to consider the action of certain parties in connection with the brutality displayed by some hired ruffians at the recent championship prize fight between Jem Smith and Frank Slavin at Bruges, and among the members present were the Marquis of Queensberry and Captain Hugh Drummond. Lord Mandeville, Mr. G. A. Baird ("Mr. Abington"), Mr. Fleming, Frank Slavin, and others were examined, and, after a long discussion, it was decided by the committee to exonerate "Mr. Abington" (Smith's backer) and Mr. Fleming (Smith's manager) from all blame. A special general meeting of the club, convened for Wednesday, drew a very full attendance of members. Sir John Astley (the president) took the chair, and was supported by the Marquis of Queensberry, Captain Archibald Drummond, Sir W. Gordon-Cumming, Mr. Robert Martin, Mr. John Corlett, Mr. Walter Dickson, and others, including Mr. Cecil Raleigh, the honorary secretary. A resolution of the committee, stating that while they censured the language used by Mr. Abington Baird at the fight, yet they could not on the evidence before them connect him with the hiring of roughs, was first read; and then the opposition was led by Mr. Charles Hawtrey, who put some most pertinent questions to the chairman. An unexpected mine was immediately afterwards sprung by Lord Queensberry, who declared that as a member of the committee he agreed with the decision of that body, yet nevertheless as a private individual he thought further investigation desirable.<ref>"The Pelican Club and the Fight." ''Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper'' 12 January 1890, Sunday: 1 [of 12], Col. 5a [of 5]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000079%2F18900112&page=1&article=005&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, n.p.</ref></blockquote> == Notes and Questions == # ==References== {{reflist}} cf4v3jcvjzsmjmd5rm3ne6r30rpvghd 0 332422 2840752 2839463 2026-10-16T22:06:19Z Scogdill 1331941 2840752 wikitext text/x-wiki =Event= Fight at the Trocadero music hall after the Pelican Club meetings. ==Overview== A fight erupted in the London Trocadero music hall, where Bessie Bellwood, Kim Montagu, Viscount Manville's long-term partner outside his marriage was a performer. Some reports suggest a disagreement occurred in the stalls, the people moved to the bar, where the fight actually took place, with more disruption in the street outside, requiring police to protect Charley Mitchell, the antagonist, and his father in law. Some reports say Mitchell hit Lord Mandeville, and others say he hit Abington. Also, some reports say that the conflict occurred in a restaurant and not the Trocadero. The ''South Wales Daily News'', 13 January 1890, says that Mitchell went to the Pelican Club after these events and suggests that he is a member there.<ref name=":1">"Lord Mandeville and His Friend Charlie." "South Wales Notes. [By Cosmos.]" ''South Wales Daily News'' 13 January 1890, Monday: 6 [of 8], Col. 6a–b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000919%2F18900113&page=6&article=089&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, p. 4.</ref> ==Logistics== * 11:00 (p.m.?) ==Related Events== * [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Smith-Slavin 1889-12-23|Smith-Slavin]] [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Smith-Slavin 1889-12-23|championship fight]] in Bruges, Belgium on 23 December 1889 * [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Pelican Club Meeting Smith-Slavin match|Meetings at the London Pelican Club]] * The Fracas at the Trocadero ==Who Was Present== # Lord Mandeville # Bessie Bellwood # "Squire" Abington — Mr. G. A. Baird # Charley Mitchell # Jem Carney # Mr. Charles Bates # Bob Habbijam # Baldock # "Pony" Moore, Charley Mitchell's father in law, a Christy Minstrel performer, who may not have been in the Trocadero but was in Picadilly later. ==Entertainment== ==Anthology== These reports are in chronological order by date of publication. The ''Aberdeen Evening News'' (and other outlets) have this short report that Mitchell "attacked" Mandeville in a restaurant:<blockquote>The "Evening Post" states that Charlie Mitchell, the pugilist, attacked Lord Mandeville and Mr. Abington at a West-End restaurant on Tuesday night. They were immediately separated.<ref>"Fracas in a West-End Restaurant." ''Aberdeen Evening Express'' 9 January 1890, Thursday: 2 [of 4], Col. 7a [of 7]. ''Brititsh Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000444%2F18900109&page=2&article=028&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, n.p.</ref></blockquote>This report was printed with a letter from G. W. Moore:<blockquote>Further Details of the Row Between Mitchell and the Squire. Further details have transpired with regard to the fracas at the Trocadero between Charley Mitchell and Mr. Abington, which was exclusively reported in T<small>HE</small> E<small>VEN</small><small>ING</small> N<small>EWS AND</small> P<small>OST</small> yesterday. It seems that the cause of of the row was the conspicuous and irritating production of Smith's colours by a gentleman in the stalls in front of Mitchell. These acted upon him like the proverbial red rag, and, turning to Mr. Abington, he said, "You have got this up for me. I will put this cigar in your eye." Here Lord Mandeville acted the part of the peacemaker, and  an adjournment was made to the bar, where the real row took place. Notwithstanding what the ''Sportsman'' says this morning, it is a fact that "the Squire" did take off his coat to Mitchell. To "The Evening News and Post." Sir — In your editions of today I see my name figures in a report headed "Another Great Fight," in a most conspicuous manner. I was not at the Trocadero on the evening you name, and saw nothing of my son-in-law, Charley Mitchell, until I met him, followed by a crowd of ruffians, in Piccadilly, armed with knives and clubs, and whose names I could give if called upon. This publicity given to my name, I wish to inform you, is calculated to do both myself and entertainment a great  injury. I would here make mention that I was performing until 11 p.m. This article might lead the public to suppose I was not performing, as you will readily see. — l am, &c., G. W. Moore. St. James's Hall, January 8.<ref>"The Pugilistic Fracas." ''Evening News'' (London) 9 January 1890, Thursday: 3 [of 4], Col. 4a–b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0003283%2F18900109&page=3&article=060&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Evening News and Post'', p. 3.</ref></blockquote>''Reynolds's Newspaper'' reported on the fracas at the Trocadero, 12 January 1890:<blockquote>After the meeting at the Pelican Club there was a general adjournment to the Trocadero, amongst those who went being "Squire" Abington, Lord Mandeville, Charley Mitchell, Jem Carney, Mr. Charles Bates, and Bob Habbijam. The beginning of the row is not at present known, but suddenly Charley Mitchell went for the "Squire." The "Squire" is very handy with his "dukes" and quick on his feet, and he cleverly ducked and avoided the blow. He took off his coat and handed it to Charley Bates, nothing loth to have a scrap even with the opponent of Sullivan. A  regular set-to appeared imminent. The "Squire" sparred up to Charley Mitchell, when suddenly the pugilist turned round to where Lord Mandeville was sitting, and struck that nobleman square in the face. Then Baldock and the others interfered, with the result that Charley Mitchell and his father-in-law, "Pony" Moore, went out of the place. There was a large crowd outside, and matters might have proved bad for the pair but for the timely aid of the police, who surrounded them and escorted them to a place of safety. Further details have transpired with regard to the fracas at the Trocadero between Charley Mitchell and Mr. Abington. It seems that the cause of the row was the conspicuous and irritating production of Smith's colours by a gentleman in the stalls in front of Mitchell. These acted upon him like the proverbial red rag, and, turning to Mr. Abington, he said, "You have got this up for me. I will put this cigar in your eye." Here Lord Mandeville acted the part of the peacemaker, and an adjournment was made to the bar, where the real row took place.<ref>"The Recent Prize Fight." ''Reynolds's Newspaper'' 12 January 1890, Sunday: 6 [of 8], Col. 4a–b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000101%2F18900112&page=6&article=053&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote>This report is from ''Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper'', 12 January 1890:<blockquote>A contemporary records a curious affair on Tuesday after the meeting of the Pelican committee. There was a general adjournment to the Trocadero, amongst those who went being "Squire" Abington, Lord Mandeville, Charley Mitchell, Jem Carney, Mr. Charles Bates, and Bob Habbijam. The beginning of the row is not known, but suddenly Mitchell went for the "Squire." The "Squire" ducked and avoided the blow. He took off his coat and handed it to Charley Bates, nothing loth to have a bout even with the opponent of Sullivan. A regular set-to appeared imminent, but Lord Mandeville took Charley Mitchell's attention off Abington, and Mitchell struck that nobleman square in the face. Then Baldock and the others interfered, with the result that Charley Mitchell went out of the place.<ref>"The Pelican Club and the Fight." ''Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper'' 12 January 1890, Sunday: 1 [of 12], Col. 5a [of 5]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000079%2F18900112&page=1&article=005&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, n.p.</ref></blockquote>This report from the ''Eddowes's Shrewsbury Journal'', 12 January 1890, has paragraphs with gossip; the paragraph that follows these is about an epidemic in London; could it be the Russian flu?<blockquote>I hear some further details with regard to the fracas at the Trocadero Music Hall, between Charley Mitchell and Mr. Abington. It seems that the cause of the row was the conspicuous and irritating production of Smith’s colours by a gentleman, who sat in front of Mitchell in the stalls. These acted upon him like the proverbial red rag, and turning to Mr. Abington, he is reputed to have said, "You have got this up for me. I will put this cigar in your eye." Here, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lord Mandeville]] acted the part of peacemaker, and an adjournment was made to the bar, where the real row took place. Contrary to statements that have been made, Mr. "Pony" Moore, of Christy Minstrel celebrity, and father-in-law of Mitchell was not present at the time, but, according to a statement made last night, he met Mitchell in Piccadilly, and the latter was then being followed by crowd of roughs, most of whom were armed with knives and clubs. ... [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lord Mandeville]] has been interviewed anent the disgraceful scene witnessed the other night at the Trocadero Music Hall. His account of the affair differs materially from what has appeared in several newspapers. According to his statement he and Mr. Abingdon strolled into the stalls of the hall and took seats, shortly after which Charley Mitchell put in an appearance, and sat next to them. He was quite friendly for a time, but on some individual in the seat in front displaying Smith's colours very conspicuously, Mitchell openly accused Mr. Abingdon of "getting it up for him," and accompanied his accusation with a threat. At that moment the band struck up the National Anthem, and the people filed out into the saloon bar. Then, according to Lord Mandeville, at moment when he was quite unprepared for it, Mitchell dealt Mr. Abington a terrific blow behind the ear, knocking him down, and rendering him insensible. Subsequently, Mr. Abingdon being joined by his friends, Mitchell left the establishment and drove off in a cab.<ref>"Notes of the Week." ''Eddowes's Shrewsbury Journal'' 15 January 1890, Wednesday: 3 [of 12], Col. 2b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001504%2F18900115&page=3. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote>The 13 January 1890 ''Toronto Mail'' has coverage of this conflict between Lord Mandeville and includes a quote from Charley Mitchell from Mitchell's perspective:<blockquote>London, Jan. 13. — The disgraceful fracas between Charley Mitchell and Viscount Mandeville at the Trocadero is still the main topic of discussion in the sporting circles. Mandeville has conducted himself here very much as he did in New York, frequenting low resorts and revelling in the companionship of roughs and loafers. He was interviewed to-day at his residence on Fitzroy square and gave his version of the affair. "I gave Mitchell no provocation whatever for the assault," he said. "I had just left the Pelican Club after the Smith Slavin committee, and was accompanied by Mr. Baird. We went into the Trocadero about 11 o'clock, and we were there joined by Charlie Mitchell, who approached us in a friendly manner, shook our hands warmly, and made some social remarks. "Shortly, a gentleman in the front row of stalls began flourishing Jem Smith's colours. At first Mitchell took no notice of the demonstration until the gentleman threw the colours over his shoulder." This seemed to infuriate Mitchell, and he suddenly turned on Baird, shouting the top of his voice:— "You done this for me, and I'll give you a good poke in the eye for it," accompanying his threat with a gesture as though he were about to strike. I pushed him back and said:— "Don't be a fool, Charlie; keep quiet." Matters quieted down then, and I thought it had blown over, when just at the conclusion of the performance, as Baird and I started for the car, Baird a little in advance, as we entered the room I received a frightful blow under my right ear, so severe that I fell to the ground senseless. When I recovered there was a crowd standing about me, and Baird was lifting me to my feet. He told me Mitchell had struck me, and then jumped in a cab and escaped. Charles Mitchell was seen later in the day, and while he declined to be interviewed he volunteered the remark, "Mandeville provoked me deliberately, and I will thrash him again if he continues his annoyance." Mandeville looks more dissipated than ever. This contretemps, in connection with the row of the Smith-Slavin fight, will assist in the downfall of the Pelican club.<ref>"Mitchell Says His Lordship Provoked Him and He Knocked Him Down." ''Toronto Daily Mail'' 14 January 1890, Tuesday: 2 [of 8], Col. 7b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0002933%2F18900114&page=2&article=040&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Toronto Mail'', p. 2.</ref></blockquote>From the ''South Wales Daily News'', 13 January 1890, "the fracas at the Troccadero":<blockquote>Judging from the interview a reporter had with Lord Mandeville upon the subject of the fracas at the Trocadero, the "Tom and Jerry" era is being revived, and much in the same shoddy manner as is typical of the age no less than the return to the prize ring. The heir to a dukedom, apparently, sees no disgrace in hobnobbing with a pugilist, and in calling him by his Christian name. His good intentions in preventing a row between his friend Charlie and his friend Abington seem to have ended in the usual result to those who enter into the quarrels of others. Notwithstanding his exalted station, and the fact that my Lord Mandeville will in the course of time be one of the hereditary legislators of the kingdom, Charlie did not refrain from fetching this scion of the peerage a smack behind the ear, which stretched the titled patron of the ring upon the ground. They managed these things better even twenty-five years ago. In the old days, or rather nights, of the Haymarket, a well-known nobleman, who is alive now, used to be attended by men of the same profession as Mitchell, who were accustomed to protect his most noble person should he get the worst of it in any encounter which, probably enough, he had stirred up himself. But even he did not associate with this class of individual. There are very few people who will sympathise with his lordship in his misfortune. He appears to have been struck from behind, and this method of fighting is quite in accordance with the tactics which are resorted to at contests for the championship. Mr Abington, although threatened to have "his eye poked out," came off scatheless, but he was described by Mitchell as "one of Jem Smith's crowd." As Charlie went to the Pelican after the occurrence and boasted how he had "knocked them out," we must conclude that he is a member — a  delightful set truly! But the scene which certainly should have brought down the curtain was Abington reproaching Mitchell, and telling him that he ought to be ashamed of himself. What a sight for the gods, or rather an idea for the pantomime.<ref name=":1" /></blockquote>From the 24 January 1890 ''Fraserburgh Advertiser'' (Abington is the squire, not Mandeville):<blockquote>Further details (says the London ''Evening'' ''Post'') have transpired with regard to the fracas at the Tracadero between Charley Mitchell and Mr Abington. It seems that the cause of the row was the conspicuous and irritating production of Smith’s colours by a gentleman in the stalls in front of Mitchell. These acted upon him like the proverbial red rag, and turning to Mr Abington, he said — "You have got this up for me. I will put this cigar in your eye." Here Lord Mandeville acted the part of the peacemaker, and an adjournment was made to the bar, where the real row took place. Notwithstanding what the ''Sportsman'' says, it is a fact that "the Squire" did take off his coat to Mitchell.<ref>"The Laird of Strichen and the Prize Ring." ''Fraserburgh Advertiser'' 24 January 1890, Friday: 5 [of 8], Col. 5a [of 5]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001470%2F18900124&page=5&article=035&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, n.p.</ref></blockquote> == Notes and Questions == # ==References== {{reflist}} nqb2z8l9b8do65p8ncsfy8y7c5vr5pm 0 332470 2840710 2840634 2026-10-16T14:56:04Z The Citer 3110681 2840710 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Fungi_collage.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Diversity of fungi.]] Fungi is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes yeasts, molds, and mushrooms. These organisms are classified in the biological kingdom, '''Fungi'''. <br> The fungi kingdom has 64420+ species. This list tries to give the following information on each Division: *Division Name *A link to a subpage discussing that Phylum in more detail (if it yet exists) *Name Meaning (in English) *An English Common Name, where one is in regular use *Distinguishing characteristics of fungi within the Division/phylum *An approximate number of species described within that Division.<br > Since mycology does not stand still, this number can change. You can also see [[Introduction to Taxonomy]] for more on that topic. ==Ascomycota== [[File:Scarlet_elf_cap_cadnant_dingle.jpg|thumb|100px|right]] [[/Ascomycota/]] Name Meaning: Bladder fungus English Common Name: Ascomycetes, sac fungi Major distinguishing characteristics: Tend to have fruiting bodies (ascocarp). Filamentous, producing hyphae separated by septa. Can reproduce asexually. Approximate number of species described: 30,000 ==Basidiomycota== [[File:Haeckel_Basimycetes.jpg|thumb|100px|right]] [[/Basidiomycota/]] Name Meaning: Small base fungus English Common Name: Basidiomycetes, club fungi Major distinguishing characteristics: Bracket fungi, toadstools, smuts and rust. Sexual reproduction. Approximate number of species described: 31,515 ==Blastocladiomycota== [[File:WJD103_6-16-11.jpg|thumb|100px|right]] [[/Blastocladiomycota/]] Name Meaning: Offshoot branch fungus English Common Name: Blastoclads Major distinguishing characteristics: Approximate number of species described: <200 ==Chytridiomycota== [[File:Spizellomycete.jpg|thumb|100px|right]] [[/Chytridiomycota/]] Name Meaning: Little cooking pot fungus English Common Name: Chytrids Major distinguishing characteristics: Predominantly Aquatic saprotrophic or parasitic. Have a posterior flagellum. Tend to be single celled but can also be multicellular. Approximate number of species described: 1000+ ==Glomeromycota== [[File:Gigaspora_margarita.JPG|thumb|100px|right]] [[/Glomeromycota/]] Name Meaning: Ball of yarn fungus English Common Name: Glomeromycetes, AM fungi Major distinguishing characteristics: Mainly arbuscular mycorrhizae present, terrestrial with a small presence on wetlands. Reproduction is asexual but requires plant roots. Approximate number of species described: 284 ==Microsporidia== [[File:Fibrillanosema_spore.jpg|thumb|100px|right]] [[/Microsporidia/]] Name Meaning: Small seeds English Common Name: Microsporans Major distinguishing characteristics: Approximate number of species described: 1400 ==Neocallimastigomycota== [[File:Liebetanzomyces polymorphus (10.3897-mycokeys.40.28337) Figure 2.jpg|thumb|100px|right]] [[/Neocallimastigomycota/]] Name Meaning: New beautiful whip fungus English Common Name: Neocallimastigomycetes Major distinguishing characteristics: Predominantly located in digestive tract of herbivorous animals. Anaerobic, terrestrial and aquatic. Approximate number of species described: approx. 20 ==References== [[Wikipedia:Phylum]]<br> [[Wikipedia:Fungus]] [[Category:Fungi]] [[Category:Mycology]] [[Category:Fungus phyla]] [[Category:Biology]] 76wylxk1x675rjith3gjgedlih3bt3a 0 332507 2840686 2840645 2026-10-16T12:24:47Z MathXplore 2888076 Added {{[[Template:BookCat|BookCat]]}} using [[User:1234qwer1234qwer4/BookCat.js|BookCat.js]] 2840686 wikitext text/x-wiki == Claude Code in Software Development == == History and Development == Anthropic first released Claude Code in February 2025 and made it available to everyone in May 2025. Claude Code is an AI tool that helps people develop software by telling it what you want in plain English. It can build features, fix bugs, edit code, and run terminal commands. It has gotten popular enough that big companies are trying it out too. Microsoft encouraged thousands of employees, including people who do not code, to try Claude Code. It also asked engineers to compare it with Copilot. A Google engineer named Jaana Dogan also shared that Claude Code built a simpler version of a system her team had spent a year working on in about an hour. That sounds impressive, but she also pointed out that the result was not ready to be used in a real product. == Testing Claude Code in Software Development == When GitHub Copilot was tested on a coding task, developers who used it finished 55.8% faster than those who did not. That sounds great, although it was just one task and does not mean every project will be that much faster. Another test had a surprising result. In 2025, researchers asked experienced developers to complete real coding tasks with and without AI. They took 19% longer when they used AI, even though they expected it to help them work faster. == Impact on Software Development == Anthropic found that computer and math-related tasks made up 37.2% of Claude conversations. It also found that 57% of AI use involved helping people do their work, while 43% involved AI doing tasks more independently. Another Anthropic report looked at 500,000 coding interactions and found that Claude Code was being used for automation in 79% of the interactions studied, compared with 21% for helping people with their work. Some developers are already changing the way they code. Boris Cherny, who leads Claude Code, told Fortune that he had not written code by hand in eight months. == References == Warren, Tom. "Claude Code Is Suddenly Everywhere Inside Microsoft." The Verge, 22 Jan. 2026, [https://www.theverge.com/tech/865689/microsoft-claude-code-anthropic-partnership-notepad. https://www.theverge.com/tech/865689/microsoft-claude-code-anthropic-partnership-notepad.] Bastian, Matthias. "Google Engineer Says Claude Code Built in One Hour What Her Team Spent a Year On." The Decoder, 4 Jan. 2026, [https://the-decoder.com/google-engineer-says-claude-code-built-inone-hour-what-her-team-spent-a-year-on/. https://the-decoder.com/google-engineer-says-claude-code-built-inone-hour-what-her-team-spent-a-year-on/.] Peng, Sida, et al. "The Impact of AI on Developer Productivity: Evidence from GitHub Copilot." arXiv, 13 Feb. 2023, https://arxiv.org/abs/2302.06590. Becker, Joel, et al. "Measuring the Impact of Early-2025 AI on Experienced Open-Source Developer Productivity." arXiv, 12 July 2025, https://arxiv.org/abs/2507.09089. Anthropic. "Introducing the Anthropic Economic Index." 10 Feb. 2025, https://www.anthropic.com/news/the-anthropic-economic-index. Anthropic. "Anthropic Economic Index: AI's Impact on Software Development." 28 Apr. 2025, https://www.anthropic.com/research/impact-software-development. Lichtenberg, Nick. "The Head of Claude Code Hasn't 'Written a Line of Code by Hand' in 8 Months." Fortune, 11 June 2026, https://fortune.com/2026/06/11/anthropic-claude-boris-cherny-doesnt-writecode-by-hand-anymore/. {{BookCat}} 5c257t17h6v6cq1yz88amfo2jsasoiz 2840754 2840686 2026-10-16T23:06:12Z Ireicher2 2797952 added citations 2840754 wikitext text/x-wiki == History and Development == Anthropic first released Claude Code in February 2025 and made it available to everyone in May 2025. Claude Code is an AI tool that helps people develop software by telling it what you want in plain English. It can build features, fix bugs, edit code, and run terminal commands. It has gotten popular enough that big companies are trying it out too. Microsoft encouraged thousands of employees, including people who do not code, to try Claude Code. It also asked engineers to compare it with Copilot<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/tech/865689/microsoft-claude-code-anthropic-partnership-notepad|title=Claude Code is suddenly everywhere inside Microsoft|last=Warren|first=Tom|date=2026-01-22|website=The Verge|language=en-US|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref>. A Google engineer named Jaana Dogan also shared that Claude Code built a simpler version of a system her team had spent a year working on in about an hour. That sounds impressive, but she also pointed out that the result was not ready to be used in a real product.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://the-decoder.com/google-engineer-says-claude-code-built-in-one-hour-what-her-team-spent-a-year-on/|title=Google engineer says Claude Code built in one hour what her team spent a year on|last=Bastian|first=Matthias|date=2026-01-04|website=The Decoder|language=en-US|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> == Testing Claude Code in Software Development == When GitHub Copilot was tested on a coding task, developers who used it finished 55.8% faster than those who did not. That sounds great, although it was just one task and does not mean every project will be that much faster. Another test had a surprising result. In 2025, researchers asked experienced developers to complete real coding tasks with and without AI. They took 19% longer when they used AI, even though they expected it to help them work faster. == Impact on Software Development == Anthropic found that computer and math-related tasks made up 37.2% of Claude conversations. It also found that 57% of AI use involved helping people do their work, while 43% involved AI doing tasks more independently. Another Anthropic report looked at 500,000 coding interactions and found that Claude Code was being used for automation in 79% of the interactions studied, compared with 21% for helping people with their work. Some developers are already changing the way they code. Boris Cherny, who leads Claude Code, told Fortune that he had not written code by hand in eight months. == References == Warren, Tom. "Claude Code Is Suddenly Everywhere Inside Microsoft." The Verge, 22 Jan. 2026, [https://www.theverge.com/tech/865689/microsoft-claude-code-anthropic-partnership-notepad. https://www.theverge.com/tech/865689/microsoft-claude-code-anthropic-partnership-notepad.] Bastian, Matthias. "Google Engineer Says Claude Code Built in One Hour What Her Team Spent a Year On." The Decoder, 4 Jan. 2026, [https://the-decoder.com/google-engineer-says-claude-code-built-inone-hour-what-her-team-spent-a-year-on/. https://the-decoder.com/google-engineer-says-claude-code-built-inone-hour-what-her-team-spent-a-year-on/.] Peng, Sida, et al. "The Impact of AI on Developer Productivity: Evidence from GitHub Copilot." arXiv, 13 Feb. 2023, https://arxiv.org/abs/2302.06590. Becker, Joel, et al. "Measuring the Impact of Early-2025 AI on Experienced Open-Source Developer Productivity." arXiv, 12 July 2025, https://arxiv.org/abs/2507.09089. Anthropic. "Introducing the Anthropic Economic Index." 10 Feb. 2025, https://www.anthropic.com/news/the-anthropic-economic-index. Anthropic. "Anthropic Economic Index: AI's Impact on Software Development." 28 Apr. 2025, https://www.anthropic.com/research/impact-software-development. Lichtenberg, Nick. "The Head of Claude Code Hasn't 'Written a Line of Code by Hand' in 8 Months." Fortune, 11 June 2026, https://fortune.com/2026/06/11/anthropic-claude-boris-cherny-doesnt-writecode-by-hand-anymore/. {{BookCat}} fi89aricwryopzhvwyhpvc4a34i8xd4 2840755 2840754 2026-10-16T23:07:25Z Ireicher2 2797952 added Citation Header 2840755 wikitext text/x-wiki == History and Development == Anthropic first released Claude Code in February 2025 and made it available to everyone in May 2025. Claude Code is an AI tool that helps people develop software by telling it what you want in plain English. It can build features, fix bugs, edit code, and run terminal commands. It has gotten popular enough that big companies are trying it out too. Microsoft encouraged thousands of employees, including people who do not code, to try Claude Code. It also asked engineers to compare it with Copilot<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/tech/865689/microsoft-claude-code-anthropic-partnership-notepad|title=Claude Code is suddenly everywhere inside Microsoft|last=Warren|first=Tom|date=2026-01-22|website=The Verge|language=en-US|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref>. A Google engineer named Jaana Dogan also shared that Claude Code built a simpler version of a system her team had spent a year working on in about an hour. That sounds impressive, but she also pointed out that the result was not ready to be used in a real product.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://the-decoder.com/google-engineer-says-claude-code-built-in-one-hour-what-her-team-spent-a-year-on/|title=Google engineer says Claude Code built in one hour what her team spent a year on|last=Bastian|first=Matthias|date=2026-01-04|website=The Decoder|language=en-US|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> == Testing Claude Code in Software Development == When GitHub Copilot was tested on a coding task, developers who used it finished 55.8% faster than those who did not. That sounds great, although it was just one task and does not mean every project will be that much faster. Another test had a surprising result. In 2025, researchers asked experienced developers to complete real coding tasks with and without AI. They took 19% longer when they used AI, even though they expected it to help them work faster. == Impact on Software Development == Anthropic found that computer and math-related tasks made up 37.2% of Claude conversations. It also found that 57% of AI use involved helping people do their work, while 43% involved AI doing tasks more independently. Another Anthropic report looked at 500,000 coding interactions and found that Claude Code was being used for automation in 79% of the interactions studied, compared with 21% for helping people with their work. Some developers are already changing the way they code. Boris Cherny, who leads Claude Code, told Fortune that he had not written code by hand in eight months. == References == Warren, Tom. "Claude Code Is Suddenly Everywhere Inside Microsoft." The Verge, 22 Jan. 2026, [https://www.theverge.com/tech/865689/microsoft-claude-code-anthropic-partnership-notepad. https://www.theverge.com/tech/865689/microsoft-claude-code-anthropic-partnership-notepad.] Bastian, Matthias. "Google Engineer Says Claude Code Built in One Hour What Her Team Spent a Year On." The Decoder, 4 Jan. 2026, [https://the-decoder.com/google-engineer-says-claude-code-built-inone-hour-what-her-team-spent-a-year-on/. https://the-decoder.com/google-engineer-says-claude-code-built-inone-hour-what-her-team-spent-a-year-on/.] Peng, Sida, et al. "The Impact of AI on Developer Productivity: Evidence from GitHub Copilot." arXiv, 13 Feb. 2023, https://arxiv.org/abs/2302.06590. Becker, Joel, et al. "Measuring the Impact of Early-2025 AI on Experienced Open-Source Developer Productivity." arXiv, 12 July 2025, https://arxiv.org/abs/2507.09089. Anthropic. "Introducing the Anthropic Economic Index." 