Wikiversity enwikiversity https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Main_Page MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.24 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikiversity Wikiversity talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk School School talk Portal Portal talk Topic Topic talk Collection Collection talk Draft Draft talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 4 28 2841769 2841727 2026-10-20T23:05:35Z Jtneill 10242 /* A new cosmological model */ reply ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]]) 2841769 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikiversity:Colloquium/Header}} <!-- MESSAGES GO BELOW --> == Add an edit count requirement for autoconfirmed? == Currently, only waiting for four days is required for a user to become autoconfirmed. I am proposing that we include a minimum edit count of <s>10 edits (akin to Wikipedia)</s> 5 edits especially because of [[Special:AbuseFilter/16|a private abuse filter]], and LTAs may game autoconfirmed permissions to vandalize here. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:01, 23 August 2026 (UTC) : [[Wikiversity:Autoconfirmed users]] : Are you suggesting an additional requirement? i.e., 4 days + 10 edits? : How is it adjusted? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 03:57, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :: Yes. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:30, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :: @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]: I said yes to your first question. As for the adjustment question, in the InitialiseSettings.php file on noc.wikimedia.org, on <code>wgAutoConfirmCount</code> is where English Wikiversity would be added as <code>'enwikiversity' => 10,</code>. Does my reply make sense? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:31, 15 September 2026 (UTC) :As a newly volunteered member, it doesn't seem unreasonable to me to require a certain number of edits to establish my bona fides. [[User:Cfm490|Cfm490]] ([[User talk:Cfm490|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cfm490|contribs]]) 17:53, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :I agree that adding an edit count requirement is a reasonable expectation before the user can become autoconfirmed. [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 18:56, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :+ 1 —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 19:40, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :'''Weak support''' Generally reasonable, but I would caution that we should really make this clear for those instances where professors have students edit here and make it frictionless for them to get autoconfirmed status. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:42, 6 September 2026 (UTC) : {{oppose|No support}} because I cannot see the [[Special:AbuseFilter/16|abuse filter]] cited as the primary reason and I do not know what LTAs is. I guess you don’t want support from ''ordinary'' users. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kays]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 18:18, 14 September 2026 (UTC) ::Also some readers may be interested in this: ::* [[Wikipedia/Types of user accounts]] ::[[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 19:05, 14 September 2026 (UTC) ::: An LTA means a long-term abuser, and it means someone who is usually abusive. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:42, 14 September 2026 (UTC) ::::@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]], an LTA is someone who is usually abusive? That's news to me. Can you please point us to the source of this information. ::::Thanks in advance, [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 15:50, 14 October 2026 (UTC) :::::[[w:WP:LTA|WP:LTA]] :::::[[User:Chrisblammo123|Chrisblammo123]] ([[User talk:Chrisblammo123|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Chrisblammo123|contribs]]) 08:59, 15 October 2026 (UTC) :'''Strong''' {{support}}; specially to battle LTA [[User:Mbataw|Mbataw]] ([[User talk:Mbataw|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mbataw|contribs]]) 13:17, 18 September 2026 (UTC) :{{support}}, having no edit count requirement for autoconfirmed is a bad idea in general. [[User:BooksBooksBooks3|BooksBooksBooks3]] ([[User talk:BooksBooksBooks3|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BooksBooksBooks3|contribs]]) 01:43, 19 September 2026 (UTC) :Comment: I realize that it is not easy to be an admin on wikimedia projects. I realize that many admins have to deal with some VERY unpleasant personalities. But.. :Admins are not the only users who encounter harassment on wikimedia projects, big or small. Anyone who's been here as long as I have, has come across users who are not tolerated by the "community". Not necessarily because they are spammers, trollers, paid editors, LTAs , disruptive etc, but simply because they are different. :When I "edit" without logging in, I carry no baggage. I also get encouraging prompts such as this: :* This year, Wikipedia has had fewer visitors and fewer new supporters, so '''<big>your visit today means a lot</BIG>''' :Anyway, back to the topic at hand [[Wikipedia/Types of user accounts]]. I believe the section about IP editors is outdated since wikimedia now views users who are not logged-in as anonymous, and only trusted users are allowed to see their IP address (I am not clear on the details). I wonder if anyone participating here has an interest in bringing this page uptodate? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 04:13, 22 September 2026 (UTC) : If there's some obvious things to fix, I'd say go ahead. It looks like there were several useful anonymous contributions to that page recently. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 07:54, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :hmm [[User:Tornaiden|Tornaiden]] ([[User talk:Tornaiden|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tornaiden|contribs]]) 02:02, 27 September 2026 (UTC) :{{support}} Having a reasonable (and very modest) number of edits in addition to 4 days is sensible and not overly burdensome. The benefits outweigh any inconveniences. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 04:18, 7 October 2026 (UTC) ::I agree that the 5 edit minimum described below is sufficient. [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 01:14, 13 October 2026 (UTC) :I'd say that a minimum of five (5) edits would be a good compromise, given the lower user activity/user traffic present here (when compared with Wikipedia). [[User:SamLaxarox|SamLaxarox]] ([[User talk:SamLaxarox|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SamLaxarox|contribs]]) 17:47, 12 October 2026 (UTC) : I agree that a minimum edit count is a prudent addition, but also agree with @[[User:SamLaxarox|SamLazaraox]] that a minimum of 5 is sufficient. It can be frustrating for new, genuine users when they get caught in new user restrictions. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 21:49, 12 October 2026 (UTC) :: I adjusted the proposal to require at least 5 edits for autoconfirmed users, instead of 10. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:18, 13 October 2026 (UTC) : Here is current page about [[Wikiversity:Autoconfirmed users]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 21:50, 12 October 2026 (UTC) == Bartending Course on Wikiversity == I recently finished the course on [[Bartending]], and while I have experience editing on Wikipedia, this is my first Wikiversity project. If any of you have the time or interest, I could use an experienced eye to see if there's anything obviously missing from the course in terms of Wikiversity administration. I'm not sure what's active, if the course should belong in an existing school, or if there's any obvious discoverability tool I haven't implemented. Any tips are welcomed, or just a thumbs up saying it looks fine would be great. [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] recommended I post this here in case someone wanted to include the new course under News on the [[Wikiversity:Main Page|Main Page]]. Thanks! [[User:Sabbier|Sabbier]] ([[User talk:Sabbier|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sabbier|contribs]]) 01:24, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :Wow! Fantastic work- I'm so impressed! Your work gives me inspiration on how to better organize the courses I'm working on. :) [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 21:32, 3 September 2026 (UTC) : Awesome work. I've added this course to the [[Main Page/News|main page news]]. : We could also consider for [[Wikiversity:Featured]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:43, 5 September 2026 (UTC) ::The course [[Creating Wikiversity Courses]] is intended to provide guidance to new Wikiversity editors. I hope it is helpful and I welcome improvement suggestions. Thanks. [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 14:08, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :Just checked it out; Very impressive! [[User:SamLaxarox|SamLaxarox]] ([[User talk:SamLaxarox|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SamLaxarox|contribs]]) 17:48, 12 October 2026 (UTC) == Writing news here == I'm bringing up this discussion again because I think it is beneficial to the project since Wikinews is gone, thank you. [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 03:17, 1 September 2026 (UTC) : Given that the community consensus here was not to replicate WikiNews within Wikiversity, I suggest thinking differently e.g., in terms of specific news-related projects you are interested in that have educational objectives that satisfy Wikiversity's mission. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:46, 5 September 2026 (UTC) ::I wonder if you mean <u>Wikiversity:Main Page/News ?</u> ::If so I have just checked this page and I see it only contains news for 2026 and part of 2025, even though the history indicates it was created in the 2000-decade. If you go back and check all revisions there is a wealth of (historical?) information. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 16:28, 13 September 2026 (UTC) ::: I didn't mean that page, but yes, its history could be reconstructed into a more accessible format. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 21:37, 13 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Wikiversity talk:Interface administrators#My thoughts about this user group]] == As I suggested, I would like to propose allowing permanent interface administrators on English Wikiversity. My temporary interface admin rights are about to expire soon, and I will soon create a new CfIA page (and its header). We should also have a minimum of two interface administrators. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:44, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :I am also in favor of this and we did discuss it pretty recently and came to a consensus on extending IA rights and lowering the administrative overhead, but not allowing indefinite at this juncture. From my perspective, since we discussed this so recently and nothing seems to have changed much, I personally would recommend holding off for a couple of years or until/unless there is some critical new information. Again, I would continue to support indef IA rights were it to come up again and think that at least two is also a sensible proposal. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:32, 6 September 2026 (UTC) ::Responding to myself so that I don't derail: I would be interested/willing to be an indef IA. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:36, 6 September 2026 (UTC) : I made [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Interface Adminship]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:24, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :: CC to @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]. I made a request since my IA rights are about to expire. We should also hold a separate vote to allow permanent IAs here (for this policy). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:55, 7 September 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]], I count at least three in favor (votes below, and Koavf agreeing), so can you close this request? Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:22, 24 September 2026 (UTC) :: Second ping to @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 02:24, 7 October 2026 (UTC) :Temporary rights can be extended for a year. I'd like a little more time to consider permanent rights and justin's sensible suggestion of a minimum of two. Let's not rush into this. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 04:38, 7 October 2026 (UTC) ::Sorry, my mistake, policy is 120 days. Interface allows 1 year or indef. I don't see any reason why a nom couldn't request extending rights for another 120 days while we clarify indef and other wording of policy. I'll look closer tomorrow. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 05:00, 7 October 2026 (UTC) : Personally, I'm not convinced of the need for permanent interface administrators. This isn't necessarily a strong view. But it seems that Wikiversity's interface administration needs can largely currently be met by permitting temporary periods for individual users. : If there are users who make productive use of several temporary periods, then that could strengthen a case for allowing longer periods or permanent use. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 10:15, 12 October 2026 (UTC) :I am also not (yet) convinced of the need for permanent, but could be persuaded. My main concern is that we are simultaneously voting on changing the policy while also voting for a nom to hold the right based on a policy that doesn't yet exist. The current [[WV:IA|policy]] states "For now, Wikiversity does not have a need for permanent or long term interface administrators. Accordingly, interface administratorship '''may only be granted temporarily'''..." This should have been addressed before the community even started a discussion on a permanent nomination. I'd be inclined to change temporary from "between 14 and 120 days" to "between 1 week and 1 year" just to align with the pull down menu options in [[Special:UserRights|UserRights]]. I'm in favor of the suggestion that there be a minimum of two with permanent, should we adopt that. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 19:31, 13 October 2026 (UTC) === Votes === * For the record, I am creating a separate subsection for voting, whether or not we should allow permanent interface administrators. {{support}} accordingly. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:32, 15 September 2026 (UTC) *: To the above, I support for indefinite interface adminship rights. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:47, 7 October 2026 (UTC) * {{support}} [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:51, 18 September 2026 (UTC) *{{support}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 02:22, 7 October 2026 (UTC) * Temporary {{oppose}} until there has been further discussion. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 19:31, 13 October 2026 (UTC) == Paid part-time Administrative Officer position with WikiJournal == [[WikiJournal User Group|WikiJournal]] is an open-access, nonprofit scholarly publisher hosted on Wikiversity. It uses the wiki format to allow authors to write and develop scholarly articles directly online. Submitted articles then undergo formal academic peer review and, when accepted, are published as citable journal articles while remaining freely accessible. WikiJournal is seeking expressions of interest in a new part-time '''Administrative Officer''' position. The officer would support the project's day-to-day organizational work, including: * Setting up and administering a system for tracking contractor hours and issuing payments. * Coordinating the contracting, onboarding, timekeeping and payment of technical editors and other contractors. * Maintaining financial, contractor and administrative records. * Assisting with grant administration, budget tracking and reporting. * Following up on board action items, deadlines and recurring obligations. * Supporting recruitment and other operational tasks as needed. This is a remote, flexibly scheduled contractor role averaging approximately '''6 hours per week'''. Compensation is proposed at '''US$25 per hour''', with up to approximately '''320 hours (US$8,000) available over the year'''. Applicants may be based internationally, although appointment will depend on WikiJournal being able to establish a practical and legally appropriate contracting and payment arrangement in the applicant's country of residence. Relevant experience may include administrative organization, bookkeeping or financial administration, contractor or personnel coordination, nonprofit or grant administration, Wikimedia participation, academic publishing, and open-access work. Applicants are not expected to have experience in every area. For the complete role description and further details, see [[WikiJournal User Group/Administrative officer]]. Those interested should reply in the '''[[Talk:WikiJournal User Group#Call for interest: Administrative Officer|Call for interest: Administrative Officer]]''' discussion by '''30 September 2026''', briefly describing their relevant experience, any connection to WikiJournal or related communities, and their general availability. Expressions of interest received later may still be considered if the position has not been filled. Recommendations of potentially suitable candidates are also welcome. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 20:00, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == Server switch - Your wiki will be read-only for a short time soon == <section begin="server-switch"/><div class="plainlinks"> [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|Read this message in another language]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-Tech%2FServer+switch&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}] The [[foundation:|Wikimedia Foundation]] will switch the traffic between its data centers. This will make sure that Wikipedia and the other Wikimedia wikis can stay online even after a disaster. All traffic will switch on '''{{#time:j xg|2026-09-23|en}}'''. The switch will start at '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/{{#time:U|2026-09-23T14:00|en}} {{#time:H:i e|2026-09-23T14:00}}]'''. 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If you see the error message, then please wait until everything is back to normal. Then you should be able to save your edit. But, we recommend that you make a copy of your changes first, just in case. ''Other effects'': * Background jobs will be slower and some may be dropped. Red links might not be updated as quickly as normal. If you create an article that is already linked somewhere else, the link will stay red longer than usual. Some long-running scripts will have to be stopped. * We expect the code deployments to happen as any other week. However, some case-by-case code freezes could punctually happen if the operation require them afterwards. * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/GitLab|GitLab]] will be unavailable for about 90 minutes. This project may be postponed if necessary. You can [[wikitech:Switch_Datacenter|read the schedule at wikitech.wikimedia.org]]. Any changes will be announced in the schedule. '''Please share this information with your community.'''</div><section end="server-switch"/> [[m:user:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]] 12:58, 15 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Non-Technical_Village_Pumps_distribution_list&oldid=30513874 --> == Your feedback wanted: Remove ''(Language link added:) and similar'' edits from Special:RecentChanges == ''(Apologies for posting in English. You can help by translating it)'' Hello, I’m Danny from [[:en:w:Wikimedia_Deutschland|Wikimedia Deutschland’s]] [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects|Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects]] team.<br/> We have been investigating and examining how Wikidata’s use in the [[Special:RecentChanges]] and [[Special:Watchlist]] pages can be made to be more useful, or less ‘noisy’ (fewer edits that have little value to the reader). We are currently exploring to make a change in the volume and the type of Wikidata edits that appear in these pages, and '''we need your feedback''' to help us ensure this is a positive change for the Wikis and won’t disrupt your workflows.<br/> Language links are also known as sitelinks or interlanguage links and describe when a Wikidata item is connected to a Wiki, adding it to the language dropdown tool for other connected Wikis. [[File:Types of Lang Link changes.png|x350px|frame|A variety of "Language Link" edits as seen in the Recent Changes feed]] The request for feedback is whether you support the removal of these language link edits from the Recent Changes and Watchlist feed, or would you oppose such a change and if so, why? Please share you thoughts on the dedicated '''[[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|metawiki Talk page]]'''. Further information about this change: [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Hide_Language_Link_edits]] Thank you for any participation or feedback you give, -- [[m:User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] 12:23, 25 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_test_list&oldid=31080985 --> == Wikidata Sitelink changes in Recent Changes and Watchlist == ''(Apologies for cross-posting in English, translating it will help spread the message)'' Editors on group 1 wikis, including Wikiquote, Wikibooks, Wikiversity, Wikivoyage, and Wikisource, will no longer see notifications on [[Special:RecentChanges|Recent Changes]] and [[Special:Watchlist|Watchlist]] when a link to ''another'' language version of a page is added, removed, or changed in its Wikidata item. This change will begin on '''October 5 at 07:00 UTC''' as a two-week trial to reduce high-volume, low-value notifications and make higher-value changes easier to identify. Editors who rely on these notifications should be aware of the change and can share feedback or concerns on the [[m:Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects/Clearer Wikidata Edit Summaries/Hide Language Link edits|project]] or [[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|talk page]].<br/>Please reach out if you have any questions, thank you! -- [[User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] ([[User_talk:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|talk]]) sent via [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 12:42, 1 October 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_test_list&oldid=31106967 --> == Demote [[Wikiversity:CheckUser policy]]? == I am proposing that we demote that policy to a standard page, mostly for two reasons: # Considering the few amount of custodians and the size of this wiki, I'd say that this project is considered too small to have any CUs, and relying on the stewards would be a more logical choice. # We haven't elected two CUs in a few years. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:53, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :Reasonable. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:09, 4 October 2026 (UTC) == General Questions and Reference Questions == <p>Hey everyone,</p> <p> My apologies in advance if these questions are oblivious or their responses readily apparent, but I figured I'd ask just to be safe.</p> <p> '''Questions'''</p> <p> 1. Should pages have inline citations and a reference section? A [[Fundamentals of Neuroscience/What is Neuroscience|majority of pages]] I have explored have neither, while [[Neurobiology of emotion|others have a more traditional approach to references]].</br> 2. Are there widely-used templates for weasel-words, references, etc.? </p> '''CONTEXT''': I migrated from Wikipedia, so I'm not entirely sure what the norms/roc are here.</br> Thanks in advance,</br> [[User:SamLaxarox|SamLaxarox]] ([[User talk:SamLaxarox|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SamLaxarox|contribs]]) 18:40, 12 October 2026 (UTC) :You're asking fine questions. I posted {{tl|welcome}} to your talk page which I think will help you. To answer your direct questions: :#This project spun out of [[:b:]] and both here and there, you can post original research. This does not mean that you can post just anything, so if you want to post an educational resource and you want to justify claims you make with inline citations, that's great. If you want to include a bibliography, that's also quite helpful for readers. Generally, the way that Wikiversity works in practice is that individual users make a resource and then tend to work on it solo and have broad latitude about what you can do and how it looks. :#You can take al look at [[:Category:Templates]] and the subcat [[:Category:Maintenance templates]]. At Wikipedia, it's very common to point out issues with tone or uncited claims. That's not really as common here. We [[:d:Q7780480|do not have an equivalent]] of [[:w:en:Template:weasel]], but we do have a [[Template:Citation needed|local version]] of [[:w:en:Template:Citation needed]]. :―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:31, 12 October 2026 (UTC) ::Thanks for the heads up on both accounts; I'm happy to join forces with all y'all! ::[[User:SamLaxarox|SamLaxarox]] ([[User talk:SamLaxarox|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SamLaxarox|contribs]]) 23:39, 12 October 2026 (UTC) ==Agent editors== What about inviting agents to edit this wiki? And they would need a human being responsible for them. [[User:Michael Ten|Michael Ten]] ([[User talk:Michael Ten|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Michael Ten|contribs]]) 06:31, 17 October 2026 (UTC) == October 2026 Wikimedia Café: legal issues on Commons, and WMF Board selection process == <div class="border-box" style="background-color: var(--background-color-warning-subtle, #f8eaba); max-width: 875px; padding: 5px; border: 1px solid black; margin: 5px; color: var(--clr-dark)"> <div class="box" style="float:left; padding-top: 10px; padding-right: 10px; padding-left: 10px; padding-bottom: 10px;">[[File:Wikimedia Café logo in plain SVG format.svg|60px|alt=The logo for the Wikimedia Café]]</div> Hello! There will be two '''[https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 Wikimedia Café]''' discussion opportunities in October. In a change from the usual Café practice, this month's sessions will have different topics. Anyone who meets the Café attendance criteria is welcome to attend either or both sessions. Session A will happen on Saturday, 24 October 2026 at 15:00 UTC ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1792854000 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to the Americas, Africa, and Europe. This session will feature [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:PBradley-WMF Wikimedia Foundation lawyer Phil Bradley-Schmieg]. We will discuss legal issues on Wikimedia Commons, including complexities of international law. (I am hoping that in a future month, a similar Café session will be offered at a time friendly to Asia and the Pacific.) Session B will happen on Sunday, 25 October 2026 at 03:00 UTC ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1792897200 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to Asia and the Pacific, we will discuss [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2027/Proposed_eligibility_criteria proposed changes to how Wikimedia Foundation Board candidates are selected]. The latest proposals are much different from the earlier July 2026 proposals. The due date for feedback on current proposals is 27 October, and Wikimedians are welcome to participate on the [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2027/Proposed_eligibility_criteria proposal talk page] regardless of Café attendance. Please see the [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 Café] page for more information, including [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#How_to_attend_the_session how to register]! To subscribe or unsubscribe for Café notices on your talk page please [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 go here]. <br /> [[File:Buntstifte Eberhard Faber crop 64h.jpg|860px|alt=cropped image of colored pencils]]</div> <span style="white-space:nowrap;">[[User:Pine|<span style="color:#01796f; text-shadow:#00BFFF 0 0 1.0em">༄ᨒ𖠰 Pine</span>]] [[User talk:Pine|<span style="color:DeepSkyBlue">(<b style="color:#FFDF00;text-shadow:#FFDF00 0 0 1.0em">✉</b>)</span>]]</span> 06:22, 18 October 2026 (UTC) == A new cosmological model == I would like to publish independent research that challenges the standard cosmological model. Does this fall within the scope of the "Original research" space? And what precautions should I take to ensure the page is not considered an inadmissible personal work, and is not open to modification by other users? [[User:Wb525|Wb525]] ([[User talk:Wb525|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Wb525|contribs]]) 11:53, 20 October 2026 (UTC) : This sounds like it could be [[Wikiversity:Original research|original research]]. Some things to note: :* Sometimes what an author considers original research turns out to be original theory :* Some qualities that may help to ensure viability: objectivity, use of simple language, careful use of peer-reviewed citations, and minimal use of genAI with careful attribution/acknowledgement if AI is used per [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence]] :* Consider starting with a sub-page in user space e.g., [[User:Wb525/Subpage name]] :* As an open knowledge project, Wikiversity content is openly editable by others : -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 23:05, 20 October 2026 (UTC) 1aa4022b8i1228n8j8pq7f0dlrdcvee 4 1595 2841844 2841599 2026-10-21T09:02:23Z Jtneill 10242 /* Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Motivational interviewing */ reply ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]]) 2841844 wikitext text/x-wiki {{shortcut|WV:I}} [[m:MediaWiki|MediaWiki]], the software that runs Wikiversity and its [[:Template:Sisterprojects|sister projects]], has a [[Special:Import|feature]] that allows importing of pages from other wikis. When a page is imported that way, the edit history is preserved and the [[m:GFDL|license]] observed. Currently, we can import pages from [[w:|Wikipedia]], [[b:|Wikibooks]], [[betawikiversity:|Beta Wikiversity]], [[q:|Wikiquote]] and [[s:Wikisource|Wikisource]]. [[Category:History of Wikiversity]][[Category:Wikiversity administration]][[Category:Wikiversity maintenance]] '''Archived requests for import:''' [[Wikiversity:Import/Archive 1|Archive 1]] = New requests for import = You can list here what pages from the above available projects you would like to have imported to Wikiversity. {{notice|<br/> * Please make requests only for pages you want to work on today, and they will be imported as soon as possible. Importing can take a few minutes for each page and there are only a few custodians working to try to import pages. Please also keep in mind that textbooks are not supposed to be imported from Wikibooks, but instead should be linked to as "source material". * Most of the work related to migrating imported pages does '''not''' require that you be a [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodian]]. If you would like to help, please read [[Wikiversity:Help with the migration of Wikiversity pages from Wikibooks|Help with the migration of Wikiversity pages from Wikibooks]] or message at [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]]. }} '''Completed requests for import are located in the [[Wikiversity:Import/Archive 1|archive]].''' ==Developing A Universal Religion== Please import the main page and its subpages per [[b:Wikibooks:Requests_for_deletion#Developing_A_Universal_Religion]].