10 Feb. 2025, https://www.anthropic.com/news/the-anthropic-economic-index. Anthropic. "Anthropic Economic Index: AI's Impact on Software Development." 28 Apr. 2025, https://www.anthropic.com/research/impact-software-development. Lichtenberg, Nick. "The Head of Claude Code Hasn't 'Written a Line of Code by Hand' in 8 Months." Fortune, 11 June 2026, https://fortune.com/2026/06/11/anthropic-claude-boris-cherny-doesnt-writecode-by-hand-anymore/. ==References== {{reflist}} {{BookCat}} qz4tpr9toqb9qfq05ks1ck60ifwq098 2840756 2840755 2026-10-16T23:11:41Z Ireicher2 2797952 /* Impact on Software Development */ 2840756 wikitext text/x-wiki == History and Development == Anthropic first released Claude Code in February 2025 and made it available to everyone in May 2025. Claude Code is an AI tool that helps people develop software by telling it what you want in plain English. It can build features, fix bugs, edit code, and run terminal commands. It has gotten popular enough that big companies are trying it out too. Microsoft encouraged thousands of employees, including people who do not code, to try Claude Code. It also asked engineers to compare it with Copilot<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/tech/865689/microsoft-claude-code-anthropic-partnership-notepad|title=Claude Code is suddenly everywhere inside Microsoft|last=Warren|first=Tom|date=2026-01-22|website=The Verge|language=en-US|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref>. A Google engineer named Jaana Dogan also shared that Claude Code built a simpler version of a system her team had spent a year working on in about an hour. That sounds impressive, but she also pointed out that the result was not ready to be used in a real product.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://the-decoder.com/google-engineer-says-claude-code-built-in-one-hour-what-her-team-spent-a-year-on/|title=Google engineer says Claude Code built in one hour what her team spent a year on|last=Bastian|first=Matthias|date=2026-01-04|website=The Decoder|language=en-US|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> == Testing Claude Code in Software Development == When GitHub Copilot was tested on a coding task, developers who used it finished 55.8% faster than those who did not. That sounds great, although it was just one task and does not mean every project will be that much faster. Another test had a surprising result. In 2025, researchers asked experienced developers to complete real coding tasks with and without AI. They took 19% longer when they used AI, even though they expected it to help them work faster. == Impact on Software Development == Anthropic found that computer and math-related tasks made up 37.2% of Claude conversations. It also found that 57% of AI use involved helping people do their work, while 43% involved AI doing tasks more independently.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.anthropic.com/news/the-anthropic-economic-index|title=Introducing the Anthropic Economic Index|date=2025-02-10|website=www.anthropic.com|language=en|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> Another Anthropic report looked at 500,000 coding interactions and found that Claude Code was being used for automation in 79% of the interactions studied, compared with 21% for helping people with their work.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.anthropic.com/research/impact-software-development|title=Anthropic Economic Index: AI's impact on software development|date=2025-04-28|website=www.anthropic.com|language=en|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> Some developers are already changing the way they code. Boris Cherny, who leads Claude Code, told Fortune that he had not written code by hand in eight months.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fortune.com/2026/06/11/anthropic-claude-boris-cherny-doesnt-write-code-by-hand-anymore/|title=The head of Claude Code hasn't 'written a line of code by hand' in 8 months|last=Lichtenberg|first=Nick|website=Fortune|language=en|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> ==Citations== {{reflist}} {{BookCat}} 7conxmb7yf97c55l410mht4aehsz23o 3 332516 2840687 2026-10-16T12:25:53Z MathXplore 2888076 vandalism1 ([[m:User:ZbVl/VD|Vandoom]]) 2840687 wikitext text/x-wiki == 2026-10-16 == [[File:Information.svg|25px|alt=Information icon]] Hello, I’m letting you know that one or more of your recent contributions have been reverted because they did not appear constructive. If you would like to experiment, please use the [[Wikiversity:Sandbox|sandbox]] or ask for assistance at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|Colloquium]]. Thank you.<!-- Glow-vandalism1 @ 1792153549473.4s --><nowiki></nowiki> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:25, 16 October 2026 (UTC) f535621jm6hl6em302nppn6vf5pc9qu 0 332519 2840728 2026-10-16T18:55:16Z Scogdill 1331941 Created page with "=Event= ==Overview== ==Logistics== * ==Related Events== * ==Who Was Present== # ===People Invited=== # ===Present as an Attendant=== In attendance on ==Entertainment== ==Anthology== ====Quote Intro==== <blockquote></blockquote> == Notes and Questions == # ==References== {{reflist}}" 2840728 wikitext text/x-wiki =Event= ==Overview== ==Logistics== * ==Related Events== * ==Who Was Present== # ===People Invited=== # ===Present as an Attendant=== In attendance on ==Entertainment== ==Anthology== ====Quote Intro==== <blockquote></blockquote> == Notes and Questions == # ==References== {{reflist}} frma2l1e74v6t3ny658665cvo6hvw00 2840732 2840728 2026-10-16T20:20:48Z Scogdill 1331941 2840732 wikitext text/x-wiki =Event= Ball at the Ulster Club ==Overview== ==Logistics== * Friday, 10 January 1890 ==Who Was Present== Perhaps 700 people were invited to this ball. The report in the Northern Whig looks like it may have been written from the actual invitation list. An actual count cannot be made from this list, because so many daughters are listed as "the Misses X." Consuelo Montagu, Viscountess Mandeville was invited, but her husband's name is not on the list of people invited. A Mrs. Stafford Smith, M.D., was invited, apparently a woman doctor in Northern Ireland at this time. No Mr. Stafford Smith is mentioned. ==Entertainment== ==Anthology== The 11 January 1890 Belfast-based ''Northern Whig'' gave a great deal of attention to this event, listing the names of many people who were not generally known, perhaps the entire invitation list.<blockquote>"The Ulster Club Ball." A grand ball in honour of the Marquis and Marchioness of Londonderry was given at the Ulster Hall last night by the Committee and members of the Ulster Club. The affair, it is almost unnecessary to say, was conceived and carried out in a style fully worthy of the Club and its traditions. In the course of the last few years the Ulster Hall has witnessed many a brilliant gathering and been the subject of many a gorgeous transformation. Few, however, of such assemblies have been more brilliant than that of last night, and few of such transformations more splendidly effective than that which the taste and skill of those entrusted with the decorative design accomplished with a very few days’ preparation. With the exception perhaps of Sir Edward Harland’s ball in honour of the Prince and Princess of Wales, no recent local function has been associated with so elaborate and successful a scheme of artistic ornamentation. The interior furnished quite a series of beautiful pictures, for the work of adornment had been lavished not only on the main hall, which lends so kindly to such efforts, but to every nook and corner of the building. Vestibule, staircase and corridors, supper-room, drawing-rooms, and ante-rooms — each had apparently been the subject of a special and well-directed effort, so that, while each formed part of a highly effective whole, it possessed an individual attraction quite independent of its surroundings. Modern artistic tastes were oonsulted in the general plan of decoration, which was more or less of an Oriental character. Not that there was any suggestion of the semi-barbaric splendour or florld profusion of the East, but the liberal interspersion of palms, ferns, and exotics everywhere throughout the building, in addition to the splendid bank of foliage and blossom massed upon the orchestra, amidst which the electric lights sparkled like fireflies, gave a tropical colour to the scene. Luxurious furniture, costly art objects, beautiful mirrors, rich carpets and curtains, and hangings of delicate, soft-coloured material, all arranged with exquisite taste, assorted well with the lavish floral display. It would be impossible to adequately describe the beauty of the scene presented by the hall when brilliantly lighted and thronged with upwards of five hundred guests. We may, however, be able to give some very imperfect idea of the  decorative work, which fully deserved the praise unanimously bestowed upon it by those present. Messrs. [Mayrs ?] of Royal Avenue, and Mr. C. M'Kimm, of the Botanic Gardons, divided the honour and responsibility of the work, the former well-known firm being en trusted [sic] with the furnishing and upholstering department, and the latter equally well-known gentleman having charge of what may be called the botanical portion of the scheme, which, as already remarked, was of more than ordinary prominence and beauty. In the arrangements of the large hall, which, as the ball room, formed of course the centre of attraction, the resources of both departments had been fully brought into play. At the foot of the orchestra were placed a set of tall mirrors, draped with rich silk plush, and extending nearly the entire width of the hall. This was a most effective adornment, the mirrors, besides forming a handsome portion of the ''mise en scene'', reflecting the countless lights and brilliant surroundings to great advantage. The front of the balconies was covered with crimson Utrecht velvet, festooned with gold sateen, and the pillars supporting the balconies were also artistically draped with rich material. The walls of the hall were draped with art muslin, in which, at intervals, were placed rich mirrors. Under neath [sic] the balconies a crimson cloth carpet covered the floor. This portion of the hall was furnished with luxurious settees, couches, and gossip chairs; while palms and other graceful-foliaged plants, interspersed where practicable, gave this charming retreat for the dancers a very pleasant and inviting aspect. The draping of the lofty windows in material of blue, white, and gold was particularly elegant and effective. The centre of the hall was, of course, reserved for the dancers, and the floor was waxed to perfection. Charming, indeed, was the mass of foliage arranged on the orchestra, interspersed with bits of pretty rockery, cunning devices in virgin cork, and banks of rich bloom, backed by waving fronded growths. In the arrangement of this portion of the Interior Mr. M'Kimm had brought to his task all the originality of Idea, true artistic taste, and keen perception of natural effect which he has always displayed in connection with every form of horticultural art. Numbers of tiny electric lights peeping from amidst this bank of foliage and flowers enhanced its general beauty, without detracting from that of the various blossoms, for the soft-coloured points of light only served to deepen the scarlet glow of the poinsettia and the crimson blush of the camellia. Electric lighting was in fact a feature of the adornment of the hall. Nothing could be prettier than the hanging baskets pendent from the balcony filled with tradescantra [sic; s/b tradescantia?] and other trailing plants, and each bearing a little incandescent lamp, which reflected the soft tint of its globe. These globes were in various colours, and the unique effect may readily be conceived. At the lower end of the hall opposite to the orchestra a handsome "ice trophy" was erected, backed by mirrors, which reflected and multiplied its glittering outlines a thousand times, and surrounded by plants and twining foliage. This, besides bring highly ornamental, imparted a delicious coolness to the hall. The central light from the celling of the hall was adorned with fronds of nephrolepis fern, palm leaves, and trailing growths. The staircases leading to the balcony and Minor  Hall — the latter being the supper-room — were carpeted with crimson cloth. On the landing a barrier had been erected dividing the supper-room from the balcony entrance. This was in the form of a garden trellis, overhung with ivy — a very neat and appropriate arrangement. The balcony itself was carpeted and furnished. Here and there cosy little nooks were formed, adorned with prettily arranged rock work and flowers. To these guests might retire for rest or conversation and yet enjoy at the same time a splendid bird’s-eye view of the gay scene on the dancing floor. The entrance to the hall was from Franklin Street, and the entrance corridors as well as the main corridors on each side of the large hall were draped and carpeted in the most complete and elegant style. The main corridors were arranged as refreshment rooms for  the dancers. They were draped, tentwise, with light-coloured material, and the floor, like all the rest throughout the building, save that reserved for the dancers and that of the drawing-rooms, was carpeted with crimson cloth. On each ride of the vestibule the rooms ordinarily used as cloakrooms had been converted into drawing-rooms, brilliantly lighted, luxuriously furnished, and adorned with palms and ornamental foliaged plants. One of these rooms was furnished entirely in Japanese style. The vestibule and piazza were fitted up as promenade and lounge. Here again plant decoration was largely brought into requisition by the same skilled hand which had superintended the floral arrangements in the main hall. Ladies' and gentlemen’s cloakrooms were fitted up with equal completeness and good taste. The supper-room (Minor Hall) was ele gantly [sic] appointed, the tables bring furnished with flowers in design by Mr. R. Butler, of Balmoral Nurseries. Mr. G. A. Skilleter, of the Albert Hotel, High Street, was the purveyor, and catered for the large company (nearly six hundred) in a highly satisfactory manner. The following was the ''menu'':— Consommé à la Brunoise, fillets of sole à la Montezuma, mayonnaise of lobster, mayonnaise of chicken, quails in aspic, pâtés à la Toulouse, foie gras in aspic, boar’s head, galantine of turkey aux truffes, hunters’ beef, galantine of veal, chicken à la Bechamel, roast turkey, galantine of game, roast chicken, egg and veal pie, roast pheasant, Limerick ham and tongue;  macedoine de fruits Sabayon, Charlotte Russe, soufflé de péches, gelése [sic?] à la Danizic, gelées au Marbre, crême à la Chartreuse, meringues d’abricots, trifle à I’Orleans; dessert; tea and coffee, strawberry cream ice, lemon ice, orangeade, lemonade, champagne cup, claret cup, sherry, claret. Lord and Lady Londonderry, on arriving at the ball, were received, as well as the other guests, by the members the Reception Committee. [Col. 3c–4a] A number of the Scots Greys were in attendance in the ball room. The following was the dance programme, the music being furnished by Herr Wilhelm Iff's band, stationed in the orchestra:— Quadrille, "Yeomen of the Guard" (Bucalossi); valse, "Nachtechwärmer" ([Fols?]); valse, "Christmas Roses" (Waldteufel); lancers [?], "Doris" (Bucalossi); valse, "Donauweibchen" (Strauss); polka, "Fancy Dress" (Reeve); valse, "Eldorado" (Royle); lancers, "Faust Up to Date" (Luiz); valse, "Am Neckars [Strand]" (Milliecker); polka, "See me dance" (Solomon); valse, "Love’s Golden Dream" (Bonheur); valse, "Donauellen [sic]" (Ivanovici); lancers, "Pelikan" (Solomon); polka, "Go ahead" (Royle); valse, "La Jeune Vienne" (Fahrbach); polka, "Ulster Club” (Iff); valse, "Doris” (Bucalossi); valse, "Espana" (Waldteufel); polka, "Who is that calling" (Meissler); valse, "Schatz" (Strauss). The programme and ''menu'' cards were supplied by Mr. W. Rodman. Lady Londonderry was taken down to supper by Mr. J. B. Houston, V.L., while the Countess of Fingall was taken down by Lord Londonderry. Dancing continued until an advanced hour morning, everything passing off in the most successful manner. The following had the honour of receiving invitations to the ball:— Invitations were issued to the following:— [list set as unordered list to save space but otherwise preserving paragraphing] * General Prince Edward of Saxe Weimar and Princess Edward of Saxe Weimar. * The Duke and Duchess of Manchester. * Duke and Duchess of Abercorn. * The Marchioness of Downshire. * The Marquis and Marchioness of Londonderry. * [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]]. * Earl and the Countess of Lanesborough. * Earl and the Countess of Enniskillen. * Earl and the Countess of Belmore. * Earl and the Countess of Caledon. * Earl and the Countess of Gosford. * Earl and the Countess of Ranfurly. * Earl and the Countess of Erne. * Lord and the Lady De Ros. * Lord and the Lady Garvagh. * Earl and the Countess of Castlestuart and Ladies Muriel and Mary Stuart. * Lord and Lady Longford. * The Moyer and Mayoress of Balfast. * His Grace the Primate of All Ireland, Mrs. Knox, and the Misses Knox. * Colonel the Hon. Sir West Ridgeway and Lady Ridgeway. * Right Hon. A. J. Balfour. * The Inspector-General Royal Irish Constabulary. The military included:— * Headquarter Staff — Major-General Wiseman Clarke, C.B., and Mrs. Wiseman Clarke; Captain Wiseman Clarke, A.D.C.; Major and Mrs Pollock, Captain and Mrs. Knocker, Lieut. Colonel, Mrs., and Miss Parker; Deputy Surgeon General, Mrs., and Miss Tippetts; Major and Mrs. Brereton. * Royal Scots Greys — Major Hon. W. P. Alexander, and officers Royal Scots Greys; Major Hon. W. P. Alexander and Mrs. Alexander. * Royal Engineers — Major J. Cameron. * Gordon Highlanders — Lieut. Colonel Essex and officers 2nd Battalion Gordon Highlanders; Major, Mrs., and Miss Robertson; Major Hon. J. Scott Napier, Mrs. Napier, and the Misses Leith; Captain W. H. Dick Cunyngham, V.C., and Mrs. Dick Cunyngham; Captain and Mrs. Sinclair-Wemyss, Hon. W. R. D. Forbes and Mrs. Forbes. * Black Watch — Colonel Kidston and officers 2nd Battalion The Black Watch, Colonel and Mrs. Kidston, Major and Mrs. Gunter, Captain and Mrs. Coode, Captain and Mrs. Moulton-Barrett, Mr. and Mrs. J. Stuart, and Captain and Mrs. Filmore. * Royal Irish Rifles — Colonel Guinness, C.B., and officers depot Royal Irish Rifles, Major and Mrs. Knox, Captain and Mrs. Tobin. * Lieut.-Colonel Maberly and officers the Royal Scots Greys, Dundalk. * Colonel Griffiths and officers 2nd Battalion the East Lancashire Regiment, Newry. * Colonel Kinloch and officers 2nd Battalion the King’s Royal Rifle Corps, Enniskillen. * Colonel Latham and officers Royal Artillery, Londonderry. * Colonel Hopton, C.B , and officers depot Princess Victoria’s, Armagh. * Colonel Caldwell and officers depot the Royal lnniskilling Fusiliers, Omagh. * Colonel Dickson and officers 5th Dragoon Guards, Dublin. * Colonel and Mrs. Dickson, Major and Mrs. Bowers, Major and Mrs. Bromfleld, Captain and Mrs. Forster. * Medical Staff — Surgeon Major and Mrs. O. F. Molloy, Surgeon S. J. Flood, A.M.S., and Mrs. Flood; Surgeon J. Watson, A.M.S; Surgeon P. M. Carleton, Surgeon R. L. Love, Surgeon F. A. B. Daly, Surgeon T. Moynihan, Surgeon M'Laughlin. * Army Pay Department — Captain and Mrs. W. M. F. Trotman, Captain M'Causland. * Army Service Corps — Captain A. G. Inglis [?]. The other Invitations were:— * A. — Alexander, Mr. John S.; Alexander, Mrs. and the Misses; Ash, Mr. T. Spotswood; Ash, Mrs. and Miss Spotswood; Allan, Major F. Seymour; Andrews, Mr. and Mrs. George; Andrews, Mr. and Mrs. Thomas; Andrews, Miss Eileen L.; Andrews, Mr. and Mrs. John; Ardill, Mr. Robert; Andrews, Mr. H. W.; Archdale, Mr. and Mrs. Edward; Alexander, Major H. G S. and Mrs.; Alison, Major; Alexander, Major the Honourable Charles and Mrs.; Alexander, Mrs.; Andrews, Mr and  Mrs. T, J.; Andrews, Mr. J. M.; Andrews, Mr. Thomas; Apperley, Mr.; Allen, Mr. Samuel; Andrews, Mr. A. M.; Atkinson, Mr. R. B. * B. — Bruce, Captain Stewart and Miss; Boyd, Miss Bessie [?]; Brownrigg, Q. J., Miss and Miss M.; Browne, Captain and Mrs. Knox; Browne, Miss Knox; Browne, Mr. Knox; Bell, Mr. John; Barton, John George; Burns, Mr. and Mrs. G. A.; Barbour, Mr. William; Blackburne, Miss; Burton, Captain St. G.; Bates, Mr. A. H,; Bristow, Miss M.; Bristow, Mr. John; Bruce, Sir Hervey and Lady; Blizard, Mr. and Mrs. J. M'C.; Blizard, Miss C. J.; Black, Miss and Miss N.; Black, Miss S; Bristow, Mr. H. J.; Bristow, Mr. S. F.; Bruce, Mr. and Mrs James; Bruce, Mrs., Miss, and Master; Bowles, Mr. and Mrs. Charles; Betham, Miss; Buchanan, Colonel and Mrs.;  Bowen, Mr. G. E.; Barklie, Mrs. and Miss; Brett, Mr. A. E. and Miss; Boyd, Mr. and Mrs. Sinclair; Boyd, Miss; Boyd, Mr. and Mrs. James S.; Black, Mr. Charles and Miss; Brett, Mr. George; Brett, Miss Helen; Buckle, Captain; Brownrigg, Miss Eveline; Browne, Dr. and Mrs. J. W.; Bruce, Mr. Robert; Batt, Mr., Mrs. R. N., and Mss; Byrne, Mr. and Mrs. H. Morgan; Bristow, Miss; Brownlow, Mr. and Mrs. Claude; Brownlow, Miss; Benson, Mr. George; Boyton, Major; Beattie, Miss; Blackwood, Lord Terence; Burns, Mr. J. C. W.; Bishop of Down and Connor and Dromore, the Right Rev. Lord; Brook, Sir Victor and Lady; Bell, Mr. Richard; Barboar, Mr. J. M.; Bristow, Mr. E. Jones; Brownlow, Mr. Charles; Barton, Mr. H. D. M.; Bristow, Mr. James R.; Boyd, Mr. Robert; Braddell, Mr. St. John. * C.—Crawford, Mrs. Wm. G.; Cook, Mr. and Mrs. Alex.; Campbell, Lloyd; Cuming, Mr. and Miss; Craig, Mr. Vincent; Craig, Miss; Corry, Oscar; Charley, Mr. Wm.; Charley, Miss; Charley, Miss L.; Charley, Mr. E. J.; Charley, Mr. Arthur; Combe, Mr. and Mrs. Abram; Crawford, Miss and Mr. A. H.; Craig, Mr. James; Carlisle, Mr. and Mrs. A. M.; Carlisle, Miss; Coates, Mr. W. R.; Coates, Mr., Mrs. David Lindsay, and Miss; Carr, Mr. John and the Misses; Cunningham, Mrs. W. C. and Miss; Campbell, Miss; Coates, Mr. and Mrs. William; Clements, Miss; Cameron, Miss; Clanmorris, Lord, the Lady; Cramsie [?], Captain, Mrs. J. S.; Cramsie [?], Mr. Robert; Cameron, Miss Annie; Copland, Mr. and Mrs.; Craig, Mr. E. S.; Crawford, Mr. R. J.; Crawford, Mr. Thomas D. and Mrs.; Crawford, the Misses and Mr. Alfred; Charnock [?],  Miss; Cowan, Major and Mrs. S. K.; Close, Mr. S. P.; Close, Mrs. and Miss; Coates, Mr. William, Mr. Victor H., and Miss; Crommelin, Mr. N. Delacherois; Crawford, Mr. Henry; Clarke, Mr. and Mrs. G. H.; Cowan, Sir Edward Porter and Lady; Cowan, Miss; Combe, Miss; Carden, Captain; Currell, Mr. and Mrs. Andrew; Chambers, Captain Arthur R. H. A.; Craig, Mr. Charles; Craig, Mr. and Mrs. R. S.; Carr, Mr. and Mrs. James; Calwell, Mr. R. I.; Calwell, Mr. A. M D; Chaytor, Mr. C. H.; Clarke, Mr. and Mrs. George; Cochrane, Lady Elizabeth; Carson, Mr. and Mrs. Thos. Greer; Casey, Miss C.; Chipp, Mr. and Mrs. Herbert; Campbell, Major; Campbell, Mr. Colin; Cordner, Mrs. Clement K.; Crawford, Mr. Wm.; Coates, Mr. Victor; Cunningham, Mr. F. A.; Crommelin, Mr. F. D.; Cameras, Mr. H. I.; [Col. 4c–5a] Campbell, Mr. Howard; Campbell, Mr. R. Garratt; Cuppaidge [Cuppridge?], Captain. * D. — Davies, Mr.; Davies, Miss; Danville, Mr. and Mrs. Robert G.; Dundee, Miss A. B.; Deacon, Miss; Deacon, Mr. H; Dixon, Mr., Mrs., and the Misses; Dunlop, Dr. and Mrs.; Duffin, Mr. and Mrs. A.; Drennan, Miss; Duffin, Mr. and Mrs. Charles; Dolling, Mr. and Mrs.; Caledon, R.; Davis, Miss; Daly, Dr.; Dunbar, Miss; Delachorois, Mr. S. and the Misses; Dixon, Miss Nora; Dickey, Miss; Dwyer, Mrs; Dunaterville, M. J. W.; Delachorois, Miss A. J.; Davison, Mr. and Mrs. Richard; Davlaon, Mr. Wm.; Darwall, Capt.; Davidson, Miss; De Wind, Miss; Dickey, Lieutenant-General and Mrs; De Wind, Miss E.; Dudley, Rev. Freeman and Mrs.; Darley, Miss Ida; Dickey, Mr. E. O’Rorke; Dunlop, Mr. Shuldham, M.D.; Duffin, Mr. C. H.; Dunville, Mr. John; De Wind, Mr. H. * E. — Eustace, Miss and Miss Grace; Echlin, Mr. Stafford; Ewing, Mr. Patrick. * F. — Falkner, Miss; Fenton, Mr. and Mrs. Frank G.; Forde, Major; Forde, Miss; Forde, Miss A.: Forde, Mr. William George; Forde, Colonel William Brownlow and Mrs.; Finlayson, Mr. and Mrs. W. G.; Fleury, Mr. A. E; Ferrar, Mr. and Mrs.; Firman, Miss; Fingall, the Countess; Fltzgibbon, Mr. and Mrs. H. M.; Fenton, Mr. S. G.; Ferguson, Mr. Godfrey W.; Ferrar, Mr. H. M., R.H.A. * G. — Grlmshaw, Mr. and Mrs. O'Donnell; Grimshaw, Miss; Gairdner, Miss and Miss A.; Gunning, Mr. and Mrs. F. P.; Garrett, Miss and Miss S.; Ganssen, Dr. David P.; Guthrie, Mr. and Mrs. William; Grimshaw, Mr. Reginald; Giveen, Miss; Graham, Mr. and Mrs. O. B.; Graham, Miss and Miss Nellie; Graham, Mr. C. L; Gumley, Captain; Grimshaw, Miss Norah; Greer, Mr. T. M.; Grimshaw, Miss M. O. and Miss E.; Guthrle, Miss; Grimshaw, Miss H. and Miss M; Guthrie, Miss; Gubbins, Miss; Geoghegan, Miss N. and Miss Lena; Garrett, Mr. W. L.; Gunning, Miss; Gordon, Mr. and Mrs. A. H; Gaussen, Mr. P. C.; Greer, Captain and Mrs.; Greer, Mr. and Mrs. Edward; Gage, Miss;  Gage, Mr. T. R Bailiie; Gage, Captain J. O, R.M; Gage, Miss; Gage, Mr. and Mrs. R. Balllie; Grimshaw, Miss Ida; Greer, Mr. Francis N.; Gage, Miss Annie; Gordon, Mr. J. F. G.; Gray, Mr. Harold S; Gray, Mr. James; Grimshaw, Mr. N. W. * H. — Heygate, Lady and the Misses; Harris, Mr. H J; Hannay, Miss; Hannay, Mr. R. T.; Hall, Mr. and Mrs.; Higgin, Mr. Wm.; Hughes, Mr. and Mrs. E; Harrison, Miss; Heyn, Mr. and Mrs. R. L., Miss E. and Miss M.; Houston, Mr. and Mrs. J. Blakiston-Houston, Mr. T. B. and Miss; Hutchinson, Mr. William Forde; Hutchinson, Miss Forde; Hughes, Mr. Lloyd; Head, Miss; Hamilton, Mr. and Mrs. Thomas; Harrison, Miss Celia; Hopkinson, Mrs. Charles; Hennah, Captain C. T.; Higginson, Mr. and Mrs. Charles; Herdman, Mr. Ernest; Hind, Mr. Joseph E.; Hoey, Mr. and Mrs. Frederick; Hind, Miss A; Hobbs, Captain and Mrs.; Harris, Mr. C. D.; Hutton, Mr. Frank; Hunter, Miss Lily; Henderson, Mr. and Mrs. Robert; Harrison, Captain; Hill, Lord Arthur, M.P.; Houston, Mr. Charles Blakiston; Houston, Mr. R. Blakiston; Harland, Sir E J., Bart., M.P.; Harris, Mr. C. D. * I — lrwin, Mr. J. Stuart; Irwin, Miss Janet; Irvine, Miss; Irvine, Mr. Robert. * J. — Johnson-Smyth, the Misses; Johnson-Smyth, Mr. M.; Johnstone, Mr. and Mrs; Johnston, Miss; Johnson-Smyth, Mrs.; Jackson, Miss Fanny; Johnston, Colonel, H. B.; Jaffé, Mr. and Mrs. Alfred; Johnston, Mr. R. St. George; Johnston, Mr. Frank; Johns, Mr. J. Digby; Johns, Mr. Henry L; Johns, Mr. William; Johnston, Mr. George; Johnston, Mr. H. G. * K.—Knox, Miss Frances; Kirby, Mr. and  Mrs. T. W.; Kelly, Mr. S. C.; Kirk, Miss, and Miss Tish; Kelly, Mr. H. C.; Kirk, Mr. J. C.; Knox, Mr. and Mrs. R. Kyle, and the Misses; Knox, Mrs. S. Wright; Kirkpatrick, Mr. and Mrs. J. Johnston; Kerby, Miss B.: Knox, Miss Aileen; Knox, Lieutenant-Colonel; Kerby, Miss; Kirk, Mr. and Miss Geo. E.; Kinsey, Captain and Miss; Kennedy, Mr. James; Kinahan, Mr. Charles I.; Kirkpatrick, Mr. James C.; Kennedy, Mr. Victor; Kirk, Mr. Pardo A.; Kingan [?], Mr. Samuel. * L. — Letts, Dr. and Mrs.; Lepper, Mrs. and Miss; Lepper, Miss; Lepper, Mr. John; Lynn, Mr. W. H.; Lane, Mr. and Mrs.; Lyle, Mr., Mrs., and Miss; Liddell, Mr. and the Misses; Lloyd, Captain; Lushington, Mr. T. W.; Lambart, the Lady Fanny; Lambart, Major; Liddell, Mrs.; Lindsay, Mr. and Mrs. John; Leslie, Major F. M.; Lambert, Miss, and Miss Violet; Lyle, Mr. and Mrs. D. B., and Miss; Lepper, Mr. and Mrs. F. R.; Lanyon, Mr. and Mrs. John; Lepper, Mr. Robert; Lyons, Mrs. and the Misses; Lanyon, Mr. H. O; Lindsay, Mr. Crawford; Lawrence, Sir Henry, Bart. * M. — Murton-Neale, Mr. G.; MacLaine, Mr. and Mrs. George L. and Miss; Macaulay, Mr. and Mrs. R. H; Muller, Mrs. and Miss; MacTear, Mrs.; Moutray, Mrs. Anketell; Moutray, Mr. Upton; Maguire, Mrs., Miss, and Miss K.; Maguire, Mr. E; Martin, Mrs. David and the Misses; Mitchell, Mr. Joseph; Mitchell, Mr. Alex; Mitchell, Mr. George T.; Mateer [?], Miss; Manley, Mr. Waring; Mulligan, Miss; Moore, Mr. and Mrs. James; Montgomery, Miss; Montgomery, General, C.S I., and Mrs.; Mosse, Mrs.; Montgomery Moore, General and Hon. Mrs.; Moore, Mr. and Mrs. Harry S.; Manley, Mr. and Miss; Manley, Dr.; Maunsell, Miss; Mulholland, Mr. and Mrs. H. L; Moore, Mr. and Mrs. Lyon; Musgrave, Mr. John R.; Musgrave, Mr. Henry; Musgrave, Mr. Edgar; Mears, Mr. C.; Mosse, Major J. F.; Maxwell, Major Somerset and Lady Florence; Murphy, Mr., Mrs. Edmund, Miss, and Miss Maud; Maclagan, Mr. Fergus; MacLaine, Mr. Harold S.; Macnaghten, the Misses; Macartney, Mr. Wm. Ellison, M.P.; Maxwell, Mr. and Mrs. Stephen Perceval; Maxwell, Mr. Robert David Perceval; Molony, Miss; Macrory, Miss O. and Miss K.; Macrory, Mr. George; Magowan, Mr., Mrs., and Miss; Montgomery, Mr. and Mrs.; Macrory, Mrs; Manley, Mr. Henry J.; Martin, Mr. and Mrs. Brereton; Molesworth, Captain; Muller, Mr. E. B; Molony, Mr. George; Moore, Mr. Maxwell S.; Munn, Mr. Noel; Munce, Mr. and Miss; Montagu, Mr. and Mrs.; Meiggs [?], Miss; Maseroon, Mr. and Mrs.; Moran, Miss Edith; Montgomery, Mr. Hugh; Montgomery, the Lady Charlotte; Montgomery, Miss and Miss Evelyne; Morell, Mr. Henry; Molony, Mr. J.; Massereene and Ferrard, Viscount; Montgomery, Mr. B. W. D.; Mitchell, Mr. John; Musgrave, Mr. James; Macaulay, Mr. A. T.; Maxwell, Major R. Perceval; Montgomery, Colonel W. E.; Maguire, Mr. Charles; Moore, Mr. C. K.; Munnis, Mr. W. A. * M'C. — M'Cullagh, Mr. R. Cheveley, and Miss; M'Cance, Lieutenant-Colonel and Mrs.; M'Cance, Miss; M'Cance, Miss Eva; M'Cance, Mr J. S.; M'Clintock, Major H S.; M'Cllntock, Miss and Miss Gertrude; M'Cllntock, Miss; M'Neill, Captain and Miss; M'Neill, Miss Susan; M'Calmont, Captain and Mrs. J.; M'Neile, Mr., Mrs. H. H., and Miss; M'Ferran, Miss; M'Cammond, Mr. Plaisted; M'Ferran, Miss Edith; M'Ferran, John P.; M'Neile, Mr. John; M*Cormlck, Mr. H. M'Neile; M'Gregor, Miss; M'Gildowny, Mr. H. M.; M'Gildowny, Mr. John E.; M'Cammon, Major; M'Crum, Mr. W. * N. — Neill, Mr. William; Neill, Miss; Neill, Mr. C.; Neill, Miss J.; Neill, Mr. Reginald; Nugent, Lieutenant General. * O. — Oulton, Miss and Miss M.; Orr, Miss; O’Rorke, Mr. Ambrose; O'Hara, Mr. Charles K.; O’Hara, Miss; Orr, Captain H. M.; Owers, Mr. James; O'Neill, Honourable Robert T., M. P.; O’Neill, Lord and Lady. * P. — Preston, Captain and Mrs.; Preston, Sir John and Lady; Preston, Mr. and Mrs. George L.; Platt Higgins, Mr. and Mrs. Edward; Price,  Miss May Blackwood; Purcell, Mr. and Mrs.; Pratten, Mr. W. J; Pirrie, Mr. and Mrs. W. J; Perry, Captain; Pollock, Mr. T. N. G.; Pine, Mr. and Mrs. Thomas; Porter, Mr. and Mrs. Porter; Pirrie, Miss Isabella; Peebles, Mr. W. E.; Price, Captain, Mrs., and Miss Blackwood; Purdon, Miss; Pearson, Mr. E. W.; Poole, Dr. and Mrs.; Patterson, Mr. and Mrs. Richard; Perceval, Mrs. and Miss; Parker, Miss K.; Patterson, Mr. A. H.; Pakenham, Rev. A. H. * R. — Ritchle, Mr. W. B. and Miss; Robinson, Miss M.; Richards, Captain and Mrs.; Richardson, Miss; Richardson, Mr. Thomas; Rutherford, Mr. J. C., Miss, and Miss Grace; Ringland, Mr. and Mrs.; Riddel, Mr. Wm.; Reade, Mr. Joseph; Reade, the Misses; Reade, Mr. and Mrs. James T.; Redfern, Miss and Miss A; Rowan, Miss; Richardson, Mr. and Mrs. George F.; Riddel, Miss and Miss Isabella; Riddel, Mr. Samuel; Richardson, Mr. Wm. C; Rogers, Major; Richardson, Mrs. Charles H.; [Col. 5–6a] Richardson, Miss Bertha, Miss Ada, and Miss Norah; Rawson, Miss; Redfern, Miss Emily; Redfern, Mrs.; Rowan, Major and Mrs. I. I.; Robinson, Mrs. and Miss; Riky, Captain John; Richardson, Mr. and Mrs. A. P.; Reeves, Miss; Reade, Mr. Robert H.; Richardson, Mr. James Theo.; Richardson, Mr. Charles H. * S. — Stewart, Mr. C. A. W.; Symes, Mr. R. G. and Miss; Symes, Mr. Glascoth; Shaw, Mr. and Mrs. G. Melville; Speddlng, Miss; Stewart, Miss M. and Miss K; Steward, Mr. E.; Smith, Mr. J. W. T., M.D.; Smith, Miss G. and Miss A.; Saunderson, Colonel and the Hon. Mrs.; Stuart, Mr. S. H. Lechmere; Strange, the Misses; Stronge, Captain W. L.; Stronge, Mr. C. E.; Shaw, Mr. Harry; Stuart, Commander Lester; Stuart, Mrs. Lester and Miss; Stronge, Miss and Miss Fanny; Stronge, Mr. and Mrs; Smiles, Mr. and Mrs.; Swlney, Mr. and Mrs. J. H. H.; Smyth, Dr. and Mrs. Brice; Stokes, Major and Mrs.; Scarlett, Major and Mrs.; Stewart Brown, Miss and Miss Nettie; Smith, Mr. Gordon; Stewart, Mr. Pakenham; Stirling, Miss; Stevelly, Mr. John; Stewart, Mr. Abram; Sexton, Miss Amy; Stuart, Mr. Alexander Barklie [?]; Stanley, Mr. and Mrs. John; Southby, Mr. and the Hon. Mrs.; Smith, Mrs. Stafford, M.D.; Smith, Miss I.; Sceales [?], Mr. Adolphus; Stannus, Mr. and Mrs. Thomas R. and Miss R.; Stannus, Mr. Thomas R. Alexander, and Miss K; Studdert, Colonel; Shore, Mrs. Offley; Seddall, Mr. and Mrs.; Stritch, Miss; Style, Sir William and Lady; Shaw, Mr. F. H; Seaver, Mr. Henry, C.E. * T. — Torrens, Mrs. and Mrs. John; Thompson, Mr., Mrs. James, and Miss Mary O.; Taylor, Mrs.; Tracey, Mr. Harry Owens; Tracey, Miss; Torrens, Mrs.; Tate, Mr. B.; Townsend, Miss; Taylor, Mr. and Mrs. J. A.; Taylor, Miss; Townsend, Captain; Thomson, Miss; Tate, Mr. Henry; Torrens, Captain J. A; Town-Inspector of Belfast and Mrs. Singleton; Torrens, Mrs. Robert; Torrens, Mr. Thomas H. * U. — Usher, Mr. A. A. * V. — Valentine, Miss Ina; Valentine, Mr. William; Valentine, Miss; Vogan, Mr. John; Voughan, Mr. and Mrs. Montgomery; Voughan, Miss and Miss M. Montgomery; Vane-Tempest, Lord Herbert; Verner, Mr. H. * W. — Woods, Mr. and Mrs. Herbert; Whitis, Miss; Walkington, Mr.; Walkington, Miss; Walkington, Miss Edith; Wallace, Mr. and Mrs. Percy; Wallace, Miss; White, Mr. and Mrs.; Ward, the Honourable Kathleen; Ward, the Honourable Emily; Wales, Mr. and Mrs; White, Mrs.; Ward, Miss; Wallace, Mr. Claude C.; Wardlaw, Mrs.; Watson, Mr. and Mrs. Wesley; Ward, Mr. Robert E.; White, Colonel and the Misses; Watt [?], Mr. Andrew A.; Watt, Mrs.; Wilson, Miss; Wilson, Mr. Percy; Walsh, Miss and Miss Frances; Wallace, Captain Robert; Walker, Mr. Fred Adam; Wilson, Mr. R. A.; White, Miss; Ward, Mr. Herbert; Whelan, Mr. and Mrs. J. P; Wilson, Mr. D. M.; Wolff, Mr. G. W.; Wilson, Mr. Walter H.; Wallace, Captain R. * Y. — Young, the Misses; Young, Mr. Henry G.; Young, Mr. Wm. R.<ref>"The Ulster Club Ball." ''Northern Whig'' 11 January 1890, Saturday: 8 [of 8], Col. 3a–6b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000434%2F18900111&page=8&article=189&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, p. 8.</ref> </blockquote>The 11 January 1890 ''Dublin Daily Express'' has a report that would be regarded as full under normal conditions, including a much longer guest list:<blockquote>Belfast, Friday. The Marquis and Marchioness of Londonderry, who reached Kingstown this morning by the mail steamer Munster from Holyhead, arrived by the Dublin Limited mail in Belfast in the forenoon, and proceeded direct by special train to Newtownards, and thence to Mountstewart, their county Down residence. This evening the Marquis and Marchioness returned to Belfast, and were the principal guests at a grand ball given by the Ulster Club in the Ulster Hall. Upwards of seven hundred and fifty invitations were issued for the ball, and the attendance included the ''elite'' of the North of Ireland. The Ulster Hall presented a most charming appearance. The piazza, vestible, and ladies' and gentlemen's cloakrooms were transformed into beautiful drawingingrooms [sic], fitted up with tasteful draperies, and furnished with suitable furniture, while beautiful evergreens distributed here and there gave the place a really lovely appearance. The large hall was striking and brilliant. The front of the orchestra across the hall was fitted up with silver plate-glass, and this mirroring was draped with crimson silk plush, and reflected the countess lights and surroundings to great advantage. The lofty windows especially looked well, draped and festooned as they were with rich material in gold and blue and white. Crimson Utrecht velvet, festooned with gold sateen, covered the front of the balconies, and the pillars below were also artistically draped with rich material. The corridors were fitted up as refreshment rooms, and also beautifully adorned with draperies of art muslin and other material. The Minor Hall was arranged as a supper room. The invitations included the following — General Prince Edward of Saxe-Weimar and Princess Edward of Saxe-Weimar, the Duke and Duchess of Manchester, Duke and Duchess of Abercorn, the Marchioness of Downshire, the Marquis and Marchioness of Londonderry, Viscountess Mandeville, Earl and Countess of Lanesborough, Earl and Countess of Enniskillen, Earl and Countess of Belmore, Earl and Countess of Caledon, Earl and Countess of Gosford, Earl and Countess of Ranfurly, Lord Herbert Vane Tempest, Earl and Countess of Erne, Lord and Lady De Ros, Lord and Lady Garvagh, Earl and Countess of Castlestuart and Ladies Muriel and Mary Stuart, Lord and Lady Langford, the Mayor and Mayoress of Belfast, his Grace the Primate of All Ireland, Mr Knox and the Misses Knox, Col Saunderson, MP, and the Hon Mrs Saunderson; Col the Hon Sir West Ridgeway and Lady Ridgeway, Right Hon A J Balfour, Lord A Hill, MP; the Inspector-General RIC. The military included — Headquarter Staff — Major-Gen Wiseman-Clarke, CB, and Mrs Wiseman-Clarke; Capt Wiseman-Clarke, ADC; Major and Mrs Pollock, Capt and Mrs Knocker, Lieut-Col, Mrs, and Miss Parker, Deputy Surgeon-Gen, Mrs, and Miss Tippets — Major and Mrs Brereton, Royal Scots Greys, Major the Hon W P Alexander, and Mrs Alexander; officers Royal Scots Greys, Major the Hon W Alexander and Mrs Alexander; Royal Engineers — Major J Cameron; Gordon Highlanders, Lieut-Col Essex, and officers 2nd Batt Gordon Highlanders — Major, Mrs, and Miss Robertson, Major the Hon J Scott Napier, Mrs Napier, and the Misses Leith, Capt W H Dick-Cunynghan [sic], VC, and Mrs Dick-Cunygham [sic], Capt and Mrs Singlair-Wemyss, Hon W R D Forbes and Mrs Forbes, Black Watch — Colonel Kidston and officers 2nd Batt the Black Watch, Colonel and Mrs Kidston, Major and Mrs Ganter. Capt and Mrs Coode, Capt and Mrs Moulton-Barrett, Mr and Mrs J Stuart, and Capt and Mrs Filmore. Royal Irish Ritles — Colonel Guiness, CB, and officers, Depot, Royal Irish Rifles; Major and Mrs Knox, Capt and Mrs Tobin, Lieut-Colonel Maberley and officers the Royal Scots Greys, Dundalk; Colonel Griffiths and officers 2nd Batt the East Lancashire Regt, Newry; Colonel Kinloch and officers 2nd Batt the Kings Royal Rifle Corps, Enniskillen; Colonel Latham and officers, Royal Artillery, Londonderry; Colonel Hopton, CB, and officers, depot Princess Victoria's, Armagh; Colonel Caldwell and officers depot the Royal Inniskilling Fusiliees [sic], Omagh; Colonel Dickson and officers 5th Dragoon Guards, Dublin; Colonel and Mrs Dickson, Major and Mrs  Bowers, Major and Mrs Bromfield, Captain and Mrs Forster. Medical Staff — Surgeon-Major and Mrs O F Molloy, Surgeon S J Flood, AMS, and Mrs  Flood; Surgeon J Watson, AMS; Surgeon P M Carleton, Surgeon R L Love, Surgeon F A B Daly, Surgeon T Moynihan, Surgeon J  M'Laughlin. Army Pay Department — Captain and Mrs W M F Trotman, Captain M'Causland. Army Service Corps — Captain A G lnglis, Major Forde, Miss Forde, Miss A Forde, Colonel Wm B Forde and Mrs Forde, the Countess Fingall, Mr H M Herron, RH; Captain and Mrs Greer, Mr and Mrs Edward Greer, Captain G O Gage, RM; and Miss Gage, Lady and the Misses Heygate, Mr J  Blakeston Houston, V L and Mrs Houston, Mr T B Houston and Miss Houston, Captain and Mrs Hobbs, Sir E J Harland, Bart, MP; Captain M'Calmont, MP, and Mrs M'Calmont, W Ellison Macartney, MP; Colonel H B Johnston, Lieutenant Colonel Knox, Dr and Mrs Letts, Captain Lloyd, Lady Fanny Lambert, Major Lambert, Sir Henry Lawrence, Bart; General Montgomery, CSI, and Mrs Montgomery; General Montgomery Moore and the Hon Mrs Moore, Mr and Mrs Harry S Moore, Major J F Mars, Major Somerset Maxwell and Lady Florence Maxwell, Mr and Mrs Stephen Percival Maxwell, Mr Robert Davidson Percival Maxwell, Captain Molesworth, Mr Hugh Montgomery and the Lady Charlotte Montgomery and Miss Evelyn Montgomery; Viscount Massereene and Ferrard, Major R Percival Maxwell, Colonel W E Montgomery, Lieutenant Colonel M'Cance, Miss Eva M'Cance, and Mrs J S M'Cance; Major H S M'Clintock and Miss M'Clintock, Captain and Miss M'Neill, Major M'Cammon, Lieut-General Nugent, Captain H M Orr, Mr James Owens, DL; the Hon R T O'Neill, MP; Lord and Lady O'Neill, Captain Preston, RM, and Mrs Preston, Mr John Preston, Lady Preston, and Mr and Mrs George J Preston, Mr and Mrs W J Perrie, Captain Perry, Captain, Mrs, and Miss Blackwood Price, Dr and Mrs Poole, Rev A H Pakenham, Captain and Mrs Richards, Miss Richardson, Mr Thomas Richardson, Major Rodgers, Mrs Charles H Richardson, Captain John Riky, Mr and Mrs A P Richardson, Mr Robert H Reade, Mr James Theodore Richardson, Mr Charles H Richardson, Captain W L Stronge, Mr C E Stronge, Commander Lester Stuart, Mrs Lester Stuart and Miss Lester Stuart, Miss Stronge and Miss Fanny Stronge, Mr and Mrs Stronge, Dr and Mrs Bryce Smith, Major and Mrs Stokes, Major and Mrs Scarlett, and Mr and the Hon Mrs Southby, Mr and Mrs Thomas R Stanus [sic] and Miss B Staunus [sic], Colonel Stoddert, Sir William and Lady Style, Major H Seymour Allen, Mr Edward and Mrs Archdale, Major A G S Alexander and Mrs Alexander, Major Alason, Major the Hon Chas and Mrs Alexander, Capt Stewart Bruce and Miss Bruce, Capt and Mrs Knox Browne, Miss Knox Browne, Mr Knox Browne, Mr and Mrs Barbour, Capt St G Burton, Sir Henry and Lady Bruce, Mr and Mrs J M'C Blizard, Miss C J Blizard, Mr and Mrs James Bruce, Mrs Bruce, Miss Bruce and Master Bruce, Col and Mrs Buchanan, Capt Buckle, Miss Erskine Brownrigg, Dr and Mrs J W Browne, Mr R N Batt, Mrs and Miss  Batt, Mr and Mrs Claud Brownlow and Miss Brownlow, Major Boyton, Lord Terence Blackwood, the Bishop of Down and Connor and Dromore, Sir Victor and Lady Brook, Mr J M Barbour, Mr E Jones Bristow, Mr Charles Brownlow, Mr William Charley, Miss Charley, Miss L Charley, Mr E J Charley, Mr Arthur Charley, Mr and Mrs Abraham Combe, Miss and Mr R H Crawford, Mr James Craig, Lord and Lady Clanmorris, Captain and Mrs J S Cramsie, Mr Robert Cramsie, Major and Mrs S K Cowan, Sir Edward Porter- Cowan, Lady Cowan, Miss Cowan, Mr Victor Cortes, Mr William Cortes, and Miss Cortes, Mr N Delacherois Crommelin, Captain Carden, Captain Arthur Chambers, RHA; Lady Elizabeth Cochrane, Major Campbell, Mr Colin Campbell, Captain Cuppadge, Mr and Mrs Robert G Dunville. Mr S and the Misses Delacherois, and Miss A J Delacherois, Captain Darwell, Miss de Wind, Lieutenant-General and Mrs Dickey, Rev Freeman and Mrs Dudley, Mr John Dunville, Mr H de Wind, Mr John Torrens and Mrs Torrens, Captain Townsend, Captain J A Torrens, the Town Inspector of Belfast, and Mrs Singleton; Mr H Verner, the Hon Kathleen Ward, the Hon Emily Ward, Colonel and the Misses White, Captain Robert Wallace, Captain R Wallace, the Misses Young, Mr Henry G Young, and Mr Wm R Young.<ref>"Grand Ball to the Marquis and Marchioness of Londonderry. (From our correspondent.)" ''Dublin Daily Express'' 11 January 1890, Saturday: 5 [of 8], Col. 3a–c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001384%2F18900111&page=5&article=095&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Daily Express'', p. 5.</ref></blockquote>18 January 1890 ''Lady's Pictorial'':<blockquote>The Ulster Club gave on Friday evening last week, in the Ulster Hall, Belfast, one of the most successful balls ever held in that prosperous City of the North of Ireland. It was given in honour of the Marquis of Londonderry and the Marchioness, who, with their son, Lord Castlereagh, were the guests of the evening. Lord Londonderry is an Ulster man of whom the natives of the Northern Province are justly proud, and to entertain him was an honour which has been long looked for by the Club. The hall, which is a splendid building admirably adapted for the purpose of a large dance, was changed beyond the recognition of its oldest frequenters by the skill of clever and tasteful decorators. A temporary archway was erected at the entrance, with cloakrooms for ladies and men at either side. The entrance was prettily carpeted and gracefully draped with delicately-coloured Oriental silk. The walls were hung with handsome Eastern fabrics of rich and harmonious colour, with large mirrors at intervals, which served in effect to double the size of the room. The prettily proportioned vestibule and smaller apartments adjoining the ball-room were decorated and furnished each in the style of a different period. The ceilings were prettily draped with rich but soft-coloured India and China silks. The minor hall made an admirable supper-room, and was also most artistically decorated. The flowers on the table were much admired. The orchestra made music from out a very multitude of floral blooms, and that most effective decoration of blocks of ice hollowed out and lighted by electricity, which so puzzled the Shah of Persia when over here, was liberally made use of. The principal families in the north of Ireland were invited; among others, Prince and Princess Edward of Saxe-Weimar, the Duke and Duchess of Abercorn, the Duke and Duchess of Manchester, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], the Marchioness of Downshire, the Earl and Countess of Lanesborough, the Earl and Countess of Enniskillen, the Earl and Countess of Belmore, the Earl and Countess of Caledon, the Earl and Countess of Gosford, the Earl and Countess of Ranfurley,  and the Earl and Countess of Erne, His Grace the Primate of all Ireland, Mrs. Knox and the Misses Knox. The regiments stationed in the North of Ireland were largely represented. Mr. J. Blakiston-Houston, V.L., as senior trustee of the club, had the honour of taking Lady Londonderry to supper. The Marquis took the Countess of Castlestuart; the Right Hon. Col. Forde, D.L., also a club trustee, Lady Fanny Lambert; Sir Edward Cowan, Lord Lieutenant of the County Antrim, Lady Clanmorris; Captain Cramsie, J.P., High Sheriff of Antrim, Lady O'Neill; Lord Castlestuart, Lady Charlotte Montgomery; Lord Clanmorris, the Hon. Mrs. Alexander; Lord O'Neill, Mrs. Forde; and General Wiseman-Clarke, Mrs. Knox. Dancing was kept up till an early hour on Saturday morning, the ball having proved a genuine success.<ref>"Court and Society Notes." ''Lady's Pictorial'' 18 January 1890, Saturday: 44 [of 60], Col. 1b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0005980%2F18900118&page=44. Same print title, p. 94.</ref></blockquote> == Notes and Questions == # ==References== {{reflist}} 6nzc558xe817p09dvpiquftd9oorbyu 2840735 2840732 2026-10-16T20:39:38Z Scogdill 1331941 2840735 wikitext text/x-wiki =Event= Ball at the Ulster Club ==Overview== ==Logistics== * Friday, 10 January 1890 ==Who Was Present== Perhaps 700 people were invited to this ball. The report in the Northern Whig looks like it may have been written from the actual invitation list. An actual count cannot be made from this list, because so many daughters are listed as "the Misses X." Consuelo Montagu, Viscountess Mandeville was invited, but her husband's name is not on the list of people invited. A Mrs. Stafford Smith, M.D., was invited, apparently a woman doctor in Northern Ireland at this time. No Mr. Stafford Smith is mentioned. ==Entertainment== ==Anthology== The 11 January 1890 Belfast-based ''Northern Whig'' gave a great deal of attention to this event, listing the names of many people who were not generally known, perhaps the entire invitation list. The ''Belfast News-Letter'' published a long report, very similar to this one.<ref>"The Marquis and Marchioness of Londonderry. Visit to Belfast." ''Belfast News-Letter'' 11 January 1890, Saturday: 5 [of 8], Col. a [of 8] – 6, Col. 2a. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000038%2F18900111&page=5&article=014&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref><blockquote>"The Ulster Club Ball." A grand ball in honour of the Marquis and Marchioness of Londonderry was given at the Ulster Hall last night by the Committee and members of the Ulster Club. The affair, it is almost unnecessary to say, was conceived and carried out in a style fully worthy of the Club and its traditions. In the course of the last few years the Ulster Hall has witnessed many a brilliant gathering and been the subject of many a gorgeous transformation. Few, however, of such assemblies have been more brilliant than that of last night, and few of such transformations more splendidly effective than that which the taste and skill of those entrusted with the decorative design accomplished with a very few days’ preparation. With the exception perhaps of Sir Edward Harland’s ball in honour of the Prince and Princess of Wales, no recent local function has been associated with so elaborate and successful a scheme of artistic ornamentation. The interior furnished quite a series of beautiful pictures, for the work of adornment had been lavished not only on the main hall, which lends so kindly to such efforts, but to every nook and corner of the building. Vestibule, staircase and corridors, supper-room, drawing-rooms, and ante-rooms — each had apparently been the subject of a special and well-directed effort, so that, while each formed part of a highly effective whole, it possessed an individual attraction quite independent of its surroundings. Modern artistic tastes were oonsulted in the general plan of decoration, which was more or less of an Oriental character. Not that there was any suggestion of the semi-barbaric splendour or florld profusion of the East, but the liberal interspersion of palms, ferns, and exotics everywhere throughout the building, in addition to the splendid bank of foliage and blossom massed upon the orchestra, amidst which the electric lights sparkled like fireflies, gave a tropical colour to the scene. Luxurious furniture, costly art objects, beautiful mirrors, rich carpets and curtains, and hangings of delicate, soft-coloured material, all arranged with exquisite taste, assorted well with the lavish floral display. It would be impossible to adequately describe the beauty of the scene presented by the hall when brilliantly lighted and thronged with upwards of five hundred guests. We may, however, be able to give some very imperfect idea of the  decorative work, which fully deserved the praise unanimously bestowed upon it by those present. Messrs. [Mayrs ?] of Royal Avenue, and Mr. C. M'Kimm, of the Botanic Gardons, divided the honour and responsibility of the work, the former well-known firm being en trusted [sic] with the furnishing and upholstering department, and the latter equally well-known gentleman having charge of what may be called the botanical portion of the scheme, which, as already remarked, was of more than ordinary prominence and beauty. In the arrangements of the large hall, which, as the ball room, formed of course the centre of attraction, the resources of both departments had been fully brought into play. At the foot of the orchestra were placed a set of tall mirrors, draped with rich silk plush, and extending nearly the entire width of the hall. This was a most effective adornment, the mirrors, besides forming a handsome portion of the ''mise en scene'', reflecting the countless lights and brilliant surroundings to great advantage. The front of the balconies was covered with crimson Utrecht velvet, festooned with gold sateen, and the pillars supporting the balconies were also artistically draped with rich material. The walls of the hall were draped with art muslin, in which, at intervals, were placed rich mirrors. Under neath [sic] the balconies a crimson cloth carpet covered the floor. This portion of the hall was furnished with luxurious settees, couches, and gossip chairs; while palms and other graceful-foliaged plants, interspersed where practicable, gave this charming retreat for the dancers a very pleasant and inviting aspect. The draping of the lofty windows in material of blue, white, and gold was particularly elegant and effective. The centre of the hall was, of course, reserved for the dancers, and the floor was waxed to perfection. Charming, indeed, was the mass of foliage arranged on the orchestra, interspersed with bits of pretty rockery, cunning devices in virgin cork, and banks of rich bloom, backed by waving fronded growths. In the arrangement of this portion of the Interior Mr. M'Kimm had brought to his task all the originality of Idea, true artistic taste, and keen perception of natural effect which he has always displayed in connection with every form of horticultural art. Numbers of tiny electric lights peeping from amidst this bank of foliage and flowers enhanced its general beauty, without detracting from that of the various blossoms, for the soft-coloured points of light only served to deepen the scarlet glow of the poinsettia and the crimson blush of the camellia. Electric lighting was in fact a feature of the adornment of the hall. Nothing could be prettier than the hanging baskets pendent from the balcony filled with tradescantra [sic; s/b tradescantia?] and other trailing plants, and each bearing a little incandescent lamp, which reflected the soft tint of its globe. These globes were in various colours, and the unique effect may readily be conceived. At the lower end of the hall opposite to the orchestra a handsome "ice trophy" was erected, backed by mirrors, which reflected and multiplied its glittering outlines a thousand times, and surrounded by plants and twining foliage. This, besides bring highly ornamental, imparted a delicious coolness to the hall. The central light from the celling of the hall was adorned with fronds of nephrolepis fern, palm leaves, and trailing growths. The staircases leading to the balcony and Minor  Hall — the latter being the supper-room — were carpeted with crimson cloth. On the landing a barrier had been erected dividing the supper-room from the balcony entrance. This was in the form of a garden trellis, overhung with ivy — a very neat and appropriate arrangement. The balcony itself was carpeted and furnished. Here and there cosy little nooks were formed, adorned with prettily arranged rock work and flowers. To these guests might retire for rest or conversation and yet enjoy at the same time a splendid bird’s-eye view of the gay scene on the dancing floor. The entrance to the hall was from Franklin Street, and the entrance corridors as well as the main corridors on each side of the large hall were draped and carpeted in the most complete and elegant style. The main corridors were arranged as refreshment rooms for  the dancers. They were draped, tentwise, with light-coloured material, and the floor, like all the rest throughout the building, save that reserved for the dancers and that of the drawing-rooms, was carpeted with crimson cloth. On each ride of the vestibule the rooms ordinarily used as cloakrooms had been converted into drawing-rooms, brilliantly lighted, luxuriously furnished, and adorned with palms and ornamental foliaged plants. One of these rooms was furnished entirely in Japanese style. The vestibule and piazza were fitted up as promenade and lounge. Here again plant decoration was largely brought into requisition by the same skilled hand which had superintended the floral arrangements in the main hall. Ladies' and gentlemen’s cloakrooms were fitted up with equal completeness and good taste. The supper-room (Minor Hall) was ele gantly [sic] appointed, the tables bring furnished with flowers in design by Mr. R. Butler, of Balmoral Nurseries. Mr. G. A. Skilleter, of the Albert Hotel, High Street, was the purveyor, and catered for the large company (nearly six hundred) in a highly satisfactory manner. The following was the ''menu'':— Consommé à la Brunoise, fillets of sole à la Montezuma, mayonnaise of lobster, mayonnaise of chicken, quails in aspic, pâtés à la Toulouse, foie gras in aspic, boar’s head, galantine of turkey aux truffes, hunters’ beef, galantine of veal, chicken à la Bechamel, roast turkey, galantine of game, roast chicken, egg and veal pie, roast pheasant, Limerick ham and tongue;  macedoine de fruits Sabayon, Charlotte Russe, soufflé de péches, gelése [sic?] à la Danizic, gelées au Marbre, crême à la Chartreuse, meringues d’abricots, trifle à I’Orleans; dessert; tea and coffee, strawberry cream ice, lemon ice, orangeade, lemonade, champagne cup, claret cup, sherry, claret. Lord and Lady Londonderry, on arriving at the ball, were received, as well as the other guests, by the members the Reception Committee. [Col. 3c–4a] A number of the Scots Greys were in attendance in the ball room. The following was the dance programme, the music being furnished by Herr Wilhelm Iff's band, stationed in the orchestra:— Quadrille, "Yeomen of the Guard" (Bucalossi); valse, "Nachtechwärmer" ([Fols?]); valse, "Christmas Roses" (Waldteufel); lancers [?], "Doris" (Bucalossi); valse, "Donauweibchen" (Strauss); polka, "Fancy Dress" (Reeve); valse, "Eldorado" (Royle); lancers, "Faust Up to Date" (Luiz); valse, "Am Neckars [Strand]" (Milliecker); polka, "See me dance" (Solomon); valse, "Love’s Golden Dream" (Bonheur); valse, "Donauellen [sic]" (Ivanovici); lancers, "Pelikan" (Solomon); polka, "Go ahead" (Royle); valse, "La Jeune Vienne" (Fahrbach); polka, "Ulster Club” (Iff); valse, "Doris” (Bucalossi); valse, "Espana" (Waldteufel); polka, "Who is that calling" (Meissler); valse, "Schatz" (Strauss). The programme and ''menu'' cards were supplied by Mr. W. Rodman. Lady Londonderry was taken down to supper by Mr. J. B. Houston, V.L., while the Countess of Fingall was taken down by Lord Londonderry. Dancing continued until an advanced hour morning, everything passing off in the most successful manner. The following had the honour of receiving invitations to the ball:— Invitations were issued to the following:— [list set as unordered list to save space but otherwise preserving paragraphing] * General Prince Edward of Saxe Weimar and Princess Edward of Saxe Weimar. * The Duke and Duchess of Manchester. * Duke and Duchess of Abercorn. * The Marchioness of Downshire. * The Marquis and Marchioness of Londonderry. * [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]]. * Earl and the Countess of Lanesborough. * Earl and the Countess of Enniskillen. * Earl and the Countess of Belmore. * Earl and the Countess of Caledon. * Earl and the Countess of Gosford. * Earl and the Countess of Ranfurly. * Earl and the Countess of Erne. * Lord and the Lady De Ros. * Lord and the Lady Garvagh. * Earl and the Countess of Castlestuart and Ladies Muriel and Mary Stuart. * Lord and Lady Longford. * The Moyer and Mayoress of Balfast. * His Grace the Primate of All Ireland, Mrs. Knox, and the Misses Knox. * Colonel the Hon. Sir West Ridgeway and Lady Ridgeway. * Right Hon. A. J. Balfour. * The Inspector-General Royal Irish Constabulary. The military included:— * Headquarter Staff — Major-General Wiseman Clarke, C.B., and Mrs. Wiseman Clarke; Captain Wiseman Clarke, A.D.C.; Major and Mrs Pollock, Captain and Mrs. Knocker, Lieut. Colonel, Mrs., and Miss Parker; Deputy Surgeon General, Mrs., and Miss Tippetts; Major and Mrs. Brereton. * Royal Scots Greys — Major Hon. W. P. Alexander, and officers Royal Scots Greys; Major Hon. W. P. Alexander and Mrs. Alexander. * Royal Engineers — Major J. Cameron. * Gordon Highlanders — Lieut. Colonel Essex and officers 2nd Battalion Gordon Highlanders; Major, Mrs., and Miss Robertson; Major Hon. J. Scott Napier, Mrs. Napier, and the Misses Leith; Captain W. H. Dick Cunyngham, V.C., and Mrs. Dick Cunyngham; Captain and Mrs. Sinclair-Wemyss, Hon. W. R. D. Forbes and Mrs. Forbes. * Black Watch — Colonel Kidston and officers 2nd Battalion The Black Watch, Colonel and Mrs. Kidston, Major and Mrs. Gunter, Captain and Mrs. Coode, Captain and Mrs. Moulton-Barrett, Mr. and Mrs. J. Stuart, and Captain and Mrs. Filmore. * Royal Irish Rifles — Colonel Guinness, C.B., and officers depot Royal Irish Rifles, Major and Mrs. Knox, Captain and Mrs. Tobin. * Lieut.-Colonel Maberly and officers the Royal Scots Greys, Dundalk. * Colonel Griffiths and officers 2nd Battalion the East Lancashire Regiment, Newry. * Colonel Kinloch and officers 2nd Battalion the King’s Royal Rifle Corps, Enniskillen. * Colonel Latham and officers Royal Artillery, Londonderry. * Colonel Hopton, C.B , and officers depot Princess Victoria’s, Armagh. * Colonel Caldwell and officers depot the Royal lnniskilling Fusiliers, Omagh. * Colonel Dickson and officers 5th Dragoon Guards, Dublin. * Colonel and Mrs. Dickson, Major and Mrs. Bowers, Major and Mrs. Bromfleld, Captain and Mrs. Forster. * Medical Staff — Surgeon Major and Mrs. O. F. Molloy, Surgeon S. J. Flood, A.M.S., and Mrs. Flood; Surgeon J. Watson, A.M.S; Surgeon P. M. Carleton, Surgeon R. L. Love, Surgeon F. A. B. Daly, Surgeon T. Moynihan, Surgeon M'Laughlin. * Army Pay Department — Captain and Mrs. W. M. F. Trotman, Captain M'Causland. * Army Service Corps — Captain A. G. Inglis [?]. The other Invitations were:— * A. — Alexander, Mr. John S.; Alexander, Mrs. and the Misses; Ash, Mr. T. Spotswood; Ash, Mrs. and Miss Spotswood; Allan, Major F. Seymour; Andrews, Mr. and Mrs. George; Andrews, Mr. and Mrs. Thomas; Andrews, Miss Eileen L.; Andrews, Mr. and Mrs. John; Ardill, Mr. Robert; Andrews, Mr. H. W.; Archdale, Mr. and Mrs. Edward; Alexander, Major H. G S. and Mrs.; Alison, Major; Alexander, Major the Honourable Charles and Mrs.; Alexander, Mrs.; Andrews, Mr and  Mrs. T, J.; Andrews, Mr. J. M.; Andrews, Mr. Thomas; Apperley, Mr.; Allen, Mr. Samuel; Andrews, Mr. A. M.; Atkinson, Mr. R. B. * B. — Bruce, Captain Stewart and Miss; Boyd, Miss Bessie [?]; Brownrigg, Q. J., Miss and Miss M.; Browne, Captain and Mrs. Knox; Browne, Miss Knox; Browne, Mr. Knox; Bell, Mr. John; Barton, John George; Burns, Mr. and Mrs. G. A.; Barbour, Mr. William; Blackburne, Miss; Burton, Captain St. G.; Bates, Mr. A. H,; Bristow, Miss M.; Bristow, Mr. John; Bruce, Sir Hervey and Lady; Blizard, Mr. and Mrs. J. M'C.; Blizard, Miss C. J.; Black, Miss and Miss N.; Black, Miss S; Bristow, Mr. H. J.; Bristow, Mr. S. F.; Bruce, Mr. and Mrs James; Bruce, Mrs., Miss, and Master; Bowles, Mr. and Mrs. Charles; Betham, Miss; Buchanan, Colonel and Mrs.;  Bowen, Mr. G. E.; Barklie, Mrs. and Miss; Brett, Mr. A. E. and Miss; Boyd, Mr. and Mrs. Sinclair; Boyd, Miss; Boyd, Mr. and Mrs. James S.; Black, Mr. Charles and Miss; Brett, Mr. George; Brett, Miss Helen; Buckle, Captain; Brownrigg, Miss Eveline; Browne, Dr. and Mrs. J. W.; Bruce, Mr. Robert; Batt, Mr., Mrs. R. N., and Mss; Byrne, Mr. and Mrs. H. Morgan; Bristow, Miss; Brownlow, Mr. and Mrs. Claude; Brownlow, Miss; Benson, Mr. George; Boyton, Major; Beattie, Miss; Blackwood, Lord Terence; Burns, Mr. J. C. W.; Bishop of Down and Connor and Dromore, the Right Rev. Lord; Brook, Sir Victor and Lady; Bell, Mr. Richard; Barboar, Mr. J. M.; Bristow, Mr. E. Jones; Brownlow, Mr. Charles; Barton, Mr. H. D. M.; Bristow, Mr. James R.; Boyd, Mr. Robert; Braddell, Mr. St. John. * C.