--[[User:Jusjih|Jusjih]] ([[User talk:Jusjih|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jusjih|contribs]]) 21:33, 19 August 2023 (UTC) : Hello, I checked the RFD at Wikibooks. I can see one user suggesting to move to Wikiversity ([[:b:special:diff/4238829]]), but I'm not sure if others have agreed with that. The original suggestion seems to be "Moving to Wikisource" ([[:b:special:diff/4096694]]), but then the nominator says they are happy to keep in Wikibooks ([[:b:special:diff/4232954]]). Another user said that it should be moved to Commons ([[:b:special:diff/4238871]]). At this moment, I don't think there is a consensus to move it to Wikiversity, so the discussion over there may need to be continued. In other words, if there is consensus then we can handle this request. I hope this can help you. Other custodians or curators may have something else to say, so this thread will be kept open for a while. Thank you for taking your time to visit Wikiversity. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 05:34, 20 August 2023 (UTC) :{{oppose}}. It's unclear to me how this content would be within the project scope of Wikiversity; it is essentially a philosophical tract, not an educational resource. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 00:58, 21 August 2023 (UTC) * {{support}}: Wikiversity says "Wikiversity is a Wikimedia Foundation project devoted to learning resources, learning projects, and research for use in all levels, types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning." And thus, ''research'' is included, and the book presents original philosophical research from which one may learn, e.g. by criticizing it. However, if what I just wrote contradicts some policy I do not know of (does anyone have a link to the most applicable policy?), it should be disregarded. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 19:47, 22 August 2023 (UTC) *:I'm hesitant to accept content as "research" which isn't being actively conducted or developed on the wiki, nor as "learning material" which isn't part of a course and doesn't have specific educational goals associated with it. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 20:26, 22 August 2023 (UTC) *:: Are the above invoked requirements based in policy? What is the most pertinent policy page for content inclusion criteria? My assumption was that Wikiversity allows publishing of original research. However, in [[Wikiversity:Scope]], "The other kind of research is wiki-based original research. It is not yet clear that this will be part of the Wikiversity. If the Wikiversity community decides to support original research, it will have to develop a specific set of policies to support such research activities." On the other hand, [[Wikiversity:Original research]] does seem to allow original research. *:: Instead of ad hoc requirements not based in policy, it seems proper to identify the most fitting policy or guideline. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 06:27, 23 August 2023 (UTC) *:: Assuming now that we can analyze the issues without reference to specific policy items, why should it matter that research is "actively conducted or developed on the wiki"? Since, one can learn from a piece of philosophical research whether it was made on wiki or elsewhere. As for specific learning objectives, I can see the following ones: learn about one particular concept of a universal religion and arguments in its favor, and criticize the concept and the arguments. At a minimum, answer the following questions: what distinguishes a religion from a particular ethical philosophy or system? Does religion need a God or gods? What does a religion have to do to be "universal"? One can state this as one task for the readers if one wants. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 06:55, 23 August 2023 (UTC) == 600-cell == Please import [[Wikipedia:600-cell]]. I understand that will import its complete history with it, which is what I need. I will make the necessary edits to the copy after it is imported, e.g. to resolve links to W:. But is there a tool available to help me with that? It is a long article with a lot of links! Thanks. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 17:39, 6 April 2024 (UTC) :I forgot to explain that [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] did this import for me once before, in 2019 -- see [[Wikiversity:Import/Archive 1#w:600-cell]]. I then worked with the Wikiversity copy for a year or two before merging it back into Wikipedia, after which the Wikiversity:600-cell page was left empty, until it was deleted by custodians. That's all well and good, but now I need to import the current Wikipedia article to Wikiversity once again, for a different reason, to create an expanded "annotated" version of it that isn't going to be merged back into Wikipedia, but is going to stay here at Wikiversity as a learning resource companion to the Wikipedia article. So please import Wikipedia:600-cell again for me, with all its history, so I can start working on that. Thanks. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 03:00, 11 April 2024 (UTC) :: {{done}}, latest revision imported. The page has many revisions and it takes too much time to import all of them. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 06:27, 16 April 2024 (UTC) :I have finished adapting this to Wikiversity (resolving links to W:, inserting banners, etc.). It is ready for use by participants in the [[Polyscheme]] learning project. From now on it will continue to diverge from the [[Wikipedia:600-cell]] article, as we continue to develop them both, with the Wikiversity version being an expanded superset of the encyclopedia article with additional commentary and learning resources. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 16:08, 19 May 2024 (UTC) == Template:Infobox polychoron == Please import [[Wikipedia:Template:Infobox polychoron]]. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 05:34, 18 April 2024 (UTC) :This is actually [[W:Template:Infobox 4-polytope]]. It has a few dependencies. Obviously I would need them too. Or I could do without, and make up an equivalent Infobox of my own to use at Wikiversity, if it's too much trouble to import. That wouldn't be hard. Which do you recommend? [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 05:54, 18 April 2024 (UTC) :: {{done}}, all revisions imported. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 08:01, 18 April 2024 (UTC) == 120-cell == Please import [[Wikipedia:120-cell]]. Wikiversity:[[120-cell]] already exists, but is currently empty. Thanks! [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 16:08, 19 May 2024 (UTC) : {{done}}, latest revision imported. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 02:12, 20 May 2024 (UTC) : I have finished adapting this to Wikiversity (resolving links to W:, inserting banners, etc.). It is ready for use by participants in the [[Polyscheme]] learning project. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 22:25, 24 May 2024 (UTC) == 24-cell == Please import [[Wikipedia:24-cell]]. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 22:19, 24 May 2024 (UTC) : {{done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 23:44, 24 May 2024 (UTC) : I have finished adapting this to Wikiversity (resolving links to W:, inserting banners, etc.). It is ready for use by participants in the [[Polyscheme]] learning project. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 06:24, 31 May 2024 (UTC) == 16-cell == Please import [[Wikipedia:16-cell]]. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 22:19, 24 May 2024 (UTC) : {{done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 23:45, 24 May 2024 (UTC) : I have finished adapting this to Wikiversity (resolving links to W:, inserting banners, etc.). It is ready for use by participants in the [[Polyscheme]] learning project. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 22:25, 29 June 2024 (UTC) == 5-cell == Please import [[Wikipedia:5-cell]]. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 22:19, 24 May 2024 (UTC) : {{done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 23:45, 24 May 2024 (UTC) : I have finished adapting this to Wikiversity (resolving links to W:, inserting banners, etc.). It is ready for use by participants in the [[Polyscheme]] learning project. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 21:30, 29 June 2024 (UTC) == Various geometry table templates == Please import: : Template:Demitesseract family : Template:24-cell_family : Template:Tesseract family : Template:Symmetric_tessellations [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 06:08, 31 May 2024 (UTC) : {{done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 06:26, 31 May 2024 (UTC) == More geometry table templates please == Please also import: : Template:4-simplex Coxeter plane graphs : Template:1 k2 polytopes : Template:2 k1 polytopes : Template:Symmetric2 tessellations [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 21:30, 29 June 2024 (UTC) : Template:4-cube Coxeter plane graphs [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 22:24, 29 June 2024 (UTC) : {{done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 04:40, 30 June 2024 (UTC) == And yet one more geometry table template, if you please == Please also import: : Template:Pentachoron family small : {{done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 00:12, 25 September 2024 (UTC) :Thank you! [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 15:37, 25 September 2024 (UTC) == Kinematics of the cuboctahedron == Please import [[W:Kinematics of the cuboctahedron]]. May I have the entire history of this article imported, if that's not too much to import? Thanks. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 19:22, 11 October 2024 (UTC) :I tried multiple times and it kept on failing. Since you basically wrote it yourself, I recommend copying and pasting a rev that you like locally and then please do make sure that it's not an indefinite copy and that you make it into some kind of learning resource appropriate for this site. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:35, 11 October 2024 (UTC) ::Thank you, I will do that. Wikipedia editors have abridged it, removing some of the most essential content, apparently because they feel it is too much like a research article to be a proper encyclopedia article on this subject. They have a point, since some of the content they removed could be considered my original research. I intend to preserve my original article as a learning resource, as one of the [[Polyscheme]] series of Wikiversity articles. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 14:37, 12 October 2024 (UTC) == Template:Infobox polyhedron == May I have this template dependency imported please. {{unsigned|Dc.samizdat}} :{{Done}} —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:45, 12 October 2024 (UTC) ==Page protection== Please re-import: * [[Template:Protection templates]] from [[:w:Template:Protection templates|WP]] * [[Template:Pp-template]] from [[:w:Template:Pp-template|WP]] (and [[:w:Template:Pp-template/doc|/doc]]) (the source of [[:b:Template:Pp-template|WB's copy]], which WV imported from) Since WV's copies of the pp templates are imports, as well as WV's [[Module:Protection banner]], they have inherited the changes shown there (e.g., {{tlx|pp-meta}} and {{tlx|pp-protected}} are deprecated). I can trim the red links and such. It seems many simplifications emanated from [[:w:Module_talk:Protection_banner/Archive_1#Proposal_to_convert_all_protection_templates_to_use_this_module|this change]]. — [[User:Tule-hog|Tule-hog]] ([[User talk:Tule-hog|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tule-hog|contribs]]) 23:57, 25 October 2024 (UTC) :Not the appropriate place, but tacking on a request to delete {{tlx|pp-meta}} given [[:w:Wikipedia:Templates_for_discussion/Log/2019_August_24#Template:Pp-meta|this RfD]]. [[User:Tule-hog|Tule-hog]] ([[User talk:Tule-hog|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tule-hog|contribs]]) 00:02, 26 October 2024 (UTC) ==Template:Incidence structures== Please import this template. I will fix it up to work at Wikiversity. {{unsigned|Dc.samizdat}} :{{done}} —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 06:07, 26 April 2025 (UTC) ==Template:MathWorld== Please import this template. I will fix it up to work at Wikiversity. {{unsigned|Dc.samizdat}} :{{done}} —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 06:07, 26 April 2025 (UTC) ==Template:Quantum mechanics== Please import this template. The current template has almost no information. I will fix it up to work at Wikiversity. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 11:15, 14 November 2025 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:37, 14 November 2025 (UTC) ::Thank you! [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 22:05, 14 November 2025 (UTC) :::{{ping|koavf}} I am affraid it did not work, could you allow me to import [W:Template:Quantum mechanics] to a different name ? [Template:Quantum Mechanics features] or any name that you approve. Somehowe it looks like WV template is locked and I dont want to touch it. Thanks! [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 22:28, 14 November 2025 (UTC) ::::{{ping|Koavf}} Solved !! Thanks [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 22:39, 14 November 2025 (UTC) : I do not see what Wikiversity-related purpose does [[Template:Quantum mechanics]] serve, and therefore, why it was imported. Wikiversity does not have any need for Wikipedia-style navigation boxes, as far as I can tell. In my view, [[Template:Quantum mechanics]] should be deleted, which is what I would do except that I want to avoid admin conflict. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:21, 15 November 2025 (UTC) ==Template:Periodic table (navbox)== {{ping|koavf}} Please import WP Template:Periodic table (navbox). The [[Template:Periodic table templates]] is a mess and [[School:Chemistry]] does not help either. From the page [[The periodic table]] a template could be created, but the WP version is interactive easier to use. Also there are a great many red tags in [[School:Chemistry]] are there objections if I clean it up? Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 23:21, 16 November 2025 (UTC) :{{done}} Re: removing redlinks, that is ''generally'' a good idea, but I think that in this case, it's legitimate to include them, as this <code>School</code> namespace is made for organizing courses and thoughts generally and it's okay to say that this is a general roadmap for the sorts of things that we could have later. But reasonable persons could disagree here and there's also a legitimate argument for just removing things that no one is working on. I think the best case scenario is moving the redlinks to a section that is a roadmap or to-do list (like the one at the beginning of the page, included via a template). Anyway, for the import, see [[Template:Periodic table (navbox)]]. I am importing some supporting templates as well. I generally hate importing and often decline to do it myself because virtually all templates at the English Wikipedia rely on a variety of <em>other</em> templates and modules to work properly and it becomes this messy, Herculean task just to import something that will not get used or just be deleted four years from now. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 00:58, 17 November 2025 (UTC) ::{{ping|Koavf}} Thanks for the import! Just to clarify, my idea was to improve the redlinks, not deleting them. For some of them it cannot be done since there is no clue, but for the others i could work. Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 09:31, 17 November 2025 (UTC) == Fusi orari (scuola media) == Hello, if it's possible to import pages from other language Wikiversities, please import the contents of [[V:it:Fusi orari (scuola media)|this page]] to [[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025/Time zones|this page]]. I will then translate it for en.wikiversity. Thank you. —[[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025|<span style="font-family:Verdana; color:#008000; text-shadow:gray 0.2em 0.2em 0.4em;">RailwayEnthusiast2025</span>]] ^{[[User talk:RailwayEnthusiast2025|<span style="color:#59a53f">''talk with me!''</span>]]} 17:29, 21 November 2025 (UTC) :Local users can only import from certain wikis and it [[:mw:Manual:Importing XML dumps|requires server access to change which sites are importable]]. If you're worried about attribution, you can give it in an edit summary or on the talk page for sufficient attribution. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 14:47, 22 November 2025 (UTC) == Kinematics of sliding from Wikipedia draft == Please import the page [[w:Draft:Kinematics_of_sliding]] to Wikiversity. The content is intended to be a learning resource for [[:Category:Kinematics]]. I request the target page name be [[Kinematics of sliding]]. My Wikipedia user page is [[w:User:Sead_Spuzic|Sead Spuzic]]. {{unsigned|Sead Spuzic}} :{{done}} —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:58, 9 December 2025 (UTC) == Fraud prevention and IT == Please import [[:betawikiversity:Fraud prevention and IT]]. It belongs here rather than there. [[User:AtUkr|AtUkr]] ([[User talk:AtUkr|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AtUkr|contribs]]) 20:02, 26 January 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} [[Fraud prevention and IT]]. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:43, 26 January 2026 (UTC) == A New Mathematical Constant: The Sigma Spiral == Please import all the pages in [[b:Special:PrefixIndex/A New Mathematical Constant: The Sigma Spiral]] to subpages of [[User:Nazwa Shabrina/Sigma Spiral Constant]] to complete the movement to Wikiversity in accordance with [[b:Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/A New Mathematical Constant: The Sigma Spiral]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 01:24, 31 July 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} {{Ping|Nazwa Shabrina}} and deleted at [[:b:]]. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 01:39, 31 July 2026 (UTC) == Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Motivational interviewing == Please import [[b:Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Motivational interviewing]], accidentally created on enwikibooks instead of enwikiversity, to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Motivational interviewing]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 23:16, 19 October 2026 (UTC) :{{done}}/doing. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:17, 19 October 2026 (UTC) : Thankyou both. I have now deleted that imported 2015 draft because the topic was subsequently relisted and completed here: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Motivational interviewing]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:02, 21 October 2026 (UTC) == See also == * [[Wikiversity:Import/Wikibooks deletion log]] – these Wikibooks pages were deleted in January 2008 * [[Special:Log/import|List of imported pages]] * [[Special:Import]] * [[:mw:Help:Import]] [[Category:History of Wikiversity]] sp5jsqqnthap8n22qq2ocglroyurp22 102 1664 2841728 2841722 2026-10-20T12:11:15Z MathXplore 2888076 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-55680-11|~2026-55680-11]] ([[User_talk:~2026-55680-11|talk]]) to last version by [[User:Tenshi Hinanawi|Tenshi Hinanawi]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]] 2783297 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ {{{{#titleparts:Portal:Humanities|1}}/start tab}} {{box-transclude|Introduction|The Humanities Portal}} <div style="float:left; width:66%; min-width:300px;"> {{Portal:Humanities/box-header|Featured Resource|Portal:Humanities/Featured Resource}} {{#invoke:Portals|lede|{{#invoke:Portals|randomlink|Portal:Humanities/Featured Resource}}}} {{clear}} {{Portal:Humanities/box-footer|}} {{Portal:Humanities/box-header|Featured Picture|Portal:Humanities/Featured Picture}} [[{{#invoke:Portals|randomlink|Portal:Humanities/Featured Picture}}]] {{Portal:Humanities/box-footer|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:33%; min-width:150px;"> {{box-transclude|Categories}} {{box-transclude|Related Categories}} {{box-transclude|Related Portals}} </div> {{clear}} {{Portal:Humanities/box-header|Major Wikiversity Portals|Portal:Humanities}} {{Portals}} {{Portal:Humanities/box-footer|}} {{Portal:Humanities/box-header|Wikimedia|Portal:Humanities}} {{Wikimedia for portals|page={{titleparts|1}}}} {{Portal:Humanities/box-footer|}} {{Reflist}} {{end tab}} [[Category:Humanities| Portal:Humanities]] [[Category:Humanities portals|Humanities]] [[Category:Subject portals|Humanities]] haj9f961c44j0jafyidmgtmckubxgi9 102 1665 2841729 2841726 2026-10-20T12:11:22Z MathXplore 2888076 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-55680-11|~2026-55680-11]] ([[User_talk:~2026-55680-11|talk]]) to last version by [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]] 2809961 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ {{{{#titleparts:{{FULLPAGENAME}}|1}}/start tab}} {{box-transclude|Introduction|The {{BASEPAGENAME}} Portal}} <div style="float:left; width:66%; min-width:300px;"> {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-header|Featured Resource|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Featured Resource}} {{#invoke:Portals|lede|{{#invoke:Portals|randomlink|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Featured Resource}}}} {{clear}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-footer|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-header|Featured Picture|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Featured Picture}} [[{{#invoke:Portals|randomlink|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Featured Picture}}]] {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-footer|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:33%; min-width:150px;"> {{box-transclude|Categories}} {{box-transclude|Related Categories}} {{box-transclude|Related Portals}} </div> {{clear}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-header|Major Wikiversity Portals|{{FULLPAGENAME}}}} {{Portals}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-footer|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-header|Wikimedia|{{FULLPAGENAME}}}} {{Wikimedia for portals|page={{titleparts|1}}}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-footer|}} {{Reflist}} {{end tab}} [[Category:Social sciences |{{FULLPAGENAME}}]] [[Category:Subject portals|{{PAGENAME}}]] f5zc6tb2brgcdj4i72mywmcsnjapj18 1 5617 2841846 1063112 2026-10-21T10:29:49Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 2841846 wikitext text/x-wiki == Current Flows from Negative to Positive == It's a matter of physics, not convenience. The diagram is misleading.[[Special:Contributions/208.114.179.58|208.114.179.58]] ([[User talk:208.114.179.58|discuss]]) 00:24, 21 September 2013 (UTC) == {{smaller|(untitled)}} == Hello. I've been correcting some of the spelling on this entry (hope you dont mind) and the sentence "Though individual parts may or may not be analysed by Ohm's law, their relationship to the circuit can be." doesnt make much sense. Is it just me? Would something like "Though Ohm's law is not applicable to all circuit parts, .." be better? Also, is this english english or american english? Ive used the english english version of analysed. m. == Clarification == I think it would be good to point out that Ohms law as stated in the article is just a special case of Ohm's Law and by no means it the complete Ohmd law. There is a different form, true, but it would help if you would comment on what form (in one form, it also includes the definition of power... in another -the more general case- its use is sometimes hard to figure out). Simply put, I hope that the more general case will appear on this site somewhere, but to use it as an introduction to Ohm's Law would be a little over-the-top. [[User:Mo Anabre|Mo Anabre]] 04:28, 1 November 2006 (UTC) == Topic to be merged == I am currently Revamping EE 102: [[Electric Circuit Analysis]] which has the same name & to an extent content with this course. I will be merging this course soon after i have finished the re-vamp. Help wellcome - [[User:Thuvack|Thuvack]] 10:49, 15 April 2008 (UTC) :I as about to merge [[Ohm's Law: Resistance]] and [[Ohm's Law]] (exactly the text), but I will wait a little bit more. Which title is more correct? There is another page: [['Ohm's Law]], but I am not sure that the first ' is correct. --[[User:Gbaor|Gbaor]] 13:22, 26 May 2008 (UTC) :: I think [['Ohm's Law]] is more correct, the two pages have exactly identical text If i looked at them correctly. A merger is compulsory. [[User:Thuvack|Thuvack]] 15:13, 30 May 2008 (UTC) :::"I think [['Ohm's Law]] is more correct..." You mean the definition or the page name? The thick (') at the beginning of the page title is grammatically correct? The other two pages are nearly identical, there are differences in categories and there is a non functional internal link in [[Ohm's Law: Resistance]] ("...in partnership with Kirchhoff's [[voltage Law|voltage]] and [[Kirchhoff's Current Law|current]] laws.") fixed in the other page. If you will have some time, please do the merge all 3 pages to one with the best title. I am not physician, if you are, then you are more suitable for the job :). --[[User:Gbaor|Gbaor]] 11:49, 31 May 2008 (UTC) ::::I will do the merger as soon as I get time, things have been hectcly busy in real life :-). I think this page could find a good home under this course. [[User:Thuvack|Thuvack]] 06:22, 5 June 2008 (UTC) :::::Yeah, I know what are you talking about :) Especially when lot of work comes in unexpectedly ;) --[[User:Gbaor|Gbaor]] 11:45, 9 June 2008 (UTC) ::::::I have included this page as pre-requisite in [[Electric Circuit Analysis]] home page. I dont feel like putting on some fancy formatting yet. I am sure this page will soon find a descent home some where so I am happy to leave it standing for now. I have also requested for the double to be Deleted. [[User:Thuvack|Thuvack]] 10:59, 11 June 2008 (UTC) :::::::I changed the deletion request to a redirect in order not to break existing internal links. Or is the "[[Ohm's Law: Resistance]]" title incorrect? What about [['Ohm's Law]]? This page could be deleted IMO, but I am not an expert in this field, as I said before... --[[User:Gbaor|Gbaor]] 04:43, 12 June 2008 (UTC) ::::::::You are spot on, I totaly missed that one. it should definetly go. I will tag it for deletion after making sure it has nothing extra. [[User:Thuvack|Thuvack]] 05:28, 12 June 2008 (UTC) ke0yalxh46j0wtvc321dkt34frnfsbh 0 12744 2841735 2186361 2026-10-20T17:39:23Z ~2026-56222-77 3113008 2841735 wikitext text/x-wiki {{nav|Topic:Japanese}} <div class="noprint" style="clear: right; border: solid #aaa 1px; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 90%; background: #F1F8F1; width: 250px; padding: 4px; spacing: 0px; text-align: left; float: right;"> <div style="float: left;"> Find more Japanese materials by searching Wikiversity's sister projects:<br> [[Image:Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg|25px| ]] [[wikt:Special:Search/{{{1|Category:Japanese language}}}|Dictionary definitions]] from Wiktionary<br> [[Image:Wikipedia-logo-en.png|25px| ]] [[w:Special:Search/{{{1|Category:Japanese language}}}|Articles]] from Wikipedia<br> [[Image:Wikiquote-logo.svg|25px| ]] [[q:Special:Search/{{{1|Category:Japanese language}}}|Quotations]] from Wikiquote<br> [[Image:Wikisource-logo.svg|25px| ]] [[s:Special:Search/{{{1|Category:Japanese language}}}|Source texts]] from Wikisource<br> [[Image:Commons-logo.svg|25px| ]] [[commons:Special:Search/{{{1|Category:Japanese language}}}|Images and media]] from Commons<br> [[Image:Wikinews-logo.svg|25px| ]] [[n:Special:Search/{{{1|Category:Japanese language}}}|News stories]] from Wikinews </div></div> ==Wikibooks== *[[b:Japanese]] ==Wiktionary== *[[Topic:Japanese/Materials/Wiktionary|Items found at Wiktionary]] ==Wikipedia== *[[Topic:Japanese/Materials/Wikipedia‎|Items found at Wikipedia]] ==Wikiquote== *[[q:Japanese proverbs|Japanese proverbs]] *[[q:Japanese tongue twisters|Japanese tongue twisters]] ==Commons== *[[commons:Category:Japanese pronunciation|Category:Japanese pronunciation]] -- contains audio of pronunciation of Japanese words *[[commons:Category:CJK stroke order|Category:CJK stroke order]] -- stroke order for characters (possible learning activity)000 *[[commons:Image:Hiragana-strokes-s2.png|Image:Hiragana-strokes-s2.png]] -- stroke of sa hiragana group *[[commons:Image:Japanese Verbs of Giving.png|Image:Japanese Verbs of Giving.png]] -- illustration explaining Japanese verbs of giving and receiving (both from the speaker's point of view and from the listener's point of view) *[[commons:Image:Japanese language extension.PNG|Image:Japanese language extension.PNG]] -- map of speakers of Japanese *[[commons:Image:Japanese vowel chart.png|Image:Japanese vowel chart.png]] -- IPA vowel chart for Japanese *[[commons:Image:Jappis gor.png|Image:Jappis gor.png]] -- picture of Japanese fairy tale written horizontally *[[commons:Image:Jappis ver.png|Image:Jappis ver.png]] -- picture of Japanese fairy tale written vertically *[[commons:Image:Nihongo ichiran 01.png|Image:Nihongo ichiran 01.png]] -- The Japanese table, with Hiragana, Katakana, and Romanization of Japanese. ==External== *[http://web.mit.edu/jpnet/articles/JapaneseLanguage.html The Japanese Language] -- a reprinted Microsoft Encarta article. *[http://books.google.com/books?id=3vNnzqqMxPYC&dq=music+date:2007-2009&num=100&as_brr=1 Rapid Japanese : V. 1: 200+ Essential Words and Phrases Anchored into Your Long Term Memory with ...] *[http://renshuu.org renshuu.org (練習.org)] -- a collection of vocabulary quizzes in kanji/kana ranging from JLPT tests to vocabulary from Japanese textbooks. *[http://guidetojapanese.org Tae Kim's Guide to Japanese] -- a free online textbook with thorough explanations on basic, intermediate, advanced, and slang grammar. *[http://www.romajidesu.com/kanji/ Romajidesu Kanji] -- a free online resources of 12805 Kanji with meaning and stroke order diagrams. *[http://www.livelingua.com/fsi-japanese-course.php FSI Japanese Course] -- a public domain online course with audios made by the U.S. Foreign Service Institute. *[https://languagekeyboard.net/japanese Kana Keyboard] -- a mobile-friendly browser-based keyboard that types in both Hiragana and Katakana. [[Category:Japanese]] ahl0vjcncxd10c1usrjnecilfaklf72 0 98609 2841770 2841686 2026-10-20T23:13:12Z Jtneill 10242 Update for 2026 2841770 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lecture 10: Unconscious motivation|tenth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Why books are always better than movies.jpg|right|250px]] This lecture: * discusses unconscious aspects of motivation, including historical psychoanalytic and contemporary perspectives about the adaptive unconscious, priming, and psychodynamics Take-home message: * Motivation often arises from, and is influenced by, sources beyond conscious awareness [[File:FREUD'S SOFA.jpeg|thumb|250px|Freud's psychoanalytic couch – arguably the birthplace of modern psychology]] [[File:Structural-Iceberg.svg|thumb|250px|Freud's id, ego, and superego structural model of the psyche is often depicted as an iceberg]] ==Outline== * Psychodynamic perspective * The unconscious * Psychodynamics * Ego psychology * Object relations theory ==Psychodynamic perspective== * Study of dynamic unconscious mental processes, evolving from the historical psychoanalytic (Freudian) approach ==The unconscious== * Much of mental life operates unconsciously, influencing our thoughts and actions * The adaptive unconscious allows us to make quick, intuitive decisions and behaviours about familiar situations (e.g., driving a known route) ==Psychodynamics== * Conscious and unconscious processes often clash, creating internal psychological conflicts ==Ego psychology== * This theory focuses on the ego's development from immaturity to mature interdependence ==Object relations theory== * Early relationships form mental representations that guide future social motivations and connections ==Multimedia== [[File:Checker shadow illusion.svg|thumb|250px|[[w:Checker shadow illusion|Checker shadow illusion]]: A and B are the same colour; but the different contexts change our perception]] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HRAKt0GakJM&t=3 Psychological priming] (Bang Goes the Theory, YouTube) (6:14 mins): shows three experiments which indicate that, when primed by handling money, people eat more chocolate, are less likely to help others, and can tolerate more pain. * [https://youtu.be/vcJm-y7UnLY?si=YreRPjZOclPQ_c2d&t=316 How your unconscious mind rules your behaviour] (Leonard Mlodinow, TEDxReset 2013, YouTube) (12:51 mins; finish at 18:07 mins): Examples of unconscious perception and decision making from a cognitive neuroscience perspective. Note: The video has poor camera work and editing. ==Readings== * Chapter 15: Unconscious motivation ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Freud, S. (1917). [Original work published 1905]. ''Wit and its relation to the unconscious''. http://www.bartleby.com/279/ Jung, C. G. (Ed.) (1964). ''[[w:Man and His Symbols|Man and his symbols]]''. Doubleday. Lodder, P., Ong, H. H., Grasman, R. P., & Wicherts, J. M. (2019). A comprehensive meta-analysis of money priming. ''Journal of Experimental Psychology: General'', ''148''(4), 688. http://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000570 [https://pure.uvt.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/29126856/Lodder_et_al._2019_A_Comprehensive_Meta_analysis_of_Money_Priming.pdf] Stajkovic, A. D., Greenwald, J. M., & Stajkovic, K. S. (2022). The money priming debate revisited: A review, meta‐analysis, and extension to organizations. ''Journal of Organizational Behavior'', ''43''(6), 1078–1102. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2619 [https://pure.uvt.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/29126856/Lodder_et_al._2019_A_Comprehensive_Meta_analysis_of_Money_Priming.pdf] }} ==Slides== * [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/16QBIOo1V3pl644ARxu9cPmN7Yjba6Ym-v6rPExVthg4 Unconscious motivation] (Google Slides) <!-- * [http://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/unconscious-motivation Lecture slides] (Slideshare) * Handouts ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 6slidesperpage.pdf|Download 6 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 6slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 3slidesperpage.pdf|Download 3 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 3slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] --> ==See also== * [[/Images/]] ; Lectures * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Individual emotions|Individual emotions]] (Previous lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Growth psychology|Growth psychology]] (Next lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Implicit motives and goals|Implicit motives and goals]] (Related lecture) ; Tutorial * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective|Time perspective]] ;Wikipedia * [[w:Acceptance and commitment therapy|Acceptance and commitment therapy]] * [[w:Checker shadow illusion|Checker shadow illusion]] * [[w:Daniel Kahneman|Daniel Kahneman]] * [[w:Defence mechanism|Defence mechanism]] * [[w:Id, ego and super-ego|Id, ego and super-ego]] * [[w:Mortality salience|Mortality salience]] * [[w:Object relations theory|Object relations theory]] * [[w:Priming (psychology)|Priming]] * [[w:Psychoanalysis|Psychoanalysis]] * [[w:Loevinger's stages of ego development|Stages of ego development]] (Loevinger) * [[w:Stairway to Heaven#Claims of backmasking|Stairway to Heaven - Claims of backmasking]] * [[w:Terror management theory|Terror management theory]] * [[w:Thought suppression|Thought suppression]] ;Wikiversity * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Death anxiety|Death anxiety]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Money priming, motivation, and emotion|Money priming, motivation, and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2022) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Psychodynamic perspective of motivation|Psychodynamic perspective of motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Subliminal priming and motivation|Subliminal priming and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Terror management theory|Terror management theory]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/cb21a78cf43c491992ea0ea3f76e7271 Lecture 10] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1944933fa16f442b996a13bad744a1d4 Lecture 10 recording] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee0efa2d5c694ab5a1f0ee7a76d087b4 Lecture 10 recording] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/727ce65d23504207af92b684b5400be3 Lecture 10 recording] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/45e10c3dce3d45638ee3e7fad628a33c Lecture 10 recording] (2021) * Lecture 10 recording (2020) - TBA * [https://echo360.org.au/media/2915e96a-93b2-4f40-a6cf-87849313caa9/public Lecture 10 recording] (2019) * [https://echo360.org.au/media/45635c5c-4a46-43ac-81a6-c93786c83207/public Lecture 10 recording] (2017) --> ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ap-22FjgoE4 New York City subway stairs] (YouTube; 1:27 mins) * [https://www.anopticalillusion.com/2015/02/presidents-day-optical-illusion/ President's Day optical illusion] (anopticalillusion.com) * [https://www.freud.org.uk/about-us/the-house/sigmund-freuds-famous-psychoanalytic-couch/ Sigmund Freud's famous psychoanalytic couch] (Freud Museum London) * [https://www.theifod.com/what-stairway-to-heaven-teaches-us-about-our-brains/ What “Stairway to Heaven” teaches us about our brains] (theifod.com) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/subliminal/201205/why-touch-can-double-your-chances-getting-date Why a touch can double your chances of getting a date] (Leonard Mlodinow, Psychology Today, 2012) {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Unconscious motivation]] i6j2burqm5d6godcls4f38keivxv1uw 2841771 2841770 2026-10-20T23:15:29Z Jtneill 10242 /* Multimedia */ 2841771 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lecture 10: Unconscious motivation|tenth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Why books are always better than movies.jpg|right|250px]] This lecture: * discusses unconscious aspects of motivation, including historical psychoanalytic and contemporary perspectives about the adaptive unconscious, priming, and psychodynamics Take-home message: * Motivation often arises from, and is influenced by, sources beyond conscious awareness [[File:FREUD'S SOFA.jpeg|thumb|250px|Freud's psychoanalytic couch – arguably the birthplace of modern psychology]] [[File:Structural-Iceberg.svg|thumb|250px|Freud's id, ego, and superego structural model of the psyche is often depicted as an iceberg]] ==Outline== * Psychodynamic perspective * The unconscious * Psychodynamics * Ego psychology * Object relations theory ==Psychodynamic perspective== * Study of dynamic unconscious mental processes, evolving from the historical psychoanalytic (Freudian) approach ==The unconscious== * Much of mental life operates unconsciously, influencing our thoughts and actions * The adaptive unconscious allows us to make quick, intuitive decisions and behaviours about familiar situations (e.g., driving a known route) ==Psychodynamics== * Conscious and unconscious processes often clash, creating internal psychological conflicts ==Ego psychology== * This theory focuses on the ego's development from immaturity to mature interdependence ==Object relations theory== * Early relationships form mental representations that guide future social motivations and connections ==Multimedia== [[File:Checker shadow illusion.svg|thumb|250px|[[w:Checker shadow illusion|Checker shadow illusion]]: A and B are the same colour; but the different contexts change our perception]] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HRAKt0GakJM&t=3 Psychological priming] (Bang Goes the Theory, YouTube) (6:14 mins): shows three experiments which indicate that, when primed by handling money, people eat more chocolate, are less likely to help others, and can tolerate more pain. * [https://youtu.be/vcJm-y7UnLY?si=YreRPjZOclPQ_c2d&t=316 How your unconscious mind rules your behaviour] ([[w:Leonard Mlodinow|Leonard Mlodinow]], TEDxReset 2013, YouTube) (12:51 mins; finish at 18:07 mins): Examples of unconscious perception and decision making from a cognitive neuroscience perspective. Note: The video has poor camera work and editing. ==Readings== * Chapter 15: Unconscious motivation ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Freud, S. (1917). [Original work published 1905]. ''Wit and its relation to the unconscious''. http://www.bartleby.com/279/ Jung, C. G. (Ed.) (1964). ''[[w:Man and His Symbols|Man and his symbols]]''. Doubleday. Lodder, P., Ong, H. H., Grasman, R. P., & Wicherts, J. M. (2019). A comprehensive meta-analysis of money priming. ''Journal of Experimental Psychology: General'', ''148''(4), 688. http://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000570 [https://pure.uvt.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/29126856/Lodder_et_al._2019_A_Comprehensive_Meta_analysis_of_Money_Priming.pdf] Stajkovic, A. D., Greenwald, J. M., & Stajkovic, K. S. (2022). The money priming debate revisited: A review, meta‐analysis, and extension to organizations. ''Journal of Organizational Behavior'', ''43''(6), 1078–1102. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2619 [https://pure.uvt.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/29126856/Lodder_et_al._2019_A_Comprehensive_Meta_analysis_of_Money_Priming.pdf] }} ==Slides== * [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/16QBIOo1V3pl644ARxu9cPmN7Yjba6Ym-v6rPExVthg4 Unconscious motivation] (Google Slides) <!-- * [http://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/unconscious-motivation Lecture slides] (Slideshare) * Handouts ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 6slidesperpage.pdf|Download 6 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 6slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 3slidesperpage.pdf|Download 3 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 3slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] --> ==See also== * [[/Images/]] ; Lectures * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Individual emotions|Individual emotions]] (Previous lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Growth psychology|Growth psychology]] (Next lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Implicit motives and goals|Implicit motives and goals]] (Related lecture) ; Tutorial * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective|Time perspective]] ;Wikipedia * [[w:Acceptance and commitment therapy|Acceptance and commitment therapy]] * [[w:Checker shadow illusion|Checker shadow illusion]] * [[w:Daniel Kahneman|Daniel Kahneman]] * [[w:Defence mechanism|Defence mechanism]] * [[w:Id, ego and super-ego|Id, ego and super-ego]] * [[w:Mortality salience|Mortality salience]] * [[w:Object relations theory|Object relations theory]] * [[w:Priming (psychology)|Priming]] * [[w:Psychoanalysis|Psychoanalysis]] * [[w:Loevinger's stages of ego development|Stages of ego development]] (Loevinger) * [[w:Stairway to Heaven#Claims of backmasking|Stairway to Heaven - Claims of backmasking]] * [[w:Terror management theory|Terror management theory]] * [[w:Thought suppression|Thought suppression]] ;Wikiversity * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Death anxiety|Death anxiety]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Money priming, motivation, and emotion|Money priming, motivation, and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2022) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Psychodynamic perspective of motivation|Psychodynamic perspective of motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Subliminal priming and motivation|Subliminal priming and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Terror management theory|Terror management theory]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/cb21a78cf43c491992ea0ea3f76e7271 Lecture 10] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1944933fa16f442b996a13bad744a1d4 Lecture 10 recording] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee0efa2d5c694ab5a1f0ee7a76d087b4 Lecture 10 recording] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/727ce65d23504207af92b684b5400be3 Lecture 10 recording] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/45e10c3dce3d45638ee3e7fad628a33c Lecture 10 recording] (2021) * Lecture 10 recording (2020) - TBA * [https://echo360.org.au/media/2915e96a-93b2-4f40-a6cf-87849313caa9/public Lecture 10 recording] (2019) * [https://echo360.org.au/media/45635c5c-4a46-43ac-81a6-c93786c83207/public Lecture 10 recording] (2017) --> ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ap-22FjgoE4 New York City subway stairs] (YouTube; 1:27 mins) * [https://www.anopticalillusion.com/2015/02/presidents-day-optical-illusion/ President's Day optical illusion] (anopticalillusion.com) * [https://www.freud.org.uk/about-us/the-house/sigmund-freuds-famous-psychoanalytic-couch/ Sigmund Freud's famous psychoanalytic couch] (Freud Museum London) * [https://www.theifod.com/what-stairway-to-heaven-teaches-us-about-our-brains/ What “Stairway to Heaven” teaches us about our brains] (theifod.com) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/subliminal/201205/why-touch-can-double-your-chances-getting-date Why a touch can double your chances of getting a date] (Leonard Mlodinow, Psychology Today, 2012) {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Unconscious motivation]] 135m1ohkxxx6e89zypn9w05kaa8ggx2 2841772 2841771 2026-10-20T23:18:37Z Jtneill 10242 /* Multimedia */ 2841772 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lecture 10: Unconscious motivation|tenth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Why books are always better than movies.jpg|right|250px]] This lecture: * discusses unconscious aspects of motivation, including historical psychoanalytic and contemporary perspectives about the adaptive unconscious, priming, and psychodynamics Take-home message: * Motivation often arises from, and is influenced by, sources beyond conscious awareness [[File:FREUD'S SOFA.jpeg|thumb|250px|Freud's psychoanalytic couch – arguably the birthplace of modern psychology]] [[File:Structural-Iceberg.svg|thumb|250px|Freud's id, ego, and superego structural model of the psyche is often depicted as an iceberg]] ==Outline== * Psychodynamic perspective * The unconscious * Psychodynamics * Ego psychology * Object relations theory ==Psychodynamic perspective== * Study of dynamic unconscious mental processes, evolving from the historical psychoanalytic (Freudian) approach ==The unconscious== * Much of mental life operates unconsciously, influencing our thoughts and actions * The adaptive unconscious allows us to make quick, intuitive decisions and behaviours about familiar situations (e.g., driving a known route) ==Psychodynamics== * Conscious and unconscious processes often clash, creating internal psychological conflicts ==Ego psychology== * This theory focuses on the ego's development from immaturity to mature interdependence ==Object relations theory== * Early relationships form mental representations that guide future social motivations and connections ==Multimedia== [[File:Checker shadow illusion.svg|thumb|250px|[[w:Checker shadow illusion|Checker shadow illusion]]: A and B are the same colour; but the different contexts change our perception]] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HRAKt0GakJM&t=3 Psychological priming] (Bang Goes the Theory, YouTube) (6:14 mins): shows three experiments which indicate that, when primed by handling money, people eat more chocolate, are less likely to help others, and can tolerate more pain. * [https://youtu.be/vcJm-y7UnLY?si=YreRPjZOclPQ_c2d&t=316 How your unconscious mind rules your behaviour] ([[w:Leonard Mlodinow|Leonard Mlodinow]], TEDxReset 2013, YouTube) (12:51 mins; finish at 18:07 mins): Examples of unconscious perception and decision making from a cognitive neuroscience perspective. Note: The video has poor camera work and editing. ** [[w:Stairway to Heaven#Claims of backmasking|Stairway to Heaven - Backwards]]: :::Oh :::Here's to my sweet Satan :::The one whose little path would make me sad whose power is Satan :::He'll give, he'll give you 666 :::There was a little tool shed where he made us suffer, sad Satan ==Readings== * Chapter 15: Unconscious motivation ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Freud, S. (1917). [Original work published 1905]. ''Wit and its relation to the unconscious''. http://www.bartleby.com/279/ Jung, C. G. (Ed.) (1964). ''[[w:Man and His Symbols|Man and his symbols]]''. Doubleday. Lodder, P., Ong, H. H., Grasman, R. P., & Wicherts, J. M. (2019). A comprehensive meta-analysis of money priming. ''Journal of Experimental Psychology: General'', ''148''(4), 688. http://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000570 [https://pure.uvt.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/29126856/Lodder_et_al._2019_A_Comprehensive_Meta_analysis_of_Money_Priming.pdf] Stajkovic, A. D., Greenwald, J. M., & Stajkovic, K. S. (2022). The money priming debate revisited: A review, meta‐analysis, and extension to organizations. ''Journal of Organizational Behavior'', ''43''(6), 1078–1102. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2619 [https://pure.uvt.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/29126856/Lodder_et_al._2019_A_Comprehensive_Meta_analysis_of_Money_Priming.pdf] }} ==Slides== * [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/16QBIOo1V3pl644ARxu9cPmN7Yjba6Ym-v6rPExVthg4 Unconscious motivation] (Google Slides) <!-- * [http://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/unconscious-motivation Lecture slides] (Slideshare) * Handouts ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 6slidesperpage.pdf|Download 6 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 6slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 3slidesperpage.pdf|Download 3 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 3slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] --> ==See also== * [[/Images/]] ; Lectures * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Individual emotions|Individual emotions]] (Previous lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Growth psychology|Growth psychology]] (Next lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Implicit motives and goals|Implicit motives and goals]] (Related lecture) ; Tutorial * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective|Time perspective]] ;Wikipedia * [[w:Acceptance and commitment therapy|Acceptance and commitment therapy]] * [[w:Checker shadow illusion|Checker shadow illusion]] * [[w:Daniel Kahneman|Daniel Kahneman]] * [[w:Defence mechanism|Defence mechanism]] * [[w:Id, ego and super-ego|Id, ego and super-ego]] * [[w:Mortality salience|Mortality salience]] * [[w:Object relations theory|Object relations theory]] * [[w:Priming (psychology)|Priming]] * [[w:Psychoanalysis|Psychoanalysis]] * [[w:Loevinger's stages of ego development|Stages of ego development]] (Loevinger) * [[w:Stairway to Heaven#Claims of backmasking|Stairway to Heaven - Claims of backmasking]] * [[w:Terror management theory|Terror management theory]] * [[w:Thought suppression|Thought suppression]] ;Wikiversity * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Death anxiety|Death anxiety]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Money priming, motivation, and emotion|Money priming, motivation, and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2022) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Psychodynamic perspective of motivation|Psychodynamic perspective of motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Subliminal priming and motivation|Subliminal priming and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Terror management theory|Terror management theory]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/cb21a78cf43c491992ea0ea3f76e7271 Lecture 10] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1944933fa16f442b996a13bad744a1d4 Lecture 10 recording] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee0efa2d5c694ab5a1f0ee7a76d087b4 Lecture 10 recording] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/727ce65d23504207af92b684b5400be3 Lecture 10 recording] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/45e10c3dce3d45638ee3e7fad628a33c Lecture 10 recording] (2021) * Lecture 10 recording (2020) - TBA * [https://echo360.org.au/media/2915e96a-93b2-4f40-a6cf-87849313caa9/public Lecture 10 recording] (2019) * [https://echo360.org.au/media/45635c5c-4a46-43ac-81a6-c93786c83207/public Lecture 10 recording] (2017) --> ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ap-22FjgoE4 New York City subway stairs] (YouTube; 1:27 mins) * [https://www.anopticalillusion.com/2015/02/presidents-day-optical-illusion/ President's Day optical illusion] (anopticalillusion.com) * [https://www.freud.org.uk/about-us/the-house/sigmund-freuds-famous-psychoanalytic-couch/ Sigmund Freud's famous psychoanalytic couch] (Freud Museum London) * [https://www.theifod.com/what-stairway-to-heaven-teaches-us-about-our-brains/ What “Stairway to Heaven” teaches us about our brains] (theifod.com) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/subliminal/201205/why-touch-can-double-your-chances-getting-date Why a touch can double your chances of getting a date] (Leonard Mlodinow, Psychology Today, 2012) {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Unconscious motivation]] 60cxvgo33cge566kcwjylbgknhufcv0 2841779 2841772 2026-10-21T00:24:45Z Jtneill 10242 /* See also */ * [[w:Thatcher effect|Thatcher effect]] 2841779 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lecture 10: Unconscious motivation|tenth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Why books are always better than movies.jpg|right|250px]] This lecture: * discusses unconscious aspects of motivation, including historical psychoanalytic and contemporary perspectives about the adaptive unconscious, priming, and psychodynamics Take-home message: * Motivation often arises from, and is influenced by, sources beyond conscious awareness [[File:FREUD'S SOFA.jpeg|thumb|250px|Freud's psychoanalytic couch – arguably the birthplace of modern psychology]] [[File:Structural-Iceberg.svg|thumb|250px|Freud's id, ego, and superego structural model of the psyche is often depicted as an iceberg]] ==Outline== * Psychodynamic perspective * The unconscious * Psychodynamics * Ego psychology * Object relations theory ==Psychodynamic perspective== * Study of dynamic unconscious mental processes, evolving from the historical psychoanalytic (Freudian) approach ==The unconscious== * Much of mental life operates unconsciously, influencing our thoughts and actions * The adaptive unconscious allows us to make quick, intuitive decisions and behaviours about familiar situations (e.g., driving a known route) ==Psychodynamics== * Conscious and unconscious processes often clash, creating internal psychological conflicts ==Ego psychology== * This theory focuses on the ego's development from immaturity to mature interdependence ==Object relations theory== * Early relationships form mental representations that guide future social motivations and connections ==Multimedia== [[File:Checker shadow illusion.svg|thumb|250px|[[w:Checker shadow illusion|Checker shadow illusion]]: A and B are the same colour; but the different contexts change our perception]] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HRAKt0GakJM&t=3 Psychological priming] (Bang Goes the Theory, YouTube) (6:14 mins): shows three experiments which indicate that, when primed by handling money, people eat more chocolate, are less likely to help others, and can tolerate more pain. * [https://youtu.be/vcJm-y7UnLY?si=YreRPjZOclPQ_c2d&t=316 How your unconscious mind rules your behaviour] ([[w:Leonard Mlodinow|Leonard Mlodinow]], TEDxReset 2013, YouTube) (12:51 mins; finish at 18:07 mins): Examples of unconscious perception and decision making from a cognitive neuroscience perspective. Note: The video has poor camera work and editing. ** [[w:Stairway to Heaven#Claims of backmasking|Stairway to Heaven - Backwards]]: :::Oh :::Here's to my sweet Satan :::The one whose little path would make me sad whose power is Satan :::He'll give, he'll give you 666 :::There was a little tool shed where he made us suffer, sad Satan ==Readings== * Chapter 15: Unconscious motivation ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Freud, S. (1917). [Original work published 1905]. ''Wit and its relation to the unconscious''. http://www.bartleby.com/279/ Jung, C. G. (Ed.) (1964). ''[[w:Man and His Symbols|Man and his symbols]]''. Doubleday. Lodder, P., Ong, H. H., Grasman, R. P., & Wicherts, J. M. (2019). A comprehensive meta-analysis of money priming. ''Journal of Experimental Psychology: General'', ''148''(4), 688. http://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000570 [https://pure.uvt.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/29126856/Lodder_et_al._2019_A_Comprehensive_Meta_analysis_of_Money_Priming.pdf] Stajkovic, A. D., Greenwald, J. M., & Stajkovic, K. S. (2022). The money priming debate revisited: A review, meta‐analysis, and extension to organizations. ''Journal of Organizational Behavior'', ''43''(6), 1078–1102. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2619 [https://pure.uvt.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/29126856/Lodder_et_al._2019_A_Comprehensive_Meta_analysis_of_Money_Priming.pdf] }} ==Slides== * [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/16QBIOo1V3pl644ARxu9cPmN7Yjba6Ym-v6rPExVthg4 Unconscious motivation] (Google Slides) <!