—Crawford, Mrs. Wm. G.; Cook, Mr. and Mrs. Alex.; Campbell, Lloyd; Cuming, Mr. and Miss; Craig, Mr. Vincent; Craig, Miss; Corry, Oscar; Charley, Mr. Wm.; Charley, Miss; Charley, Miss L.; Charley, Mr. E. J.; Charley, Mr. Arthur; Combe, Mr. and Mrs. Abram; Crawford, Miss and Mr. A. H.; Craig, Mr. James; Carlisle, Mr. and Mrs. A. M.; Carlisle, Miss; Coates, Mr. W. R.; Coates, Mr., Mrs. David Lindsay, and Miss; Carr, Mr. John and the Misses; Cunningham, Mrs. W. C. and Miss; Campbell, Miss; Coates, Mr. and Mrs. William; Clements, Miss; Cameron, Miss; Clanmorris, Lord, the Lady; Cramsie [?], Captain, Mrs. J. S.; Cramsie [?], Mr. Robert; Cameron, Miss Annie; Copland, Mr. and Mrs.; Craig, Mr. E. S.; Crawford, Mr. R. J.; Crawford, Mr. Thomas D. and Mrs.; Crawford, the Misses and Mr. Alfred; Charnock [?],  Miss; Cowan, Major and Mrs. S. K.; Close, Mr. S. P.; Close, Mrs. and Miss; Coates, Mr. William, Mr. Victor H., and Miss; Crommelin, Mr. N. Delacherois; Crawford, Mr. Henry; Clarke, Mr. and Mrs. G. H.; Cowan, Sir Edward Porter and Lady; Cowan, Miss; Combe, Miss; Carden, Captain; Currell, Mr. and Mrs. Andrew; Chambers, Captain Arthur R. H. A.; Craig, Mr. Charles; Craig, Mr. and Mrs. R. S.; Carr, Mr. and Mrs. James; Calwell, Mr. R. I.; Calwell, Mr. A. M D; Chaytor, Mr. C. H.; Clarke, Mr. and Mrs. George; Cochrane, Lady Elizabeth; Carson, Mr. and Mrs. Thos. Greer; Casey, Miss C.; Chipp, Mr. and Mrs. Herbert; Campbell, Major; Campbell, Mr. Colin; Cordner, Mrs. Clement K.; Crawford, Mr. Wm.; Coates, Mr. Victor; Cunningham, Mr. F. A.; Crommelin, Mr. F. D.; Cameras, Mr. H. I.; [Col. 4c–5a] Campbell, Mr. Howard; Campbell, Mr. R. Garratt; Cuppaidge [Cuppridge?], Captain. * D. — Davies, Mr.; Davies, Miss; Danville, Mr. and Mrs. Robert G.; Dundee, Miss A. B.; Deacon, Miss; Deacon, Mr. H; Dixon, Mr., Mrs., and the Misses; Dunlop, Dr. and Mrs.; Duffin, Mr. and Mrs. A.; Drennan, Miss; Duffin, Mr. and Mrs. Charles; Dolling, Mr. and Mrs.; Caledon, R.; Davis, Miss; Daly, Dr.; Dunbar, Miss; Delachorois, Mr. S. and the Misses; Dixon, Miss Nora; Dickey, Miss; Dwyer, Mrs; Dunaterville, M. J. W.; Delachorois, Miss A. J.; Davison, Mr. and Mrs. Richard; Davlaon, Mr. Wm.; Darwall, Capt.; Davidson, Miss; De Wind, Miss; Dickey, Lieutenant-General and Mrs; De Wind, Miss E.; Dudley, Rev. Freeman and Mrs.; Darley, Miss Ida; Dickey, Mr. E. O’Rorke; Dunlop, Mr. Shuldham, M.D.; Duffin, Mr. C. H.; Dunville, Mr. John; De Wind, Mr. H. * E. — Eustace, Miss and Miss Grace; Echlin, Mr. Stafford; Ewing, Mr. Patrick. * F. — Falkner, Miss; Fenton, Mr. and Mrs. Frank G.; Forde, Major; Forde, Miss; Forde, Miss A.: Forde, Mr. William George; Forde, Colonel William Brownlow and Mrs.; Finlayson, Mr. and Mrs. W. G.; Fleury, Mr. A. E; Ferrar, Mr. and Mrs.; Firman, Miss; Fingall, the Countess; Fltzgibbon, Mr. and Mrs. H. M.; Fenton, Mr. S. G.; Ferguson, Mr. Godfrey W.; Ferrar, Mr. H. M., R.H.A. * G. — Grlmshaw, Mr. and Mrs. O'Donnell; Grimshaw, Miss; Gairdner, Miss and Miss A.; Gunning, Mr. and Mrs. F. P.; Garrett, Miss and Miss S.; Ganssen, Dr. David P.; Guthrie, Mr. and Mrs. William; Grimshaw, Mr. Reginald; Giveen, Miss; Graham, Mr. and Mrs. O. B.; Graham, Miss and Miss Nellie; Graham, Mr. C. L; Gumley, Captain; Grimshaw, Miss Norah; Greer, Mr. T. M.; Grimshaw, Miss M. O. and Miss E.; Guthrle, Miss; Grimshaw, Miss H. and Miss M; Guthrie, Miss; Gubbins, Miss; Geoghegan, Miss N. and Miss Lena; Garrett, Mr. W. L.; Gunning, Miss; Gordon, Mr. and Mrs. A. H; Gaussen, Mr. P. C.; Greer, Captain and Mrs.; Greer, Mr. and Mrs. Edward; Gage, Miss;  Gage, Mr. T. R Bailiie; Gage, Captain J. O, R.M; Gage, Miss; Gage, Mr. and Mrs. R. Balllie; Grimshaw, Miss Ida; Greer, Mr. Francis N.; Gage, Miss Annie; Gordon, Mr. J. F. G.; Gray, Mr. Harold S; Gray, Mr. James; Grimshaw, Mr. N. W. * H. — Heygate, Lady and the Misses; Harris, Mr. H J; Hannay, Miss; Hannay, Mr. R. T.; Hall, Mr. and Mrs.; Higgin, Mr. Wm.; Hughes, Mr. and Mrs. E; Harrison, Miss; Heyn, Mr. and Mrs. R. L., Miss E. and Miss M.; Houston, Mr. and Mrs. J. Blakiston-Houston, Mr. T. B. and Miss; Hutchinson, Mr. William Forde; Hutchinson, Miss Forde; Hughes, Mr. Lloyd; Head, Miss; Hamilton, Mr. and Mrs. Thomas; Harrison, Miss Celia; Hopkinson, Mrs. Charles; Hennah, Captain C. T.; Higginson, Mr. and Mrs. Charles; Herdman, Mr. Ernest; Hind, Mr. Joseph E.; Hoey, Mr. and Mrs. Frederick; Hind, Miss A; Hobbs, Captain and Mrs.; Harris, Mr. C. D.; Hutton, Mr. Frank; Hunter, Miss Lily; Henderson, Mr. and Mrs. Robert; Harrison, Captain; Hill, Lord Arthur, M.P.; Houston, Mr. Charles Blakiston; Houston, Mr. R. Blakiston; Harland, Sir E J., Bart., M.P.; Harris, Mr. C. D. * I — lrwin, Mr. J. Stuart; Irwin, Miss Janet; Irvine, Miss; Irvine, Mr. Robert. * J. — Johnson-Smyth, the Misses; Johnson-Smyth, Mr. M.; Johnstone, Mr. and Mrs; Johnston, Miss; Johnson-Smyth, Mrs.; Jackson, Miss Fanny; Johnston, Colonel, H. B.; Jaffé, Mr. and Mrs. Alfred; Johnston, Mr. R. St. George; Johnston, Mr. Frank; Johns, Mr. J. Digby; Johns, Mr. Henry L; Johns, Mr. William; Johnston, Mr. George; Johnston, Mr. H. G. * K.—Knox, Miss Frances; Kirby, Mr. and  Mrs. T. W.; Kelly, Mr. S. C.; Kirk, Miss, and Miss Tish; Kelly, Mr. H. C.; Kirk, Mr. J. C.; Knox, Mr. and Mrs. R. Kyle, and the Misses; Knox, Mrs. S. Wright; Kirkpatrick, Mr. and Mrs. J. Johnston; Kerby, Miss B.: Knox, Miss Aileen; Knox, Lieutenant-Colonel; Kerby, Miss; Kirk, Mr. and Miss Geo. E.; Kinsey, Captain and Miss; Kennedy, Mr. James; Kinahan, Mr. Charles I.; Kirkpatrick, Mr. James C.; Kennedy, Mr. Victor; Kirk, Mr. Pardo A.; Kingan [?], Mr. Samuel. * L. — Letts, Dr. and Mrs.; Lepper, Mrs. and Miss; Lepper, Miss; Lepper, Mr. John; Lynn, Mr. W. H.; Lane, Mr. and Mrs.; Lyle, Mr., Mrs., and Miss; Liddell, Mr. and the Misses; Lloyd, Captain; Lushington, Mr. T. W.; Lambart, the Lady Fanny; Lambart, Major; Liddell, Mrs.; Lindsay, Mr. and Mrs. John; Leslie, Major F. M.; Lambert, Miss, and Miss Violet; Lyle, Mr. and Mrs. D. B., and Miss; Lepper, Mr. and Mrs. F. R.; Lanyon, Mr. and Mrs. John; Lepper, Mr. Robert; Lyons, Mrs. and the Misses; Lanyon, Mr. H. O; Lindsay, Mr. Crawford; Lawrence, Sir Henry, Bart. * M. — Murton-Neale, Mr. G.; MacLaine, Mr. and Mrs. George L. and Miss; Macaulay, Mr. and Mrs. R. H; Muller, Mrs. and Miss; MacTear, Mrs.; Moutray, Mrs. Anketell; Moutray, Mr. Upton; Maguire, Mrs., Miss, and Miss K.; Maguire, Mr. E; Martin, Mrs. David and the Misses; Mitchell, Mr. Joseph; Mitchell, Mr. Alex; Mitchell, Mr. George T.; Mateer [?], Miss; Manley, Mr. Waring; Mulligan, Miss; Moore, Mr. and Mrs. James; Montgomery, Miss; Montgomery, General, C.S I., and Mrs.; Mosse, Mrs.; Montgomery Moore, General and Hon. Mrs.; Moore, Mr. and Mrs. Harry S.; Manley, Mr. and Miss; Manley, Dr.; Maunsell, Miss; Mulholland, Mr. and Mrs. H. L; Moore, Mr. and Mrs. Lyon; Musgrave, Mr. John R.; Musgrave, Mr. Henry; Musgrave, Mr. Edgar; Mears, Mr. C.; Mosse, Major J. F.; Maxwell, Major Somerset and Lady Florence; Murphy, Mr., Mrs. Edmund, Miss, and Miss Maud; Maclagan, Mr. Fergus; MacLaine, Mr. Harold S.; Macnaghten, the Misses; Macartney, Mr. Wm. Ellison, M.P.; Maxwell, Mr. and Mrs. Stephen Perceval; Maxwell, Mr. Robert David Perceval; Molony, Miss; Macrory, Miss O. and Miss K.; Macrory, Mr. George; Magowan, Mr., Mrs., and Miss; Montgomery, Mr. and Mrs.; Macrory, Mrs; Manley, Mr. Henry J.; Martin, Mr. and Mrs. Brereton; Molesworth, Captain; Muller, Mr. E. B; Molony, Mr. George; Moore, Mr. Maxwell S.; Munn, Mr. Noel; Munce, Mr. and Miss; Montagu, Mr. and Mrs.; Meiggs [?], Miss; Maseroon, Mr. and Mrs.; Moran, Miss Edith; Montgomery, Mr. Hugh; Montgomery, the Lady Charlotte; Montgomery, Miss and Miss Evelyne; Morell, Mr. Henry; Molony, Mr. J.; Massereene and Ferrard, Viscount; Montgomery, Mr. B. W. D.; Mitchell, Mr. John; Musgrave, Mr. James; Macaulay, Mr. A. T.; Maxwell, Major R. Perceval; Montgomery, Colonel W. E.; Maguire, Mr. Charles; Moore, Mr. C. K.; Munnis, Mr. W. A. * M'C. — M'Cullagh, Mr. R. Cheveley, and Miss; M'Cance, Lieutenant-Colonel and Mrs.; M'Cance, Miss; M'Cance, Miss Eva; M'Cance, Mr J. S.; M'Clintock, Major H S.; M'Cllntock, Miss and Miss Gertrude; M'Cllntock, Miss; M'Neill, Captain and Miss; M'Neill, Miss Susan; M'Calmont, Captain and Mrs. J.; M'Neile, Mr., Mrs. H. H., and Miss; M'Ferran, Miss; M'Cammond, Mr. Plaisted; M'Ferran, Miss Edith; M'Ferran, John P.; M'Neile, Mr. John; M*Cormlck, Mr. H. M'Neile; M'Gregor, Miss; M'Gildowny, Mr. H. M.; M'Gildowny, Mr. John E.; M'Cammon, Major; M'Crum, Mr. W. * N. — Neill, Mr. William; Neill, Miss; Neill, Mr. C.; Neill, Miss J.; Neill, Mr. Reginald; Nugent, Lieutenant General. * O. — Oulton, Miss and Miss M.; Orr, Miss; O’Rorke, Mr. Ambrose; O'Hara, Mr. Charles K.; O’Hara, Miss; Orr, Captain H. M.; Owers, Mr. James; O'Neill, Honourable Robert T., M. P.; O’Neill, Lord and Lady. * P. — Preston, Captain and Mrs.; Preston, Sir John and Lady; Preston, Mr. and Mrs. George L.; Platt Higgins, Mr. and Mrs. Edward; Price,  Miss May Blackwood; Purcell, Mr. and Mrs.; Pratten, Mr. W. J; Pirrie, Mr. and Mrs. W. J; Perry, Captain; Pollock, Mr. T. N. G.; Pine, Mr. and Mrs. Thomas; Porter, Mr. and Mrs. Porter; Pirrie, Miss Isabella; Peebles, Mr. W. E.; Price, Captain, Mrs., and Miss Blackwood; Purdon, Miss; Pearson, Mr. E. W.; Poole, Dr. and Mrs.; Patterson, Mr. and Mrs. Richard; Perceval, Mrs. and Miss; Parker, Miss K.; Patterson, Mr. A. H.; Pakenham, Rev. A. H. * R. — Ritchle, Mr. W. B. and Miss; Robinson, Miss M.; Richards, Captain and Mrs.; Richardson, Miss; Richardson, Mr. Thomas; Rutherford, Mr. J. C., Miss, and Miss Grace; Ringland, Mr. and Mrs.; Riddel, Mr. Wm.; Reade, Mr. Joseph; Reade, the Misses; Reade, Mr. and Mrs. James T.; Redfern, Miss and Miss A; Rowan, Miss; Richardson, Mr. and Mrs. George F.; Riddel, Miss and Miss Isabella; Riddel, Mr. Samuel; Richardson, Mr. Wm. C; Rogers, Major; Richardson, Mrs. Charles H.; [Col. 5–6a] Richardson, Miss Bertha, Miss Ada, and Miss Norah; Rawson, Miss; Redfern, Miss Emily; Redfern, Mrs.; Rowan, Major and Mrs. I. I.; Robinson, Mrs. and Miss; Riky, Captain John; Richardson, Mr. and Mrs. A. P.; Reeves, Miss; Reade, Mr. Robert H.; Richardson, Mr. James Theo.; Richardson, Mr. Charles H. * S. — Stewart, Mr. C. A. W.; Symes, Mr. R. G. and Miss; Symes, Mr. Glascoth; Shaw, Mr. and Mrs. G. Melville; Speddlng, Miss; Stewart, Miss M. and Miss K; Steward, Mr. E.; Smith, Mr. J. W. T., M.D.; Smith, Miss G. and Miss A.; Saunderson, Colonel and the Hon. Mrs.; Stuart, Mr. S. H. Lechmere; Strange, the Misses; Stronge, Captain W. L.; Stronge, Mr. C. E.; Shaw, Mr. Harry; Stuart, Commander Lester; Stuart, Mrs. Lester and Miss; Stronge, Miss and Miss Fanny; Stronge, Mr. and Mrs; Smiles, Mr. and Mrs.; Swlney, Mr. and Mrs. J. H. H.; Smyth, Dr. and Mrs. Brice; Stokes, Major and Mrs.; Scarlett, Major and Mrs.; Stewart Brown, Miss and Miss Nettie; Smith, Mr. Gordon; Stewart, Mr. Pakenham; Stirling, Miss; Stevelly, Mr. John; Stewart, Mr. Abram; Sexton, Miss Amy; Stuart, Mr. Alexander Barklie [?]; Stanley, Mr. and Mrs. John; Southby, Mr. and the Hon. Mrs.; Smith, Mrs. Stafford, M.D.; Smith, Miss I.; Sceales [?], Mr. Adolphus; Stannus, Mr. and Mrs. Thomas R. and Miss R.; Stannus, Mr. Thomas R. Alexander, and Miss K; Studdert, Colonel; Shore, Mrs. Offley; Seddall, Mr. and Mrs.; Stritch, Miss; Style, Sir William and Lady; Shaw, Mr. F. H; Seaver, Mr. Henry, C.E. * T. — Torrens, Mrs. and Mrs. John; Thompson, Mr., Mrs. James, and Miss Mary O.; Taylor, Mrs.; Tracey, Mr. Harry Owens; Tracey, Miss; Torrens, Mrs.; Tate, Mr. B.; Townsend, Miss; Taylor, Mr. and Mrs. J. A.; Taylor, Miss; Townsend, Captain; Thomson, Miss; Tate, Mr. Henry; Torrens, Captain J. A; Town-Inspector of Belfast and Mrs. Singleton; Torrens, Mrs. Robert; Torrens, Mr. Thomas H. * U. — Usher, Mr. A. A. * V. — Valentine, Miss Ina; Valentine, Mr. William; Valentine, Miss; Vogan, Mr. John; Voughan, Mr. and Mrs. Montgomery; Voughan, Miss and Miss M. Montgomery; Vane-Tempest, Lord Herbert; Verner, Mr. H. * W. — Woods, Mr. and Mrs. Herbert; Whitis, Miss; Walkington, Mr.; Walkington, Miss; Walkington, Miss Edith; Wallace, Mr. and Mrs. Percy; Wallace, Miss; White, Mr. and Mrs.; Ward, the Honourable Kathleen; Ward, the Honourable Emily; Wales, Mr. and Mrs; White, Mrs.; Ward, Miss; Wallace, Mr. Claude C.; Wardlaw, Mrs.; Watson, Mr. and Mrs. Wesley; Ward, Mr. Robert E.; White, Colonel and the Misses; Watt [?], Mr. Andrew A.; Watt, Mrs.; Wilson, Miss; Wilson, Mr. Percy; Walsh, Miss and Miss Frances; Wallace, Captain Robert; Walker, Mr. Fred Adam; Wilson, Mr. R. A.; White, Miss; Ward, Mr. Herbert; Whelan, Mr. and Mrs. J. P; Wilson, Mr. D. M.; Wolff, Mr. G. W.; Wilson, Mr. Walter H.; Wallace, Captain R. * Y. — Young, the Misses; Young, Mr. Henry G.; Young, Mr. Wm. R.<ref>"The Ulster Club Ball." ''Northern Whig'' 11 January 1890, Saturday: 8 [of 8], Col. 3a–6b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000434%2F18900111&page=8&article=189&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, p. 8.</ref> </blockquote>The 11 January 1890 ''Dublin Daily Express'' has a report that would be regarded as full under normal conditions, including a much longer guest list:<blockquote>Belfast, Friday. The Marquis and Marchioness of Londonderry, who reached Kingstown this morning by the mail steamer Munster from Holyhead, arrived by the Dublin Limited mail in Belfast in the forenoon, and proceeded direct by special train to Newtownards, and thence to Mountstewart, their county Down residence. This evening the Marquis and Marchioness returned to Belfast, and were the principal guests at a grand ball given by the Ulster Club in the Ulster Hall. Upwards of seven hundred and fifty invitations were issued for the ball, and the attendance included the ''elite'' of the North of Ireland. The Ulster Hall presented a most charming appearance. The piazza, vestible, and ladies' and gentlemen's cloakrooms were transformed into beautiful drawingingrooms [sic], fitted up with tasteful draperies, and furnished with suitable furniture, while beautiful evergreens distributed here and there gave the place a really lovely appearance. The large hall was striking and brilliant. The front of the orchestra across the hall was fitted up with silver plate-glass, and this mirroring was draped with crimson silk plush, and reflected the countess lights and surroundings to great advantage. The lofty windows especially looked well, draped and festooned as they were with rich material in gold and blue and white. Crimson Utrecht velvet, festooned with gold sateen, covered the front of the balconies, and the pillars below were also artistically draped with rich material. The corridors were fitted up as refreshment rooms, and also beautifully adorned with draperies of art muslin and other material. The Minor Hall was arranged as a supper room. The invitations included the following — General Prince Edward of Saxe-Weimar and Princess Edward of Saxe-Weimar, the Duke and Duchess of Manchester, Duke and Duchess of Abercorn, the Marchioness of Downshire, the Marquis and Marchioness of Londonderry, Viscountess Mandeville, Earl and Countess of Lanesborough, Earl and Countess of Enniskillen, Earl and Countess of Belmore, Earl and Countess of Caledon, Earl and Countess of Gosford, Earl and Countess of Ranfurly, Lord Herbert Vane Tempest, Earl and Countess of Erne, Lord and Lady De Ros, Lord and Lady Garvagh, Earl and Countess of Castlestuart and Ladies Muriel and Mary Stuart, Lord and Lady Langford, the Mayor and Mayoress of Belfast, his Grace the Primate of All Ireland, Mr Knox and the Misses Knox, Col Saunderson, MP, and the Hon Mrs Saunderson; Col the Hon Sir West Ridgeway and Lady Ridgeway, Right Hon A J Balfour, Lord A Hill, MP; the Inspector-General RIC. The military included — Headquarter Staff — Major-Gen Wiseman-Clarke, CB, and Mrs Wiseman-Clarke; Capt Wiseman-Clarke, ADC; Major and Mrs Pollock, Capt and Mrs Knocker, Lieut-Col, Mrs, and Miss Parker, Deputy Surgeon-Gen, Mrs, and Miss Tippets — Major and Mrs Brereton, Royal Scots Greys, Major the Hon W P Alexander, and Mrs Alexander; officers Royal Scots Greys, Major the Hon W Alexander and Mrs Alexander; Royal Engineers — Major J Cameron; Gordon Highlanders, Lieut-Col Essex, and officers 2nd Batt Gordon Highlanders — Major, Mrs, and Miss Robertson, Major the Hon J Scott Napier, Mrs Napier, and the Misses Leith, Capt W H Dick-Cunynghan [sic], VC, and Mrs Dick-Cunygham [sic], Capt and Mrs Singlair-Wemyss, Hon W R D Forbes and Mrs Forbes, Black Watch — Colonel Kidston and officers 2nd Batt the Black Watch, Colonel and Mrs Kidston, Major and Mrs Ganter. Capt and Mrs Coode, Capt and Mrs Moulton-Barrett, Mr and Mrs J Stuart, and Capt and Mrs Filmore. Royal Irish Ritles — Colonel Guiness, CB, and officers, Depot, Royal Irish Rifles; Major and Mrs Knox, Capt and Mrs Tobin, Lieut-Colonel Maberley and officers the Royal Scots Greys, Dundalk; Colonel Griffiths and officers 2nd Batt the East Lancashire Regt, Newry; Colonel Kinloch and officers 2nd Batt the Kings Royal Rifle Corps, Enniskillen; Colonel Latham and officers, Royal Artillery, Londonderry; Colonel Hopton, CB, and officers, depot Princess Victoria's, Armagh; Colonel Caldwell and officers depot the Royal Inniskilling Fusiliees [sic], Omagh; Colonel Dickson and officers 5th Dragoon Guards, Dublin; Colonel and Mrs Dickson, Major and Mrs  Bowers, Major and Mrs Bromfield, Captain and Mrs Forster. Medical Staff — Surgeon-Major and Mrs O F Molloy, Surgeon S J Flood, AMS, and Mrs  Flood; Surgeon J Watson, AMS; Surgeon P M Carleton, Surgeon R L Love, Surgeon F A B Daly, Surgeon T Moynihan, Surgeon J  M'Laughlin. Army Pay Department — Captain and Mrs W M F Trotman, Captain M'Causland. Army Service Corps — Captain A G lnglis, Major Forde, Miss Forde, Miss A Forde, Colonel Wm B Forde and Mrs Forde, the Countess Fingall, Mr H M Herron, RH; Captain and Mrs Greer, Mr and Mrs Edward Greer, Captain G O Gage, RM; and Miss Gage, Lady and the Misses Heygate, Mr J  Blakeston Houston, V L and Mrs Houston, Mr T B Houston and Miss Houston, Captain and Mrs Hobbs, Sir E J Harland, Bart, MP; Captain M'Calmont, MP, and Mrs M'Calmont, W Ellison Macartney, MP; Colonel H B Johnston, Lieutenant Colonel Knox, Dr and Mrs Letts, Captain Lloyd, Lady Fanny Lambert, Major Lambert, Sir Henry Lawrence, Bart; General Montgomery, CSI, and Mrs Montgomery; General Montgomery Moore and the Hon Mrs Moore, Mr and Mrs Harry S Moore, Major J F Mars, Major Somerset Maxwell and Lady Florence Maxwell, Mr and Mrs Stephen Percival Maxwell, Mr Robert Davidson Percival Maxwell, Captain Molesworth, Mr Hugh Montgomery and the Lady Charlotte Montgomery and Miss Evelyn Montgomery; Viscount Massereene and Ferrard, Major R Percival Maxwell, Colonel W E Montgomery, Lieutenant Colonel M'Cance, Miss Eva M'Cance, and Mrs J S M'Cance; Major H S M'Clintock and Miss M'Clintock, Captain and Miss M'Neill, Major M'Cammon, Lieut-General Nugent, Captain H M Orr, Mr James Owens, DL; the Hon R T O'Neill, MP; Lord and Lady O'Neill, Captain Preston, RM, and Mrs Preston, Mr John Preston, Lady Preston, and Mr and Mrs George J Preston, Mr and Mrs W J Perrie, Captain Perry, Captain, Mrs, and Miss Blackwood Price, Dr and Mrs Poole, Rev A H Pakenham, Captain and Mrs Richards, Miss Richardson, Mr Thomas Richardson, Major Rodgers, Mrs Charles H Richardson, Captain John Riky, Mr and Mrs A P Richardson, Mr Robert H Reade, Mr James Theodore Richardson, Mr Charles H Richardson, Captain W L Stronge, Mr C E Stronge, Commander Lester Stuart, Mrs Lester Stuart and Miss Lester Stuart, Miss Stronge and Miss Fanny Stronge, Mr and Mrs Stronge, Dr and Mrs Bryce Smith, Major and Mrs Stokes, Major and Mrs Scarlett, and Mr and the Hon Mrs Southby, Mr and Mrs Thomas R Stanus [sic] and Miss B Staunus [sic], Colonel Stoddert, Sir William and Lady Style, Major H Seymour Allen, Mr Edward and Mrs Archdale, Major A G S Alexander and Mrs Alexander, Major Alason, Major the Hon Chas and Mrs Alexander, Capt Stewart Bruce and Miss Bruce, Capt and Mrs Knox Browne, Miss Knox Browne, Mr Knox Browne, Mr and Mrs Barbour, Capt St G Burton, Sir Henry and Lady Bruce, Mr and Mrs J M'C Blizard, Miss C J Blizard, Mr and Mrs James Bruce, Mrs Bruce, Miss Bruce and Master Bruce, Col and Mrs Buchanan, Capt Buckle, Miss Erskine Brownrigg, Dr and Mrs J W Browne, Mr R N Batt, Mrs and Miss  Batt, Mr and Mrs Claud Brownlow and Miss Brownlow, Major Boyton, Lord Terence Blackwood, the Bishop of Down and Connor and Dromore, Sir Victor and Lady Brook, Mr J M Barbour, Mr E Jones Bristow, Mr Charles Brownlow, Mr William Charley, Miss Charley, Miss L Charley, Mr E J Charley, Mr Arthur Charley, Mr and Mrs Abraham Combe, Miss and Mr R H Crawford, Mr James Craig, Lord and Lady Clanmorris, Captain and Mrs J S Cramsie, Mr Robert Cramsie, Major and Mrs S K Cowan, Sir Edward Porter- Cowan, Lady Cowan, Miss Cowan, Mr Victor Cortes, Mr William Cortes, and Miss Cortes, Mr N Delacherois Crommelin, Captain Carden, Captain Arthur Chambers, RHA; Lady Elizabeth Cochrane, Major Campbell, Mr Colin Campbell, Captain Cuppadge, Mr and Mrs Robert G Dunville. Mr S and the Misses Delacherois, and Miss A J Delacherois, Captain Darwell, Miss de Wind, Lieutenant-General and Mrs Dickey, Rev Freeman and Mrs Dudley, Mr John Dunville, Mr H de Wind, Mr John Torrens and Mrs Torrens, Captain Townsend, Captain J A Torrens, the Town Inspector of Belfast, and Mrs Singleton; Mr H Verner, the Hon Kathleen Ward, the Hon Emily Ward, Colonel and the Misses White, Captain Robert Wallace, Captain R Wallace, the Misses Young, Mr Henry G Young, and Mr Wm R Young.<ref>"Grand Ball to the Marquis and Marchioness of Londonderry. (From our correspondent.)" ''Dublin Daily Express'' 11 January 1890, Saturday: 5 [of 8], Col. 3a–c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001384%2F18900111&page=5&article=095&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Daily Express'', p. 5.</ref></blockquote>18 January 1890 ''Lady's Pictorial'':<blockquote>The Ulster Club gave on Friday evening last week, in the Ulster Hall, Belfast, one of the most successful balls ever held in that prosperous City of the North of Ireland. It was given in honour of the Marquis of Londonderry and the Marchioness, who, with their son, Lord Castlereagh, were the guests of the evening. Lord Londonderry is an Ulster man of whom the natives of the Northern Province are justly proud, and to entertain him was an honour which has been long looked for by the Club. The hall, which is a splendid building admirably adapted for the purpose of a large dance, was changed beyond the recognition of its oldest frequenters by the skill of clever and tasteful decorators. A temporary archway was erected at the entrance, with cloakrooms for ladies and men at either side. The entrance was prettily carpeted and gracefully draped with delicately-coloured Oriental silk. The walls were hung with handsome Eastern fabrics of rich and harmonious colour, with large mirrors at intervals, which served in effect to double the size of the room. The prettily proportioned vestibule and smaller apartments adjoining the ball-room were decorated and furnished each in the style of a different period. The ceilings were prettily draped with rich but soft-coloured India and China silks. The minor hall made an admirable supper-room, and was also most artistically decorated. The flowers on the table were much admired. The orchestra made music from out a very multitude of floral blooms, and that most effective decoration of blocks of ice hollowed out and lighted by electricity, which so puzzled the Shah of Persia when over here, was liberally made use of. The principal families in the north of Ireland were invited; among others, Prince and Princess Edward of Saxe-Weimar, the Duke and Duchess of Abercorn, the Duke and Duchess of Manchester, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], the Marchioness of Downshire, the Earl and Countess of Lanesborough, the Earl and Countess of Enniskillen, the Earl and Countess of Belmore, the Earl and Countess of Caledon, the Earl and Countess of Gosford, the Earl and Countess of Ranfurley,  and the Earl and Countess of Erne, His Grace the Primate of all Ireland, Mrs. Knox and the Misses Knox. The regiments stationed in the North of Ireland were largely represented. Mr. J. Blakiston-Houston, V.L., as senior trustee of the club, had the honour of taking Lady Londonderry to supper. The Marquis took the Countess of Castlestuart; the Right Hon. Col. Forde, D.L., also a club trustee, Lady Fanny Lambert; Sir Edward Cowan, Lord Lieutenant of the County Antrim, Lady Clanmorris; Captain Cramsie, J.P., High Sheriff of Antrim, Lady O'Neill; Lord Castlestuart, Lady Charlotte Montgomery; Lord Clanmorris, the Hon. Mrs. Alexander; Lord O'Neill, Mrs. Forde; and General Wiseman-Clarke, Mrs. Knox. Dancing was kept up till an early hour on Saturday morning, the ball having proved a genuine success.<ref>"Court and Society Notes." ''Lady's Pictorial'' 18 January 1890, Saturday: 44 [of 60], Col. 1b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0005980%2F18900118&page=44. Same print title, p. 94.</ref></blockquote> == Notes and Questions == # ==References== {{reflist}} shbnjpp0ixbbbi7q6bw3micexs52ppk 0 332520 2840729 2026-10-16T19:48:00Z Chandysr 3112793 Added information regarding communications law in Switzerland 2840729 wikitext text/x-wiki == Sources of the Law of Switzerland == === The Confederation Of Switzerland – Legal and Political System Overview === Switzerland is a federal republic consisting of 26 member states, referred to as “cantons”. The Federal Assembly, the national parliament, comprises the National Council and the Council of States. The federal government is led by seven federal councilors. The Federal Supreme Court is the highest judicial authority, interpreting the law, resolving disputes, and ensuring the consistent application of federal law. Each canton maintains its own parliament, government, courts, and constitution. <ref>Switzerland Federalism, CH INFO, ch-info.swiss (last visited Oct. 11, 2026).</ref> Cantons exercise self-governance under their individual constitutions, provided these do not conflict with the Federal Constitution.<ref>Id.</ref> Switzerland’s political system features a distinctive form of direct democracy that combines representative government with mechanisms that let citizens vote directly on constitutional amendments and specific legislative measures. The three principal instruments of direct democracy are mandatory referendums, optional referendums, and popular initiatives. Mandatory referendums require a nationwide vote on constitutional amendments. Optional referendums let citizens challenge certain laws enacted by the Federal Assembly, while popular initiatives let citizens propose amendments to the Federal Constitution. Constitutional amendments typically require a double majority: approval by a majority of participating voters and a majority of the cantons. Another distinguishing feature is the decentralized system of governance. Each canton is further subdivided into communes. Communes handle day-to-day governance, including municipal functions, education, and related matters. The decentralized government emphasizes the historical and cultural significance of respecting individual autonomy and a pluralistic tradition. The Confederation itself emerged from the provinces' will. As historian Ernest Renan stated, “The will of Switzerland to be united, despite the diversity of its idioms, is a fact of far greater importance than a similarity of language often obtained by vexatious methods.” Article 93 of the Swiss Federal Constitution expressly requires radio and television to consider the needs of the cantons and linguistic communities, contribute to education and cultural development, and facilitate the free formation of public opinion. <ref>SR 101 - Federal Constitution of 18 April 1999 of the Swiss Confederation | Fedlex. Article 93, 1.</ref> International law is particularly important in the Swiss legal system because Switzerland follows a largely monist approach to treaties.<ref>The Relationship Between International Law and National Law, Fed. Dep’t of Foreign Affs. (Switz.), eda.admin.ch (last visited Oct. 11, 2026).</ref> In its reports to the United Nations, Switzerland has explained that a treaty ratified by the Federal Council becomes part of Swiss law upon entry into force, without requiring a separate domestic implementing act. Article 190 of the Federal Constitution further provides that the Federal Supreme Court and other authorities must apply federal statutes and international law. === Federal Legislation === The Federal Act on Radio and Television (RTVA) and the Telecommunications Act (TCA) are federal statutes that provide the legal infrastructure for the constitutional guarantees of communication rights. The RTVA regulates the broadcasting, processing, transmission, and reception of radio and television program services. The Telecommunications Act (TCA) serves a related but distinct function. Telecommunications regulation addresses the infrastructure that enables communication, including telecommunications services, frequency use, addressing resources, market access, competition, and universal service. Providers seeking to use licensed radio frequencies or nationally administered addressing resources must register with the Federal Office of Communications. Use of spectrum for telecommunications services may require a license. <ref>Telecommunications Act [TCA], Apr. 30, 1997, SR 784.10, fedlex.admin.ch (last visited Oct. 11, 2026).</ref> The broadcasting sector has three main authorities responsible for the granting of licenses. The Federal Council is the licensing authority for the Swiss Broadcasting Corporation (SBC). Concerning other licenses, the Federal Department of the Environment, Transport, Energy and Communications (DETEC) has been delegated licensing competence. The Federal Office of Communications (OFCOM) puts the licenses out for tender and consults interested groups. OFCOM further fulfils all sovereign and regulatory tasks related to the telecommunications and broadcasting (radio and television) sectors. It fulfils an advisory and coordinating function for the public and policymakers. It also guarantees that basic services will be provided in all parts of the country and for all sections of the population.