-- * [http://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/unconscious-motivation Lecture slides] (Slideshare) * Handouts ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 6slidesperpage.pdf|Download 6 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 6slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 3slidesperpage.pdf|Download 3 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 3slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] --> ==See also== * [[/Images/]] ; Lectures * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Individual emotions|Individual emotions]] (Previous lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Growth psychology|Growth psychology]] (Next lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Implicit motives and goals|Implicit motives and goals]] (Related lecture) ; Tutorial * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective|Time perspective]] ;Wikipedia * [[w:Acceptance and commitment therapy|Acceptance and commitment therapy]] * [[w:Checker shadow illusion|Checker shadow illusion]] * [[w:Daniel Kahneman|Daniel Kahneman]] * [[w:Defence mechanism|Defence mechanism]] * [[w:Id, ego and super-ego|Id, ego and super-ego]] * [[w:Mortality salience|Mortality salience]] * [[w:Object relations theory|Object relations theory]] * [[w:Priming (psychology)|Priming]] * [[w:Psychoanalysis|Psychoanalysis]] * [[w:Loevinger's stages of ego development|Stages of ego development]] (Loevinger) * [[w:Stairway to Heaven#Claims of backmasking|Stairway to Heaven - Claims of backmasking]] * [[w:Terror management theory|Terror management theory]] * [[w:Thatcher effect|Thatcher effect]] * [[w:Thought suppression|Thought suppression]] ;Wikiversity * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Death anxiety|Death anxiety]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Money priming, motivation, and emotion|Money priming, motivation, and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2022) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Psychodynamic perspective of motivation|Psychodynamic perspective of motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Subliminal priming and motivation|Subliminal priming and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Terror management theory|Terror management theory]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/cb21a78cf43c491992ea0ea3f76e7271 Lecture 10] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1944933fa16f442b996a13bad744a1d4 Lecture 10 recording] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee0efa2d5c694ab5a1f0ee7a76d087b4 Lecture 10 recording] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/727ce65d23504207af92b684b5400be3 Lecture 10 recording] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/45e10c3dce3d45638ee3e7fad628a33c Lecture 10 recording] (2021) * Lecture 10 recording (2020) - TBA * [https://echo360.org.au/media/2915e96a-93b2-4f40-a6cf-87849313caa9/public Lecture 10 recording] (2019) * [https://echo360.org.au/media/45635c5c-4a46-43ac-81a6-c93786c83207/public Lecture 10 recording] (2017) --> ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ap-22FjgoE4 New York City subway stairs] (YouTube; 1:27 mins) * [https://www.anopticalillusion.com/2015/02/presidents-day-optical-illusion/ President's Day optical illusion] (anopticalillusion.com) * [https://www.freud.org.uk/about-us/the-house/sigmund-freuds-famous-psychoanalytic-couch/ Sigmund Freud's famous psychoanalytic couch] (Freud Museum London) * [https://www.theifod.com/what-stairway-to-heaven-teaches-us-about-our-brains/ What “Stairway to Heaven” teaches us about our brains] (theifod.com) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/subliminal/201205/why-touch-can-double-your-chances-getting-date Why a touch can double your chances of getting a date] (Leonard Mlodinow, Psychology Today, 2012) {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Unconscious motivation]] qwu6z8j415z9dpemriexga5cx6e3l62 2841780 2841779 2026-10-21T00:28:00Z Jtneill 10242 /* External links */ * [https://www.boredpanda.com/tiktok-thatcher-effect-upside-down-face/ A psychologist shared photos from a phenomenon called the Thatcher Effect, and people are confused (boredpanda.com) 2841780 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lecture 10: Unconscious motivation|tenth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Why books are always better than movies.jpg|right|250px]] This lecture: * discusses unconscious aspects of motivation, including historical psychoanalytic and contemporary perspectives about the adaptive unconscious, priming, and psychodynamics Take-home message: * Motivation often arises from, and is influenced by, sources beyond conscious awareness [[File:FREUD'S SOFA.jpeg|thumb|250px|Freud's psychoanalytic couch – arguably the birthplace of modern psychology]] [[File:Structural-Iceberg.svg|thumb|250px|Freud's id, ego, and superego structural model of the psyche is often depicted as an iceberg]] ==Outline== * Psychodynamic perspective * The unconscious * Psychodynamics * Ego psychology * Object relations theory ==Psychodynamic perspective== * Study of dynamic unconscious mental processes, evolving from the historical psychoanalytic (Freudian) approach ==The unconscious== * Much of mental life operates unconsciously, influencing our thoughts and actions * The adaptive unconscious allows us to make quick, intuitive decisions and behaviours about familiar situations (e.g., driving a known route) ==Psychodynamics== * Conscious and unconscious processes often clash, creating internal psychological conflicts ==Ego psychology== * This theory focuses on the ego's development from immaturity to mature interdependence ==Object relations theory== * Early relationships form mental representations that guide future social motivations and connections ==Multimedia== [[File:Checker shadow illusion.svg|thumb|250px|[[w:Checker shadow illusion|Checker shadow illusion]]: A and B are the same colour; but the different contexts change our perception]] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HRAKt0GakJM&t=3 Psychological priming] (Bang Goes the Theory, YouTube) (6:14 mins): shows three experiments which indicate that, when primed by handling money, people eat more chocolate, are less likely to help others, and can tolerate more pain. * [https://youtu.be/vcJm-y7UnLY?si=YreRPjZOclPQ_c2d&t=316 How your unconscious mind rules your behaviour] ([[w:Leonard Mlodinow|Leonard Mlodinow]], TEDxReset 2013, YouTube) (12:51 mins; finish at 18:07 mins): Examples of unconscious perception and decision making from a cognitive neuroscience perspective. Note: The video has poor camera work and editing. ** [[w:Stairway to Heaven#Claims of backmasking|Stairway to Heaven - Backwards]]: :::Oh :::Here's to my sweet Satan :::The one whose little path would make me sad whose power is Satan :::He'll give, he'll give you 666 :::There was a little tool shed where he made us suffer, sad Satan ==Readings== * Chapter 15: Unconscious motivation ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Freud, S. (1917). [Original work published 1905]. ''Wit and its relation to the unconscious''. http://www.bartleby.com/279/ Jung, C. G. (Ed.) (1964). ''[[w:Man and His Symbols|Man and his symbols]]''. Doubleday. Lodder, P., Ong, H. H., Grasman, R. P., & Wicherts, J. M. (2019). A comprehensive meta-analysis of money priming. ''Journal of Experimental Psychology: General'', ''148''(4), 688. http://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000570 [https://pure.uvt.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/29126856/Lodder_et_al._2019_A_Comprehensive_Meta_analysis_of_Money_Priming.pdf] Stajkovic, A. D., Greenwald, J. M., & Stajkovic, K. S. (2022). The money priming debate revisited: A review, meta‐analysis, and extension to organizations. ''Journal of Organizational Behavior'', ''43''(6), 1078–1102. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2619 [https://pure.uvt.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/29126856/Lodder_et_al._2019_A_Comprehensive_Meta_analysis_of_Money_Priming.pdf] }} ==Slides== * [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/16QBIOo1V3pl644ARxu9cPmN7Yjba6Ym-v6rPExVthg4 Unconscious motivation] (Google Slides) <!-- * [http://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/unconscious-motivation Lecture slides] (Slideshare) * Handouts ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 6slidesperpage.pdf|Download 6 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 6slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 3slidesperpage.pdf|Download 3 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 3slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] --> ==See also== * [[/Images/]] ; Lectures * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Individual emotions|Individual emotions]] (Previous lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Growth psychology|Growth psychology]] (Next lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Implicit motives and goals|Implicit motives and goals]] (Related lecture) ; Tutorial * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective|Time perspective]] ;Wikipedia * [[w:Acceptance and commitment therapy|Acceptance and commitment therapy]] * [[w:Checker shadow illusion|Checker shadow illusion]] * [[w:Daniel Kahneman|Daniel Kahneman]] * [[w:Defence mechanism|Defence mechanism]] * [[w:Id, ego and super-ego|Id, ego and super-ego]] * [[w:Mortality salience|Mortality salience]] * [[w:Object relations theory|Object relations theory]] * [[w:Priming (psychology)|Priming]] * [[w:Psychoanalysis|Psychoanalysis]] * [[w:Loevinger's stages of ego development|Stages of ego development]] (Loevinger) * [[w:Stairway to Heaven#Claims of backmasking|Stairway to Heaven - Claims of backmasking]] * [[w:Terror management theory|Terror management theory]] * [[w:Thatcher effect|Thatcher effect]] * [[w:Thought suppression|Thought suppression]] ;Wikiversity * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Death anxiety|Death anxiety]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Money priming, motivation, and emotion|Money priming, motivation, and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2022) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Psychodynamic perspective of motivation|Psychodynamic perspective of motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Subliminal priming and motivation|Subliminal priming and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Terror management theory|Terror management theory]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/cb21a78cf43c491992ea0ea3f76e7271 Lecture 10] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1944933fa16f442b996a13bad744a1d4 Lecture 10 recording] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee0efa2d5c694ab5a1f0ee7a76d087b4 Lecture 10 recording] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/727ce65d23504207af92b684b5400be3 Lecture 10 recording] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/45e10c3dce3d45638ee3e7fad628a33c Lecture 10 recording] (2021) * Lecture 10 recording (2020) - TBA * [https://echo360.org.au/media/2915e96a-93b2-4f40-a6cf-87849313caa9/public Lecture 10 recording] (2019) * [https://echo360.org.au/media/45635c5c-4a46-43ac-81a6-c93786c83207/public Lecture 10 recording] (2017) --> ==External links== * [https://www.boredpanda.com/tiktok-thatcher-effect-upside-down-face/ A psychologist shared photos from a phenomenon called the Thatcher Effect, and people are confused (boredpanda.com) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ap-22FjgoE4 New York City subway stairs] (YouTube; 1:27 mins) * [https://www.anopticalillusion.com/2015/02/presidents-day-optical-illusion/ President's Day optical illusion] (anopticalillusion.com) * [https://www.freud.org.uk/about-us/the-house/sigmund-freuds-famous-psychoanalytic-couch/ Sigmund Freud's famous psychoanalytic couch] (Freud Museum London) * [https://www.theifod.com/what-stairway-to-heaven-teaches-us-about-our-brains/ What “Stairway to Heaven” teaches us about our brains] (theifod.com) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/subliminal/201205/why-touch-can-double-your-chances-getting-date Why a touch can double your chances of getting a date] (Leonard Mlodinow, Psychology Today, 2012) {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Unconscious motivation]] g7ttn3c4y69ncjxv7ukinwzonee5ohc 2841781 2841780 2026-10-21T00:28:28Z Jtneill 10242 /* External links */ 2841781 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lecture 10: Unconscious motivation|tenth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Why books are always better than movies.jpg|right|250px]] This lecture: * discusses unconscious aspects of motivation, including historical psychoanalytic and contemporary perspectives about the adaptive unconscious, priming, and psychodynamics Take-home message: * Motivation often arises from, and is influenced by, sources beyond conscious awareness [[File:FREUD'S SOFA.jpeg|thumb|250px|Freud's psychoanalytic couch – arguably the birthplace of modern psychology]] [[File:Structural-Iceberg.svg|thumb|250px|Freud's id, ego, and superego structural model of the psyche is often depicted as an iceberg]] ==Outline== * Psychodynamic perspective * The unconscious * Psychodynamics * Ego psychology * Object relations theory ==Psychodynamic perspective== * Study of dynamic unconscious mental processes, evolving from the historical psychoanalytic (Freudian) approach ==The unconscious== * Much of mental life operates unconsciously, influencing our thoughts and actions * The adaptive unconscious allows us to make quick, intuitive decisions and behaviours about familiar situations (e.g., driving a known route) ==Psychodynamics== * Conscious and unconscious processes often clash, creating internal psychological conflicts ==Ego psychology== * This theory focuses on the ego's development from immaturity to mature interdependence ==Object relations theory== * Early relationships form mental representations that guide future social motivations and connections ==Multimedia== [[File:Checker shadow illusion.svg|thumb|250px|[[w:Checker shadow illusion|Checker shadow illusion]]: A and B are the same colour; but the different contexts change our perception]] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HRAKt0GakJM&t=3 Psychological priming] (Bang Goes the Theory, YouTube) (6:14 mins): shows three experiments which indicate that, when primed by handling money, people eat more chocolate, are less likely to help others, and can tolerate more pain. * [https://youtu.be/vcJm-y7UnLY?si=YreRPjZOclPQ_c2d&t=316 How your unconscious mind rules your behaviour] ([[w:Leonard Mlodinow|Leonard Mlodinow]], TEDxReset 2013, YouTube) (12:51 mins; finish at 18:07 mins): Examples of unconscious perception and decision making from a cognitive neuroscience perspective. Note: The video has poor camera work and editing. ** [[w:Stairway to Heaven#Claims of backmasking|Stairway to Heaven - Backwards]]: :::Oh :::Here's to my sweet Satan :::The one whose little path would make me sad whose power is Satan :::He'll give, he'll give you 666 :::There was a little tool shed where he made us suffer, sad Satan ==Readings== * Chapter 15: Unconscious motivation ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Freud, S. (1917). [Original work published 1905]. ''Wit and its relation to the unconscious''. http://www.bartleby.com/279/ Jung, C. G. (Ed.) (1964). ''[[w:Man and His Symbols|Man and his symbols]]''. Doubleday. Lodder, P., Ong, H. H., Grasman, R. P., & Wicherts, J. M. (2019). A comprehensive meta-analysis of money priming. ''Journal of Experimental Psychology: General'', ''148''(4), 688. http://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000570 [https://pure.uvt.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/29126856/Lodder_et_al._2019_A_Comprehensive_Meta_analysis_of_Money_Priming.pdf] Stajkovic, A. D., Greenwald, J. M., & Stajkovic, K. S. (2022). The money priming debate revisited: A review, meta‐analysis, and extension to organizations. ''Journal of Organizational Behavior'', ''43''(6), 1078–1102. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2619 [https://pure.uvt.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/29126856/Lodder_et_al._2019_A_Comprehensive_Meta_analysis_of_Money_Priming.pdf] }} ==Slides== * [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/16QBIOo1V3pl644ARxu9cPmN7Yjba6Ym-v6rPExVthg4 Unconscious motivation] (Google Slides) <!-- * [http://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/unconscious-motivation Lecture slides] (Slideshare) * Handouts ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 6slidesperpage.pdf|Download 6 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 6slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 3slidesperpage.pdf|Download 3 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 3slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] --> ==See also== * [[/Images/]] ; Lectures * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Individual emotions|Individual emotions]] (Previous lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Growth psychology|Growth psychology]] (Next lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Implicit motives and goals|Implicit motives and goals]] (Related lecture) ; Tutorial * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective|Time perspective]] ;Wikipedia * [[w:Acceptance and commitment therapy|Acceptance and commitment therapy]] * [[w:Checker shadow illusion|Checker shadow illusion]] * [[w:Daniel Kahneman|Daniel Kahneman]] * [[w:Defence mechanism|Defence mechanism]] * [[w:Id, ego and super-ego|Id, ego and super-ego]] * [[w:Mortality salience|Mortality salience]] * [[w:Object relations theory|Object relations theory]] * [[w:Priming (psychology)|Priming]] * [[w:Psychoanalysis|Psychoanalysis]] * [[w:Loevinger's stages of ego development|Stages of ego development]] (Loevinger) * [[w:Stairway to Heaven#Claims of backmasking|Stairway to Heaven - Claims of backmasking]] * [[w:Terror management theory|Terror management theory]] * [[w:Thatcher effect|Thatcher effect]] * [[w:Thought suppression|Thought suppression]] ;Wikiversity * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Death anxiety|Death anxiety]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Money priming, motivation, and emotion|Money priming, motivation, and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2022) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Psychodynamic perspective of motivation|Psychodynamic perspective of motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Subliminal priming and motivation|Subliminal priming and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Terror management theory|Terror management theory]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/cb21a78cf43c491992ea0ea3f76e7271 Lecture 10] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1944933fa16f442b996a13bad744a1d4 Lecture 10 recording] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee0efa2d5c694ab5a1f0ee7a76d087b4 Lecture 10 recording] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/727ce65d23504207af92b684b5400be3 Lecture 10 recording] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/45e10c3dce3d45638ee3e7fad628a33c Lecture 10 recording] (2021) * Lecture 10 recording (2020) - TBA * [https://echo360.org.au/media/2915e96a-93b2-4f40-a6cf-87849313caa9/public Lecture 10 recording] (2019) * [https://echo360.org.au/media/45635c5c-4a46-43ac-81a6-c93786c83207/public Lecture 10 recording] (2017) --> ==External links== * [https://www.boredpanda.com/tiktok-thatcher-effect-upside-down-face/ A psychologist shared photos from a phenomenon called the Thatcher Effect, and people are confused] (boredpanda.com) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ap-22FjgoE4 New York City subway stairs] (YouTube; 1:27 mins) * [https://www.anopticalillusion.com/2015/02/presidents-day-optical-illusion/ President's Day optical illusion] (anopticalillusion.com) * [https://www.freud.org.uk/about-us/the-house/sigmund-freuds-famous-psychoanalytic-couch/ Sigmund Freud's famous psychoanalytic couch] (Freud Museum London) * [https://www.theifod.com/what-stairway-to-heaven-teaches-us-about-our-brains/ What “Stairway to Heaven” teaches us about our brains] (theifod.com) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/subliminal/201205/why-touch-can-double-your-chances-getting-date Why a touch can double your chances of getting a date] (Leonard Mlodinow, Psychology Today, 2012) {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Unconscious motivation]] ghdfnyc4qss97sl2ak1l561rhozt6a8 2841784 2841781 2026-10-21T01:17:31Z Jtneill 10242 /* References */ Niczyporuk, A. (2026). The effectiveness and adaptiveness of suppressing unwanted thoughts. ''Psychonomic Bulletin & Review'', ''33,'' Article 5. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-025-02763-w 2841784 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lecture 10: Unconscious motivation|tenth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Why books are always better than movies.jpg|right|250px]] This lecture: * discusses unconscious aspects of motivation, including historical psychoanalytic and contemporary perspectives about the adaptive unconscious, priming, and psychodynamics Take-home message: * Motivation often arises from, and is influenced by, sources beyond conscious awareness [[File:FREUD'S SOFA.jpeg|thumb|250px|Freud's psychoanalytic couch – arguably the birthplace of modern psychology]] [[File:Structural-Iceberg.svg|thumb|250px|Freud's id, ego, and superego structural model of the psyche is often depicted as an iceberg]] ==Outline== * Psychodynamic perspective * The unconscious * Psychodynamics * Ego psychology * Object relations theory ==Psychodynamic perspective== * Study of dynamic unconscious mental processes, evolving from the historical psychoanalytic (Freudian) approach ==The unconscious== * Much of mental life operates unconsciously, influencing our thoughts and actions * The adaptive unconscious allows us to make quick, intuitive decisions and behaviours about familiar situations (e.g., driving a known route) ==Psychodynamics== * Conscious and unconscious processes often clash, creating internal psychological conflicts ==Ego psychology== * This theory focuses on the ego's development from immaturity to mature interdependence ==Object relations theory== * Early relationships form mental representations that guide future social motivations and connections ==Multimedia== [[File:Checker shadow illusion.svg|thumb|250px|[[w:Checker shadow illusion|Checker shadow illusion]]: A and B are the same colour; but the different contexts change our perception]] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HRAKt0GakJM&t=3 Psychological priming] (Bang Goes the Theory, YouTube) (6:14 mins): shows three experiments which indicate that, when primed by handling money, people eat more chocolate, are less likely to help others, and can tolerate more pain. * [https://youtu.be/vcJm-y7UnLY?si=YreRPjZOclPQ_c2d&t=316 How your unconscious mind rules your behaviour] ([[w:Leonard Mlodinow|Leonard Mlodinow]], TEDxReset 2013, YouTube) (12:51 mins; finish at 18:07 mins): Examples of unconscious perception and decision making from a cognitive neuroscience perspective. Note: The video has poor camera work and editing. ** [[w:Stairway to Heaven#Claims of backmasking|Stairway to Heaven - Backwards]]: :::Oh :::Here's to my sweet Satan :::The one whose little path would make me sad whose power is Satan :::He'll give, he'll give you 666 :::There was a little tool shed where he made us suffer, sad Satan ==Readings== * Chapter 15: Unconscious motivation ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Freud, S. (1917). [Original work published 1905]. ''Wit and its relation to the unconscious''. http://www.bartleby.com/279/ Jung, C. G. (Ed.) (1964). ''[[w:Man and His Symbols|Man and his symbols]]''. Doubleday. Lodder, P., Ong, H. H., Grasman, R. P., & Wicherts, J. M. (2019). A comprehensive meta-analysis of money priming. ''Journal of Experimental Psychology: General'', ''148''(4), 688. http://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000570 [https://pure.uvt.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/29126856/Lodder_et_al._2019_A_Comprehensive_Meta_analysis_of_Money_Priming.pdf] Niczyporuk, A. (2026). The effectiveness and adaptiveness of suppressing unwanted thoughts. ''Psychonomic Bulletin & Review'', ''33,'' Article 5. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-025-02763-w Stajkovic, A. D., Greenwald, J. M., & Stajkovic, K. S. (2022). The money priming debate revisited: A review, meta‐analysis, and extension to organizations. ''Journal of Organizational Behavior'', ''43''(6), 1078–1102. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2619 [https://pure.uvt.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/29126856/Lodder_et_al._2019_A_Comprehensive_Meta_analysis_of_Money_Priming.pdf] }} ==Slides== * [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/16QBIOo1V3pl644ARxu9cPmN7Yjba6Ym-v6rPExVthg4 Unconscious motivation] (Google Slides) <!-- * [http://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/unconscious-motivation Lecture slides] (Slideshare) * Handouts ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 6slidesperpage.pdf|Download 6 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 6slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 3slidesperpage.pdf|Download 3 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 3slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] --> ==See also== * [[/Images/]] ; Lectures * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Individual emotions|Individual emotions]] (Previous lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Growth psychology|Growth psychology]] (Next lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Implicit motives and goals|Implicit motives and goals]] (Related lecture) ; Tutorial * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective|Time perspective]] ;Wikipedia * [[w:Acceptance and commitment therapy|Acceptance and commitment therapy]] * [[w:Checker shadow illusion|Checker shadow illusion]] * [[w:Daniel Kahneman|Daniel Kahneman]] * [[w:Defence mechanism|Defence mechanism]] * [[w:Id, ego and super-ego|Id, ego and super-ego]] * [[w:Mortality salience|Mortality salience]] * [[w:Object relations theory|Object relations theory]] * [[w:Priming (psychology)|Priming]] * [[w:Psychoanalysis|Psychoanalysis]] * [[w:Loevinger's stages of ego development|Stages of ego development]] (Loevinger) * [[w:Stairway to Heaven#Claims of backmasking|Stairway to Heaven - Claims of backmasking]] * [[w:Terror management theory|Terror management theory]] * [[w:Thatcher effect|Thatcher effect]] * [[w:Thought suppression|Thought suppression]] ;Wikiversity * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Death anxiety|Death anxiety]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Money priming, motivation, and emotion|Money priming, motivation, and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2022) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Psychodynamic perspective of motivation|Psychodynamic perspective of motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Subliminal priming and motivation|Subliminal priming and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Terror management theory|Terror management theory]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/cb21a78cf43c491992ea0ea3f76e7271 Lecture 10] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1944933fa16f442b996a13bad744a1d4 Lecture 10 recording] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee0efa2d5c694ab5a1f0ee7a76d087b4 Lecture 10 recording] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/727ce65d23504207af92b684b5400be3 Lecture 10 recording] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/45e10c3dce3d45638ee3e7fad628a33c Lecture 10 recording] (2021) * Lecture 10 recording (2020) - TBA * [https://echo360.org.au/media/2915e96a-93b2-4f40-a6cf-87849313caa9/public Lecture 10 recording] (2019) * [https://echo360.org.au/media/45635c5c-4a46-43ac-81a6-c93786c83207/public Lecture 10 recording] (2017) --> ==External links== * [https://www.boredpanda.com/tiktok-thatcher-effect-upside-down-face/ A psychologist shared photos from a phenomenon called the Thatcher Effect, and people are confused] (boredpanda.com) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ap-22FjgoE4 New York City subway stairs] (YouTube; 1:27 mins) * [https://www.anopticalillusion.com/2015/02/presidents-day-optical-illusion/ President's Day optical illusion] (anopticalillusion.com) * [https://www.freud.org.uk/about-us/the-house/sigmund-freuds-famous-psychoanalytic-couch/ Sigmund Freud's famous psychoanalytic couch] (Freud Museum London) * [https://www.theifod.com/what-stairway-to-heaven-teaches-us-about-our-brains/ What “Stairway to Heaven” teaches us about our brains] (theifod.com) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/subliminal/201205/why-touch-can-double-your-chances-getting-date Why a touch can double your chances of getting a date] (Leonard Mlodinow, Psychology Today, 2012) {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Unconscious motivation]] m8dp6hjf1c2vwurln03gg547o0u6ftg 2841785 2841784 2026-10-21T01:20:47Z Jtneill 10242 /* Ego psychology */ Expand 2841785 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lecture 10: Unconscious motivation|tenth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Why books are always better than movies.jpg|right|250px]] This lecture: * discusses unconscious aspects of motivation, including historical psychoanalytic and contemporary perspectives about the adaptive unconscious, priming, and psychodynamics Take-home message: * Motivation often arises from, and is influenced by, sources beyond conscious awareness [[File:FREUD'S SOFA.jpeg|thumb|250px|Freud's psychoanalytic couch – arguably the birthplace of modern psychology]] [[File:Structural-Iceberg.svg|thumb|250px|Freud's id, ego, and superego structural model of the psyche is often depicted as an iceberg]] ==Outline== * Psychodynamic perspective * The unconscious * Psychodynamics * Ego psychology * Object relations theory ==Psychodynamic perspective== * Study of dynamic unconscious mental processes, evolving from the historical psychoanalytic (Freudian) approach ==The unconscious== * Much of mental life operates unconsciously, influencing our thoughts and actions * The adaptive unconscious allows us to make quick, intuitive decisions and behaviours about familiar situations (e.g., driving a known route) ==Psychodynamics== * Conscious and unconscious processes often clash, creating internal psychological conflicts ==Ego psychology== * This theory focuses on the ego's development from immaturity to mature interdependence * Key authors include Loevinger (1976) and Vaillant (1977) * They suggest stages of development in ego maturity based on moving from relatively immature to mature [[w:Defence mechanisms|defence mechanisms]] * Repression involves the ego unconsciously "gate-keeping" what is allowed into consciousness * Suppression involves the ego consciously removing or "suppressing" unwanted thoughts (see Niczyporuk, 2026) ==Object relations theory== * Early relationships form mental representations that guide future social motivations and connections ==Multimedia== [[File:Checker shadow illusion.svg|thumb|250px|[[w:Checker shadow illusion|Checker shadow illusion]]: A and B are the same colour; but the different contexts change our perception]] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HRAKt0GakJM&t=3 Psychological priming] (Bang Goes the Theory, YouTube) (6:14 mins): shows three experiments which indicate that, when primed by handling money, people eat more chocolate, are less likely to help others, and can tolerate more pain. * [https://youtu.be/vcJm-y7UnLY?si=YreRPjZOclPQ_c2d&t=316 How your unconscious mind rules your behaviour] ([[w:Leonard Mlodinow|Leonard Mlodinow]], TEDxReset 2013, YouTube) (12:51 mins; finish at 18:07 mins): Examples of unconscious perception and decision making from a cognitive neuroscience perspective. Note: The video has poor camera work and editing. ** [[w:Stairway to Heaven#Claims of backmasking|Stairway to Heaven - Backwards]]: :::Oh :::Here's to my sweet Satan :::The one whose little path would make me sad whose power is Satan :::He'll give, he'll give you 666 :::There was a little tool shed where he made us suffer, sad Satan ==Readings== * Chapter 15: Unconscious motivation ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Freud, S. (1917). [Original work published 1905]. ''Wit and its relation to the unconscious''. http://www.bartleby.com/279/ Jung, C. G. (Ed.) (1964). ''[[w:Man and His Symbols|Man and his symbols]]''. Doubleday. Lodder, P., Ong, H. H., Grasman, R. P., & Wicherts, J. M. (2019). A comprehensive meta-analysis of money priming. ''Journal of Experimental Psychology: General'', ''148''(4), 688. http://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000570 [https://pure.uvt.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/29126856/Lodder_et_al._2019_A_Comprehensive_Meta_analysis_of_Money_Priming.pdf] Niczyporuk, A. (2026). The effectiveness and adaptiveness of suppressing unwanted thoughts. ''Psychonomic Bulletin & Review'', ''33,'' Article 5. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-025-02763-w Stajkovic, A. D., Greenwald, J. M., & Stajkovic, K. S. (2022). The money priming debate revisited: A review, meta‐analysis, and extension to organizations. ''Journal of Organizational Behavior'', ''43''(6), 1078–1102. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2619 [https://pure.uvt.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/29126856/Lodder_et_al._2019_A_Comprehensive_Meta_analysis_of_Money_Priming.pdf] }} ==Slides== * [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/16QBIOo1V3pl644ARxu9cPmN7Yjba6Ym-v6rPExVthg4 Unconscious motivation] (Google Slides) <!-- * [http://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/unconscious-motivation Lecture slides] (Slideshare) * Handouts ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 6slidesperpage.pdf|Download 6 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 6slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 3slidesperpage.pdf|Download 3 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 3slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] --> ==See also== * [[/Images/]] ; Lectures * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Individual emotions|Individual emotions]] (Previous lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Growth psychology|Growth psychology]] (Next lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Implicit motives and goals|Implicit motives and goals]] (Related lecture) ; Tutorial * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective|Time perspective]] ;Wikipedia * [[w:Acceptance and commitment therapy|Acceptance and commitment therapy]] * [[w:Checker shadow illusion|Checker shadow illusion]] * [[w:Daniel Kahneman|Daniel Kahneman]] * [[w:Defence mechanism|Defence mechanism]] * [[w:Id, ego and super-ego|Id, ego and super-ego]] * [[w:Mortality salience|Mortality salience]] * [[w:Object relations theory|Object relations theory]] * [[w:Priming (psychology)|Priming]] * [[w:Psychoanalysis|Psychoanalysis]] * [[w:Loevinger's stages of ego development|Stages of ego development]] (Loevinger) * [[w:Stairway to Heaven#Claims of backmasking|Stairway to Heaven - Claims of backmasking]] * [[w:Terror management theory|Terror management theory]] * [[w:Thatcher effect|Thatcher effect]] * [[w:Thought suppression|Thought suppression]] ;Wikiversity * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Death anxiety|Death anxiety]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Money priming, motivation, and emotion|Money priming, motivation, and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2022) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Psychodynamic perspective of motivation|Psychodynamic perspective of motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Subliminal priming and motivation|Subliminal priming and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Terror management theory|Terror management theory]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/cb21a78cf43c491992ea0ea3f76e7271 Lecture 10] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1944933fa16f442b996a13bad744a1d4 Lecture 10 recording] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee0efa2d5c694ab5a1f0ee7a76d087b4 Lecture 10 recording] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/727ce65d23504207af92b684b5400be3 Lecture 10 recording] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/45e10c3dce3d45638ee3e7fad628a33c Lecture 10 recording] (2021) * Lecture 10 recording (2020) - TBA * [https://echo360.org.au/media/2915e96a-93b2-4f40-a6cf-87849313caa9/public Lecture 10 recording] (2019) * [https://echo360.org.au/media/45635c5c-4a46-43ac-81a6-c93786c83207/public Lecture 10 recording] (2017) --> ==External links== * [https://www.boredpanda.com/tiktok-thatcher-effect-upside-down-face/ A psychologist shared photos from a phenomenon called the Thatcher Effect, and people are confused] (boredpanda.com) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ap-22FjgoE4 New York City subway stairs] (YouTube; 1:27 mins) * [https://www.anopticalillusion.com/2015/02/presidents-day-optical-illusion/ President's Day optical illusion] (anopticalillusion.com) * [https://www.freud.org.uk/about-us/the-house/sigmund-freuds-famous-psychoanalytic-couch/ Sigmund Freud's famous psychoanalytic couch] (Freud Museum London) * [https://www.theifod.com/what-stairway-to-heaven-teaches-us-about-our-brains/ What “Stairway to Heaven” teaches us about our brains] (theifod.com) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/subliminal/201205/why-touch-can-double-your-chances-getting-date Why a touch can double your chances of getting a date] (Leonard Mlodinow, Psychology Today, 2012) {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Unconscious motivation]] l4mfubxits9xc2w17ced3th3yu9jtiv 2841787 2841785 2026-10-21T01:21:54Z Jtneill 10242 /* References */ Cui, X. J., & Vaillant, G. E. (1996). Antecedents and consequences of negative life events in adulthood: A longitudinal study. ''The American Journal of Psychiatry'', ''153''(1), 21–26. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.153.1.21 2841787 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lecture 10: Unconscious motivation|tenth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Why books are always better than movies.jpg|right|250px]] This lecture: * discusses unconscious aspects of motivation, including historical psychoanalytic and contemporary perspectives about the adaptive unconscious, priming, and psychodynamics Take-home message: * Motivation often arises from, and is influenced by, sources beyond conscious awareness [[File:FREUD'S SOFA.jpeg|thumb|250px|Freud's psychoanalytic couch – arguably the birthplace of modern psychology]] [[File:Structural-Iceberg.svg|thumb|250px|Freud's id, ego, and superego structural model of the psyche is often depicted as an iceberg]] ==Outline== * Psychodynamic perspective * The unconscious * Psychodynamics * Ego psychology * Object relations theory ==Psychodynamic perspective== * Study of dynamic unconscious mental processes, evolving from the historical psychoanalytic (Freudian) approach ==The unconscious== * Much of mental life operates unconsciously, influencing our thoughts and actions * The adaptive unconscious allows us to make quick, intuitive decisions and behaviours about familiar situations (e.g., driving a known route) ==Psychodynamics== * Conscious and unconscious processes often clash, creating internal psychological conflicts ==Ego psychology== * This theory focuses on the ego's development from immaturity to mature interdependence * Key authors include Loevinger (1976) and Vaillant (1977) * They suggest stages of development in ego maturity based on moving from relatively immature to mature [[w:Defence mechanisms|defence mechanisms]] * Repression involves the ego unconsciously "gate-keeping" what is allowed into consciousness * Suppression involves the ego consciously removing or "suppressing" unwanted thoughts (see Niczyporuk, 2026) ==Object relations theory== * Early relationships form mental representations that guide future social motivations and connections ==Multimedia== [[File:Checker shadow illusion.svg|thumb|250px|[[w:Checker shadow illusion|Checker shadow illusion]]: A and B are the same colour; but the different contexts change our perception]] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HRAKt0GakJM&t=3 Psychological priming] (Bang Goes the Theory, YouTube) (6:14 mins): shows three experiments which indicate that, when primed by handling money, people eat more chocolate, are less likely to help others, and can tolerate more pain. * [https://youtu.be/vcJm-y7UnLY?si=YreRPjZOclPQ_c2d&t=316 How your unconscious mind rules your behaviour] ([[w:Leonard Mlodinow|Leonard Mlodinow]], TEDxReset 2013, YouTube) (12:51 mins; finish at 18:07 mins): Examples of unconscious perception and decision making from a cognitive neuroscience perspective. Note: The video has poor camera work and editing. ** [[w:Stairway to Heaven#Claims of backmasking|Stairway to Heaven - Backwards]]: :::Oh :::Here's to my sweet Satan :::The one whose little path would make me sad whose power is Satan :::He'll give, he'll give you 666 :::There was a little tool shed where he made us suffer, sad Satan ==Readings== * Chapter 15: Unconscious motivation ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Cui, X. J., & Vaillant, G. E. (1996). Antecedents and consequences of negative life events in adulthood: A longitudinal study. ''The American Journal of Psychiatry'', ''153''(1), 21–26. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.153.1.21 Freud, S. (1917). [Original work published 1905]. ''Wit and its relation to the unconscious''. http://www.bartleby.com/279/ Jung, C. G. (Ed.) (1964). ''[[w:Man and His Symbols|Man and his symbols]]''. Doubleday. Lodder, P., Ong, H. H., Grasman, R. P., & Wicherts, J. M. (2019). A comprehensive meta-analysis of money priming. ''Journal of Experimental Psychology: General'', ''148''(4), 688. http://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000570 [https://pure.uvt.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/29126856/Lodder_et_al._2019_A_Comprehensive_Meta_analysis_of_Money_Priming.pdf] Niczyporuk, A. (2026). The effectiveness and adaptiveness of suppressing unwanted thoughts. ''Psychonomic Bulletin & Review'', ''33,'' Article 5. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-025-02763-w Stajkovic, A. D., Greenwald, J. M., & Stajkovic, K. S. (2022). The money priming debate revisited: A review, meta‐analysis, and extension to organizations. ''Journal of Organizational Behavior'', ''43''(6), 1078–1102. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2619 [https://pure.uvt.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/29126856/Lodder_et_al._2019_A_Comprehensive_Meta_analysis_of_Money_Priming.pdf] }} ==Slides== * [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/16QBIOo1V3pl644ARxu9cPmN7Yjba6Ym-v6rPExVthg4 Unconscious motivation] (Google Slides) <!-- * [http://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/unconscious-motivation Lecture slides] (Slideshare) * Handouts ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 6slidesperpage.pdf|Download 6 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 6slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 3slidesperpage.pdf|Download 3 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 3slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] --> ==See also== * [[/Images/]] ; Lectures * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Individual emotions|Individual emotions]] (Previous lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Growth psychology|Growth psychology]] (Next lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Implicit motives and goals|Implicit motives and goals]] (Related lecture) ; Tutorial * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective|Time perspective]] ;Wikipedia * [[w:Acceptance and commitment therapy|Acceptance and commitment therapy]] * [[w:Checker shadow illusion|Checker shadow illusion]] * [[w:Daniel Kahneman|Daniel Kahneman]] * [[w:Defence mechanism|Defence mechanism]] * [[w:Id, ego and super-ego|Id, ego and super-ego]] * [[w:Mortality salience|Mortality salience]] * [[w:Object relations theory|Object relations theory]] * [[w:Priming (psychology)|Priming]] * [[w:Psychoanalysis|Psychoanalysis]] * [[w:Loevinger's stages of ego development|Stages of ego development]] (Loevinger) * [[w:Stairway to Heaven#Claims of backmasking|Stairway to Heaven - Claims of backmasking]] * [[w:Terror management theory|Terror management theory]] * [[w:Thatcher effect|Thatcher effect]] * [[w:Thought suppression|Thought suppression]] ;Wikiversity * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Death anxiety|Death anxiety]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Money priming, motivation, and emotion|Money priming, motivation, and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2022) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Psychodynamic perspective of motivation|Psychodynamic perspective of motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Subliminal priming and motivation|Subliminal priming and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Terror management theory|Terror management theory]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/cb21a78cf43c491992ea0ea3f76e7271 Lecture 10] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1944933fa16f442b996a13bad744a1d4 Lecture 10 recording] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee0efa2d5c694ab5a1f0ee7a76d087b4 Lecture 10 recording] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/727ce65d23504207af92b684b5400be3 Lecture 10 recording] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/45e10c3dce3d45638ee3e7fad628a33c Lecture 10 recording] (2021) * Lecture 10 recording (2020) - TBA * [https://echo360.org.au/media/2915e96a-93b2-4f40-a6cf-87849313caa9/public Lecture 10 recording] (2019) * [https://echo360.org.au/media/45635c5c-4a46-43ac-81a6-c93786c83207/public Lecture 10 recording] (2017) --> ==External links== * [https://www.boredpanda.com/tiktok-thatcher-effect-upside-down-face/ A psychologist shared photos from a phenomenon called the Thatcher Effect, and people are confused] (boredpanda.com) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ap-22FjgoE4 New York City subway stairs] (YouTube; 1:27 mins) * [https://www.anopticalillusion.com/2015/02/presidents-day-optical-illusion/ President's Day optical illusion] (anopticalillusion.com) * [https://www.freud.org.uk/about-us/the-house/sigmund-freuds-famous-psychoanalytic-couch/ Sigmund Freud's famous psychoanalytic couch] (Freud Museum London) * [https://www.theifod.com/what-stairway-to-heaven-teaches-us-about-our-brains/ What “Stairway to Heaven” teaches us about our brains] (theifod.com) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/subliminal/201205/why-touch-can-double-your-chances-getting-date Why a touch can double your chances of getting a date] (Leonard Mlodinow, Psychology Today, 2012) {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Unconscious motivation]] 606wsbyhw31cbvle1ocqv74uk5vl4gj 2841789 2841787 2026-10-21T01:26:30Z Jtneill 10242 /* Object relations theory */ * Includes [[w:Attachment theory|attachment theory]] (e.g., [[w:John Bowlby|Bowlby]] and [[w:Mary Ainsworth|Ainsworth]]) 2841789 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lecture 10: Unconscious motivation|tenth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Why books are always better than movies.jpg|right|250px]] This lecture: * discusses unconscious aspects of motivation, including historical psychoanalytic and contemporary perspectives about the adaptive unconscious, priming, and psychodynamics Take-home message: * Motivation often arises from, and is influenced by, sources beyond conscious awareness [[File:FREUD'S SOFA.jpeg|thumb|250px|Freud's psychoanalytic couch – arguably the birthplace of modern psychology]] [[File:Structural-Iceberg.svg|thumb|250px|Freud's id, ego, and superego structural model of the psyche is often depicted as an iceberg]] ==Outline== * Psychodynamic perspective * The unconscious * Psychodynamics * Ego psychology * Object relations theory ==Psychodynamic perspective== * Study of dynamic unconscious mental processes, evolving from the historical psychoanalytic (Freudian) approach ==The unconscious== * Much of mental life operates unconsciously, influencing our thoughts and actions * The adaptive unconscious allows us to make quick, intuitive decisions and behaviours about familiar situations (e.g., driving a known route) ==Psychodynamics== * Conscious and unconscious processes often clash, creating internal psychological conflicts ==Ego psychology== * This theory focuses on the ego's development from immaturity to mature interdependence * Key authors include Loevinger (1976) and Vaillant (1977) * They suggest stages of development in ego maturity based on moving from relatively immature to mature [[w:Defence mechanisms|defence mechanisms]] * Repression involves the ego unconsciously "gate-keeping" what is allowed into consciousness * Suppression involves the ego consciously removing or "suppressing" unwanted thoughts (see Niczyporuk, 2026) ==Object relations theory== * Early relationships form mental representations that guide future social motivations and connections * Includes [[w:Attachment theory|attachment theory]] (e.g., [[w:John Bowlby|Bowlby]] and [[w:Mary Ainsworth|Ainsworth]]) ==Multimedia== [[File:Checker shadow illusion.svg|thumb|250px|[[w:Checker shadow illusion|Checker shadow illusion]]: A and B are the same colour; but the different contexts change our perception]] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HRAKt0GakJM&t=3 Psychological priming] (Bang Goes the Theory, YouTube) (6:14 mins): shows three experiments which indicate that, when primed by handling money, people eat more chocolate, are less likely to help others, and can tolerate more pain. * [https://youtu.be/vcJm-y7UnLY?si=YreRPjZOclPQ_c2d&t=316 How your unconscious mind rules your behaviour] ([[w:Leonard Mlodinow|Leonard Mlodinow]], TEDxReset 2013, YouTube) (12:51 mins; finish at 18:07 mins): Examples of unconscious perception and decision making from a cognitive neuroscience perspective. Note: The video has poor camera work and editing. ** [[w:Stairway to Heaven#Claims of backmasking|Stairway to Heaven - Backwards]]: :::Oh :::Here's to my sweet Satan :::The one whose little path would make me sad whose power is Satan :::He'll give, he'll give you 666 :::There was a little tool shed where he made us suffer, sad Satan ==Readings== * Chapter 15: Unconscious motivation ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Cui, X. J., & Vaillant, G. E. (1996). Antecedents and consequences of negative life events in adulthood: A longitudinal study. ''The American Journal of Psychiatry'', ''153''(1), 21–26. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.153.1.21 Freud, S. (1917). [Original work published 1905]. ''Wit and its relation to the unconscious''. http://www.bartleby.com/279/ Jung, C. G. (Ed.) (1964). ''[[w:Man and His Symbols|Man and his symbols]]''. Doubleday. Lodder, P., Ong, H. H., Grasman, R. P., & Wicherts, J. M. (2019). A comprehensive meta-analysis of money priming. ''Journal of Experimental Psychology: General'', ''148''(4), 688. http://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000570 [https://pure.uvt.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/29126856/Lodder_et_al._2019_A_Comprehensive_Meta_analysis_of_Money_Priming.pdf] Niczyporuk, A. (2026). The effectiveness and adaptiveness of suppressing unwanted thoughts. ''Psychonomic Bulletin & Review'', ''33,'' Article 5. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-025-02763-w Stajkovic, A. D., Greenwald, J. M., & Stajkovic, K. S. (2022). The money priming debate revisited: A review, meta‐analysis, and extension to organizations. ''Journal of Organizational Behavior'', ''43''(6), 1078–1102. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2619 [https://pure.uvt.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/29126856/Lodder_et_al._2019_A_Comprehensive_Meta_analysis_of_Money_Priming.pdf] }} ==Slides== * [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/16QBIOo1V3pl644ARxu9cPmN7Yjba6Ym-v6rPExVthg4 Unconscious motivation] (Google Slides) <!-- * [http://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/unconscious-motivation Lecture slides] (Slideshare) * Handouts ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 6slidesperpage.pdf|Download 6 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 6slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 3slidesperpage.pdf|Download 3 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 3slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] --> ==See also== * [[/Images/]] ; Lectures * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Individual emotions|Individual emotions]] (Previous lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Growth psychology|Growth psychology]] (Next lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Implicit motives and goals|Implicit motives and goals]] (Related lecture) ; Tutorial * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective|Time perspective]] ;Wikipedia * [[w:Acceptance and commitment therapy|Acceptance and commitment therapy]] * [[w:Checker shadow illusion|Checker shadow illusion]] * [[w:Daniel Kahneman|Daniel Kahneman]] * [[w:Defence mechanism|Defence mechanism]] * [[w:Id, ego and super-ego|Id, ego and super-ego]] * [[w:Mortality salience|Mortality salience]] * [[w:Object relations theory|Object relations theory]] * [[w:Priming (psychology)|Priming]] * [[w:Psychoanalysis|Psychoanalysis]] * [[w:Loevinger's stages of ego development|Stages of ego development]] (Loevinger) * [[w:Stairway to Heaven#Claims of backmasking|Stairway to Heaven - Claims of backmasking]] * [[w:Terror management theory|Terror management theory]] * [[w:Thatcher effect|Thatcher effect]] * [[w:Thought suppression|Thought suppression]] ;Wikiversity * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Death anxiety|Death anxiety]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Money priming, motivation, and emotion|Money priming, motivation, and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2022) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Psychodynamic perspective of motivation|Psychodynamic perspective of motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Subliminal priming and motivation|Subliminal priming and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Terror management theory|Terror management theory]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/cb21a78cf43c491992ea0ea3f76e7271 Lecture 10] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1944933fa16f442b996a13bad744a1d4 Lecture 10 recording] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee0efa2d5c694ab5a1f0ee7a76d087b4 Lecture 10 recording] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/727ce65d23504207af92b684b5400be3 Lecture 10 recording] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/45e10c3dce3d45638ee3e7fad628a33c Lecture 10 recording] (2021) * Lecture 10 recording (2020) - TBA * [https://echo360.org.au/media/2915e96a-93b2-4f40-a6cf-87849313caa9/public Lecture 10 recording] (2019) * [https://echo360.org.au/media/45635c5c-4a46-43ac-81a6-c93786c83207/public Lecture 10 recording] (2017) --> ==External links== * [https://www.boredpanda.com/tiktok-thatcher-effect-upside-down-face/ A psychologist shared photos from a phenomenon called the Thatcher Effect, and people are confused] (boredpanda.com) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ap-22FjgoE4 New York City subway stairs] (YouTube; 1:27 mins) * [https://www.anopticalillusion.com/2015/02/presidents-day-optical-illusion/ President's Day optical illusion] (anopticalillusion.com) * [https://www.freud.org.uk/about-us/the-house/sigmund-freuds-famous-psychoanalytic-couch/ Sigmund Freud's famous psychoanalytic couch] (Freud Museum London) * [https://www.theifod.com/what-stairway-to-heaven-teaches-us-about-our-brains/ What “Stairway to Heaven” teaches us about our brains] (theifod.com) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/subliminal/201205/why-touch-can-double-your-chances-getting-date Why a touch can double your chances of getting a date] (Leonard Mlodinow, Psychology Today, 2012) {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Unconscious motivation]] likf9kdixz4oqfirl04cl0ylt97tl9u 2841790 2841789 2026-10-21T01:27:24Z Jtneill 10242 /* Psychodynamics */ “The mind is an arena, a sort of tumbling-ground for the struggle of antagonistic impulses.” Freud (1917) 2841790 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lecture 10: Unconscious motivation|tenth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Why books are always better than movies.jpg|right|250px]] This lecture: * discusses unconscious aspects of motivation, including historical psychoanalytic and contemporary perspectives about the adaptive unconscious, priming, and psychodynamics Take-home message: * Motivation often arises from, and is influenced by, sources beyond conscious awareness [[File:FREUD'S SOFA.jpeg|thumb|250px|Freud's psychoanalytic couch – arguably the birthplace of modern psychology]] [[File:Structural-Iceberg.svg|thumb|250px|Freud's id, ego, and superego structural model of the psyche is often depicted as an iceberg]] ==Outline== * Psychodynamic perspective * The unconscious * Psychodynamics * Ego psychology * Object relations theory ==Psychodynamic perspective== * Study of dynamic unconscious mental processes, evolving from the historical psychoanalytic (Freudian) approach ==The unconscious== * Much of mental life operates unconsciously, influencing our thoughts and actions * The adaptive unconscious allows us to make quick, intuitive decisions and behaviours about familiar situations (e.g., driving a known route) ==Psychodynamics== * Conscious and unconscious processes often clash, creating internal psychological conflicts * "The mind is an arena, a sort of tumbling-ground for the struggle of antagonistic impulses.” - Freud (1917) ==Ego psychology== * This theory focuses on the ego's development from immaturity to mature interdependence * Key authors include Loevinger (1976) and Vaillant (1977) * They suggest stages of development in ego maturity based on moving from relatively immature to mature [[w:Defence mechanisms|defence mechanisms]] * Repression involves the ego unconsciously "gate-keeping" what is allowed into consciousness * Suppression involves the ego consciously removing or "suppressing" unwanted thoughts (see Niczyporuk, 2026) ==Object relations theory== * Early relationships form mental representations that guide future social motivations and connections * Includes [[w:Attachment theory|attachment theory]] (e.g., [[w:John Bowlby|Bowlby]] and [[w:Mary Ainsworth|Ainsworth]]) ==Multimedia== [[File:Checker shadow illusion.svg|thumb|250px|[[w:Checker shadow illusion|Checker shadow illusion]]: A and B are the same colour; but the different contexts change our perception]] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HRAKt0GakJM&t=3 Psychological priming] (Bang Goes the Theory, YouTube) (6:14 mins): shows three experiments which indicate that, when primed by handling money, people eat more chocolate, are less likely to help others, and can tolerate more pain. * [https://youtu.be/vcJm-y7UnLY?si=YreRPjZOclPQ_c2d&t=316 How your unconscious mind rules your behaviour] ([[w:Leonard Mlodinow|Leonard Mlodinow]], TEDxReset 2013, YouTube) (12:51 mins; finish at 18:07 mins): Examples of unconscious perception and decision making from a cognitive neuroscience perspective. Note: The video has poor camera work and editing. ** [[w:Stairway to Heaven#Claims of backmasking|Stairway to Heaven - Backwards]]: :::Oh :::Here's to my sweet Satan :::The one whose little path would make me sad whose power is Satan :::He'll give, he'll give you 666 :::There was a little tool shed where he made us suffer, sad Satan ==Readings== * Chapter 15: Unconscious motivation ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Cui, X. J., & Vaillant, G. E. (1996). Antecedents and consequences of negative life events in adulthood: A longitudinal study. ''The American Journal of Psychiatry'', ''153''(1), 21–26. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.153.1.21 Freud, S. (1917). [Original work published 1905]. ''Wit and its relation to the unconscious''. http://www.bartleby.com/279/ Jung, C. G. (Ed.) (1964). ''[[w:Man and His Symbols|Man and his symbols]]''. Doubleday. Lodder, P., Ong, H. H., Grasman, R. P., & Wicherts, J. M. (2019). A comprehensive meta-analysis of money priming. ''Journal of Experimental Psychology: General'', ''148''(4), 688. http://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000570 [https://pure.uvt.