<ref>R. Zimmermann, Comparative Study on the Effectiveness of Telecommunications Regulators: Case Study—Switzerland (2004),</ref> The Federal Media Commission advises the Federal Council and the Federal Administration concerning media issues. It has been operational since August 2013 and currently consists of 14 representatives from various areas of the Swiss media sector. The RTVA provides for the Independent Complaints Authority for Radio and Television. This authority deals with complaints that relate to the editorial program and rules on disputes on denied access to a program. Furthermore, the Complaints Authority for Radio and Television selects and supervises the ombudsman services. === Regulatory and Supervisory Institutions === The Federal Office of Communication (OFCOM) handles questions related to telecommunications and broadcasting (radio and television). The Office prepares decisions of the Swiss government (the Federal Council), the Swiss Federal Department for the Environment, Transport, Energy and Communication (DETEC), and the Swiss Federal Communications Commission (ComCom). OFCOM prepares the commercial transactions of the Federal Communications Commission (ComCom), submits the necessary applications, and implements its decisions. ComCom awards basic provision licenses and licenses for mobile telephone and other radio services through an invitation to tender. It also rules on interconnection disputes. ComCom additionally approves the national numbering plans. In the telecommunications sector, OFCOM grants radio licenses that do not involve any telecommunications services, e.g., company radio and amateur radio licenses. == Principles of Communication Law and the Media == === Principles of Communication Law and the Media in Switzerland === === Freedom of the Media and the Swiss Communications Framework === Switzerland’s approach to communications law reflects an effort to protect freedom of expression and an independent media while recognizing the special regulatory concerns posed by mass communication. This balance is particularly relevant to Switzerland because its media system serves a multilingual, highly decentralized population. The ability of individuals to access information from diverse sources is therefore tied not only to individual freedom but also to democratic participation and the formation of public opinion. The Swiss Federal Constitution provides the foundation for this system. Article 17 protects freedom of the press, radio, television, and other forms of public telecommunications, prohibits censorship, and safeguards editorial secrecy. Under Article 93, the Constitution treats broadcasting not merely as another private means of communication but as a public service with broader social responsibilities. Radio and television must contribute to education and cultural development, facilitate the free formation of opinion, and take account of Switzerland’s particular characteristics and the needs of its cantons. At the same time, the Constitution protects the independence of radio and television and their autonomy in programming decisions.<ref>Id. at arts. 93(2)-(3) (Switz.).</ref> === Regulation of Radio and Television === The telecommunications sector in Switzerland is regulated at the federal level. The main sources of law are the Federal Act on Telecommunications (TCA) of 30 April 1997, which underwent a partial revision in 2007 and was last amended on 1 July 2021, and the Federal Ordinance on Telecommunications Services (OTS) of 9 March 2007, last amended on 1 January 2022. The TCA regulates the transmission of information through telecommunications techniques, including the transmission of radio and television program services. Its main purpose is to ensure a range of cost-effective, high-quality telecommunications services that are competitive nationally and internationally. The OTS contains detailed rules that implement the provisions of the TCA. Within this regulatory framework, the Federal Communications Commission (ComCom) serves as the independent licensing and market regulator for the communications sector. Basic telecommunications services must be available to the entire Swiss population in all regions. To ensure these services are affordable, reliable, and high quality, ComCom awards universal-service licenses through a tender process. Swisscom currently holds the license for those universal services.<ref>Telecoms, Media &#x26; Internet Laws and Regulations: Switzerland (Int’l Comparative Legal Guides 2022),</ref> The Federal Act on Radio and Television (RTVA) regulates the broadcasting, processing, transmission and reception of radio and television program services. The broadcasting sector has three main authorities responsible for the granting of licenses. The Federal Council is the licensing authority for the Swiss Broadcasting Company (SBC). <ref>Core Attorneys, Telecoms and Media Switzerland (2022),</ref> All other licenses must be authorized by the Federal Department of the Environment, Transport, Energy and Communications (DETEC). The Federal Office of Communications (OFCOM) puts the licenses out for tender and coordinates with interested groups. OFCOM also manages the radio spectrum and establishes the National Frequency Allocation Plan, which the Federal Council approves. Under the applicable regulatory framework, licenses remain mandatory for using mobile radio frequencies to provide telecommunication services and universal services. Frequency licenses are issued either by competitive bidding or, more commonly, by frequency auction.<ref>Id.</ref> The Independent Complaints Authority for Radio and Television (ICA/UBI) is an extra-parliamentary federal commission responsible for reviewing legal challenges regarding television and radio broadcast. It assesses whether programs violate national or international law. It performs this function after complaints first pass through an ombudsman process.<ref>Federal Act on Radio and Television of 24 March 2006, arts. 92–94, SR 784.40 (Switz.),</ref> If unsatisfied with the ombudsman ruling, a formal complaint may be made to the ICA in a public hearing. An independent body matters because it creates a mechanism to enforce broadcasting requirements without placing ordinary editorial decisions directly under political control. Decisions made by the ICA may be further appealed to the Swiss Federal Supreme Court. <ref>“DETEC’s Regulatory Authority and Extra-Parliamentary Committees,” Federal Department of the Environment, Transport, Energy and Communications (Switz.), (last visited Oct. 11, 2026).</ref> === Public Service and Media Pluralism === The Federal Council has emphasized Switzerland’s continued commitment to an independent and comprehensive public media service, concluding that the existing public-service broadcasting model has proved effective for the country’s direct democracy, which is characterized by linguistic and cultural diversity. SRG SSR operates across Switzerland’s linguistic regions and is funded primarily through the radio and television fee, along with commercial and other revenue. A strong public service broadcaster is seen as a way to protect regional diversity while competing with the influx of foreign licensed media broadcasters. === Digital Media and the Changing Meaning of Scarcity === Digital communication challenges the traditional regulatory justification based on scarcity. Radio frequencies are physically limited, but the internet allows countless speakers to distribute information without a broadcast frequency. As a result, streaming services, social media platforms, online newspapers, podcasts, and other digital services have blurred the line between broadcasters and ordinary speakers. However, the decline of frequency scarcity does not eliminate concentrations of communicative power. Digital platforms may not control limited broadcast frequencies, but algorithms, search engines, recommendation systems, and platform ownership can strongly influence the information audiences encounter. Switzerland is already confronting this transition. The Federal Council has recognized that digital transformation has placed significant economic pressure on traditional media companies as audiences and advertising revenue migrate toward digital platforms.<ref>Federal Council, “Federal Council sets out proposals for media funding independent of broadcast channel” (Feb. 21, 2024), (last visited Oct. 11, 2026).</ref> This affects media diversity because economically weak or disappearing news organizations can reduce the number of independent sources available to the public. The Federal Council has recognized the need to update the existing Radio and Television Act to cover electronic media, because a law that covers only radio and television no longer keeps pace with developments.<ref>Id.</ref> == Censorship and Violent Content == === Freedom of Expression and the Regulatory Framework === Switzerland expressly protects freedom of expression and the media, including a prohibition on censorship. Yet no modern legal system can treat every communication involving violence, incitement, threats, terrorist propaganda, graphic material, etc., the same as ordinary political or artistic expression. Censorship in Switzerland thus reflects a balance between protecting freedom of expression and safeguarding public order, national security, and individual rights. The Swiss Federal Constitution protects freedom of expression and the press, though restrictions apply to matters such as hate speech, defamation, and certain forms of extremist propaganda. Switzerland’s multilingual and culturally diverse society, along with its federal system, shapes how these issues are addressed across the country’s linguistic regions and cantons. Regulators such as the Federal Data Protection and Information Commissioner (FDPIC) oversee data protection, while media regulation is shared among federal authorities and independent bodies, including the Swiss Press Council. Switzerland also adheres to European human-rights standards and maintains close ties to European data-protection frameworks. Recent measures have focused on online safety, privacy, and the spread of harmful or misleading content. Despite Switzerland’s strong protections for press freedom, concerns remain about media concentration and the financial pressures facing independent journalism. Switzerland has a monist legal system, where international instruments become part of Swiss law and binding on state authorities when ratified. Switzerland has ratified the EHCR, ICCPR, ICESCR, CERD, CAT, CEDAW, CRPD and the UNCRC. These treaties are therefore applicable in Swiss law and must be followed by public authorities. <ref>Edinburgh L. Sch., Switzerland (Feb. 2021),</ref> Article 16 of the Swiss Federal Constitution expressly guarantees freedom of opinion and information, including the right to form, express, and impart opinions and to receive and disseminate information.<ref>Federal Constitution of the Swiss Confederation of 18 April 1999, SR 101, art. 16 (Switz.).</ref> Freedom of expression is not absolute. Article 36 permits restrictions on fundamental rights where the restriction has a legal basis, serves a public interest or protects the rights of others, and is proportionate.<ref>Id.</ref> Publications infringing the economic reputation of a business and, therefore, interfering with fair competition law principles may violate the Federal Act against Unfair Competition of 19 December 198618 (UCA).<ref>CMS, The Media and Entertainment Law Review: Switzerland (1st ed.), (last visited Oct. 11, 2026).</ref> Swiss criminal law includes numerous provisions restricting free speech. One prominent example is the prohibition on publicly inciting hatred or discrimination against a person or a group of persons on the grounds of race, ethnic origin, or religion under Article 261 of the Criminal Code. Broadcasters must comply with certain minimum requirements for editorial and advertisement content based on statutory provisions in the RTVA. For instance, they must present facts in editorial programs (i.e., news programs) in a fair and well-balanced manner. Furthermore, editorial content and advertisement content must be clearly separated from each other and labeled as such. Finally, broadcasters are banned from advertising tobacco goods, alcoholic beverages, political parties, religious beliefs and institutions, and therapeutic products and medical treatments. In addition to these duties, broadcasters subject to a public license (e.g., SRG SSR) must appropriately express the variety of events and opinions in the totality of their editorial programs (public service).<ref>Id.</ref> Federal Act on the Protection of Minors in the Film and Video Game Sectors In September 2022, the Swiss Parliament enacted the Federal Act on the Protection of Minors in the Film and Video Game Sector. The act was proposed to close gaps in regulating content that specifically targets children and young people. For example, most Swiss cantons have not regulated age labeling and access control in cinemas, nor the sale of DVDs and video games. There are also certain gaps in protection for on-demand services. Although industry guidelines have sought to address these gaps, their voluntary nature makes enforcement difficult. The first phase of this implementing ordinance took effect on January 1, 2025. It gives industry organizations up to two years to finalize and submit their proposed self-regulation frameworks to the Federal Council for approval. If an industry sector fails to present an adequate regulatory framework, the Federal Council may impose subsidiary regulations.<ref>Pestalozzi, The New Federal Act on the Protection of Minors in the Film and Video Game Sectors – A Progressive Implementation, The Legal 500, legal500.com (last visited Oct. 11, 2026).</ref> The second phase involves enacting the framework, including age classification and access-control measures. This phase will take effect once the Federal Council has made the regulatory standards binding. <ref>Id.</ref> === Proposed Federal Act on Communication Platforms and Search Engines === In October 2025, the Federal Council decided to strengthen user rights in the digital space by requiring very large online platforms and search engines to operate more fairly and transparently. <ref>New Law on Communication Platforms and Search Engines – Start of Consultation Proceedings, Ethics &#x26; Compliance, compliance.ch (last visited Oct. 11, 2026).</ref> The law requires major communication platforms to establish a mechanism that lets users easily report suspected illegal content, depictions of violence, and threatening language. Reportable offenses covered by the Swiss Criminal Code (SCC) encompass willful defamation (Art. 174 SCC), insult (Art. 177 SCC), and discrimination and incitement to hatred (Art. 261bis SCC). Operators of communication platforms shall be obligated to notify users when removing content or blocking accounts and provide justification for such actions. They shall also be required to implement an internal complaints procedure and to engage in alternative dispute resolution in the event of conflicts.<ref>Id.</ref> Transparency requirements are also anticipated concerning the disclosure and targeting of advertisements and the utilization of recommendation systems. Furthermore, services affected by the legislation shall establish a publicly accessible advertising archive and provide authorities and researchers access to their data. Major communication platforms and search engines shall be obligated to appoint a legal representative in Switzerland if their registered office is located overseas. This will strengthen the enforcement of legal measures against providers without offices in Switzerland. === Landmark case regarding Censorship === In 1961, the Federal Supreme Court considered the constitutionality of censorship in the landmark case, Sphinx-Film SA v. Conseil d’État of Neuchâtel. Neuchâtel law required cinema operators to submit films to the police authorities three weeks before exhibition. The authorities would then either prohibit the screening of the film or require certain scenes to be removed if they believed the material offended public morals or if it was believed to be capable of encouraging criminal acts. As per the requirement, the film distributors, Sphinx-Film submitted the film Plein Soleil to the censorship commission for approval. The film depicted the planning and commission of murders. The cantonal censorship commission prohibited the film from being shown as it considered the depiction of the crimes to be suggestive and could encourage imitation. Sphinx-Film then challenged the cantonal prohibition by appealing to the Swiss Federal Supreme Court. The Federal Supreme Court ruled against the film distributors and upheld the prohibition justifying it as a police measure intended to protect public order and public morals. Although this case did not strike down censorship, it was significant as the Court officially recognized freedom of expression as an unwritten fundamental right implicit in the Federal Constitution. <ref>BGE 87 I 114, 117 (Switz. Fed. Sup. Ct. 1961) (consideration 2).</ref> Subsequent Federal Supreme Court decisions explicitly use Sphinx-Film as authority for the proposition that freedom of expression is an unwritten constitutional right. <ref>BGE 121 I 367, 370–71 (1995) (consideration 2(a)) (citing BGE 87 I 114, 117 (1961)).</ref> In 2001, the Court explored the history of the right to freedom of expression in BGE 127 I 164. This case directly cites Sphinx film as the foundational authority for the recognition of the freedom of expression as an unwritten constitutional right before its codification in Article 16 of the 1999 Constitution. <ref>BGE 127 I 164, 167 consid. 3a (2001).</ref> Sphinx Film thus helped establish the constitutional doctrine that preceded and was later codified in the 1999 Constitution. This history reflects one tension in Swiss communication law. The legal developments highlight how the courts deal with the conflicting interests of protection against censorship with necessary restrictions protecting competing public interests. == Truth, Honor and Tolerance == === Terrorism === Articles 16 and 17 of the Swiss Constitution explicitly prohibit censorship; however, Article 36 permits restrictions on fundamental rights where the restriction has a legal basis, serves a public interest or protects others' rights, and is proportionate.<ref>Fed. Const. (Switz.) of Apr. 18, 1999,</ref> Hate crimes are prosecuted under Article 261bis of the Swiss Criminal Code. This provision also governs participation in and support for terrorist organizations. It applies to organizations that pursue criminal violence intended to intimidate a population or compel a government or international organization to act or refrain from acting. While this provision implicates media regulation by restricting digital communications that may be used to recruit members, coordinate activities, raise funds, or otherwise support terrorist organizations, it does not constitute a general prohibition against all favorable commentary about terrorism. === The Federal Act on the Proscription of Hamas and Associated Organizations === Adopted in December 2024 and effective from May 2025, this legislation prohibits Hamas, its cover and successor organizations, and certain related groups that meet the statutory criteria. It does not criminalize publishing opinions that could be viewed as pro-Hamas. Instead, it designates the prohibited organizations as terrorist organizations for prosecution under Article 261bis. This legislation illustrates that Switzerland’s counterterrorism media regulation is limited to conduct connected to designated terrorist organizations. It also highlights that Swiss counter-terrorism efforts hinge more on criminal prosecution than on content regulation. === Regulatory Framework regarding Defamation, Truthfulness, Insult, Personality Rights === === Swiss Criminal Code, Article 173 - Defamation === Articles 173 – 177 of the Criminal Code establish criminal penalties for certain forms of reputational harm. Article 28 of the Civil Code, by contrast, offers a distinct route to bring a civil claim to protect one’s personality rights. Further, the 2025 Federal Act on Communications Platforms and Search Engines provides a pathway to penalize defamatory content published on social media. <ref>Global Law Experts, Can You Sue for Defamation in Switzerland in 2026, Civil or Criminal, Time Limits &#x26; Right of Reply, GLOBAL LAW EXPERTS (June 12, 2026),</ref> Article 173 concerns factual allegations capable of damaging honor; the Federal Supreme Court has distinguished such factual allegations from mere value judgments.<ref>Swiss Criminal Code of Dec. 21, 1937, SR 311.0, art. 173 (Switz.),</ref> Swiss Criminal Code, Article 174 - Calumny. Swiss criminal law does not impose a general obligation of truthfulness in public discourse, but the truth or falsity of factual assertions becomes particularly significant when those assertions injure another person's honor. Article 174, for example, specifically addresses reputation-damaging accusations made with knowledge of their falsity.<ref>Id. art. 174.</ref> Swiss Criminal Code, Article 177 - Insult. The Criminal Code further protects honor through Article 177, which separately criminalizes insult.<ref>Id. art. 177.</ref> Swiss Civil Code, Article 28 - Personality rights. Swiss protection of reputation is not confined to criminal law. Article 28 of the Civil Code protects personality rights against unlawful infringement while recognizing that competing private or public interests may justify otherwise intrusive expression.<ref>Swiss Civil Code of Dec. 10, 1907, SR 210, art. 28 (Switz.),</ref> European Convention on Human Rights, Article 10. Article 10 protects freedom of expression, including receiving and imparting information and ideas. Article 10(2) expressly recognizes that expression may be restricted where prescribed by law and necessary in a democratic society, including for protection of the reputation or rights of others.<ref>Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms art. 10, Nov. 4, 1950, 213 U.N.T.S. 221,</ref> The European Convention also establishes an outer boundary on the protection of expression through Article 17, which prohibits the abuse of Convention rights. Article 17 prevents individuals or groups from relying upon Convention rights to pursue aims directed toward the destruction of the rights and freedoms the Convention protects.<ref>Id. art. 17</ref> The European Court of Human Rights applies this provision exceptionally in freedom-of-expression cases, particularly where expression seeks to promote or justify hatred, violence, racial discrimination, or antisemitism. The distinction is particularly significant for Switzerland. In Perinçek v. Switzerland, the Grand Chamber considered Article 17 in reviewing Perinçek's conviction under Article 261bis of the Swiss Criminal Code but ultimately found no basis for applying it and held that the conviction violated Article 10.<ref>Perinçek v. Switzerland, App. No. 27510/08, Eur. Ct. H.R. (Oct. 15, 2015), hudoc.echr.coe.int</ref> The decision shows that even highly controversial statements do not automatically lose the protection of freedom of expression; Article 17 instead sets an exceptional boundary for expression aimed at goals fundamentally contrary to the Convention's values. === BGE 143 IV 193 === The Federal Supreme Court has itself recognized the tension between tolerance and expressive freedom. In BGE 143 IV 193, the Court held that Article 261bis must be interpreted in light of Article 16 of the Federal Constitution and Article 10 of the ECHR, emphasizing the democratic importance of protecting even opinions that displease the majority or shock many listeners. Nevertheless, the Court found the expression at issue unlawful because the advertisement's generalized portrayal of Kosovars as violent and criminal fostered a hostile climate toward the group.<ref>BGE 143 IV 193, 198–99, consid. 1 (Switz. Fed. Sup. Ct. 2017),</ref> === GRA Stiftung gegen Rassismus und Antisemitismus v. Switzerland === The protection of honor does not automatically prevail over expressive freedom. In GRA Stiftung gegen Rassismus und Antisemitismus v. Switzerland, Swiss courts found that an anti-racism organization had infringed a politician's personality rights by describing his comments during the 2009 minaret referendum campaign as "verbal racism." The European Court of Human Rights concluded that the judgment violated Article 10, emphasizing the political context and the factual foundation for the organization's characterization. The case demonstrates that reputation is a legitimate interest, but restrictions protecting reputation must still leave adequate room for robust debate on matters of public concern.<ref>GRA Stiftung gegen Rassismus und Antisemitismus v. Switzerland, App. No. 18598/13, Eur. Ct. H.R. (May 9, 2017), hudoc.echr.coe.int</ref> === BGE 117 IV 27: Defamation and the press === Swiss jurisprudence also distinguishes between factual allegations and value judgments in applying criminal defamation law. In BGE 117 IV 27, the Federal Supreme Court explained that Article 173 requires an allegation of fact rather than a mere value judgment and confirmed that journalists do not enjoy a general exemption from the ordinary law protecting honor.<ref>BGE 117 IV 27, consid. 2 (Switz. Fed. Sup. Ct. 1991),</ref> == References == <references /> 1nglj51keit3isfbf84pwcnwdxi0pkk 2840730 2840729 2026-10-16T19:52:37Z Chandysr 3112793 Edited the citations, trying to add the URLs 2840730 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Communication Law in Switzerland''' == Sources of the Law of Switzerland == === The Confederation Of Switzerland – Legal and Political System Overview === Switzerland is a federal republic consisting of 26 member states, referred to as “cantons”. The Federal Assembly, the national parliament, comprises the National Council and the Council of States. The federal government is led by seven federal councilors. The Federal Supreme Court is the highest judicial authority, interpreting the law, resolving disputes, and ensuring the consistent application of federal law. Each canton maintains its own parliament, government, courts, and constitution. <ref>Switzerland Federalism, CH INFO, ch-info.swiss (last visited Oct. 11, 2026).</ref> Cantons exercise self-governance under their individual constitutions, provided these do not conflict with the Federal Constitution.<ref>Id.</ref> Switzerland’s political system features a distinctive form of direct democracy that combines representative government with mechanisms that let citizens vote directly on constitutional amendments and specific legislative measures. The three principal instruments of direct democracy are mandatory referendums, optional referendums, and popular initiatives. Mandatory referendums require a nationwide vote on constitutional amendments. Optional referendums let citizens challenge certain laws enacted by the Federal Assembly, while popular initiatives let citizens propose amendments to the Federal Constitution. Constitutional amendments typically require a double majority: approval by a majority of participating voters and a majority of the cantons. Another distinguishing feature is the decentralized system of governance. Each canton is further subdivided into communes. Communes handle day-to-day governance, including municipal functions, education, and related matters. The decentralized government emphasizes the historical and cultural significance of respecting individual autonomy and a pluralistic tradition. The Confederation itself emerged from the provinces' will. As historian Ernest Renan stated, “The will of Switzerland to be united, despite the diversity of its idioms, is a fact of far greater importance than a similarity of language often obtained by vexatious methods.” <ref>https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.7312/rena17430.15.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3A112075b5f6a4e081f70c3bac0b873315&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1</ref> Article 93 of the Swiss Federal Constitution expressly requires radio and television to consider the needs of the cantons and linguistic communities, contribute to education and cultural development, and facilitate the free formation of public opinion. <ref>SR 101 - Federal Constitution of 18 April 1999 of the Swiss Confederation | Fedlex. Article 93, 1.</ref> International law is particularly important in the Swiss legal system because Switzerland follows a largely monist approach to treaties.<ref>The Relationship Between International Law and National Law, Fed. Dep’t of Foreign Affs. (Switz.), eda.admin.ch (last visited Oct. 11, 2026).</ref> In its reports to the United Nations, Switzerland has explained that a treaty ratified by the Federal Council becomes part of Swiss law upon entry into force, without requiring a separate domestic implementing act. Article 190 of the Federal Constitution further provides that the Federal Supreme Court and other authorities must apply federal statutes and international law. === Federal Legislation === The Federal Act on Radio and Television (RTVA) and the Telecommunications Act (TCA) are federal statutes that provide the legal infrastructure for the constitutional guarantees of communication rights. The RTVA regulates the broadcasting, processing, transmission, and reception of radio and television program services. The Telecommunications Act (TCA) serves a related but distinct function. Telecommunications regulation addresses the infrastructure that enables communication, including telecommunications services, frequency use, addressing resources, market access, competition, and universal service. Providers seeking to use licensed radio frequencies or nationally administered addressing resources must register with the Federal Office of Communications. Use of spectrum for telecommunications services may require a license. <ref>Telecommunications Act [TCA], Apr. 30, 1997, SR 784.10, fedlex.admin.ch (last visited Oct. 11, 2026).</ref> The broadcasting sector has three main authorities responsible for the granting of licenses. The Federal Council is the licensing authority for the Swiss Broadcasting Corporation (SBC). Concerning other licenses, the Federal Department of the Environment, Transport, Energy and Communications (DETEC) has been delegated licensing competence. The Federal Office of Communications (OFCOM) puts the licenses out for tender and consults interested groups. OFCOM further fulfils all sovereign and regulatory tasks related to the telecommunications and broadcasting (radio and television) sectors. It fulfils an advisory and coordinating function for the public and policymakers. It also guarantees that basic services will be provided in all parts of the country and for all sections of the population.<ref>R. Zimmermann, Comparative Study on the Effectiveness of Telecommunications Regulators: Case Study—Switzerland (2004), https://core.ac.uk/download/147894930.pdf.</ref> The Federal Media Commission advises the Federal Council and the Federal Administration concerning media issues. It has been operational since August 2013 and currently consists of 14 representatives from various areas of the Swiss media sector. The RTVA provides for the Independent Complaints Authority for Radio and Television. This authority deals with complaints that relate to the editorial program and rules on disputes on denied access to a program. Furthermore, the Complaints Authority for Radio and Television selects and supervises the ombudsman services. === Regulatory and Supervisory Institutions === The Federal Office of Communication (OFCOM) handles questions related to telecommunications and broadcasting (radio and television). The Office prepares decisions of the Swiss government (the Federal Council), the Swiss Federal Department for the Environment, Transport, Energy and Communication (DETEC), and the Swiss Federal Communications Commission (ComCom).<ref>https://www.uvek.admin.ch/en/communications-policy</ref> OFCOM prepares the commercial transactions of the Federal Communications Commission (ComCom), submits the necessary applications, and implements its decisions. ComCom awards basic provision licenses and licenses for mobile telephone and other radio services through an invitation to tender. It also rules on interconnection disputes. ComCom additionally approves the national numbering plans. In the telecommunications sector, OFCOM grants radio licenses that do not involve any telecommunications services, e.g., company radio and amateur radio licenses.