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/29126856/Lodder_et_al._2019_A_Comprehensive_Meta_analysis_of_Money_Priming.pdf] Niczyporuk, A. (2026). The effectiveness and adaptiveness of suppressing unwanted thoughts. ''Psychonomic Bulletin & Review'', ''33,'' Article 5. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-025-02763-w Stajkovic, A. D., Greenwald, J. M., & Stajkovic, K. S. (2022). The money priming debate revisited: A review, meta‐analysis, and extension to organizations. ''Journal of Organizational Behavior'', ''43''(6), 1078–1102. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2619 [https://pure.uvt.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/29126856/Lodder_et_al._2019_A_Comprehensive_Meta_analysis_of_Money_Priming.pdf] }} ==Slides== * [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/16QBIOo1V3pl644ARxu9cPmN7Yjba6Ym-v6rPExVthg4 Unconscious motivation] (Google Slides) <!-- * [http://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/unconscious-motivation Lecture slides] (Slideshare) * Handouts ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 6slidesperpage.pdf|Download 6 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 6slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 3slidesperpage.pdf|Download 3 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 3slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] --> ==See also== * [[/Images/]] ; Lectures * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Individual emotions|Individual emotions]] (Previous lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Growth psychology|Growth psychology]] (Next lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Implicit motives and goals|Implicit motives and goals]] (Related lecture) ; Tutorial * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective|Time perspective]] ;Wikipedia * [[w:Acceptance and commitment therapy|Acceptance and commitment therapy]] * [[w:Checker shadow illusion|Checker shadow illusion]] * [[w:Daniel Kahneman|Daniel Kahneman]] * [[w:Defence mechanism|Defence mechanism]] * [[w:Id, ego and super-ego|Id, ego and super-ego]] * [[w:Mortality salience|Mortality salience]] * [[w:Object relations theory|Object relations theory]] * [[w:Priming (psychology)|Priming]] * [[w:Psychoanalysis|Psychoanalysis]] * [[w:Loevinger's stages of ego development|Stages of ego development]] (Loevinger) * [[w:Stairway to Heaven#Claims of backmasking|Stairway to Heaven - Claims of backmasking]] * [[w:Terror management theory|Terror management theory]] * [[w:Thatcher effect|Thatcher effect]] * [[w:Thought suppression|Thought suppression]] ;Wikiversity * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Death anxiety|Death anxiety]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Money priming, motivation, and emotion|Money priming, motivation, and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2022) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Psychodynamic perspective of motivation|Psychodynamic perspective of motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Subliminal priming and motivation|Subliminal priming and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Terror management theory|Terror management theory]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/cb21a78cf43c491992ea0ea3f76e7271 Lecture 10] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1944933fa16f442b996a13bad744a1d4 Lecture 10 recording] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee0efa2d5c694ab5a1f0ee7a76d087b4 Lecture 10 recording] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/727ce65d23504207af92b684b5400be3 Lecture 10 recording] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/45e10c3dce3d45638ee3e7fad628a33c Lecture 10 recording] (2021) * Lecture 10 recording (2020) - TBA * [https://echo360.org.au/media/2915e96a-93b2-4f40-a6cf-87849313caa9/public Lecture 10 recording] (2019) * [https://echo360.org.au/media/45635c5c-4a46-43ac-81a6-c93786c83207/public Lecture 10 recording] (2017) --> ==External links== * [https://www.boredpanda.com/tiktok-thatcher-effect-upside-down-face/ A psychologist shared photos from a phenomenon called the Thatcher Effect, and people are confused] (boredpanda.com) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ap-22FjgoE4 New York City subway stairs] (YouTube; 1:27 mins) * [https://www.anopticalillusion.com/2015/02/presidents-day-optical-illusion/ President's Day optical illusion] (anopticalillusion.com) * [https://www.freud.org.uk/about-us/the-house/sigmund-freuds-famous-psychoanalytic-couch/ Sigmund Freud's famous psychoanalytic couch] (Freud Museum London) * [https://www.theifod.com/what-stairway-to-heaven-teaches-us-about-our-brains/ What “Stairway to Heaven” teaches us about our brains] (theifod.com) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/subliminal/201205/why-touch-can-double-your-chances-getting-date Why a touch can double your chances of getting a date] (Leonard Mlodinow, Psychology Today, 2012) {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Unconscious motivation]] tvkrk375yk4h2dbegn4vkqfjhe6nr4w 2841791 2841790 2026-10-21T01:42:17Z Jtneill 10242 /* Psychodynamic perspective */ Expand 2841791 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lecture 10: Unconscious motivation|tenth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Why books are always better than movies.jpg|right|250px]] This lecture: * discusses unconscious aspects of motivation, including historical psychoanalytic and contemporary perspectives about the adaptive unconscious, priming, and psychodynamics Take-home message: * Motivation often arises from, and is influenced by, sources beyond conscious awareness [[File:FREUD'S SOFA.jpeg|thumb|250px|Freud's psychoanalytic couch – arguably the birthplace of modern psychology]] [[File:Structural-Iceberg.svg|thumb|250px|Freud's id, ego, and superego structural model of the psyche is often depicted as an iceberg]] ==Outline== * Psychodynamic perspective * The unconscious * Psychodynamics * Ego psychology * Object relations theory ==Psychodynamic perspective== * Study of dynamic unconscious mental processes, evolving from the historical psychoanalytic (Freudian) approach * Dual-instinct theory: ** [[w:Eros|Eros (concept)]] - Life drive ** [[w:Death drive|Thanatos]] - Death drive * [[w:Id, ego and superego|Iceberg model]] (structural id, ego, superego model) ** Id ** Ego ** Superego * "These subliminal aspects of everything that happen to us may seem to play very little part in our daily lives. But … they are the almost invisible roots of our conscious thoughts." - Carl Jung (1964) ==The unconscious== * Much of mental life operates unconsciously, influencing our thoughts and actions * The adaptive unconscious allows us to make quick, intuitive decisions and behaviours about familiar situations (e.g., driving a known route) ==Psychodynamics== * Conscious and unconscious processes often clash, creating internal psychological conflicts * "The mind is an arena, a sort of tumbling-ground for the struggle of antagonistic impulses.” - Freud (1917) ==Ego psychology== * This theory focuses on the ego's development from immaturity to mature interdependence * Key authors include Loevinger (1976) and Vaillant (1977) * They suggest stages of development in ego maturity based on moving from relatively immature to mature [[w:Defence mechanisms|defence mechanisms]] * Repression involves the ego unconsciously "gate-keeping" what is allowed into consciousness * Suppression involves the ego consciously removing or "suppressing" unwanted thoughts (see Niczyporuk, 2026) ==Object relations theory== * Early relationships form mental representations that guide future social motivations and connections * Includes [[w:Attachment theory|attachment theory]] (e.g., [[w:John Bowlby|Bowlby]] and [[w:Mary Ainsworth|Ainsworth]]) ==Multimedia== [[File:Checker shadow illusion.svg|thumb|250px|[[w:Checker shadow illusion|Checker shadow illusion]]: A and B are the same colour; but the different contexts change our perception]] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HRAKt0GakJM&t=3 Psychological priming] (Bang Goes the Theory, YouTube) (6:14 mins): shows three experiments which indicate that, when primed by handling money, people eat more chocolate, are less likely to help others, and can tolerate more pain. * [https://youtu.be/vcJm-y7UnLY?si=YreRPjZOclPQ_c2d&t=316 How your unconscious mind rules your behaviour] ([[w:Leonard Mlodinow|Leonard Mlodinow]], TEDxReset 2013, YouTube) (12:51 mins; finish at 18:07 mins): Examples of unconscious perception and decision making from a cognitive neuroscience perspective. Note: The video has poor camera work and editing. ** [[w:Stairway to Heaven#Claims of backmasking|Stairway to Heaven - Backwards]]: :::Oh :::Here's to my sweet Satan :::The one whose little path would make me sad whose power is Satan :::He'll give, he'll give you 666 :::There was a little tool shed where he made us suffer, sad Satan ==Readings== * Chapter 15: Unconscious motivation ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Cui, X. J., & Vaillant, G. E. (1996). Antecedents and consequences of negative life events in adulthood: A longitudinal study. ''The American Journal of Psychiatry'', ''153''(1), 21–26. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.153.1.21 Freud, S. (1917). [Original work published 1905]. ''Wit and its relation to the unconscious''. http://www.bartleby.com/279/ Jung, C. G. (Ed.) (1964). ''[[w:Man and His Symbols|Man and his symbols]]''. Doubleday. Lodder, P., Ong, H. H., Grasman, R. P., & Wicherts, J. M. (2019). A comprehensive meta-analysis of money priming. ''Journal of Experimental Psychology: General'', ''148''(4), 688. http://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000570 [https://pure.uvt.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/29126856/Lodder_et_al._2019_A_Comprehensive_Meta_analysis_of_Money_Priming.pdf] Niczyporuk, A. (2026). The effectiveness and adaptiveness of suppressing unwanted thoughts. ''Psychonomic Bulletin & Review'', ''33,'' Article 5. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-025-02763-w Stajkovic, A. D., Greenwald, J. M., & Stajkovic, K. S. (2022). The money priming debate revisited: A review, meta‐analysis, and extension to organizations. ''Journal of Organizational Behavior'', ''43''(6), 1078–1102. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2619 [https://pure.uvt.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/29126856/Lodder_et_al._2019_A_Comprehensive_Meta_analysis_of_Money_Priming.pdf] }} ==Slides== * [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/16QBIOo1V3pl644ARxu9cPmN7Yjba6Ym-v6rPExVthg4 Unconscious motivation] (Google Slides) <!-- * [http://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/unconscious-motivation Lecture slides] (Slideshare) * Handouts ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 6slidesperpage.pdf|Download 6 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 6slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 3slidesperpage.pdf|Download 3 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 3slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] --> ==See also== * [[/Images/]] ; Lectures * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Individual emotions|Individual emotions]] (Previous lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Growth psychology|Growth psychology]] (Next lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Implicit motives and goals|Implicit motives and goals]] (Related lecture) ; Tutorial * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective|Time perspective]] ;Wikipedia * [[w:Acceptance and commitment therapy|Acceptance and commitment therapy]] * [[w:Checker shadow illusion|Checker shadow illusion]] * [[w:Daniel Kahneman|Daniel Kahneman]] * [[w:Defence mechanism|Defence mechanism]] * [[w:Id, ego and super-ego|Id, ego and super-ego]] * [[w:Mortality salience|Mortality salience]] * [[w:Object relations theory|Object relations theory]] * [[w:Priming (psychology)|Priming]] * [[w:Psychoanalysis|Psychoanalysis]] * [[w:Loevinger's stages of ego development|Stages of ego development]] (Loevinger) * [[w:Stairway to Heaven#Claims of backmasking|Stairway to Heaven - Claims of backmasking]] * [[w:Terror management theory|Terror management theory]] * [[w:Thatcher effect|Thatcher effect]] * [[w:Thought suppression|Thought suppression]] ;Wikiversity * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Death anxiety|Death anxiety]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Money priming, motivation, and emotion|Money priming, motivation, and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2022) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Psychodynamic perspective of motivation|Psychodynamic perspective of motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Subliminal priming and motivation|Subliminal priming and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Terror management theory|Terror management theory]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/cb21a78cf43c491992ea0ea3f76e7271 Lecture 10] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1944933fa16f442b996a13bad744a1d4 Lecture 10 recording] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee0efa2d5c694ab5a1f0ee7a76d087b4 Lecture 10 recording] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/727ce65d23504207af92b684b5400be3 Lecture 10 recording] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/45e10c3dce3d45638ee3e7fad628a33c Lecture 10 recording] (2021) * Lecture 10 recording (2020) - TBA * [https://echo360.org.au/media/2915e96a-93b2-4f40-a6cf-87849313caa9/public Lecture 10 recording] (2019) * [https://echo360.org.au/media/45635c5c-4a46-43ac-81a6-c93786c83207/public Lecture 10 recording] (2017) --> ==External links== * [https://www.boredpanda.com/tiktok-thatcher-effect-upside-down-face/ A psychologist shared photos from a phenomenon called the Thatcher Effect, and people are confused] (boredpanda.com) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ap-22FjgoE4 New York City subway stairs] (YouTube; 1:27 mins) * [https://www.anopticalillusion.com/2015/02/presidents-day-optical-illusion/ President's Day optical illusion] (anopticalillusion.com) * [https://www.freud.org.uk/about-us/the-house/sigmund-freuds-famous-psychoanalytic-couch/ Sigmund Freud's famous psychoanalytic couch] (Freud Museum London) * [https://www.theifod.com/what-stairway-to-heaven-teaches-us-about-our-brains/ What “Stairway to Heaven” teaches us about our brains] (theifod.com) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/subliminal/201205/why-touch-can-double-your-chances-getting-date Why a touch can double your chances of getting a date] (Leonard Mlodinow, Psychology Today, 2012) {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Unconscious motivation]] q5hgscfj4m9jo8bv2q99sqpzdds99lk 2841819 2841791 2026-10-21T07:41:13Z Jtneill 10242 /* Recording */ Update for 2026 2841819 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lecture 10: Unconscious motivation|tenth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Why books are always better than movies.jpg|right|250px]] This lecture: * discusses unconscious aspects of motivation, including historical psychoanalytic and contemporary perspectives about the adaptive unconscious, priming, and psychodynamics Take-home message: * Motivation often arises from, and is influenced by, sources beyond conscious awareness [[File:FREUD'S SOFA.jpeg|thumb|250px|Freud's psychoanalytic couch – arguably the birthplace of modern psychology]] [[File:Structural-Iceberg.svg|thumb|250px|Freud's id, ego, and superego structural model of the psyche is often depicted as an iceberg]] ==Outline== * Psychodynamic perspective * The unconscious * Psychodynamics * Ego psychology * Object relations theory ==Psychodynamic perspective== * Study of dynamic unconscious mental processes, evolving from the historical psychoanalytic (Freudian) approach * Dual-instinct theory: ** [[w:Eros|Eros (concept)]] - Life drive ** [[w:Death drive|Thanatos]] - Death drive * [[w:Id, ego and superego|Iceberg model]] (structural id, ego, superego model) ** Id ** Ego ** Superego * "These subliminal aspects of everything that happen to us may seem to play very little part in our daily lives. But … they are the almost invisible roots of our conscious thoughts." - Carl Jung (1964) ==The unconscious== * Much of mental life operates unconsciously, influencing our thoughts and actions * The adaptive unconscious allows us to make quick, intuitive decisions and behaviours about familiar situations (e.g., driving a known route) ==Psychodynamics== * Conscious and unconscious processes often clash, creating internal psychological conflicts * "The mind is an arena, a sort of tumbling-ground for the struggle of antagonistic impulses.” - Freud (1917) ==Ego psychology== * This theory focuses on the ego's development from immaturity to mature interdependence * Key authors include Loevinger (1976) and Vaillant (1977) * They suggest stages of development in ego maturity based on moving from relatively immature to mature [[w:Defence mechanisms|defence mechanisms]] * Repression involves the ego unconsciously "gate-keeping" what is allowed into consciousness * Suppression involves the ego consciously removing or "suppressing" unwanted thoughts (see Niczyporuk, 2026) ==Object relations theory== * Early relationships form mental representations that guide future social motivations and connections * Includes [[w:Attachment theory|attachment theory]] (e.g., [[w:John Bowlby|Bowlby]] and [[w:Mary Ainsworth|Ainsworth]]) ==Multimedia== [[File:Checker shadow illusion.svg|thumb|250px|[[w:Checker shadow illusion|Checker shadow illusion]]: A and B are the same colour; but the different contexts change our perception]] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HRAKt0GakJM&t=3 Psychological priming] (Bang Goes the Theory, YouTube) (6:14 mins): shows three experiments which indicate that, when primed by handling money, people eat more chocolate, are less likely to help others, and can tolerate more pain. * [https://youtu.be/vcJm-y7UnLY?si=YreRPjZOclPQ_c2d&t=316 How your unconscious mind rules your behaviour] ([[w:Leonard Mlodinow|Leonard Mlodinow]], TEDxReset 2013, YouTube) (12:51 mins; finish at 18:07 mins): Examples of unconscious perception and decision making from a cognitive neuroscience perspective. Note: The video has poor camera work and editing. ** [[w:Stairway to Heaven#Claims of backmasking|Stairway to Heaven - Backwards]]: :::Oh :::Here's to my sweet Satan :::The one whose little path would make me sad whose power is Satan :::He'll give, he'll give you 666 :::There was a little tool shed where he made us suffer, sad Satan ==Readings== * Chapter 15: Unconscious motivation ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Cui, X. J., & Vaillant, G. E. (1996). Antecedents and consequences of negative life events in adulthood: A longitudinal study. ''The American Journal of Psychiatry'', ''153''(1), 21–26. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.153.1.21 Freud, S. (1917). [Original work published 1905]. ''Wit and its relation to the unconscious''. http://www.bartleby.com/279/ Jung, C. G. (Ed.) (1964). ''[[w:Man and His Symbols|Man and his symbols]]''. Doubleday. Lodder, P., Ong, H. H., Grasman, R. P., & Wicherts, J. M. (2019). A comprehensive meta-analysis of money priming. ''Journal of Experimental Psychology: General'', ''148''(4), 688. http://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000570 [https://pure.uvt.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/29126856/Lodder_et_al._2019_A_Comprehensive_Meta_analysis_of_Money_Priming.pdf] Niczyporuk, A. (2026). The effectiveness and adaptiveness of suppressing unwanted thoughts. ''Psychonomic Bulletin & Review'', ''33,'' Article 5. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-025-02763-w Stajkovic, A. D., Greenwald, J. M., & Stajkovic, K. S. (2022). The money priming debate revisited: A review, meta‐analysis, and extension to organizations. ''Journal of Organizational Behavior'', ''43''(6), 1078–1102. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2619 [https://pure.uvt.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/29126856/Lodder_et_al._2019_A_Comprehensive_Meta_analysis_of_Money_Priming.pdf] }} ==Slides== * [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/16QBIOo1V3pl644ARxu9cPmN7Yjba6Ym-v6rPExVthg4 Unconscious motivation] (Google Slides) <!-- * [http://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/unconscious-motivation Lecture slides] (Slideshare) * Handouts ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 6slidesperpage.pdf|Download 6 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 6slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 3slidesperpage.pdf|Download 3 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 10 - Unconscious motivation 3slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] --> ==See also== * [[/Images/]] ; Lectures * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Individual emotions|Individual emotions]] (Previous lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Growth psychology|Growth psychology]] (Next lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Implicit motives and goals|Implicit motives and goals]] (Related lecture) ; Tutorial * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective|Time perspective]] ;Wikipedia * [[w:Acceptance and commitment therapy|Acceptance and commitment therapy]] * [[w:Checker shadow illusion|Checker shadow illusion]] * [[w:Daniel Kahneman|Daniel Kahneman]] * [[w:Defence mechanism|Defence mechanism]] * [[w:Id, ego and super-ego|Id, ego and super-ego]] * [[w:Mortality salience|Mortality salience]] * [[w:Object relations theory|Object relations theory]] * [[w:Priming (psychology)|Priming]] * [[w:Psychoanalysis|Psychoanalysis]] * [[w:Loevinger's stages of ego development|Stages of ego development]] (Loevinger) * [[w:Stairway to Heaven#Claims of backmasking|Stairway to Heaven - Claims of backmasking]] * [[w:Terror management theory|Terror management theory]] * [[w:Thatcher effect|Thatcher effect]] * [[w:Thought suppression|Thought suppression]] ;Wikiversity * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Death anxiety|Death anxiety]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Money priming, motivation, and emotion|Money priming, motivation, and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2022) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Psychodynamic perspective of motivation|Psychodynamic perspective of motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Subliminal priming and motivation|Subliminal priming and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Terror management theory|Terror management theory]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9269c49d229740d59dc153b2acd84cf4 Lecture 10] (2026)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/cb21a78cf43c491992ea0ea3f76e7271 Lecture 10] (2025) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1944933fa16f442b996a13bad744a1d4 Lecture 10 recording] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ee0efa2d5c694ab5a1f0ee7a76d087b4 Lecture 10 recording] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/727ce65d23504207af92b684b5400be3 Lecture 10 recording] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/45e10c3dce3d45638ee3e7fad628a33c Lecture 10 recording] (2021) * Lecture 10 recording (2020) - TBA * [https://echo360.org.au/media/2915e96a-93b2-4f40-a6cf-87849313caa9/public Lecture 10 recording] (2019) * [https://echo360.org.au/media/45635c5c-4a46-43ac-81a6-c93786c83207/public Lecture 10 recording] (2017) --> ==External links== * [https://www.boredpanda.com/tiktok-thatcher-effect-upside-down-face/ A psychologist shared photos from a phenomenon called the Thatcher Effect, and people are confused] (boredpanda.com) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ap-22FjgoE4 New York City subway stairs] (YouTube; 1:27 mins) * [https://www.anopticalillusion.com/2015/02/presidents-day-optical-illusion/ President's Day optical illusion] (anopticalillusion.com) * [https://www.freud.org.uk/about-us/the-house/sigmund-freuds-famous-psychoanalytic-couch/ Sigmund Freud's famous psychoanalytic couch] (Freud Museum London) * [https://www.theifod.com/what-stairway-to-heaven-teaches-us-about-our-brains/ What “Stairway to Heaven” teaches us about our brains] (theifod.com) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/subliminal/201205/why-touch-can-double-your-chances-getting-date Why a touch can double your chances of getting a date] (Leonard Mlodinow, Psychology Today, 2012) {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Unconscious motivation]] n78lpnjx4qe0vmh2743aqj61aqi1ary 0 99969 2841774 2043957 2026-10-21T00:01:58Z ~2026-56290-91 3113026 /* Motivational & emotional states associated with brain structure: Sub-cortical */ JPEG → PNG 2841774 wikitext text/x-wiki == Motivational & emotional states associated with brain structure: Sub-cortical == {| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5 width= 100% | '''Brain structure''' | '''Location''' | '''Associated motivational or emotional experience''' |- | [[w:Amygdala|Amygdala]] | [[File:Amygdala_small.gif|center|100px]] | Detects, learns about, and responds to the stimulus properties of environmental objects, including both threat- and reward-eliciting associations. |- | [[w:Basal ganglia|Basal ganglia]] | [[File:Blausen_0076_BasalGanglia.png|center|100px]] | A group of subcortical nuclei including the caudate nucleus, putamen, substantia nigra, and globus pallidus. Regulates premotor and motor cortical areas so that voluntary movement can be performed smoothly. Serves as a behavioural inhibitor or "off-switch". Influenced by signals from many parts of the brain, including the prefrontal cortex. |- | [[w:Hypothalamus|Hypothalamus]] | [[File:Hypothalamus.gif|100px|center]] | Responsive to natural rewards in the regulation of eating, drinking, and mating. Regulates the endocrine and autonomic nervous system. |- | [[w:Nucleus accumbens|Nucleus accumbens]] | [[File:Anatomy of the basal ganglia.png|center|100px]] | Brain's reward centre. Responds to signals of reward via dopamine release from within the ventral striatum to produce feelings of pleasure and liking. |- | [[w:Reticular Formation|Reticular Formation]] | [[File:1311 Brain Stem.jpg|center|100px]] | Phylogenetically old structure which regulates arousal, alertness, and sleep/wakefulness. |- | [[w:Ventral striatum|Ventral striatum]] | [[File:Dopaminergic system and reward processing.jpg|center|100px]] | Part of the dopamine-based reward system. Manufactures and releases dopamine to the nucleus accumbens, having received the message to do so from the ventral tegmental area. |- | [[w:Ventral tegmental area|Ventral tegmental area]] | [[File:Dopamine_Pathways.png|center|100px]] | Starting point in brain's dopamine-based reward centre. Manufactures and releases dopamine. |} ''Note'': Based on [[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2018|Reeve (2018), Table 3.1]]. == Motivational & emotional states associated with brain structure: Cortical == {| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5 width=100% | '''Brain structure''' | '''Location''' | '''Associated motivational or emotional experience'''' |- | Anterior [[w:Cingulate Cortex|Cingulate Cortex]] | [[File:Gray727 anterior cingulate cortex.png|center|100px]] | Monitors motivational conflicts. Resolves conflicts by recruiting other cortical brain structures for executive or cognitive control over basic urges and emotions. |- | [[w:Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex|Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex]] | [[File:Prefrontal cortex.png|center|100px]] | Evaluates the learned emotional value of environmental events and possible courses of action. Responsible for control over urges and risks during the pursuit of long-term goals. |- | [[w:Insula|Insula cortex]] | [[File:Insula animation small.gif|center|100px]] | Monitors bodily states to produce gut-felt feelings. Processes feelings associated with empathy, intrinsic motivation, risk, uncertainty, pain, and personal agency. |- | [[w:Orbitofrontal cortex|Orbitofrontal cortex]] | [[File:Prefrontal1.png|center|100px]] | Stores and processes reward-related value of events and environmental objects and events to formulate preferences and make choices between options. |- | [[w:Prefrontal cortex|Prefrontal cortex]] | [[File:Prefrontal_cortex_(left)_animation.gif|center|100px]] | Making plans, setting goals, formulating intentions. Right hemispheric activity is associated with negative affect and "no go" avoidance. Left hemispheric activity is associated with positive affect and "go" approach motivation. |- | [[w:Ventromedial prefrontal cortex|Ventromedial prefrontal cortex]] | [[File:Ventromedial prefrontal cortex.png|center|100px]] | Evaluates the unlearned emotional value of basic sensory rewards and internal bodily states. Responsible for emotional control. |} ''Note'': Based on [[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2018|Reeve (2018) Table 3.1]]. [[Category:Motivation and emotion|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]] 1m6apx511livxfxkpqliussjw9wkab5 0 119778 2841848 2840678 2026-10-21T10:43:45Z Young1lim 21186 /* Non-linear Equations */ 2841848 wikitext text/x-wiki == Calculus == === Numerical Differentiation === * Background on Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Background.20240625.pdf |pdf]]) * Continuous Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1ContDiff.20241021.pdf |pdf]]) * Discrete Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Discrete.20241116.pdf |pdf]]) * Forward, Backward, Central Divided Difference * High Accuracy Differentiation * Richardson Extrapolation * Unequal Spaced Data Differentiation * Numerical Differentiation with Octave </br> === Non-linear Equations === * Bisection Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.1Bisection.20241130.pdf |pdf]]) * Newton-Raphson Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.2Newton.20261019.pdf |pdf]]) * Secant Method * False-Position Method </br> === Numerical Integration === * Trapezoidal