<ref>https://www.comcom.admin.ch/en/authorities-and-agencies</ref> == Principles of Communication Law and the Media == === Principles of Communication Law and the Media in Switzerland === === Freedom of the Media and the Swiss Communications Framework === Switzerland’s approach to communications law reflects an effort to protect freedom of expression and an independent media while recognizing the special regulatory concerns posed by mass communication. This balance is particularly relevant to Switzerland because its media system serves a multilingual, highly decentralized population. The ability of individuals to access information from diverse sources is therefore tied not only to individual freedom but also to democratic participation and the formation of public opinion. The Swiss Federal Constitution provides the foundation for this system. Article 17 protects freedom of the press, radio, television, and other forms of public telecommunications, prohibits censorship, and safeguards editorial secrecy. Under Article 93, the Constitution treats broadcasting not merely as another private means of communication but as a public service with broader social responsibilities. Radio and television must contribute to education and cultural development, facilitate the free formation of opinion, and take account of Switzerland’s particular characteristics and the needs of its cantons. At the same time, the Constitution protects the independence of radio and television and their autonomy in programming decisions.<ref>Id. at arts. 93(2)-(3) https://www.fedlex.admin.ch/eli/cc/1999/404/en (Switz.).</ref> === Regulation of Radio and Television === The telecommunications sector in Switzerland is regulated at the federal level. The main sources of law are the Federal Act on Telecommunications (TCA) of 30 April 1997, which underwent a partial revision in 2007 and was last amended on 1 July 2021, and the Federal Ordinance on Telecommunications Services (OTS) of 9 March 2007, last amended on 1 January 2022. The TCA regulates the transmission of information through telecommunications techniques, including the transmission of radio and television program services. Its main purpose is to ensure a range of cost-effective, high-quality telecommunications services that are competitive nationally and internationally. The OTS contains detailed rules that implement the provisions of the TCA. Within this regulatory framework, the Federal Communications Commission (ComCom) serves as the independent licensing and market regulator for the communications sector. Basic telecommunications services must be available to the entire Swiss population in all regions. To ensure these services are affordable, reliable, and high quality, ComCom awards universal-service licenses through a tender process. Swisscom currently holds the license for those universal services.<ref>Telecoms, Media &#x26; Internet Laws and Regulations: Switzerland (Int’l Comparative Legal Guides 2022), https://iclg.com/practice-areas/telecoms-media-and-internet-laws-and-regulations/switzerland/.</ref> The Federal Act on Radio and Television (RTVA) regulates the broadcasting, processing, transmission and reception of radio and television program services. The broadcasting sector has three main authorities responsible for the granting of licenses. The Federal Council is the licensing authority for the Swiss Broadcasting Company (SBC). <ref>Core Attorneys, Telecoms and Media Switzerland (2022), https://core-attorneys.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/2022-Telecoms-and-Media-Switzerland.pdf.</ref> All other licenses must be authorized by the Federal Department of the Environment, Transport, Energy and Communications (DETEC). The Federal Office of Communications (OFCOM) puts the licenses out for tender and coordinates with interested groups. OFCOM also manages the radio spectrum and establishes the National Frequency Allocation Plan, which the Federal Council approves. Under the applicable regulatory framework, licenses remain mandatory for using mobile radio frequencies to provide telecommunication services and universal services. Frequency licenses are issued either by competitive bidding or, more commonly, by frequency auction.<ref>Id.</ref> The Independent Complaints Authority for Radio and Television (ICA/UBI) is an extra-parliamentary federal commission responsible for reviewing legal challenges regarding television and radio broadcast. It assesses whether programs violate national or international law. It performs this function after complaints first pass through an ombudsman process.<ref>Federal Act on Radio and Television of 24 March 2006, arts. 92–94, SR 784.40 (Switz.), https://www.fedlex.admin.ch/eli/cc/2007/150/en.</ref> If unsatisfied with the ombudsman ruling, a formal complaint may be made to the ICA in a public hearing. An independent body matters because it creates a mechanism to enforce broadcasting requirements without placing ordinary editorial decisions directly under political control. Decisions made by the ICA may be further appealed to the Swiss Federal Supreme Court. <ref>“DETEC’s Regulatory Authority and Extra-Parliamentary Committees,” Federal Department of the Environment, Transport, Energy and Communications (Switz.), https://www.uvek.admin.ch/en/detecs-regulatory-authority-and-extra-parliamentary-committees (last visited Oct. 11, 2026).</ref> === Public Service and Media Pluralism === The Federal Council has emphasized Switzerland’s continued commitment to an independent and comprehensive public media service, concluding that the existing public-service broadcasting model has proved effective for the country’s direct democracy, which is characterized by linguistic and cultural diversity. SRG SSR operates across Switzerland’s linguistic regions and is funded primarily through the radio and television fee, along with commercial and other revenue. A strong public service broadcaster is seen as a way to protect regional diversity while competing with the influx of foreign licensed media broadcasters. === Digital Media and the Changing Meaning of Scarcity === Digital communication challenges the traditional regulatory justification based on scarcity. Radio frequencies are physically limited, but the internet allows countless speakers to distribute information without a broadcast frequency. As a result, streaming services, social media platforms, online newspapers, podcasts, and other digital services have blurred the line between broadcasters and ordinary speakers. However, the decline of frequency scarcity does not eliminate concentrations of communicative power. Digital platforms may not control limited broadcast frequencies, but algorithms, search engines, recommendation systems, and platform ownership can strongly influence the information audiences encounter. Switzerland is already confronting this transition. The Federal Council has recognized that digital transformation has placed significant economic pressure on traditional media companies as audiences and advertising revenue migrate toward digital platforms.<ref>Federal Council, “Federal Council sets out proposals for media funding independent of broadcast channel” (Feb. 21, 2024), https://www.admin.ch/en/nsb?id=100109 (last visited Oct. 11, 2026).</ref> This affects media diversity because economically weak or disappearing news organizations can reduce the number of independent sources available to the public. The Federal Council has recognized the need to update the existing Radio and Television Act to cover electronic media, because a law that covers only radio and television no longer keeps pace with developments.<ref>Id.</ref> == Censorship and Violent Content == === Freedom of Expression and the Regulatory Framework === Switzerland expressly protects freedom of expression and the media, including a prohibition on censorship. Yet no modern legal system can treat every communication involving violence, incitement, threats, terrorist propaganda, graphic material, etc., the same as ordinary political or artistic expression. Censorship in Switzerland thus reflects a balance between protecting freedom of expression and safeguarding public order, national security, and individual rights. The Swiss Federal Constitution protects freedom of expression and the press, though restrictions apply to matters such as hate speech, defamation, and certain forms of extremist propaganda. Switzerland’s multilingual and culturally diverse society, along with its federal system, shapes how these issues are addressed across the country’s linguistic regions and cantons. Regulators such as the Federal Data Protection and Information Commissioner (FDPIC) oversee data protection, while media regulation is shared among federal authorities and independent bodies, including the Swiss Press Council. Switzerland also adheres to European human-rights standards and maintains close ties to European data-protection frameworks. Recent measures have focused on online safety, privacy, and the spread of harmful or misleading content. Despite Switzerland’s strong protections for press freedom, concerns remain about media concentration and the financial pressures facing independent journalism. Switzerland has a monist legal system, where international instruments become part of Swiss law and binding on state authorities when ratified. Switzerland has ratified the EHCR, ICCPR, ICESCR, CERD, CAT, CEDAW, CRPD and the UNCRC. These treaties are therefore applicable in Swiss law and must be followed by public authorities. <ref>Edinburgh L. Sch., Switzerland (Feb. 2021), https://www.law.ed.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2021-02/Switzerland%20infographic.pdf.</ref> Article 16 of the Swiss Federal Constitution expressly guarantees freedom of opinion and information, including the right to form, express, and impart opinions and to receive and disseminate information.<ref>Federal Constitution of the Swiss Confederation of 18 April 1999, SR 101, art. 16 (Switz.).</ref> Freedom of expression is not absolute. Article 36 permits restrictions on fundamental rights where the restriction has a legal basis, serves a public interest or protects the rights of others, and is proportionate.<ref>Id.</ref> Publications infringing the economic reputation of a business and, therefore, interfering with fair competition law principles may violate the Federal Act against Unfair Competition of 19 December 198618 (UCA).<ref>CMS, The Media and Entertainment Law Review: Switzerland (1st ed.), https://cms.law/en/che/publication/the-media-and-entertainment-law-review-edition-1 (last visited Oct. 11, 2026).</ref> Swiss criminal law includes numerous provisions restricting free speech. One prominent example is the prohibition on publicly inciting hatred or discrimination against a person or a group of persons on the grounds of race, ethnic origin, or religion under Article 261 of the Criminal Code. Broadcasters must comply with certain minimum requirements for editorial and advertisement content based on statutory provisions in the RTVA. For instance, they must present facts in editorial programs (i.e., news programs) in a fair and well-balanced manner. Furthermore, editorial content and advertisement content must be clearly separated from each other and labeled as such. Finally, broadcasters are banned from advertising tobacco goods, alcoholic beverages, political parties, religious beliefs and institutions, and therapeutic products and medical treatments. In addition to these duties, broadcasters subject to a public license (e.g., SRG SSR) must appropriately express the variety of events and opinions in the totality of their editorial programs (public service).<ref>Id.</ref> Federal Act on the Protection of Minors in the Film and Video Game Sectors In September 2022, the Swiss Parliament enacted the Federal Act on the Protection of Minors in the Film and Video Game Sector. The act was proposed to close gaps in regulating content that specifically targets children and young people. For example, most Swiss cantons have not regulated age labeling and access control in cinemas, nor the sale of DVDs and video games. There are also certain gaps in protection for on-demand services. Although industry guidelines have sought to address these gaps, their voluntary nature makes enforcement difficult. The first phase of this implementing ordinance took effect on January 1, 2025. It gives industry organizations up to two years to finalize and submit their proposed self-regulation frameworks to the Federal Council for approval. If an industry sector fails to present an adequate regulatory framework, the Federal Council may impose subsidiary regulations.<ref>Pestalozzi, The New Federal Act on the Protection of Minors in the Film and Video Game Sectors – A Progressive Implementation, The Legal 500, legal500.com (last visited Oct. 11, 2026).</ref> The second phase involves enacting the framework, including age classification and access-control measures. This phase will take effect once the Federal Council has made the regulatory standards binding. <ref>Id.</ref> === Proposed Federal Act on Communication Platforms and Search Engines === In October 2025, the Federal Council decided to strengthen user rights in the digital space by requiring very large online platforms and search engines to operate more fairly and transparently. <ref>New Law on Communication Platforms and Search Engines – Start of Consultation Proceedings, Ethics &#x26; Compliance, compliance.ch (last visited Oct. 11, 2026).</ref> The law requires major communication platforms to establish a mechanism that lets users easily report suspected illegal content, depictions of violence, and threatening language. Reportable offenses covered by the Swiss Criminal Code (SCC) encompass willful defamation (Art. 174 SCC), insult (Art. 177 SCC), and discrimination and incitement to hatred (Art. 261bis SCC). Operators of communication platforms shall be obligated to notify users when removing content or blocking accounts and provide justification for such actions. They shall also be required to implement an internal complaints procedure and to engage in alternative dispute resolution in the event of conflicts.<ref>Id.</ref> Transparency requirements are also anticipated concerning the disclosure and targeting of advertisements and the utilization of recommendation systems. Furthermore, services affected by the legislation shall establish a publicly accessible advertising archive and provide authorities and researchers access to their data. Major communication platforms and search engines shall be obligated to appoint a legal representative in Switzerland if their registered office is located overseas. This will strengthen the enforcement of legal measures against providers without offices in Switzerland. === Landmark case regarding Censorship === In 1961, the Federal Supreme Court considered the constitutionality of censorship in the landmark case, Sphinx-Film SA v. Conseil d’État of Neuchâtel. Neuchâtel law required cinema operators to submit films to the police authorities three weeks before exhibition. The authorities would then either prohibit the screening of the film or require certain scenes to be removed if they believed the material offended public morals or if it was believed to be capable of encouraging criminal acts. As per the requirement, the film distributors, Sphinx-Film submitted the film Plein Soleil to the censorship commission for approval. The film depicted the planning and commission of murders. The cantonal censorship commission prohibited the film from being shown as it considered the depiction of the crimes to be suggestive and could encourage imitation. Sphinx-Film then challenged the cantonal prohibition by appealing to the Swiss Federal Supreme Court. The Federal Supreme Court ruled against the film distributors and upheld the prohibition justifying it as a police measure intended to protect public order and public morals. Although this case did not strike down censorship, it was significant as the Court officially recognized freedom of expression as an unwritten fundamental right implicit in the Federal Constitution. <ref>BGE 87 I 114, 117 (Switz. Fed. Sup. Ct. 1961) (consideration 2).</ref> Subsequent Federal Supreme Court decisions explicitly use Sphinx-Film as authority for the proposition that freedom of expression is an unwritten constitutional right. <ref>BGE 121 I 367, 370–71 (1995) (consideration 2(a)) (citing BGE 87 I 114, 117 (1961)).</ref> In 2001, the Court explored the history of the right to freedom of expression in BGE 127 I 164. This case directly cites Sphinx film as the foundational authority for the recognition of the freedom of expression as an unwritten constitutional right before its codification in Article 16 of the 1999 Constitution. <ref>BGE 127 I 164, 167 consid. 3a (2001).</ref> Sphinx Film thus helped establish the constitutional doctrine that preceded and was later codified in the 1999 Constitution. This history reflects one tension in Swiss communication law. The legal developments highlight how the courts deal with the conflicting interests of protection against censorship with necessary restrictions protecting competing public interests. == Truth, Honor and Tolerance == === Terrorism === Articles 16 and 17 of the Swiss Constitution explicitly prohibit censorship; however, Article 36 permits restrictions on fundamental rights where the restriction has a legal basis, serves a public interest or protects others' rights, and is proportionate.<ref>Fed. Const. (Switz.) of Apr. 18, 1999, https://aceproject.org/ero-en/regions/europe/CH/Switzerland%20Constitution%202002.pdf</ref> Hate crimes are prosecuted under Article 261bis of the Swiss Criminal Code. This provision also governs participation in and support for terrorist organizations. It applies to organizations that pursue criminal violence intended to intimidate a population or compel a government or international organization to act or refrain from acting. While this provision implicates media regulation by restricting digital communications that may be used to recruit members, coordinate activities, raise funds, or otherwise support terrorist organizations, it does not constitute a general prohibition against all favorable commentary about terrorism. === The Federal Act on the Proscription of Hamas and Associated Organizations === Adopted in December 2024 and effective from May 2025, this legislation prohibits Hamas, its cover and successor organizations, and certain related groups that meet the statutory criteria. It does not criminalize publishing opinions that could be viewed as pro-Hamas. Instead, it designates the prohibited organizations as terrorist organizations for prosecution under Article 261bis. This legislation illustrates that Switzerland’s counterterrorism media regulation is limited to conduct connected to designated terrorist organizations. It also highlights that Swiss counter-terrorism efforts hinge more on criminal prosecution than on content regulation. === Regulatory Framework regarding Defamation, Truthfulness, Insult, Personality Rights === === Swiss Criminal Code, Article 173 - Defamation === Articles 173 – 177 of the Criminal Code establish criminal penalties for certain forms of reputational harm. Article 28 of the Civil Code, by contrast, offers a distinct route to bring a civil claim to protect one’s personality rights. Further, the 2025 Federal Act on Communications Platforms and Search Engines provides a pathway to penalize defamatory content published on social media. <ref>Global Law Experts, Can You Sue for Defamation in Switzerland in 2026, Civil or Criminal, Time Limits &#x26; Right of Reply, GLOBAL LAW EXPERTS (June 12, 2026), https://globallawexperts.com/can-you-sue-for-defamation-in-switzerland/</ref> Article 173 concerns factual allegations capable of damaging honor; the Federal Supreme Court has distinguished such factual allegations from mere value judgments.<ref>Swiss Criminal Code of Dec. 21, 1937, SR 311.0, art. 173 (Switz.), https://www.fedlex.admin.ch/eli/cc/54/757_781_799/en</ref> Swiss Criminal Code, Article 174 - Calumny. Swiss criminal law does not impose a general obligation of truthfulness in public discourse, but the truth or falsity of factual assertions becomes particularly significant when those assertions injure another person's honor. Article 174, for example, specifically addresses reputation-damaging accusations made with knowledge of their falsity.<ref>Id. art. 174.</ref> Swiss Criminal Code, Article 177 - Insult. The Criminal Code further protects honor through Article 177, which separately criminalizes insult.<ref>Id. art. 177.</ref> Swiss Civil Code, Article 28 - Personality rights. Swiss protection of reputation is not confined to criminal law. Article 28 of the Civil Code protects personality rights against unlawful infringement while recognizing that competing private or public interests may justify otherwise intrusive expression.<ref>Swiss Civil Code of Dec. 10, 1907, SR 210, art. 28 (Switz.), https://www.fedlex.admin.ch/eli/cc/24/233_245_233/en</ref> European Convention on Human Rights, Article 10. Article 10 protects freedom of expression, including receiving and imparting information and ideas. Article 10(2) expressly recognizes that expression may be restricted where prescribed by law and necessary in a democratic society, including for protection of the reputation or rights of others.<ref>Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms art. 10, Nov. 4, 1950, 213 U.N.T.S. 221, https://treaties.un.org/doc/publication/unts/volume%20213/volume-213-i-2889-english.pdf.</ref> The European Convention also establishes an outer boundary on the protection of expression through Article 17, which prohibits the abuse of Convention rights. Article 17 prevents individuals or groups from relying upon Convention rights to pursue aims directed toward the destruction of the rights and freedoms the Convention protects.<ref>Id. art. 17</ref> The European Court of Human Rights applies this provision exceptionally in freedom-of-expression cases, particularly where expression seeks to promote or justify hatred, violence, racial discrimination, or antisemitism. The distinction is particularly significant for Switzerland. In Perinçek v. Switzerland, the Grand Chamber considered Article 17 in reviewing Perinçek's conviction under Article 261bis of the Swiss Criminal Code but ultimately found no basis for applying it and held that the conviction violated Article 10.<ref>Perinçek v. Switzerland, App. No. 27510/08, Eur. Ct. H.R. (Oct. 15, 2015), hudoc.echr.coe.int</ref> The decision shows that even highly controversial statements do not automatically lose the protection of freedom of expression; Article 17 instead sets an exceptional boundary for expression aimed at goals fundamentally contrary to the Convention's values. === BGE 143 IV 193 === The Federal Supreme Court has itself recognized the tension between tolerance and expressive freedom. In BGE 143 IV 193, the Court held that Article 261bis must be interpreted in light of Article 16 of the Federal Constitution and Article 10 of the ECHR, emphasizing the democratic importance of protecting even opinions that displease the majority or shock many listeners. Nevertheless, the Court found the expression at issue unlawful because the advertisement's generalized portrayal of Kosovars as violent and criminal fostered a hostile climate toward the group.<ref>BGE 143 IV 193, 198–99, consid. 1 (Switz. Fed. Sup. Ct. 2017), http://relevancy.bger.ch/php/clir/http/index.php?highlight_docid=atf%3A%2F%2F143-IV-193%3Ade&lang=de&type=show_document.</ref> === GRA Stiftung gegen Rassismus und Antisemitismus v. Switzerland === The protection of honor does not automatically prevail over expressive freedom. In GRA Stiftung gegen Rassismus und Antisemitismus v. Switzerland, Swiss courts found that an anti-racism organization had infringed a politician's personality rights by describing his comments during the 2009 minaret referendum campaign as "verbal racism." The European Court of Human Rights concluded that the judgment violated Article 10, emphasizing the political context and the factual foundation for the organization's characterization. The case demonstrates that reputation is a legitimate interest, but restrictions protecting reputation must still leave adequate room for robust debate on matters of public concern.<ref>GRA Stiftung gegen Rassismus und Antisemitismus v. Switzerland, App. No. 18598/13, Eur. Ct. H.R. (May 9, 2017), hudoc.echr.coe.int</ref> === BGE 117 IV 27: Defamation and the press === Swiss jurisprudence also distinguishes between factual allegations and value judgments in applying criminal defamation law. In BGE 117 IV 27, the Federal Supreme Court explained that Article 173 requires an allegation of fact rather than a mere value judgment and confirmed that journalists do not enjoy a general exemption from the ordinary law protecting honor.<ref>BGE 117 IV 27, consid. 2 (Switz. Fed. Sup. Ct. 1991), https://www.bger.ch/ext/eurospider/live/de/php/clir/http/index.php?highlight_docid=atf%3A%2F%2F117-IV-27%3Ait%3Aregeste&lang=de&type=show_document.</ref> == References == <references /> fuq13lry350uzs3tc0c6464wgx4ztxy 2840733 2840730 2026-10-16T20:21:11Z Chandysr 3112793 /* References */ 2840733 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Communication Law in Switzerland''' == Sources of the Law of Switzerland == === The Confederation Of Switzerland – Legal and Political System Overview === Switzerland is a federal republic consisting of 26 member states, referred to as “cantons”. The Federal Assembly, the national parliament, comprises the National Council and the Council of States. The federal government is led by seven federal councilors. The Federal Supreme Court is the highest judicial authority, interpreting the law, resolving disputes, and ensuring the consistent application of federal law. Each canton maintains its own parliament, government, courts, and constitution. <ref>Switzerland Federalism, CH INFO, ch-info.swiss (last visited Oct. 11, 2026).</ref> Cantons exercise self-governance under their individual constitutions, provided these do not conflict with the Federal Constitution.<ref>Id.</ref> Switzerland’s political system features a distinctive form of direct democracy that combines representative government with mechanisms that let citizens vote directly on constitutional amendments and specific legislative measures. The three principal instruments of direct democracy are mandatory referendums, optional referendums, and popular initiatives. Mandatory referendums require a nationwide vote on constitutional amendments. Optional referendums let citizens challenge certain laws enacted by the Federal Assembly, while popular initiatives let citizens propose amendments to the Federal Constitution. Constitutional amendments typically require a double majority: approval by a majority of participating voters and a majority of the cantons. Another distinguishing feature is the decentralized system of governance. Each canton is further subdivided into communes. Communes handle day-to-day governance, including municipal functions, education, and related matters. The decentralized government emphasizes the historical and cultural significance of respecting individual autonomy and a pluralistic tradition. The Confederation itself emerged from the provinces' will. As historian Ernest Renan stated, “The will of Switzerland to be united, despite the diversity of its idioms, is a fact of far greater importance than a similarity of language often obtained by vexatious methods.” <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7312/rena17430|title=What Is a Nation? and Other Political Writings|last=Renan|first=Ernest|last2=Giglioli|first2=M. F. N.|date=2018|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-17430-5|doi=10.7312/rena17430}}</ref> Article 93 of the Swiss Federal Constitution expressly requires radio and television to consider the needs of the cantons and linguistic communities, contribute to education and cultural development, and facilitate the free formation of public opinion. <ref>Federal Constitution of the Swiss Confederation of Apr. 18, 1999, art. 93(1), SR 101 (Switz.), https://www.fedlex.admin.ch/eli/cc/1999/404/en</ref> International law is particularly important in the Swiss legal system because Switzerland follows a largely monist approach to treaties.<ref>The Relationship Between International Law and National Law, Fed. Dep’t of Foreign Affs. (Switz.), https://www.eda.admin.ch/en/the-relationship-between-international-law-and-national-law (last visited Oct. 11, 2026).</ref> In its reports to the United Nations, Switzerland has explained that a treaty ratified by the Federal Council becomes part of Swiss law upon entry into force, without requiring a separate domestic implementing act. Article 190 of the Federal Constitution further provides that the Federal Supreme Court and other authorities must apply federal statutes and international law. === Federal Legislation === The Federal Act on Radio and Television (RTVA) and the Telecommunications Act (TCA) are federal statutes that provide the legal infrastructure for the constitutional guarantees of communication rights. The RTVA regulates the broadcasting, processing, transmission, and reception of radio and television program services. The Telecommunications Act (TCA) serves a related but distinct function. Telecommunications regulation addresses the infrastructure that enables communication, including telecommunications services, frequency use, addressing resources, market access, competition, and universal service. Providers seeking to use licensed radio frequencies or nationally administered addressing resources must register with the Federal Office of Communications. Use of spectrum for telecommunications services may require a license. <ref>Telecommunications Act [TCA], Apr. 30, 1997, SR 784.10, fedlex.admin.ch (last visited Oct. 11, 2026).</ref> The broadcasting sector has three main authorities responsible for the granting of licenses. The Federal Council is the licensing authority for the Swiss Broadcasting Corporation (SBC). Concerning other licenses, the Federal Department of the Environment, Transport, Energy and Communications (DETEC) has been delegated licensing competence. The Federal Office of Communications (OFCOM) puts the licenses out for tender and consults interested groups. OFCOM further fulfils all sovereign and regulatory tasks related to the telecommunications and broadcasting (radio and television) sectors. It fulfils an advisory and coordinating function for the public and policymakers. It also guarantees that basic services will be provided in all parts of the country and for all sections of the population.<ref>R. Zimmermann, Comparative Study on the Effectiveness of Telecommunications Regulators: Case Study—Switzerland (2004), https://core.ac.uk/download/147894930.pdf.</ref> The Federal Media Commission advises the Federal Council and the Federal Administration concerning media issues. It has been operational since August 2013 and currently consists of 14 representatives from various areas of the Swiss media sector. The RTVA provides for the Independent Complaints Authority for Radio and Television. This authority deals with complaints that relate to the editorial program and rules on disputes on denied access to a program. Furthermore, the Complaints Authority for Radio and Television selects and supervises the ombudsman services. === Regulatory and Supervisory Institutions === The Federal Office of Communication (OFCOM) handles questions related to telecommunications and broadcasting (radio and television). The Office prepares decisions of the Swiss government (the Federal Council), the Swiss Federal Department for the Environment, Transport, Energy and Communication (DETEC), and the Swiss Federal Communications Commission (ComCom).<ref>https://www.uvek.admin.ch/en/communications-policy</ref> OFCOM prepares the commercial transactions of the Federal Communications Commission (ComCom), submits the necessary applications, and implements its decisions. ComCom awards basic provision licenses and licenses for mobile telephone and other radio services through an invitation to tender. It also rules on interconnection disputes. ComCom additionally approves the national numbering plans. In the telecommunications sector, OFCOM grants radio licenses that do not involve any telecommunications services, e.g., company radio and amateur radio licenses.<ref>Fed. Commc’ns Comm’n (Switz.), ''Authorities and Agencies'' (Oct. 11, 2022), https://www.comcom.admin.ch/en/authorities-and-agencies</ref> == Principles of Communication Law and the Media == === Principles of Communication Law and the Media in Switzerland === === Freedom of the Media and the Swiss Communications Framework === Switzerland’s approach to communications law reflects an effort to protect freedom of expression and an independent media while recognizing the special regulatory concerns posed by mass communication. This balance is particularly relevant to Switzerland because its media system serves a multilingual, highly decentralized population. The ability of individuals to access information from diverse sources is therefore tied not only to individual freedom but also to democratic participation and the formation of public opinion. The Swiss Federal Constitution provides the foundation for this system. Article 17 protects freedom of the press, radio, television, and other forms of public telecommunications, prohibits censorship, and safeguards editorial secrecy. Under Article 93, the Constitution treats broadcasting not merely as another private means of communication but as a public service with broader social responsibilities. Radio and television must contribute to education and cultural development, facilitate the free formation of opinion, and take account of Switzerland’s particular characteristics and the needs of its cantons. At the same time, the Constitution protects the independence of radio and television and their autonomy in programming decisions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fedlex.admin.ch/eli/cc/1999/404/en|title=Fedlex|website=www.fedlex.admin.ch|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> === Regulation of Radio and Television === The telecommunications sector in Switzerland is regulated at the federal level. The main sources of law are the Federal Act on Telecommunications (TCA) of 30 April 1997, which underwent a partial revision in 2007 and was last amended on 1 July 2021, and the Federal Ordinance on Telecommunications Services (OTS) of 9 March 2007, last amended on 1 January 2022. The TCA regulates the transmission of information through telecommunications techniques, including the transmission of radio and television program services. Its main purpose is to ensure a range of cost-effective, high-quality telecommunications services that are competitive nationally and internationally. The OTS contains detailed rules that implement the provisions of the TCA. Within this regulatory framework, the Federal Communications Commission (ComCom) serves as the independent licensing and market regulator for the communications sector. Basic telecommunications services must be available to the entire Swiss population in all regions. To ensure these services are affordable, reliable, and high quality, ComCom awards universal-service licenses through a tender process. Swisscom currently holds the license for those universal services.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://iclg.com/practice-areas/telecoms-media-and-internet-laws-and-regulations/switzerland/|title=Telecoms, Media & Internet Laws and Regulations Report 2026 Switzerland|date=2025-12-15|website=ICLG|language=en-US|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> The Federal Act on Radio and Television (RTVA) regulates the broadcasting, processing, transmission and reception of radio and television program services. The broadcasting sector has three main authorities responsible for the granting of licenses. The Federal Council is the licensing authority for the Swiss Broadcasting Company (SBC). <ref>Core Attorneys, Telecoms and Media Switzerland (2022), https://core-attorneys.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/2022-Telecoms-and-Media-Switzerland.pdf.</ref> All other licenses must be authorized by the Federal Department of the Environment, Transport, Energy and Communications (DETEC). The Federal Office of Communications (OFCOM) puts the licenses out for tender and coordinates with interested groups. OFCOM also manages the radio spectrum and establishes the National Frequency Allocation Plan, which the Federal Council approves. Under the applicable regulatory framework, licenses remain mandatory for using mobile radio frequencies to provide telecommunication services and universal services. Frequency licenses are issued either by competitive bidding or, more commonly, by frequency auction.<ref>Id.</ref> The Independent Complaints Authority for Radio and Television (ICA/UBI) is an extra-parliamentary federal commission responsible for reviewing legal challenges regarding television and radio broadcast. It assesses whether programs violate national or international law. It performs this function after complaints first pass through an ombudsman process.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fedlex.admin.ch/eli/cc/2007/150/en|title=Fedlex|website=www.fedlex.admin.ch|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> If unsatisfied with the ombudsman ruling, a formal complaint may be made to the ICA in a public hearing. An independent body matters because it creates a mechanism to enforce broadcasting requirements without placing ordinary editorial decisions directly under political control. Decisions made by the ICA may be further appealed to the Swiss Federal Supreme Court. <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.uvek.admin.ch/en/detecs-regulatory-authority-and-extra-parliamentary-committees|title=DETEC's regulatory authority and extra-parliamentary committees|access-date=2026-10-16|language=en}}</ref> === Public Service and Media Pluralism === The Federal Council has emphasized Switzerland’s continued commitment to an independent and comprehensive public media service, concluding that the existing public-service broadcasting model has proved effective for the country’s direct democracy, which is characterized by linguistic and cultural diversity. SRG SSR operates across Switzerland’s linguistic regions and is funded primarily through the radio and television fee, along with commercial and other revenue. A strong public service broadcaster is seen as a way to protect regional diversity while competing with the influx of foreign licensed media broadcasters. === Digital Media and the Changing Meaning of Scarcity === Digital communication challenges the traditional regulatory justification based on scarcity. Radio frequencies are physically limited, but the internet allows countless speakers to distribute information without a broadcast frequency. As a result, streaming services, social media platforms, online newspapers, podcasts, and other digital services have blurred the line between broadcasters and ordinary speakers. However, the decline of frequency scarcity does not eliminate concentrations of communicative power. Digital platforms may not control limited broadcast frequencies, but algorithms, search engines, recommendation systems, and platform ownership can strongly influence the information audiences encounter. Switzerland is already confronting this transition. The Federal Council has recognized that digital transformation has placed significant economic pressure on traditional media companies as audiences and advertising revenue migrate toward digital platforms.<ref>Federal Council, “Federal Council sets out proposals for media funding independent of broadcast channel” (Feb. 21, 2024), https://www.admin.ch/en/nsb?id=100109 (last visited Oct. 11, 2026).</ref> This affects media diversity because economically weak or disappearing news organizations can reduce the number of independent sources available to the public. The Federal Council has recognized the need to update the existing Radio and Television Act to cover electronic media, because a law that covers only radio and television no longer keeps pace with developments.<ref>Id.</ref> == Censorship and Violent Content == === Freedom of Expression and the Regulatory Framework === Switzerland expressly protects freedom of expression and the media, including a prohibition on censorship. Yet no modern legal system can treat every communication involving violence, incitement, threats, terrorist propaganda, graphic material, etc., the same as ordinary political or artistic expression. Censorship in Switzerland thus reflects a balance between protecting freedom of expression and safeguarding public order, national security, and individual rights. The Swiss Federal Constitution protects freedom of expression and the press, though restrictions apply to matters such as hate speech, defamation, and certain forms of extremist propaganda. Switzerland’s multilingual and culturally diverse society, along with its federal system, shapes how these issues are addressed across the country’s linguistic regions and cantons. Regulators such as the Federal Data Protection and Information Commissioner (FDPIC) oversee data protection, while media regulation is shared among federal authorities and independent bodies, including the Swiss Press Council. Switzerland also adheres to European human-rights standards and maintains close ties to European data-protection frameworks. Recent measures have focused on online safety, privacy, and the spread of harmful or misleading content. Despite Switzerland’s strong protections for press freedom, concerns remain about media concentration and the financial pressures facing independent journalism. Switzerland has a monist legal system, where international instruments become part of Swiss law and binding on state authorities when ratified. Switzerland has ratified the EHCR, ICCPR, ICESCR, CERD, CAT, CEDAW, CRPD and the UNCRC. These treaties are therefore applicable in Swiss law and must be followed by public authorities. <ref>Edinburgh L. Sch., Switzerland (Feb. 2021), https://www.law.ed.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2021-02/Switzerland%20infographic.pdf.</ref> Article 16 of the Swiss Federal Constitution expressly guarantees freedom of opinion and information, including the right to form, express, and impart opinions and to receive and disseminate information.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fedlex.admin.ch/eli/cc/1999/404/en|title=Fedlex|website=www.fedlex.admin.ch|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> Freedom of expression is not absolute. Article 36 permits restrictions on fundamental rights where the restriction has a legal basis, serves a public interest or protects the rights of others, and is proportionate.<ref>Id.</ref> Publications infringing the economic reputation of a business and, therefore, interfering with fair competition law principles may violate the Federal Act against Unfair Competition of 19 December 198618 (UCA).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cms.law/en/che/publication/the-media-and-entertainment-law-review-edition-1|title=The Media and Entertainment Law Review {{!}} Edition 1|website=cms.law|language=en|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> Swiss criminal law includes numerous provisions restricting free speech. One prominent example is the prohibition on publicly inciting hatred or discrimination against a person or a group of persons on the grounds of race, ethnic origin, or religion under Article 261 of the Criminal Code. Broadcasters must comply with certain minimum requirements for editorial and advertisement content based on statutory provisions in the RTVA. For instance, they must present facts in editorial programs (i.e., news programs) in a fair and well-balanced manner. Furthermore, editorial content and advertisement content must be clearly separated from each other and labeled as such. Finally, broadcasters are banned from advertising tobacco goods, alcoholic beverages, political parties, religious beliefs and institutions, and therapeutic products and medical treatments. In addition to these duties, broadcasters subject to a public license (e.g., SRG SSR) must appropriately express the variety of events and opinions in the totality of their editorial programs (public service).<ref>Id.</ref> Federal Act on the Protection of Minors in the Film and Video Game Sectors In September 2022, the Swiss Parliament enacted the Federal Act on the Protection of Minors in the Film and Video Game Sector. The act was proposed to close gaps in regulating content that specifically targets children and young people. For example, most Swiss cantons have not regulated age labeling and access control in cinemas, nor the sale of DVDs and video games. There are also certain gaps in protection for on-demand services. Although industry guidelines have sought to address these gaps, their voluntary nature makes enforcement difficult. The first phase of this implementing ordinance took effect on January 1, 2025. It gives industry organizations up to two years to finalize and submit their proposed self-regulation frameworks to the Federal Council for approval. If an industry sector fails to present an adequate regulatory framework, the Federal Council may impose subsidiary regulations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.legal500.com/intelligence/switzerland/media-telecoms-it-entertainment/the-new-federal-act-on-the-protection-of-minors-in-the-film-and-video-game-sectors-%E2%80%93-a-progressive-implementation|title=The New Federal Act On The Protection Of Minors In The Film And Video Game Sectors – A Progressive Implementation|date=2025-02-07|website=www.legal500.com|language=en|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> The second phase involves enacting the framework, including age classification and access-control measures. This phase will take effect once the Federal Council has made the regulatory standards binding. <ref>Id.</ref> === Proposed Federal Act on Communication Platforms and Search Engines === In October 2025, the Federal Council decided to strengthen user rights in the digital space by requiring very large online platforms and search engines to operate more fairly and transparently. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ethics-compliance.ch/new-law-on-communication-platforms-and-search-engines-start-of-consultation-proceedings/|title=Ethics and Compliance Switzerland » New law on communication platforms and search engines: Start of consultation proceedings|website=ethics-compliance.ch|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> The law requires major communication platforms to establish a mechanism that lets users easily report suspected illegal content, depictions of violence, and threatening language. Reportable offenses covered by the Swiss Criminal Code (SCC) encompass willful defamation (Art. 174 SCC), insult (Art. 177 SCC), and discrimination and incitement to hatred (Art. 261bis SCC). Operators of communication platforms shall be obligated to notify users when removing content or blocking accounts and provide justification for such actions. They shall also be required to implement an internal complaints procedure and to engage in alternative dispute resolution in the event of conflicts.<ref>Id.</ref> Transparency requirements are also anticipated concerning the disclosure and targeting of advertisements and the utilization of recommendation systems. Furthermore, services affected by the legislation shall establish a publicly accessible advertising archive and provide authorities and researchers access to their data. Major communication platforms and search engines shall be obligated to appoint a legal representative in Switzerland if their registered office is located overseas. This will strengthen the enforcement of legal measures against providers without offices in Switzerland. === Landmark case regarding Censorship === In 1961, the Federal Supreme Court considered the constitutionality of censorship in the landmark case, Sphinx-Film SA v. Conseil d’État of Neuchâtel. Neuchâtel law required cinema operators to submit films to the police authorities three weeks before exhibition. The authorities would then either prohibit the screening of the film or require certain scenes to be removed if they believed the material offended public morals or if it was believed to be capable of encouraging criminal acts. As per the requirement, the film distributors, Sphinx-Film submitted the film Plein Soleil to the censorship commission for approval. The film depicted the planning and commission of murders. The cantonal censorship commission prohibited the film from being shown as it considered the depiction of the crimes to be suggestive and could encourage imitation. Sphinx-Film then challenged the cantonal prohibition by appealing to the Swiss Federal Supreme Court. The Federal Supreme Court ruled against the film distributors and upheld the prohibition justifying it as a police measure intended to protect public order and public morals. Although this case did not strike down censorship, it was significant as the Court officially recognized freedom of expression as an unwritten fundamental right implicit in the Federal Constitution. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://search.bger.ch/ext/eurospider/live/de/php/clir/http/index.php?lang=de&type=highlight_simple_similar_documents&docid=BGE-87-I-114&highlight_docid=BGE-87-I-114&top_subcollection_clir=bge&from_year=&to_year=&page=1&rank=1&number_of_ranks=1251|title=87 I 114|website=search.bger.ch|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> Subsequent Federal Supreme Court decisions explicitly use Sphinx-Film as authority for the proposition that freedom of expression is an unwritten constitutional right. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://relevancy.bger.ch/php/clir/http/index.php?highlight_docid=atf://121-I-367:de&lang=de&type=show_document|title=121 I 367|website=relevancy.bger.ch|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> In 2001, the Court explored the history of the right to freedom of expression in BGE 127 I 164. This case directly cites Sphinx film as the foundational authority for the recognition of the freedom of expression as an unwritten constitutional right before its codification in Article 16 of the 1999 Constitution. <ref>BGE 127 I 164, 167 consid. 3a (2001).</ref> Sphinx Film thus helped establish the constitutional doctrine that preceded and was later codified in the 1999 Constitution. This history reflects one tension in Swiss communication law. The legal developments highlight how the courts deal with the conflicting interests of protection against censorship with necessary restrictions protecting competing public interests. == Truth, Honor and Tolerance == === Terrorism === Articles 16 and 17 of the Swiss Constitution explicitly prohibit censorship; however, Article 36 permits restrictions on fundamental rights where the restriction has a legal basis, serves a public interest or protects others' rights, and is proportionate.<ref>Fed. Const. (Switz.) of Apr. 18, 1999, https://aceproject.org/ero-en/regions/europe/CH/Switzerland%20Constitution%202002.pdf</ref> Hate crimes are prosecuted under Article 261bis of the Swiss Criminal Code. This provision also governs participation in and support for terrorist organizations. It applies to organizations that pursue criminal violence intended to intimidate a population or compel a government or international organization to act or refrain from acting. While this provision implicates media regulation by restricting digital communications that may be used to recruit members, coordinate activities, raise funds, or otherwise support terrorist organizations, it does not constitute a general prohibition against all favorable commentary about terrorism. === The Federal Act on the Proscription of Hamas and Associated Organizations === Adopted in December 2024 and effective from May 2025, this legislation prohibits Hamas, its cover and successor organizations, and certain related groups that meet the statutory criteria. It does not criminalize publishing opinions that could be viewed as pro-Hamas. Instead, it designates the prohibited organizations as terrorist organizations for prosecution under Article 261bis. This legislation illustrates that Switzerland’s counterterrorism media regulation is limited to conduct connected to designated terrorist organizations. It also highlights that Swiss counter-terrorism efforts hinge more on criminal prosecution than on content regulation. === Regulatory Framework regarding Defamation, Truthfulness, Insult, Personality Rights === === Swiss Criminal Code, Article 173 - Defamation === Articles 173 – 177 of the Criminal Code establish criminal penalties for certain forms of reputational harm. Article 28 of the Civil Code, by contrast, offers a distinct route to bring a civil claim to protect one’s personality rights. Further, the 2025 Federal Act on Communications Platforms and Search Engines provides a pathway to penalize defamatory content published on social media. <ref>Global Law Experts, Can You Sue for Defamation in Switzerland in 2026, Civil or Criminal, Time Limits &#x26; Right of Reply, GLOBAL LAW EXPERTS (June 12, 2026), https://globallawexperts.com/can-you-sue-for-defamation-in-switzerland/</ref> Article 173 concerns factual allegations capable of damaging honor; the Federal Supreme Court has distinguished such factual allegations from mere value judgments.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fedlex.admin.ch/eli/cc/54/757_781_799/en|title=Fedlex|website=www.fedlex.admin.ch|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> Swiss Criminal Code, Article 174 - Calumny. Swiss criminal law does not impose a general obligation of truthfulness in public discourse, but the truth or falsity of factual assertions becomes particularly significant when those assertions injure another person's honor. Article 174, for example, specifically addresses reputation-damaging accusations made with knowledge of their falsity.<ref>Id. art. 174.</ref> Swiss Criminal Code, Article 177 - Insult. The Criminal Code further protects honor through Article 177, which separately criminalizes insult.<ref>Id. art. 177.</ref> Swiss Civil Code, Article 28 - Personality rights. Swiss protection of reputation is not confined to criminal law. Article 28 of the Civil Code protects personality rights against unlawful infringement while recognizing that competing private or public interests may justify otherwise intrusive expression.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fedlex.admin.ch/eli/cc/24/233_245_233/en|title=Fedlex|website=www.fedlex.admin.ch|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> European Convention on Human Rights, Article 10. Article 10 protects freedom of expression, including receiving and imparting information and ideas. Article 10(2) expressly recognizes that expression may be restricted where prescribed by law and necessary in a democratic society, including for protection of the reputation or rights of others.<ref><ref>Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms art. 10, Nov. 4, 1950, 213 U.N.T.S. 221, https://treaties.un.org/doc/publication/unts/volume%20213/volume-213-i-2889-english.pdf.</ref>{{Cite web|url=https://treaties.un.org/doc/publication/unts/volume%20213/volume-213-i-2889-english.pdf|title=Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. Signed at Rome, on 4 November 1950}}</ref> The European Convention also establishes an outer boundary on the protection of expression through Article 17, which prohibits the abuse of Convention rights. Article 17 prevents individuals or groups from relying upon Convention rights to pursue aims directed toward the destruction of the rights and freedoms the Convention protects.<ref>Id. art. 17</ref> The European Court of Human Rights applies this provision exceptionally in freedom-of-expression cases, particularly where expression seeks to promote or justify hatred, violence, racial discrimination, or antisemitism. The distinction is particularly significant for Switzerland. In Perinçek v. Switzerland, the Grand Chamber considered Article 17 in reviewing Perinçek's conviction under Article 261bis of the Swiss Criminal Code but ultimately found no basis for applying it and held that the conviction violated Article 10.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng#%7B%22itemid%22:%5B%22001-158235%22%5D%7D|title=HUDOC - European Court of Human Rights|website=hudoc.echr.coe.int|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> The decision shows that even highly controversial statements do not automatically lose the protection of freedom of expression; Article 17 instead sets an exceptional boundary for expression aimed at goals fundamentally contrary to the Convention's values. === BGE 143 IV 193 === The Federal Supreme Court has itself recognized the tension between tolerance and expressive freedom. In BGE 143 IV 193, the Court held that Article 261bis must be interpreted in light of Article 16 of the Federal Constitution and Article 10 of the ECHR, emphasizing the democratic importance of protecting even opinions that displease the majority or shock many listeners. Nevertheless, the Court found the expression at issue unlawful because the advertisement's generalized portrayal of Kosovars as violent and criminal fostered a hostile climate toward the group.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://relevancy.bger.ch/php/clir/http/index.php?highlight_docid=atf://143-IV-193:de&lang=de&type=show_document|title=143 IV 193|website=relevancy.bger.ch|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> === GRA Stiftung gegen Rassismus und Antisemitismus v. Switzerland === The protection of honor does not automatically prevail over expressive freedom. In GRA Stiftung gegen Rassismus und Antisemitismus v. Switzerland, Swiss courts found that an anti-racism organization had infringed a politician's personality rights by describing his comments during the 2009 minaret referendum campaign as "verbal racism." The European Court of Human Rights concluded that the judgment violated Article 10, emphasizing the political context and the factual foundation for the organization's characterization. The case demonstrates that reputation is a legitimate interest, but restrictions protecting reputation must still leave adequate room for robust debate on matters of public concern.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/#%7B%22documentcollectionid2%22:%5B%22GRANDCHAMBER%22,%22CHAMBER%22%5D%7D|title=HUDOC - European Court of Human Rights|website=hudoc.echr.coe.int|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> === BGE 117 IV 27: Defamation and the press === Swiss jurisprudence also distinguishes between factual allegations and value judgments in applying criminal defamation law. In BGE 117 IV 27, the Federal Supreme Court explained that Article 173 requires an allegation of fact rather than a mere value judgment and confirmed that journalists do not enjoy a general exemption from the ordinary law protecting honor.<ref>BGE 117 IV 27, consid. 2 (Switz. Fed. Sup. Ct. 1991), https://www.bger.ch/ext/eurospider/live/de/php/clir/http/index.php?highlight_docid=atf%3A%2F%2F117-IV-27%3Ait%3Aregeste&lang=de&type=show_document.</ref> == References == <references /> 22ob58z59fm0enn0cmprji82ghjq3f0 2840813 2840733 2026-10-17T02:43:41Z MathXplore 2888076 +[[Category:Communication in Europe]]; +[[Category:Law in Europe]]; +[[Category:Switzerland]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 2840813 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Communication Law in Switzerland''' == Sources of the Law of Switzerland == === The Confederation Of Switzerland – Legal and Political System Overview === Switzerland is a federal republic consisting of 26 member states, referred to as “cantons”. The Federal Assembly, the national parliament, comprises the National Council and the Council of States. The federal government is led by seven federal councilors. The Federal Supreme Court is the highest judicial authority, interpreting the law, resolving disputes, and ensuring the consistent application of federal law. Each canton maintains its own parliament, government, courts, and constitution. <ref>Switzerland Federalism, CH INFO, ch-info.swiss (last visited Oct. 11, 2026).</ref> Cantons exercise self-governance under their individual constitutions, provided these do not conflict with the Federal Constitution.<ref>Id.</ref> Switzerland’s political system features a distinctive form of direct democracy that combines representative government with mechanisms that let citizens vote directly on constitutional amendments and specific legislative measures. The three principal instruments of direct democracy are mandatory referendums, optional referendums, and popular initiatives. Mandatory referendums require a nationwide vote on constitutional amendments. Optional referendums let citizens challenge certain laws enacted by the Federal Assembly, while popular initiatives let citizens propose amendments to the Federal Constitution. Constitutional amendments typically require a double majority: approval by a majority of participating voters and a majority of the cantons. Another distinguishing feature is the decentralized system of governance. Each canton is further subdivided into communes. Communes handle day-to-day governance, including municipal functions, education, and related matters. The decentralized government emphasizes the historical and cultural significance of respecting individual autonomy and a pluralistic tradition. The Confederation itself emerged from the provinces' will. As historian Ernest Renan stated, “The will of Switzerland to be united, despite the diversity of its idioms, is a fact of far greater importance than a similarity of language often obtained by vexatious methods.” <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7312/rena17430|title=What Is a Nation? and Other Political Writings|last=Renan|first=Ernest|last2=Giglioli|first2=M. F. N.|date=2018|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-17430-5|doi=10.7312/rena17430}}</ref> Article 93 of the Swiss Federal Constitution expressly requires radio and television to consider the needs of the cantons and linguistic communities, contribute to education and cultural development, and facilitate the free formation of public opinion. <ref>Federal Constitution of the Swiss Confederation of Apr. 18, 1999, art. 93(1), SR 101 (Switz.), https://www.fedlex.admin.ch/eli/cc/1999/404/en</ref> International law is particularly important in the Swiss legal system because Switzerland follows a largely monist approach to treaties.<ref>The Relationship Between International Law and National Law, Fed. Dep’t of Foreign Affs. (Switz.), https://www.eda.admin.ch/en/the-relationship-between-international-law-and-national-law (last visited Oct. 11, 2026).</ref> In its reports to the United Nations, Switzerland has explained that a treaty ratified by the Federal Council becomes part of Swiss law upon entry into force, without requiring a separate domestic implementing act. Article 190 of the Federal Constitution further provides that the Federal Supreme Court and other authorities must apply federal statutes and international law. === Federal Legislation === The Federal Act on Radio and Television (RTVA) and the Telecommunications Act (TCA) are federal statutes that provide the legal infrastructure for the constitutional guarantees of communication rights. The RTVA regulates the broadcasting, processing, transmission, and reception of radio and television program services. The Telecommunications Act (TCA) serves a related but distinct function. Telecommunications regulation addresses the infrastructure that enables communication, including telecommunications services, frequency use, addressing resources, market access, competition, and universal service. Providers seeking to use licensed radio frequencies or nationally administered addressing resources must register with the Federal Office of Communications. Use of spectrum for telecommunications services may require a license. <ref>Telecommunications Act [TCA], Apr. 30, 1997, SR 784.10, fedlex.admin.ch (last visited Oct. 11, 2026).