Rule * Simpson's 1/3 Rule * Romberg Rule * Gauss-Quadrature Rule * Adaptive Quadrature </br> === Roots of a Nonlinear Equation === </br> === Optimization === </br> </br> == Matrix Algebra == === Simultaneous Linear Equations === * A system of linear equations ([[Media:SystemLinearEq.20240521.pdf |pdf]]) </br> === Gaussian Elimination === </br> === LU Decomposition === </br> === Cholesky Decomposition === </br> === LDL Decomposition === </br> === Gauss-Seidel method === </br> === Adequacy of Solutions === </br> === Eigenvalue and Singular Value === </br> === QRD === </br> === SVD === </br> === Iterative methods === </br> </br> == Regression == === Linear Regression === </br> === Non-linear Regression === </br> === Linear Least Squares === </br> </br> == Interpolation == === Polynomial Interpolation === </br> === Linear Splines === </br> === Piecewise Interpolation === </br> </br> == Ordinary Differential Equation == </br> == Partial Differential Equation == </br> == FEM (Finite Element Method) == </br> </br> </br> == Using Symbolic Package in Octave == * Visit http://octave.sourceforge.net/index.html * Download symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz * In Ubuntu, using the Ubuntu Software Center, I installed GiNac and CLN related software and symbolic package for Octave. But it did not properly installed. * After extracting files from symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz, I followed the following steps. ./configure ./make ./make INSTALL_PATH=/usr/share/octave/packages/3.2/symbolic-1.0.9 * While doing this, I got an error message related to mkoctfile. So, I used the following command: sudo apt-get install ocatve3.2-headers. Then I was able to install the symbolic packages in the Ubuntu. == Read some tutorials about symbolic computation == * Symbolic Mathematics in Matlab/GNU Octave (http://faraday.elec.uow.edu.au/subjects/annual/ECTE313/Symbolic_Maths.pdf) * Symbolic Computations (http://www.math.ohiou.edu/courses/math344/lecture7.pdf) [[Category:Numerical methods]] == Using SymPy ( a Python library for symbolic mathematics) == </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] lhirhaaejag5ox07s1lmsxkpf9129qc 2841850 2841848 2026-10-21T10:45:05Z Young1lim 21186 /* Non-linear Equations */ 2841850 wikitext text/x-wiki == Calculus == === Numerical Differentiation === * Background on Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Background.20240625.pdf |pdf]]) * Continuous Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1ContDiff.20241021.pdf |pdf]]) * Discrete Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Discrete.20241116.pdf |pdf]]) * Forward, Backward, Central Divided Difference * High Accuracy Differentiation * Richardson Extrapolation * Unequal Spaced Data Differentiation * Numerical Differentiation with Octave </br> === Non-linear Equations === * Bisection Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.1Bisection.20241130.pdf |pdf]]) * Newton-Raphson Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.2Newton.20261020.pdf |pdf]]) * Secant Method * False-Position Method </br> === Numerical Integration === * Trapezoidal Rule * Simpson's 1/3 Rule * Romberg Rule * Gauss-Quadrature Rule * Adaptive Quadrature </br> === Roots of a Nonlinear Equation === </br> === Optimization === </br> </br> == Matrix Algebra == === Simultaneous Linear Equations === * A system of linear equations ([[Media:SystemLinearEq.20240521.pdf |pdf]]) </br> === Gaussian Elimination === </br> === LU Decomposition === </br> === Cholesky Decomposition === </br> === LDL Decomposition === </br> === Gauss-Seidel method === </br> === Adequacy of Solutions === </br> === Eigenvalue and Singular Value === </br> === QRD === </br> === SVD === </br> === Iterative methods === </br> </br> == Regression == === Linear Regression === </br> === Non-linear Regression === </br> === Linear Least Squares === </br> </br> == Interpolation == === Polynomial Interpolation === </br> === Linear Splines === </br> === Piecewise Interpolation === </br> </br> == Ordinary Differential Equation == </br> == Partial Differential Equation == </br> == FEM (Finite Element Method) == </br> </br> </br> == Using Symbolic Package in Octave == * Visit http://octave.sourceforge.net/index.html * Download symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz * In Ubuntu, using the Ubuntu Software Center, I installed GiNac and CLN related software and symbolic package for Octave. But it did not properly installed. * After extracting files from symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz, I followed the following steps. ./configure ./make ./make INSTALL_PATH=/usr/share/octave/packages/3.2/symbolic-1.0.9 * While doing this, I got an error message related to mkoctfile. So, I used the following command: sudo apt-get install ocatve3.2-headers. Then I was able to install the symbolic packages in the Ubuntu. == Read some tutorials about symbolic computation == * Symbolic Mathematics in Matlab/GNU Octave (http://faraday.elec.uow.edu.au/subjects/annual/ECTE313/Symbolic_Maths.pdf) * Symbolic Computations (http://www.math.ohiou.edu/courses/math344/lecture7.pdf) [[Category:Numerical methods]] == Using SymPy ( a Python library for symbolic mathematics) == </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] 8memtjum9495nnnwsmicpy785dhyvhs 2841852 2841850 2026-10-21T10:46:02Z Young1lim 21186 /* Non-linear Equations */ 2841852 wikitext text/x-wiki == Calculus == === Numerical Differentiation === * Background on Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Background.20240625.pdf |pdf]]) * Continuous Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1ContDiff.20241021.pdf |pdf]]) * Discrete Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Discrete.20241116.pdf |pdf]]) * Forward, Backward, Central Divided Difference * High Accuracy Differentiation * Richardson Extrapolation * Unequal Spaced Data Differentiation * Numerical Differentiation with Octave </br> === Non-linear Equations === * Bisection Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.1Bisection.20241130.pdf |pdf]]) * Newton-Raphson Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.2Newton.20261021.pdf |pdf]]) * Secant Method * False-Position Method </br> === Numerical Integration === * Trapezoidal Rule * Simpson's 1/3 Rule * Romberg Rule * Gauss-Quadrature Rule * Adaptive Quadrature </br> === Roots of a Nonlinear Equation === </br> === Optimization === </br> </br> == Matrix Algebra == === Simultaneous Linear Equations === * A system of linear equations ([[Media:SystemLinearEq.20240521.pdf |pdf]]) </br> === Gaussian Elimination === </br> === LU Decomposition === </br> === Cholesky Decomposition === </br> === LDL Decomposition === </br> === Gauss-Seidel method === </br> === Adequacy of Solutions === </br> === Eigenvalue and Singular Value === </br> === QRD === </br> === SVD === </br> === Iterative methods === </br> </br> == Regression == === Linear Regression === </br> === Non-linear Regression === </br> === Linear Least Squares === </br> </br> == Interpolation == === Polynomial Interpolation === </br> === Linear Splines === </br> === Piecewise Interpolation === </br> </br> == Ordinary Differential Equation == </br> == Partial Differential Equation == </br> == FEM (Finite Element Method) == </br> </br> </br> == Using Symbolic Package in Octave == * Visit http://octave.sourceforge.net/index.html * Download symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz * In Ubuntu, using the Ubuntu Software Center, I installed GiNac and CLN related software and symbolic package for Octave. But it did not properly installed. * After extracting files from symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz, I followed the following steps. ./configure ./make ./make INSTALL_PATH=/usr/share/octave/packages/3.2/symbolic-1.0.9 * While doing this, I got an error message related to mkoctfile. So, I used the following command: sudo apt-get install ocatve3.2-headers. Then I was able to install the symbolic packages in the Ubuntu. == Read some tutorials about symbolic computation == * Symbolic Mathematics in Matlab/GNU Octave (http://faraday.elec.uow.edu.au/subjects/annual/ECTE313/Symbolic_Maths.pdf) * Symbolic Computations (http://www.math.ohiou.edu/courses/math344/lecture7.pdf) [[Category:Numerical methods]] == Using SymPy ( a Python library for symbolic mathematics) == </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] 3q9gt3vb7o1w0leuyj8or1mdegjzmaa 0 121359 2841751 2836593 2026-10-20T20:47:25Z Young1lim 21186 /* Data */ 2841751 wikitext text/x-wiki <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> == Flip Flop and Latch == * FFLatch.Overview.1.A ([[Media:FFLatch.Overview.1.A.20111103.pdf|pdf]]) * Counter.74LS193.1.A ([[Media:Counter.74LS193.1.A.20111108.pdf|pdf]]) * Clock.Overview.1.A ([[Media:Clock.Overview.1.A.20111108.pdf|pdf]]) * Function.Overview.1.A ([[Media:Function.Overview.1.A.20111201.pdf|pdf]]) <br> == Versions of VHDL == * VHDL Versions ([[Media:VHDL.1.A.Versions.20120619.pdf|pdf]]) * VHDL Libraries ([[Media:VHDL.1.A.Libraries.20140219.pdf|pdf]]) <br> == Basic Features of VHDL == ==== Data ==== * Data Objects ([[Media:Data.Object.1A.20261012.pdf|A]], [[Media:Data.Object.1B.20260602.pdf|B]]) * Data Types ([[Media:Data.Type.2A.20260602.pdf|A]], [[Media:Data.Type.2B.20260602.pdf|B]]) * Packages ([[Media:Data.Package.3A.20251206.pdf|pdf]]) * Signal Types ([[Media:Signal.Type.1A.20250614.pdf|pdf]]) * Attributes ([[Media:Data.4.A.Attribute.20251021.pdf|pdf]]) <br> ==== Signals & Variables ==== * Signals & Variables ([[Media:Signal.1A.SigVar.20250614.pdf|pdf]]) * Sequential Signal Assignments ([[Media:Signal.4A.Sequential.20250612.pdf|pdf]]) * Concurrent & Sequential Signal Assignments ([[Media:Signal.1.A.ConSeq.20120611.pdf|pdf]]) * Inertial & Transport Delay Models ([[Media:Signal.2.A.InertTrans.20120704.pdf|pdf]]) * Simulation & Synthesis ([[Media:Signal.3.A.SimSyn.20120504.pdf|pdf]]) <br> ==== Structure ==== * Component ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Component.20120804.pdf|pdf]]) * Configuration ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Configuration.20121003.pdf|pdf]]) * Generic ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Generic.20120802.pdf|pdf]]) </br> ==== Entity and Architecture ==== <br> ==== Block Statement ==== <br> ==== Process Statement ==== <br> ==== Operators ==== <br> ==== Assignment Statement ==== <br> ==== Concurrent Statement ==== <br> ==== Sequential Control Statement ==== <br> ==== Function ==== * Function.1.A Usage ([[Media:Function.1.A.Usage.20120611.pdf|pdf]]) * Function.2.A Conversion Function ([[Media:Function.2.A.Conversion.pdf|pdf]]) * Function.3.A Resolution Function ([[Media:Function.3.A.Resolution.pdf|pdf]]) <br> ==== Procedure ==== <br> ==== Package ==== </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:VHDL]] [[Category:FPGA]] 3i3tc3ijr6e9web6akrkr2rvyd34go9 2841753 2841751 2026-10-20T20:48:21Z Young1lim 21186 /* Data */ 2841753 wikitext text/x-wiki <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> == Flip Flop and Latch == * FFLatch.Overview.1.A ([[Media:FFLatch.Overview.1.A.20111103.pdf|pdf]]) * Counter.74LS193.1.A ([[Media:Counter.74LS193.1.A.20111108.pdf|pdf]]) * Clock.Overview.1.A ([[Media:Clock.Overview.1.A.20111108.pdf|pdf]]) * Function.Overview.1.A ([[Media:Function.Overview.1.A.20111201.pdf|pdf]]) <br> == Versions of VHDL == * VHDL Versions ([[Media:VHDL.1.A.Versions.20120619.pdf|pdf]]) * VHDL Libraries ([[Media:VHDL.1.A.Libraries.20140219.pdf|pdf]]) <br> == Basic Features of VHDL == ==== Data ==== * Data Objects ([[Media:Data.Object.1A.20261013.pdf|A]], [[Media:Data.Object.1B.20260602.pdf|B]]) * Data Types ([[Media:Data.Type.2A.20260602.pdf|A]], [[Media:Data.Type.2B.20260602.pdf|B]]) * Packages ([[Media:Data.Package.3A.20251206.pdf|pdf]]) * Signal Types ([[Media:Signal.Type.1A.20250614.pdf|pdf]]) * Attributes ([[Media:Data.4.A.Attribute.20251021.pdf|pdf]]) <br> ==== Signals & Variables ==== * Signals & Variables ([[Media:Signal.1A.SigVar.20250614.pdf|pdf]]) * Sequential Signal Assignments ([[Media:Signal.4A.Sequential.20250612.pdf|pdf]]) * Concurrent & Sequential Signal Assignments ([[Media:Signal.1.A.ConSeq.20120611.pdf|pdf]]) * Inertial & Transport Delay Models ([[Media:Signal.2.A.InertTrans.20120704.pdf|pdf]]) * Simulation & Synthesis ([[Media:Signal.3.A.SimSyn.20120504.pdf|pdf]]) <br> ==== Structure ==== * Component ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Component.20120804.pdf|pdf]]) * Configuration ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Configuration.20121003.pdf|pdf]]) * Generic ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Generic.20120802.pdf|pdf]]) </br> ==== Entity and Architecture ==== <br> ==== Block Statement ==== <br> ==== Process Statement ==== <br> ==== Operators ==== <br> ==== Assignment Statement ==== <br> ==== Concurrent Statement ==== <br> ==== Sequential Control Statement ==== <br> ==== Function ==== * Function.1.A Usage ([[Media:Function.1.A.Usage.20120611.pdf|pdf]]) * Function.2.A Conversion Function ([[Media:Function.2.A.Conversion.pdf|pdf]]) * Function.3.A Resolution Function ([[Media:Function.3.A.Resolution.pdf|pdf]]) <br> ==== Procedure ==== <br> ==== Package ==== </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:VHDL]] [[Category:FPGA]] kdrax2oruqu1589tdbga657yjc4l7qo 2841755 2841753 2026-10-20T20:49:11Z Young1lim 21186 /* Data */ 2841755 wikitext text/x-wiki <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> == Flip Flop and Latch == * FFLatch.Overview.1.A ([[Media:FFLatch.Overview.1.A.20111103.pdf|pdf]]) * Counter.74LS193.1.A ([[Media:Counter.74LS193.1.A.20111108.pdf|pdf]]) * Clock.Overview.1.A ([[Media:Clock.Overview.1.A.20111108.pdf|pdf]]) * Function.Overview.1.A ([[Media:Function.Overview.1.A.20111201.pdf|pdf]]) <br> == Versions of VHDL == * VHDL Versions ([[Media:VHDL.1.A.Versions.20120619.pdf|pdf]]) * VHDL Libraries ([[Media:VHDL.1.A.Libraries.20140219.pdf|pdf]]) <br> == Basic Features of VHDL == ==== Data ==== * Data Objects ([[Media:Data.Object.1A.20261019.pdf|A]], [[Media:Data.Object.1B.20260602.pdf|B]]) * Data Types ([[Media:Data.Type.2A.20260602.pdf|A]], [[Media:Data.Type.2B.20260602.pdf|B]]) * Packages ([[Media:Data.Package.3A.20251206.pdf|pdf]]) * Signal Types ([[Media:Signal.Type.1A.20250614.pdf|pdf]]) * Attributes ([[Media:Data.4.A.Attribute.20251021.pdf|pdf]]) <br> ==== Signals & Variables ==== * Signals & Variables ([[Media:Signal.1A.SigVar.20250614.pdf|pdf]]) * Sequential Signal Assignments ([[Media:Signal.4A.Sequential.20250612.pdf|pdf]]) * Concurrent & Sequential Signal Assignments ([[Media:Signal.1.A.ConSeq.20120611.pdf|pdf]]) * Inertial & Transport Delay Models ([[Media:Signal.2.A.InertTrans.20120704.pdf|pdf]]) * Simulation & Synthesis ([[Media:Signal.3.A.SimSyn.20120504.pdf|pdf]]) <br> ==== Structure ==== * Component ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Component.20120804.pdf|pdf]]) * Configuration ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Configuration.20121003.pdf|pdf]]) * Generic ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Generic.20120802.pdf|pdf]]) </br> ==== Entity and Architecture ==== <br> ==== Block Statement ==== <br> ==== Process Statement ==== <br> ==== Operators ==== <br> ==== Assignment Statement ==== <br> ==== Concurrent Statement ==== <br> ==== Sequential Control Statement ==== <br> ==== Function ==== * Function.1.A Usage ([[Media:Function.1.A.Usage.20120611.pdf|pdf]]) * Function.2.A Conversion Function ([[Media:Function.2.A.Conversion.pdf|pdf]]) * Function.3.A Resolution Function ([[Media:Function.3.A.Resolution.pdf|pdf]]) <br> ==== Procedure ==== <br> ==== Package ==== </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:VHDL]] [[Category:FPGA]] h83dq3jyj85mslb605oicgs7858q09q 2841758 2841755 2026-10-20T20:50:00Z Young1lim 21186 /* Data */ 2841758 wikitext text/x-wiki <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> == Flip Flop and Latch == * FFLatch.Overview.1.A ([[Media:FFLatch.Overview.1.A.20111103.pdf|pdf]]) * Counter.74LS193.1.A ([[Media:Counter.74LS193.1.A.20111108.pdf|pdf]]) * Clock.Overview.1.A ([[Media:Clock.Overview.1.A.20111108.pdf|pdf]]) * Function.Overview.1.A ([[Media:Function.Overview.1.A.20111201.pdf|pdf]]) <br> == Versions of VHDL == * VHDL Versions ([[Media:VHDL.1.A.Versions.20120619.pdf|pdf]]) * VHDL Libraries ([[Media:VHDL.1.A.Libraries.20140219.pdf|pdf]]) <br> == Basic Features of VHDL == ==== Data ==== * Data Objects ([[Media:Data.Object.1A.20261020.pdf|A]], [[Media:Data.Object.1B.20260602.pdf|B]]) * Data Types ([[Media:Data.Type.2A.20260602.pdf|A]], [[Media:Data.Type.2B.20260602.pdf|B]]) * Packages ([[Media:Data.Package.3A.20251206.pdf|pdf]]) * Signal Types ([[Media:Signal.Type.1A.20250614.pdf|pdf]]) * Attributes ([[Media:Data.4.A.Attribute.20251021.pdf|pdf]]) <br> ==== Signals & Variables ==== * Signals & Variables ([[Media:Signal.1A.SigVar.20250614.pdf|pdf]]) * Sequential Signal Assignments ([[Media:Signal.4A.Sequential.20250612.pdf|pdf]]) * Concurrent & Sequential Signal Assignments ([[Media:Signal.1.A.ConSeq.20120611.pdf|pdf]]) * Inertial & Transport Delay Models ([[Media:Signal.2.A.InertTrans.20120704.pdf|pdf]]) * Simulation & Synthesis ([[Media:Signal.3.A.SimSyn.20120504.pdf|pdf]]) <br> ==== Structure ==== * Component ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Component.20120804.pdf|pdf]]) * Configuration ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Configuration.20121003.pdf|pdf]]) * Generic ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Generic.20120802.pdf|pdf]]) </br> ==== Entity and Architecture ==== <br> ==== Block Statement ==== <br> ==== Process Statement ==== <br> ==== Operators ==== <br> ==== Assignment Statement ==== <br> ==== Concurrent Statement ==== <br> ==== Sequential Control Statement ==== <br> ==== Function ==== * Function.1.A Usage ([[Media:Function.1.A.Usage.20120611.pdf|pdf]]) * Function.2.A Conversion Function ([[Media:Function.2.A.Conversion.pdf|pdf]]) * Function.3.A Resolution Function ([[Media:Function.3.A.Resolution.pdf|pdf]]) <br> ==== Procedure ==== <br> ==== Package ==== </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:VHDL]] [[Category:FPGA]] c5glcst0vbt8iptxczug3wbx1skzhij 2841842 2841758 2026-10-21T09:00:14Z Young1lim 21186 /* Data */ 2841842 wikitext text/x-wiki <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> == Flip Flop and Latch == * FFLatch.Overview.1.A ([[Media:FFLatch.Overview.1.A.20111103.pdf|pdf]]) * Counter.74LS193.1.A ([[Media:Counter.74LS193.1.A.20111108.pdf|pdf]]) * Clock.Overview.1.A ([[Media:Clock.Overview.1.A.20111108.pdf|pdf]]) * Function.Overview.1.A ([[Media:Function.Overview.1.A.20111201.pdf|pdf]]) <br> == Versions of VHDL == * VHDL Versions ([[Media:VHDL.1.A.Versions.20120619.pdf|pdf]]) * VHDL Libraries ([[Media:VHDL.1.A.Libraries.20140219.pdf|pdf]]) <br> == Basic Features of VHDL == ==== Data ==== * Data Objects ([[Media:Data.Object.1A.20261021.pdf|A]], [[Media:Data.Object.1B.20260602.pdf|B]]) * Data Types ([[Media:Data.Type.2A.20260602.pdf|A]], [[Media:Data.Type.2B.20260602.pdf|B]]) * Packages ([[Media:Data.Package.3A.20251206.pdf|pdf]]) * Signal Types ([[Media:Signal.Type.1A.20250614.pdf|pdf]]) * Attributes ([[Media:Data.4.A.Attribute.20251021.pdf|pdf]]) <br> ==== Signals & Variables ==== * Signals & Variables ([[Media:Signal.1A.SigVar.20250614.pdf|pdf]]) * Sequential Signal Assignments ([[Media:Signal.4A.Sequential.20250612.pdf|pdf]]) * Concurrent & Sequential Signal Assignments ([[Media:Signal.1.A.ConSeq.20120611.pdf|pdf]]) * Inertial & Transport Delay Models ([[Media:Signal.2.A.InertTrans.20120704.pdf|pdf]]) * Simulation & Synthesis ([[Media:Signal.3.A.SimSyn.20120504.pdf|pdf]]) <br> ==== Structure ==== * Component ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Component.20120804.pdf|pdf]]) * Configuration ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Configuration.20121003.pdf|pdf]]) * Generic ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Generic.20120802.pdf|pdf]]) </br> ==== Entity and Architecture ==== <br> ==== Block Statement ==== <br> ==== Process Statement ==== <br> ==== Operators ==== <br> ==== Assignment Statement ==== <br> ==== Concurrent Statement ==== <br> ==== Sequential Control Statement ==== <br> ==== Function ==== * Function.1.A Usage ([[Media:Function.1.A.Usage.20120611.pdf|pdf]]) * Function.2.A Conversion Function ([[Media:Function.2.A.Conversion.pdf|pdf]]) * Function.3.A Resolution Function ([[Media:Function.3.A.Resolution.pdf|pdf]]) <br> ==== Procedure ==== <br> ==== Package ==== </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:VHDL]] [[Category:FPGA]] lert3i5col6yzfz56fx3z4nh02w65og 0 194151 2841767 2485334 2026-10-20T22:57:31Z Jtneill 10242 /* Studies and Essays */ Remove red link 2841767 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Physics}} {{Wikipedia}} * [[wikipedia:Portal:Cosmology|Wikipedia Cosmology Portal]] == Lectures as slide presentations == <gallery> File:Cosmology 30h lecture.pdf </gallery> == Studies and Essays == * [[/Dichotomous]] cosmology, based on the work of Y. Heymann. [[Category:Cosmology| ]] r2hrgwz5ylvs2or7nstuh0p3a9za3hr 0 203942 2841743 2840568 2026-10-20T19:53:13Z Young1lim 21186 /* Lambda Calculus */ 2841743 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Introduction== * Overview I ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.1.A.20160806.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview II ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.2.A.20160926.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview III ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.3.A.20161011.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview IV ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.4.A.20161104.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview V ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.5.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Applications== * Sudoku Background ([[Media:Sudoku.Background.0.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]]) * Bird's Implementation :- Specification ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.1.A.Spec.20170425.pdf |pdf]]) :- Rules ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.2.A.Rule.20170201.pdf |pdf]]) :- Pruning ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.3.A.Pruning.20170211.pdf |pdf]]) :- Expanding ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.4.A.Expand.20170506.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Using GHCi== * Getting started ([[Media:GHCi.Start.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Using Libraries== * Library ([[Media:Library.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]]) </br> </br> ==Types== * Constructors ([[Media:Background.1.A.Constructor.20180904.pdf |pdf]]) * TypeClasses ([[Media:Background.1.B.TypeClass.20180904.pdf |pdf]]) * Types ([[Media:MP3.1A.Mut.Type.20200721.pdf |pdf]]) * Primitive Types ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.PrimType.20200611.pdf |pdf]]) * Polymorphic Types ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Polymorphic.20201212.pdf |pdf]]) ==Functions== * Functions ([[Media:Background.1.C.Function.20180712.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:Background.1.E.Operator.20180707.pdf |pdf]]) * Continuation Passing Style ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Continuation.20220110.pdf |pdf]]) ==Expressions== * Expressions I ([[Media:Background.1.D.Expression.20180707.pdf |pdf]]) * Expressions II ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Expression.20220628.pdf |pdf]]) * Non-terminating Expressions ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Non-terminating.20220616.pdf |pdf]]) </br> </br> ==Lambda Calculus== * Lambda Calculus - informal description ([[Media:LCal.1A.informal.20220831.pdf |pdf]]) * Lambda Calculus - Formal definition ([[Media:LCal.2A.formal.20260915.pdf |pdf]]) * Expression Reduction ([[Media:LCal.3A.reduction.20220920.pdf |pdf]]) * Normal Forms ([[Media:LCal.4A.Normal.20220903.pdf |pdf]]) * Encoding Datatypes :- Church Numerals ([[Media:LCal.5A.Numeral.20230627.pdf |pdf]]) :- Church Booleans ([[Media:LCal.6A.Boolean.20230815.pdf |pdf]]) :- Functions ([[Media:LCal.7A.Function.20231230.pdf |pdf]]) :- Combinators ([[Media:LCal.8A.Combinator.20241202.pdf |pdf]]) :- Recursions ([[Media:LCal.9A.Recursion.20261019.pdf |A]], [[Media:LCal.9B.Recursion.20260330.pdf |B]]) </br> </br> ==Function Oriented Typeclasses== === Functors === * Functor Overview ([[Media:Functor.1.A.Overview.20180802.pdf |pdf]]) * Function Functor ([[Media:Functor.2.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]]) * Functor Lifting ([[Media:Functor.2.B.Lifting.20180721.pdf |pdf]]) === Applicatives === * Applicatives Overview ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Overview.20180606.pdf |pdf]]) * Applicatives Methods ([[Media:Applicative.3.B.Method.20180519.pdf |pdf]]) * Function Applicative ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]]) * Applicatives Sequencing ([[Media:Applicative.3.C.Sequencing.20180606.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads I : Background === * Side Effects ([[Media:Monad.P1.1A.SideEffect.20190316.pdf |pdf]]) * Monad Overview ([[Media:Monad.P1.2A.Overview.20190308.pdf |pdf]]) * Monadic Operations ([[Media:Monad.P1.3A.Operations.20190308.pdf |pdf]]) * Maybe Monad ([[Media:Monad.P1.4A.Maybe.201900606.pdf |pdf]]) * IO Actions ([[Media:Monad.P1.5A.IOAction.20190606.pdf |pdf]]) * Several Monad Types ([[Media:Monad.P1.6A.Types.20191016.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads II : State Transformer Monads === * State Transformer : - State Transformer Basics ([[Media:MP2.1A.STrans.Basic.20191002.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Transformer Generic Monad ([[Media:MP2.1B.STrans.Generic.20191002.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Transformer Monads ([[Media:MP2.1C.STrans.Monad.20191022.pdf |pdf]]) * State Monad : - State Monad Basics ([[Media:MP2.2A.State.Basic.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Monad Methods ([[Media:MP2.2B.State.Method.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Monad Examples ([[Media:MP2.2C.State.Example.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads III : Mutable State Monads === * Mutability Background : - Inhabitedness ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Inhabited.20220319.pdf |pdf]]) : - Existential Types ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Existential.20220128.pdf |pdf]]) : - forall Keyword ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.forall.20210316.pdf |pdf]]) : - Mutability and Strictness ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Strictness.20200613.pdf |pdf]]) : - Strict and Lazy Packages ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Package.20200620.pdf |pdf]]) * Mutable Objects : - Mutable Variables ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.Variable.20200224.pdf |pdf]]) : - Mutable Data Structures ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.DataStruct.20191226.pdf |pdf]]) * IO Monad : - IO Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.2A.IO.Basic.20191019.pdf |pdf]]) : - IO Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.2B.IO.Method.20191022.pdf |pdf]]) : - IORef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.2C.IO.IORef.20191019.pdf |pdf]]) * ST Monad : - ST Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.3A.ST.Basic.20191031.pdf |pdf]]) : - ST Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.3B.ST.Method.20191023.pdf |pdf]]) : - STRef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.3C.ST.STRef.20191023.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads IV : Reader and Writer Monads === * Function Monad ([[Media:Monad.10.A.Function.20180806.pdf |pdf]]) * Monad Transformer ([[Media:Monad.3.I.Transformer.20180727.pdf |pdf]]) * MonadState Class :: - State & StateT Monads ([[Media:Monad.9.A.MonadState.Monad.20180920.pdf |pdf]]) :: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.9.B.MonadState.Class.20180920.pdf |pdf]]) * MonadReader Class :: - Reader & ReaderT Monads ([[Media:Monad.11.A.Reader.20180821.pdf |pdf]]) :: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.12.A.MonadReader.20180821.pdf |pdf]]) * Control Monad ([[Media:Monad.9.A.Control.20180908.pdf |pdf]]) === Monoid === * Monoids ([[Media:Monoid.4.A.20180508.pdf |pdf]]) === Arrow === * Arrows ([[Media:Arrow.1.A.20190504.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Polymorphism== * Polymorphism Overview ([[Media:Poly.1.A.20180220.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Concurrent Haskell == </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] ==External links== * [http://learnyouahaskell.com/introduction Learn you Haskell] * [http://book.realworldhaskell.org/read/ Real World Haskell] * [http://www.scs.stanford.edu/14sp-cs240h/slides/ Standford Class Material] [[Category:Haskell|programming in plain view]] c3vy4sbbnsacji91hvhry2kgzw08zsy 2841747 2841743 2026-10-20T20:14:31Z Young1lim 21186 /* Lambda Calculus */ 2841747 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Introduction== * Overview I ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.1.A.20160806.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview II ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.2.A.20160926.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview III ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.3.A.20161011.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview IV ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.4.A.20161104.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview V ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.5.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Applications== * Sudoku Background ([[Media:Sudoku.Background.0.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]]) * Bird's Implementation :- Specification ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.1.A.Spec.20170425.pdf |pdf]]) :- Rules ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.2.A.Rule.20170201.pdf |pdf]]) :- Pruning ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.3.A.Pruning.20170211.pdf |pdf]]) :- Expanding ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.4.A.Expand.20170506.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Using GHCi== * Getting started ([[Media:GHCi.Start.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Using Libraries== * Library ([[Media:Library.