</ref> The broadcasting sector has three main authorities responsible for the granting of licenses. The Federal Council is the licensing authority for the Swiss Broadcasting Corporation (SBC). Concerning other licenses, the Federal Department of the Environment, Transport, Energy and Communications (DETEC) has been delegated licensing competence. The Federal Office of Communications (OFCOM) puts the licenses out for tender and consults interested groups. OFCOM further fulfils all sovereign and regulatory tasks related to the telecommunications and broadcasting (radio and television) sectors. It fulfils an advisory and coordinating function for the public and policymakers. It also guarantees that basic services will be provided in all parts of the country and for all sections of the population.<ref>R. Zimmermann, Comparative Study on the Effectiveness of Telecommunications Regulators: Case Study—Switzerland (2004), https://core.ac.uk/download/147894930.pdf.</ref> The Federal Media Commission advises the Federal Council and the Federal Administration concerning media issues. It has been operational since August 2013 and currently consists of 14 representatives from various areas of the Swiss media sector. The RTVA provides for the Independent Complaints Authority for Radio and Television. This authority deals with complaints that relate to the editorial program and rules on disputes on denied access to a program. Furthermore, the Complaints Authority for Radio and Television selects and supervises the ombudsman services. === Regulatory and Supervisory Institutions === The Federal Office of Communication (OFCOM) handles questions related to telecommunications and broadcasting (radio and television). The Office prepares decisions of the Swiss government (the Federal Council), the Swiss Federal Department for the Environment, Transport, Energy and Communication (DETEC), and the Swiss Federal Communications Commission (ComCom).<ref>https://www.uvek.admin.ch/en/communications-policy</ref> OFCOM prepares the commercial transactions of the Federal Communications Commission (ComCom), submits the necessary applications, and implements its decisions. ComCom awards basic provision licenses and licenses for mobile telephone and other radio services through an invitation to tender. It also rules on interconnection disputes. ComCom additionally approves the national numbering plans. In the telecommunications sector, OFCOM grants radio licenses that do not involve any telecommunications services, e.g., company radio and amateur radio licenses.<ref>Fed. Commc’ns Comm’n (Switz.), ''Authorities and Agencies'' (Oct. 11, 2022), https://www.comcom.admin.ch/en/authorities-and-agencies</ref> == Principles of Communication Law and the Media == === Principles of Communication Law and the Media in Switzerland === === Freedom of the Media and the Swiss Communications Framework === Switzerland’s approach to communications law reflects an effort to protect freedom of expression and an independent media while recognizing the special regulatory concerns posed by mass communication. This balance is particularly relevant to Switzerland because its media system serves a multilingual, highly decentralized population. The ability of individuals to access information from diverse sources is therefore tied not only to individual freedom but also to democratic participation and the formation of public opinion. The Swiss Federal Constitution provides the foundation for this system. Article 17 protects freedom of the press, radio, television, and other forms of public telecommunications, prohibits censorship, and safeguards editorial secrecy. Under Article 93, the Constitution treats broadcasting not merely as another private means of communication but as a public service with broader social responsibilities. Radio and television must contribute to education and cultural development, facilitate the free formation of opinion, and take account of Switzerland’s particular characteristics and the needs of its cantons. At the same time, the Constitution protects the independence of radio and television and their autonomy in programming decisions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fedlex.admin.ch/eli/cc/1999/404/en|title=Fedlex|website=www.fedlex.admin.ch|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> === Regulation of Radio and Television === The telecommunications sector in Switzerland is regulated at the federal level. The main sources of law are the Federal Act on Telecommunications (TCA) of 30 April 1997, which underwent a partial revision in 2007 and was last amended on 1 July 2021, and the Federal Ordinance on Telecommunications Services (OTS) of 9 March 2007, last amended on 1 January 2022. The TCA regulates the transmission of information through telecommunications techniques, including the transmission of radio and television program services. Its main purpose is to ensure a range of cost-effective, high-quality telecommunications services that are competitive nationally and internationally. The OTS contains detailed rules that implement the provisions of the TCA. Within this regulatory framework, the Federal Communications Commission (ComCom) serves as the independent licensing and market regulator for the communications sector. Basic telecommunications services must be available to the entire Swiss population in all regions. To ensure these services are affordable, reliable, and high quality, ComCom awards universal-service licenses through a tender process. Swisscom currently holds the license for those universal services.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://iclg.com/practice-areas/telecoms-media-and-internet-laws-and-regulations/switzerland/|title=Telecoms, Media & Internet Laws and Regulations Report 2026 Switzerland|date=2025-12-15|website=ICLG|language=en-US|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> The Federal Act on Radio and Television (RTVA) regulates the broadcasting, processing, transmission and reception of radio and television program services. The broadcasting sector has three main authorities responsible for the granting of licenses. The Federal Council is the licensing authority for the Swiss Broadcasting Company (SBC). <ref>Core Attorneys, Telecoms and Media Switzerland (2022), https://core-attorneys.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/2022-Telecoms-and-Media-Switzerland.pdf.</ref> All other licenses must be authorized by the Federal Department of the Environment, Transport, Energy and Communications (DETEC). The Federal Office of Communications (OFCOM) puts the licenses out for tender and coordinates with interested groups. OFCOM also manages the radio spectrum and establishes the National Frequency Allocation Plan, which the Federal Council approves. Under the applicable regulatory framework, licenses remain mandatory for using mobile radio frequencies to provide telecommunication services and universal services. Frequency licenses are issued either by competitive bidding or, more commonly, by frequency auction.<ref>Id.</ref> The Independent Complaints Authority for Radio and Television (ICA/UBI) is an extra-parliamentary federal commission responsible for reviewing legal challenges regarding television and radio broadcast. It assesses whether programs violate national or international law. It performs this function after complaints first pass through an ombudsman process.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fedlex.admin.ch/eli/cc/2007/150/en|title=Fedlex|website=www.fedlex.admin.ch|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> If unsatisfied with the ombudsman ruling, a formal complaint may be made to the ICA in a public hearing. An independent body matters because it creates a mechanism to enforce broadcasting requirements without placing ordinary editorial decisions directly under political control. Decisions made by the ICA may be further appealed to the Swiss Federal Supreme Court. <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.uvek.admin.ch/en/detecs-regulatory-authority-and-extra-parliamentary-committees|title=DETEC's regulatory authority and extra-parliamentary committees|access-date=2026-10-16|language=en}}</ref> === Public Service and Media Pluralism === The Federal Council has emphasized Switzerland’s continued commitment to an independent and comprehensive public media service, concluding that the existing public-service broadcasting model has proved effective for the country’s direct democracy, which is characterized by linguistic and cultural diversity. SRG SSR operates across Switzerland’s linguistic regions and is funded primarily through the radio and television fee, along with commercial and other revenue. A strong public service broadcaster is seen as a way to protect regional diversity while competing with the influx of foreign licensed media broadcasters. === Digital Media and the Changing Meaning of Scarcity === Digital communication challenges the traditional regulatory justification based on scarcity. Radio frequencies are physically limited, but the internet allows countless speakers to distribute information without a broadcast frequency. As a result, streaming services, social media platforms, online newspapers, podcasts, and other digital services have blurred the line between broadcasters and ordinary speakers. However, the decline of frequency scarcity does not eliminate concentrations of communicative power. Digital platforms may not control limited broadcast frequencies, but algorithms, search engines, recommendation systems, and platform ownership can strongly influence the information audiences encounter. Switzerland is already confronting this transition. The Federal Council has recognized that digital transformation has placed significant economic pressure on traditional media companies as audiences and advertising revenue migrate toward digital platforms.<ref>Federal Council, “Federal Council sets out proposals for media funding independent of broadcast channel” (Feb. 21, 2024), https://www.admin.ch/en/nsb?id=100109 (last visited Oct. 11, 2026).</ref> This affects media diversity because economically weak or disappearing news organizations can reduce the number of independent sources available to the public. The Federal Council has recognized the need to update the existing Radio and Television Act to cover electronic media, because a law that covers only radio and television no longer keeps pace with developments.<ref>Id.</ref> == Censorship and Violent Content == === Freedom of Expression and the Regulatory Framework === Switzerland expressly protects freedom of expression and the media, including a prohibition on censorship. Yet no modern legal system can treat every communication involving violence, incitement, threats, terrorist propaganda, graphic material, etc., the same as ordinary political or artistic expression. Censorship in Switzerland thus reflects a balance between protecting freedom of expression and safeguarding public order, national security, and individual rights. The Swiss Federal Constitution protects freedom of expression and the press, though restrictions apply to matters such as hate speech, defamation, and certain forms of extremist propaganda. Switzerland’s multilingual and culturally diverse society, along with its federal system, shapes how these issues are addressed across the country’s linguistic regions and cantons. Regulators such as the Federal Data Protection and Information Commissioner (FDPIC) oversee data protection, while media regulation is shared among federal authorities and independent bodies, including the Swiss Press Council. Switzerland also adheres to European human-rights standards and maintains close ties to European data-protection frameworks. Recent measures have focused on online safety, privacy, and the spread of harmful or misleading content. Despite Switzerland’s strong protections for press freedom, concerns remain about media concentration and the financial pressures facing independent journalism. Switzerland has a monist legal system, where international instruments become part of Swiss law and binding on state authorities when ratified. Switzerland has ratified the EHCR, ICCPR, ICESCR, CERD, CAT, CEDAW, CRPD and the UNCRC. These treaties are therefore applicable in Swiss law and must be followed by public authorities. <ref>Edinburgh L. Sch., Switzerland (Feb. 2021), https://www.law.ed.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2021-02/Switzerland%20infographic.pdf.</ref> Article 16 of the Swiss Federal Constitution expressly guarantees freedom of opinion and information, including the right to form, express, and impart opinions and to receive and disseminate information.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fedlex.admin.ch/eli/cc/1999/404/en|title=Fedlex|website=www.fedlex.admin.ch|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> Freedom of expression is not absolute. Article 36 permits restrictions on fundamental rights where the restriction has a legal basis, serves a public interest or protects the rights of others, and is proportionate.<ref>Id.</ref> Publications infringing the economic reputation of a business and, therefore, interfering with fair competition law principles may violate the Federal Act against Unfair Competition of 19 December 198618 (UCA).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cms.law/en/che/publication/the-media-and-entertainment-law-review-edition-1|title=The Media and Entertainment Law Review {{!}} Edition 1|website=cms.law|language=en|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> Swiss criminal law includes numerous provisions restricting free speech. One prominent example is the prohibition on publicly inciting hatred or discrimination against a person or a group of persons on the grounds of race, ethnic origin, or religion under Article 261 of the Criminal Code. Broadcasters must comply with certain minimum requirements for editorial and advertisement content based on statutory provisions in the RTVA. For instance, they must present facts in editorial programs (i.e., news programs) in a fair and well-balanced manner. Furthermore, editorial content and advertisement content must be clearly separated from each other and labeled as such. Finally, broadcasters are banned from advertising tobacco goods, alcoholic beverages, political parties, religious beliefs and institutions, and therapeutic products and medical treatments. In addition to these duties, broadcasters subject to a public license (e.g., SRG SSR) must appropriately express the variety of events and opinions in the totality of their editorial programs (public service).<ref>Id.</ref> Federal Act on the Protection of Minors in the Film and Video Game Sectors In September 2022, the Swiss Parliament enacted the Federal Act on the Protection of Minors in the Film and Video Game Sector. The act was proposed to close gaps in regulating content that specifically targets children and young people. For example, most Swiss cantons have not regulated age labeling and access control in cinemas, nor the sale of DVDs and video games. There are also certain gaps in protection for on-demand services. Although industry guidelines have sought to address these gaps, their voluntary nature makes enforcement difficult. The first phase of this implementing ordinance took effect on January 1, 2025. It gives industry organizations up to two years to finalize and submit their proposed self-regulation frameworks to the Federal Council for approval. If an industry sector fails to present an adequate regulatory framework, the Federal Council may impose subsidiary regulations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.legal500.com/intelligence/switzerland/media-telecoms-it-entertainment/the-new-federal-act-on-the-protection-of-minors-in-the-film-and-video-game-sectors-%E2%80%93-a-progressive-implementation|title=The New Federal Act On The Protection Of Minors In The Film And Video Game Sectors – A Progressive Implementation|date=2025-02-07|website=www.legal500.com|language=en|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> The second phase involves enacting the framework, including age classification and access-control measures. This phase will take effect once the Federal Council has made the regulatory standards binding. <ref>Id.</ref> === Proposed Federal Act on Communication Platforms and Search Engines === In October 2025, the Federal Council decided to strengthen user rights in the digital space by requiring very large online platforms and search engines to operate more fairly and transparently. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ethics-compliance.ch/new-law-on-communication-platforms-and-search-engines-start-of-consultation-proceedings/|title=Ethics and Compliance Switzerland » New law on communication platforms and search engines: Start of consultation proceedings|website=ethics-compliance.ch|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> The law requires major communication platforms to establish a mechanism that lets users easily report suspected illegal content, depictions of violence, and threatening language. Reportable offenses covered by the Swiss Criminal Code (SCC) encompass willful defamation (Art. 174 SCC), insult (Art. 177 SCC), and discrimination and incitement to hatred (Art. 261bis SCC). Operators of communication platforms shall be obligated to notify users when removing content or blocking accounts and provide justification for such actions. They shall also be required to implement an internal complaints procedure and to engage in alternative dispute resolution in the event of conflicts.<ref>Id.</ref> Transparency requirements are also anticipated concerning the disclosure and targeting of advertisements and the utilization of recommendation systems. Furthermore, services affected by the legislation shall establish a publicly accessible advertising archive and provide authorities and researchers access to their data. Major communication platforms and search engines shall be obligated to appoint a legal representative in Switzerland if their registered office is located overseas. This will strengthen the enforcement of legal measures against providers without offices in Switzerland. === Landmark case regarding Censorship === In 1961, the Federal Supreme Court considered the constitutionality of censorship in the landmark case, Sphinx-Film SA v. Conseil d’État of Neuchâtel. Neuchâtel law required cinema operators to submit films to the police authorities three weeks before exhibition. The authorities would then either prohibit the screening of the film or require certain scenes to be removed if they believed the material offended public morals or if it was believed to be capable of encouraging criminal acts. As per the requirement, the film distributors, Sphinx-Film submitted the film Plein Soleil to the censorship commission for approval. The film depicted the planning and commission of murders. The cantonal censorship commission prohibited the film from being shown as it considered the depiction of the crimes to be suggestive and could encourage imitation. Sphinx-Film then challenged the cantonal prohibition by appealing to the Swiss Federal Supreme Court. The Federal Supreme Court ruled against the film distributors and upheld the prohibition justifying it as a police measure intended to protect public order and public morals. Although this case did not strike down censorship, it was significant as the Court officially recognized freedom of expression as an unwritten fundamental right implicit in the Federal Constitution. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://search.bger.ch/ext/eurospider/live/de/php/clir/http/index.php?lang=de&type=highlight_simple_similar_documents&docid=BGE-87-I-114&highlight_docid=BGE-87-I-114&top_subcollection_clir=bge&from_year=&to_year=&page=1&rank=1&number_of_ranks=1251|title=87 I 114|website=search.bger.ch|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> Subsequent Federal Supreme Court decisions explicitly use Sphinx-Film as authority for the proposition that freedom of expression is an unwritten constitutional right. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://relevancy.bger.ch/php/clir/http/index.php?highlight_docid=atf://121-I-367:de&lang=de&type=show_document|title=121 I 367|website=relevancy.bger.ch|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> In 2001, the Court explored the history of the right to freedom of expression in BGE 127 I 164. This case directly cites Sphinx film as the foundational authority for the recognition of the freedom of expression as an unwritten constitutional right before its codification in Article 16 of the 1999 Constitution. <ref>BGE 127 I 164, 167 consid. 3a (2001).</ref> Sphinx Film thus helped establish the constitutional doctrine that preceded and was later codified in the 1999 Constitution. This history reflects one tension in Swiss communication law. The legal developments highlight how the courts deal with the conflicting interests of protection against censorship with necessary restrictions protecting competing public interests. == Truth, Honor and Tolerance == === Terrorism === Articles 16 and 17 of the Swiss Constitution explicitly prohibit censorship; however, Article 36 permits restrictions on fundamental rights where the restriction has a legal basis, serves a public interest or protects others' rights, and is proportionate.<ref>Fed. Const. (Switz.) of Apr. 18, 1999, https://aceproject.org/ero-en/regions/europe/CH/Switzerland%20Constitution%202002.pdf</ref> Hate crimes are prosecuted under Article 261bis of the Swiss Criminal Code. This provision also governs participation in and support for terrorist organizations. It applies to organizations that pursue criminal violence intended to intimidate a population or compel a government or international organization to act or refrain from acting. While this provision implicates media regulation by restricting digital communications that may be used to recruit members, coordinate activities, raise funds, or otherwise support terrorist organizations, it does not constitute a general prohibition against all favorable commentary about terrorism. === The Federal Act on the Proscription of Hamas and Associated Organizations === Adopted in December 2024 and effective from May 2025, this legislation prohibits Hamas, its cover and successor organizations, and certain related groups that meet the statutory criteria. It does not criminalize publishing opinions that could be viewed as pro-Hamas. Instead, it designates the prohibited organizations as terrorist organizations for prosecution under Article 261bis. This legislation illustrates that Switzerland’s counterterrorism media regulation is limited to conduct connected to designated terrorist organizations. It also highlights that Swiss counter-terrorism efforts hinge more on criminal prosecution than on content regulation. === Regulatory Framework regarding Defamation, Truthfulness, Insult, Personality Rights === === Swiss Criminal Code, Article 173 - Defamation === Articles 173 – 177 of the Criminal Code establish criminal penalties for certain forms of reputational harm. Article 28 of the Civil Code, by contrast, offers a distinct route to bring a civil claim to protect one’s personality rights. Further, the 2025 Federal Act on Communications Platforms and Search Engines provides a pathway to penalize defamatory content published on social media. <ref>Global Law Experts, Can You Sue for Defamation in Switzerland in 2026, Civil or Criminal, Time Limits &#x26; Right of Reply, GLOBAL LAW EXPERTS (June 12, 2026), https://globallawexperts.com/can-you-sue-for-defamation-in-switzerland/</ref> Article 173 concerns factual allegations capable of damaging honor; the Federal Supreme Court has distinguished such factual allegations from mere value judgments.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fedlex.admin.ch/eli/cc/54/757_781_799/en|title=Fedlex|website=www.fedlex.admin.ch|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> Swiss Criminal Code, Article 174 - Calumny. Swiss criminal law does not impose a general obligation of truthfulness in public discourse, but the truth or falsity of factual assertions becomes particularly significant when those assertions injure another person's honor. Article 174, for example, specifically addresses reputation-damaging accusations made with knowledge of their falsity.<ref>Id. art. 174.</ref> Swiss Criminal Code, Article 177 - Insult. The Criminal Code further protects honor through Article 177, which separately criminalizes insult.<ref>Id. art. 177.</ref> Swiss Civil Code, Article 28 - Personality rights. Swiss protection of reputation is not confined to criminal law. Article 28 of the Civil Code protects personality rights against unlawful infringement while recognizing that competing private or public interests may justify otherwise intrusive expression.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fedlex.admin.ch/eli/cc/24/233_245_233/en|title=Fedlex|website=www.fedlex.admin.ch|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> European Convention on Human Rights, Article 10. Article 10 protects freedom of expression, including receiving and imparting information and ideas. Article 10(2) expressly recognizes that expression may be restricted where prescribed by law and necessary in a democratic society, including for protection of the reputation or rights of others.<ref><ref>Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms art. 10, Nov. 4, 1950, 213 U.N.T.S. 221, https://treaties.un.org/doc/publication/unts/volume%20213/volume-213-i-2889-english.pdf.</ref>{{Cite web|url=https://treaties.un.org/doc/publication/unts/volume%20213/volume-213-i-2889-english.pdf|title=Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. Signed at Rome, on 4 November 1950}}</ref> The European Convention also establishes an outer boundary on the protection of expression through Article 17, which prohibits the abuse of Convention rights. Article 17 prevents individuals or groups from relying upon Convention rights to pursue aims directed toward the destruction of the rights and freedoms the Convention protects.<ref>Id. art. 17</ref> The European Court of Human Rights applies this provision exceptionally in freedom-of-expression cases, particularly where expression seeks to promote or justify hatred, violence, racial discrimination, or antisemitism. The distinction is particularly significant for Switzerland. In Perinçek v. Switzerland, the Grand Chamber considered Article 17 in reviewing Perinçek's conviction under Article 261bis of the Swiss Criminal Code but ultimately found no basis for applying it and held that the conviction violated Article 10.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng#%7B%22itemid%22:%5B%22001-158235%22%5D%7D|title=HUDOC - European Court of Human Rights|website=hudoc.echr.coe.int|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> The decision shows that even highly controversial statements do not automatically lose the protection of freedom of expression; Article 17 instead sets an exceptional boundary for expression aimed at goals fundamentally contrary to the Convention's values. === BGE 143 IV 193 === The Federal Supreme Court has itself recognized the tension between tolerance and expressive freedom. In BGE 143 IV 193, the Court held that Article 261bis must be interpreted in light of Article 16 of the Federal Constitution and Article 10 of the ECHR, emphasizing the democratic importance of protecting even opinions that displease the majority or shock many listeners. Nevertheless, the Court found the expression at issue unlawful because the advertisement's generalized portrayal of Kosovars as violent and criminal fostered a hostile climate toward the group.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://relevancy.bger.ch/php/clir/http/index.php?highlight_docid=atf://143-IV-193:de&lang=de&type=show_document|title=143 IV 193|website=relevancy.bger.ch|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> === GRA Stiftung gegen Rassismus und Antisemitismus v. Switzerland === The protection of honor does not automatically prevail over expressive freedom. In GRA Stiftung gegen Rassismus und Antisemitismus v. Switzerland, Swiss courts found that an anti-racism organization had infringed a politician's personality rights by describing his comments during the 2009 minaret referendum campaign as "verbal racism." The European Court of Human Rights concluded that the judgment violated Article 10, emphasizing the political context and the factual foundation for the organization's characterization. The case demonstrates that reputation is a legitimate interest, but restrictions protecting reputation must still leave adequate room for robust debate on matters of public concern.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/#%7B%22documentcollectionid2%22:%5B%22GRANDCHAMBER%22,%22CHAMBER%22%5D%7D|title=HUDOC - European Court of Human Rights|website=hudoc.echr.coe.int|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> === BGE 117 IV 27: Defamation and the press === Swiss jurisprudence also distinguishes between factual allegations and value judgments in applying criminal defamation law. In BGE 117 IV 27, the Federal Supreme Court explained that Article 173 requires an allegation of fact rather than a mere value judgment and confirmed that journalists do not enjoy a general exemption from the ordinary law protecting honor.<ref>BGE 117 IV 27, consid. 2 (Switz. Fed. Sup. Ct. 1991), https://www.bger.ch/ext/eurospider/live/de/php/clir/http/index.php?highlight_docid=atf%3A%2F%2F117-IV-27%3Ait%3Aregeste&lang=de&type=show_document.</ref> == References == <references /> [[Category:Communication in Europe]] [[Category:Law in Europe]] [[Category:Switzerland]] 8uflviyjbcfzxv4k7vsswb1syn8p108 0 332521 2840753 2026-10-16T23:00:08Z Ireicher2 2797952 Created page with "Add your content here" 2840753 wikitext text/x-wiki Add your content here dqt3ir1tvqxhxf9ucfpchqr92x8glsv 3 332522 2840766 2026-10-17T00:34:17Z Jtneill 10242 Welcome 2840766 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Welcome== {{Robelbox|theme=9|title='''[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]], U3275908!'''|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or get in touch with [[User talk:Jtneill|me personally]] if you would like some [[Help:Contents|help]]. 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See you around Wikiversity! ---- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:34, 17 October 2026 (UTC)</div> <!-- Template:Welcome --> {{Robelbox/close}} h71wc7tgd1ayvwmsrcae6ze3yj2xelr 6 332523 2840857 2026-10-17T06:20:15Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information ||Description=Block CLA 2C Multi Level (20261013 - 20261012) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-17 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2840857 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information ||Description=Block CLA 2C Multi Level (20261013 - 20261012) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-17 |Author=Young W. 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