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]]) </br> </br> ==Types== * Constructors ([[Media:Background.1.A.Constructor.20180904.pdf |pdf]]) * TypeClasses ([[Media:Background.1.B.TypeClass.20180904.pdf |pdf]]) * Types ([[Media:MP3.1A.Mut.Type.20200721.pdf |pdf]]) * Primitive Types ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.PrimType.20200611.pdf |pdf]]) * Polymorphic Types ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Polymorphic.20201212.pdf |pdf]]) ==Functions== * Functions ([[Media:Background.1.C.Function.20180712.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:Background.1.E.Operator.20180707.pdf |pdf]]) * Continuation Passing Style ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Continuation.20220110.pdf |pdf]]) ==Expressions== * Expressions I ([[Media:Background.1.D.Expression.20180707.pdf |pdf]]) * Expressions II ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Expression.20220628.pdf |pdf]]) * Non-terminating Expressions ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Non-terminating.20220616.pdf |pdf]]) </br> </br> ==Lambda Calculus== * Lambda Calculus - informal description ([[Media:LCal.1A.informal.20220831.pdf |pdf]]) * Lambda Calculus - Formal definition ([[Media:LCal.2A.formal.20260915.pdf |pdf]]) * Expression Reduction ([[Media:LCal.3A.reduction.20220920.pdf |pdf]]) * Normal Forms ([[Media:LCal.4A.Normal.20220903.pdf |pdf]]) * Encoding Datatypes :- Church Numerals ([[Media:LCal.5A.Numeral.20230627.pdf |pdf]]) :- Church Booleans ([[Media:LCal.6A.Boolean.20230815.pdf |pdf]]) :- Functions ([[Media:LCal.7A.Function.20231230.pdf |pdf]]) :- Combinators ([[Media:LCal.8A.Combinator.20241202.pdf |pdf]]) :- Recursions ([[Media:LCal.9A.Recursion.20261020.pdf |A]], [[Media:LCal.9B.Recursion.20260330.pdf |B]]) </br> </br> ==Function Oriented Typeclasses== === Functors === * Functor Overview ([[Media:Functor.1.A.Overview.20180802.pdf |pdf]]) * Function Functor ([[Media:Functor.2.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]]) * Functor Lifting ([[Media:Functor.2.B.Lifting.20180721.pdf |pdf]]) === Applicatives === * Applicatives Overview ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Overview.20180606.pdf |pdf]]) * Applicatives Methods ([[Media:Applicative.3.B.Method.20180519.pdf |pdf]]) * Function Applicative ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]]) * Applicatives Sequencing ([[Media:Applicative.3.C.Sequencing.20180606.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads I : Background === * Side Effects ([[Media:Monad.P1.1A.SideEffect.20190316.pdf |pdf]]) * Monad Overview ([[Media:Monad.P1.2A.Overview.20190308.pdf |pdf]]) * Monadic Operations ([[Media:Monad.P1.3A.Operations.20190308.pdf |pdf]]) * Maybe Monad ([[Media:Monad.P1.4A.Maybe.201900606.pdf |pdf]]) * IO Actions ([[Media:Monad.P1.5A.IOAction.20190606.pdf |pdf]]) * Several Monad Types ([[Media:Monad.P1.6A.Types.20191016.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads II : State Transformer Monads === * State Transformer : - State Transformer Basics ([[Media:MP2.1A.STrans.Basic.20191002.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Transformer Generic Monad ([[Media:MP2.1B.STrans.Generic.20191002.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Transformer Monads ([[Media:MP2.1C.STrans.Monad.20191022.pdf |pdf]]) * State Monad : - State Monad Basics ([[Media:MP2.2A.State.Basic.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Monad Methods ([[Media:MP2.2B.State.Method.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Monad Examples ([[Media:MP2.2C.State.Example.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads III : Mutable State Monads === * Mutability Background : - Inhabitedness ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Inhabited.20220319.pdf |pdf]]) : - Existential Types ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Existential.20220128.pdf |pdf]]) : - forall Keyword ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.forall.20210316.pdf |pdf]]) : - Mutability and Strictness ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Strictness.20200613.pdf |pdf]]) : - Strict and Lazy Packages ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Package.20200620.pdf |pdf]]) * Mutable Objects : - Mutable Variables ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.Variable.20200224.pdf |pdf]]) : - Mutable Data Structures ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.DataStruct.20191226.pdf |pdf]]) * IO Monad : - IO Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.2A.IO.Basic.20191019.pdf |pdf]]) : - IO Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.2B.IO.Method.20191022.pdf |pdf]]) : - IORef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.2C.IO.IORef.20191019.pdf |pdf]]) * ST Monad : - ST Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.3A.ST.Basic.20191031.pdf |pdf]]) : - ST Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.3B.ST.Method.20191023.pdf |pdf]]) : - STRef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.3C.ST.STRef.20191023.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads IV : Reader and Writer Monads === * Function Monad ([[Media:Monad.10.A.Function.20180806.pdf |pdf]]) * Monad Transformer ([[Media:Monad.3.I.Transformer.20180727.pdf |pdf]]) * MonadState Class :: - State & StateT Monads ([[Media:Monad.9.A.MonadState.Monad.20180920.pdf |pdf]]) :: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.9.B.MonadState.Class.20180920.pdf |pdf]]) * MonadReader Class :: - Reader & ReaderT Monads ([[Media:Monad.11.A.Reader.20180821.pdf |pdf]]) :: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.12.A.MonadReader.20180821.pdf |pdf]]) * Control Monad ([[Media:Monad.9.A.Control.20180908.pdf |pdf]]) === Monoid === * Monoids ([[Media:Monoid.4.A.20180508.pdf |pdf]]) === Arrow === * Arrows ([[Media:Arrow.1.A.20190504.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Polymorphism== * Polymorphism Overview ([[Media:Poly.1.A.20180220.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Concurrent Haskell == </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] ==External links== * [http://learnyouahaskell.com/introduction Learn you Haskell] * [http://book.realworldhaskell.org/read/ Real World Haskell] * [http://www.scs.stanford.edu/14sp-cs240h/slides/ Standford Class Material] [[Category:Haskell|programming in plain view]] qlsj51a0ckth2wjshbmqsubpch6gd5e 2841840 2841747 2026-10-21T08:59:18Z Young1lim 21186 /* Lambda Calculus */ 2841840 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Introduction== * Overview I ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.1.A.20160806.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview II ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.2.A.20160926.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview III ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.3.A.20161011.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview IV ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.4.A.20161104.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview V ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.5.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Applications== * Sudoku Background ([[Media:Sudoku.Background.0.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]]) * Bird's Implementation :- Specification ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.1.A.Spec.20170425.pdf |pdf]]) :- Rules ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.2.A.Rule.20170201.pdf |pdf]]) :- Pruning ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.3.A.Pruning.20170211.pdf |pdf]]) :- Expanding ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.4.A.Expand.20170506.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Using GHCi== * Getting started ([[Media:GHCi.Start.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Using Libraries== * Library ([[Media:Library.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]]) </br> </br> ==Types== * Constructors ([[Media:Background.1.A.Constructor.20180904.pdf |pdf]]) * TypeClasses ([[Media:Background.1.B.TypeClass.20180904.pdf |pdf]]) * Types ([[Media:MP3.1A.Mut.Type.20200721.pdf |pdf]]) * Primitive Types ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.PrimType.20200611.pdf |pdf]]) * Polymorphic Types ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Polymorphic.20201212.pdf |pdf]]) ==Functions== * Functions ([[Media:Background.1.C.Function.20180712.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:Background.1.E.Operator.20180707.pdf |pdf]]) * Continuation Passing Style ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Continuation.20220110.pdf |pdf]]) ==Expressions== * Expressions I ([[Media:Background.1.D.Expression.20180707.pdf |pdf]]) * Expressions II ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Expression.20220628.pdf |pdf]]) * Non-terminating Expressions ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Non-terminating.20220616.pdf |pdf]]) </br> </br> ==Lambda Calculus== * Lambda Calculus - informal description ([[Media:LCal.1A.informal.20220831.pdf |pdf]]) * Lambda Calculus - Formal definition ([[Media:LCal.2A.formal.20260915.pdf |pdf]]) * Expression Reduction ([[Media:LCal.3A.reduction.20220920.pdf |pdf]]) * Normal Forms ([[Media:LCal.4A.Normal.20220903.pdf |pdf]]) * Encoding Datatypes :- Church Numerals ([[Media:LCal.5A.Numeral.20230627.pdf |pdf]]) :- Church Booleans ([[Media:LCal.6A.Boolean.20230815.pdf |pdf]]) :- Functions ([[Media:LCal.7A.Function.20231230.pdf |pdf]]) :- Combinators ([[Media:LCal.8A.Combinator.20241202.pdf |pdf]]) :- Recursions ([[Media:LCal.9A.Recursion.20261021.pdf |A]], [[Media:LCal.9B.Recursion.20260330.pdf |B]]) </br> </br> ==Function Oriented Typeclasses== === Functors === * Functor Overview ([[Media:Functor.1.A.Overview.20180802.pdf |pdf]]) * Function Functor ([[Media:Functor.2.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]]) * Functor Lifting ([[Media:Functor.2.B.Lifting.20180721.pdf |pdf]]) === Applicatives === * Applicatives Overview ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Overview.20180606.pdf |pdf]]) * Applicatives Methods ([[Media:Applicative.3.B.Method.20180519.pdf |pdf]]) * Function Applicative ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]]) * Applicatives Sequencing ([[Media:Applicative.3.C.Sequencing.20180606.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads I : Background === * Side Effects ([[Media:Monad.P1.1A.SideEffect.20190316.pdf |pdf]]) * Monad Overview ([[Media:Monad.P1.2A.Overview.20190308.pdf |pdf]]) * Monadic Operations ([[Media:Monad.P1.3A.Operations.20190308.pdf |pdf]]) * Maybe Monad ([[Media:Monad.P1.4A.Maybe.201900606.pdf |pdf]]) * IO Actions ([[Media:Monad.P1.5A.IOAction.20190606.pdf |pdf]]) * Several Monad Types ([[Media:Monad.P1.6A.Types.20191016.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads II : State Transformer Monads === * State Transformer : - State Transformer Basics ([[Media:MP2.1A.STrans.Basic.20191002.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Transformer Generic Monad ([[Media:MP2.1B.STrans.Generic.20191002.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Transformer Monads ([[Media:MP2.1C.STrans.Monad.20191022.pdf |pdf]]) * State Monad : - State Monad Basics ([[Media:MP2.2A.State.Basic.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Monad Methods ([[Media:MP2.2B.State.Method.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Monad Examples ([[Media:MP2.2C.State.Example.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads III : Mutable State Monads === * Mutability Background : - Inhabitedness ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Inhabited.20220319.pdf |pdf]]) : - Existential Types ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Existential.20220128.pdf |pdf]]) : - forall Keyword ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.forall.20210316.pdf |pdf]]) : - Mutability and Strictness ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Strictness.20200613.pdf |pdf]]) : - Strict and Lazy Packages ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Package.20200620.pdf |pdf]]) * Mutable Objects : - Mutable Variables ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.Variable.20200224.pdf |pdf]]) : - Mutable Data Structures ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.DataStruct.20191226.pdf |pdf]]) * IO Monad : - IO Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.2A.IO.Basic.20191019.pdf |pdf]]) : - IO Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.2B.IO.Method.20191022.pdf |pdf]]) : - IORef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.2C.IO.IORef.20191019.pdf |pdf]]) * ST Monad : - ST Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.3A.ST.Basic.20191031.pdf |pdf]]) : - ST Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.3B.ST.Method.20191023.pdf |pdf]]) : - STRef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.3C.ST.STRef.20191023.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads IV : Reader and Writer Monads === * Function Monad ([[Media:Monad.10.A.Function.20180806.pdf |pdf]]) * Monad Transformer ([[Media:Monad.3.I.Transformer.20180727.pdf |pdf]]) * MonadState Class :: - State & StateT Monads ([[Media:Monad.9.A.MonadState.Monad.20180920.pdf |pdf]]) :: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.9.B.MonadState.Class.20180920.pdf |pdf]]) * MonadReader Class :: - Reader & ReaderT Monads ([[Media:Monad.11.A.Reader.20180821.pdf |pdf]]) :: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.12.A.MonadReader.20180821.pdf |pdf]]) * Control Monad ([[Media:Monad.9.A.Control.20180908.pdf |pdf]]) === Monoid === * Monoids ([[Media:Monoid.4.A.20180508.pdf |pdf]]) === Arrow === * Arrows ([[Media:Arrow.1.A.20190504.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Polymorphism== * Polymorphism Overview ([[Media:Poly.1.A.20180220.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Concurrent Haskell == </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] ==External links== * [http://learnyouahaskell.com/introduction Learn you Haskell] * [http://book.realworldhaskell.org/read/ Real World Haskell] * [http://www.scs.stanford.edu/14sp-cs240h/slides/ Standford Class Material] [[Category:Haskell|programming in plain view]] lzk6tqugu4uad2dhc9ca82rdcxfdcaz 0 212733 2841860 2840920 2026-10-21T11:35:46Z Young1lim 21186 /* Using Libraries */ 2841860 wikitext text/x-wiki ==''' Part I '''== <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Introduction === * Overview * Memory * Number <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Python for C programmers === * Hello, World! ([[Media:CProg.Hello.1A.20230406.pdf |pdf]]) * Statement Level ([[Media:CProg.Statement.1A.20230509.pdf |pdf]]) * Output with print * Formatted output * File IO <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Using Libraries === * Scripts ([[Media:Python.Work2.Script.1A.20231129.pdf |pdf]]) * Modules ([[Media:Python.Work2.Module.1A.20231216.pdf |pdf]]) * Packages ([[Media:Python.Work2.Package.1A.20241207.pdf |pdf]]) * Libraries ([[Media:Python.Work2.Library.1A.20261019.pdf |A]], [[Media:Python.Work2.Library.1B.20260720.pdf |B]]) * Namespaces ([[Media:Python.Work2.Scope.1A.20231021.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Repetition === * Control ([[Media:Python.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20230314.pdf |pdf]]) * Loop ([[Media:Repeat2.Loop.1A.20230401.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling a Big Work === * Functions ([[Media:Python.Work1.Function.1A.20230529.pdf |pdf]]) * Lambda ([[Media:Python.Work2.Lambda.1A.20230705.pdf |pdf]]) * Type Annotations ([[Media:Python.Work2.AtypeAnnot.1A.20230817.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Series of Data === * Arrays ([[Media:Python.Series1.Array.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series2.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Lists ([[Media:Python.Series3.List.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series4.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Sets ([[Media:Python.Series5.Set.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Dictionary ([[Media:Python.Series6.Dictionary.1A.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Various Kinds of Data === * Types * Operators ([[Media:Python.Data3.Operators.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Files ([[Media:Python.Data4.File.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Class and Objects === * Classes & Objects ([[Media:Python.Work2.Class.1A.20230906.pdf |pdf]]) * Inheritance <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> </br> == Python in Numerical Analysis == </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] ==External links== * [http://www.southampton.ac.uk/~fangohr/training/python/pdfs/Python-for-Computational-Science-and-Engineering.pdf Python and Computational Science and Engineering] kjfkiom0kbkrotl8fhj4fs0nw54lkwu 2841862 2841860 2026-10-21T11:36:44Z Young1lim 21186 /* Using Libraries */ 2841862 wikitext text/x-wiki ==''' Part I '''== <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Introduction === * Overview * Memory * Number <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Python for C programmers === * Hello, World! ([[Media:CProg.Hello.1A.20230406.pdf |pdf]]) * Statement Level ([[Media:CProg.Statement.1A.20230509.pdf |pdf]]) * Output with print * Formatted output * File IO <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Using Libraries === * Scripts ([[Media:Python.Work2.Script.1A.20231129.pdf |pdf]]) * Modules ([[Media:Python.Work2.Module.1A.20231216.pdf |pdf]]) * Packages ([[Media:Python.Work2.Package.1A.20241207.pdf |pdf]]) * Libraries ([[Media:Python.Work2.Library.1A.20261020.pdf |A]], [[Media:Python.Work2.Library.1B.20260720.pdf |B]]) * Namespaces ([[Media:Python.Work2.Scope.1A.20231021.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Repetition === * Control ([[Media:Python.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20230314.pdf |pdf]]) * Loop ([[Media:Repeat2.Loop.1A.20230401.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling a Big Work === * Functions ([[Media:Python.Work1.Function.1A.20230529.pdf |pdf]]) * Lambda ([[Media:Python.Work2.Lambda.1A.20230705.pdf |pdf]]) * Type Annotations ([[Media:Python.Work2.AtypeAnnot.1A.20230817.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Series of Data === * Arrays ([[Media:Python.Series1.Array.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series2.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Lists ([[Media:Python.Series3.List.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series4.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Sets ([[Media:Python.Series5.Set.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Dictionary ([[Media:Python.Series6.Dictionary.1A.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Various Kinds of Data === * Types * Operators ([[Media:Python.Data3.Operators.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Files ([[Media:Python.Data4.File.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Class and Objects === * Classes & Objects ([[Media:Python.Work2.Class.1A.20230906.pdf |pdf]]) * Inheritance <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> </br> == Python in Numerical Analysis == </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] ==External links== * [http://www.southampton.ac.uk/~fangohr/training/python/pdfs/Python-for-Computational-Science-and-Engineering.pdf Python and Computational Science and Engineering] k7etw8zcs4h95u145f7k8h9eu31g8e6 2841865 2841862 2026-10-21T11:37:39Z Young1lim 21186 /* Using Libraries */ 2841865 wikitext text/x-wiki ==''' Part I '''== <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Introduction === * Overview * Memory * Number <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Python for C programmers === * Hello, World! ([[Media:CProg.Hello.1A.20230406.pdf |pdf]]) * Statement Level ([[Media:CProg.Statement.1A.20230509.pdf |pdf]]) * Output with print * Formatted output * File IO <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Using Libraries === * Scripts ([[Media:Python.Work2.Script.1A.20231129.pdf |pdf]]) * Modules ([[Media:Python.Work2.Module.1A.20231216.pdf |pdf]]) * Packages ([[Media:Python.Work2.Package.1A.20241207.pdf |pdf]]) * Libraries ([[Media:Python.Work2.Library.1A.20261021.pdf |A]], [[Media:Python.Work2.Library.1B.20260720.pdf |B]]) * Namespaces ([[Media:Python.Work2.Scope.1A.20231021.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Repetition === * Control ([[Media:Python.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20230314.pdf |pdf]]) * Loop ([[Media:Repeat2.Loop.1A.20230401.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling a Big Work === * Functions ([[Media:Python.Work1.Function.1A.20230529.pdf |pdf]]) * Lambda ([[Media:Python.Work2.Lambda.1A.20230705.pdf |pdf]]) * Type Annotations ([[Media:Python.Work2.AtypeAnnot.1A.20230817.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Series of Data === * Arrays ([[Media:Python.Series1.Array.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series2.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Lists ([[Media:Python.Series3.List.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series4.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Sets ([[Media:Python.Series5.Set.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Dictionary ([[Media:Python.Series6.Dictionary.1A.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Various Kinds of Data === * Types * Operators ([[Media:Python.Data3.Operators.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Files ([[Media:Python.Data4.File.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Class and Objects === * Classes & Objects ([[Media:Python.Work2.Class.1A.20230906.pdf |pdf]]) * Inheritance <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> </br> == Python in Numerical Analysis == </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] ==External links== * [http://www.southampton.ac.uk/~fangohr/training/python/pdfs/Python-for-Computational-Science-and-Engineering.pdf Python and Computational Science and Engineering] j758lu8excgh3ahwwzeh2pj2zw40wxh 0 213879 2841734 2841102 2026-10-20T17:29:09Z Mr. Screw News 3112852 /* Fall 2026 */ 2841734 wikitext text/x-wiki == '''Digital Artists Wiki Project''' Assignment == === Assignment Description === For this assignment, you will write and publish a wiki-style article about a digital artist/technology of your choice on Wikiversity.<ref>https://www.techxlab.org/solutions/wikimedia-foundation-wikiversity</ref> You should begin by finding an article stub that needs to be developed or identifying a potential artist whose work is not featured currently. Remember that you are writing for the Wikiversity community and your article will be judged and graded on Wikipedia publishing standards.<ref>[[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:Policies and guidelines]]</ref> == Instructions == '''1. Create a user Profile here:'''<br> [[Special:CreateAccount]]<br> User Guidelines can be found here: [[Wikiversity:Introduction]]<br><br> '''2. Choose a Topic'''<br> You may choose any topic related to digital art and technology from any time period. Try to find a topic that's important to you and not already featured on wikipedia. In case you have difficulties finding a topic, please feel free to consult with your instructor.<br> Please note that each student must choose a unique topic. Once you have selected a digital artist, post your artist’s name along with your name under the Spring 2026 header. Please check that no one else has elected to work on the same artists. Example: <pre>* ~~~~[[Digital Media Concepts/YOUR PAGE TITLE]]</pre> for example <pre>* ~~~~[[Digital Media Concepts/Wafaa Bilal]]</pre> produces: * [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] 01:01, 15 August 2016 (UTC) [[/Wafaa Bilal/]] '''3. OR Create your page using the following:''' <inputbox> type=create width=80 preload={{FULLPAGENAME}}/Template editintro= buttonlabel=Create project subpage searchbuttonlabel= break=no prefix={{FULLPAGENAME}}/ placeholder=enter title here </inputbox><br> This template can help get you started: [[Digital_Media_Concepts/Template|Template]] == Links == A wikilink (or internal link) links a page to another page within English Wikipedia. In wikitext, links are enclosed in double square brackets like this: <pre>[[abc]]</pre> is seen as [[abc]] External links use absolute URLs to link directly to any web page. External links are enclosed in single square brackets (rather than double brackets as with internal links), with the optional link text separated from the URL by a space <pre>[http://www.example.org/ link text]</pre> will be rendered as: [http://www.example.org/ link text] When no link text is specified, external links appear numbered: <pre>[http://www.example.org/some-other-page]</pre> becomes: [http://www.example.org/some-other-page] Links with no square brackets display in their entirety <pre>http://www.example.org/</pre> displays as http://www.example.org === Fall 2026 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Mr. Screw News|Mr. Screw News]] ([[User talk:Mr. Screw News|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mr. Screw News|contribs]]) 17:29, 20 October 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Peer to Peer Online Education Interactions ]] * [[User:Hadfaiez|Hadfaiez]] ([[User talk:Hadfaiez|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Hadfaiez|contribs]]) 04:59, 15 October 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Smartwatch Technology for Health Monitoring and Fitness Tracking]] * [[User:Katelyn Thilak|Katelyn Thilak]] ([[User talk:Katelyn Thilak|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Katelyn Thilak|contribs]]) 08:00, 18 October 2026 (UTC)[[Digital_Media_Concepts/Joy_Buolamwini_and_Facial_Analysis_Bias]] {{collapse bottom}} === Spring 2026 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Jaylor22|Jaylor22]] ([[User talk:Jaylor22|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jaylor22|contribs]]) 22:52, 7 April 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Use of CGI in Motion Picture Film How to Train Your Dragon]] * [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] ([[User talk:Ireicher2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ireicher2|contribs]]) 02:21, 4 April 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/TikTok and Its Impact on Self-Esteem]] * [[User:Ksafa1|Ksafa1]] ([[User talk:Ksafa1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ksafa1|contribs]]) 05:29, 1 April 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The Rise of Digital Music Therapy Apps and Teen Mental Health]] * [[User:Mina Safa|Mina Safa]] ([[User talk:Mina Safa|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mina Safa|contribs]]) 03:59, 1 April 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Digital Media Concepts/Algorithmic Mood Feeds]] * [[User:Aarna.Makam|Aarna.Makam]] ([[User talk:Aarna.Makam|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Aarna.Makam|contribs]]) 00:08, 31 March 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Virtual Concerts & Hologram-Style Live Events]] * [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] ([[User talk:Ireicher2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ireicher2|contribs]]) 18:27, 29 March 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/New StudyFetch]] * [[User:Vania Lat|Vania Lat]] ([[User talk:Vania Lat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Vania Lat|contribs]]) 20:33, 9 March 2026 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Technological Landscape of Esports]] * [[User:SarahLuber|SarahLuber]] ([[User talk:SarahLuber|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SarahLuber|contribs]]) 20:59, 9 March 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Notch's history In Games]] * [[User:5heep.doggydog|5heep.doggydog]] ([[User talk:5heep.doggydog|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/5heep.doggydog|contribs]]) 16:43, 13 March 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Radio Telemetry in Bear Conservation]] * [[User:Qianqian Z|Qianqian Z]] ([[User talk:Qianqian Z|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Qianqian Z|contribs]]) 05:19, 16 March 2026 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Zhang Yiming and Algorithm-Driven Content Platforms]] * [[User:EZMedina18|EZMedina18]] ([[User talk:EZMedina18|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EZMedina18|contribs]]) 04:34, 27 March 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Trackman Golf Launch Monitors]] * [[User:Triajj|Trianna J.]] ([[User talk:Triajj|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Triajj|contribs]]) 23:26, 27 March 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Digital Marketing Strategies in K-Pop]] * [[User:Qiurick|Qiurick]] ([[User talk:Qiurick|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Qiurick|contribs]]) 20:50, 28 March 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Simon Collins-Laflamme]] * [[User:SwarG07|SwarG07]] ([[User talk:SwarG07|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SwarG07|contribs]]) 06:01, 30 March 2026 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Kanye West and the Living Album Concept]] * [[User:Joaquin A Quinonez|Joaquin A Quinonez]] ([[User talk:Joaquin A Quinonez|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Joaquin A Quinonez|contribs]]) 20:25, 30 March 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Environmental storytelling in Xenoblade Chronicles]] {{collapse bottom}} === Fall 2025 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Yusuf152|Yusuf152] ([[User talk:Yusuf152|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Yusuf152|contribs]]) 06:42, 27 October 2025 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Social Media Technology and the Arab Spring]] * [[User:Riaz23413|Riaz23413]] ([[User talk:Riaz23413|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Riaz23413|contribs]]) 06:42, 27 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Midjourney v6]]*[[User:JSDAID|JSDAID]] ([[User talk:JSDAID|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JSDAID|contribs]]) 04:00, 26 October 2025 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Devine Lu Linvega]] * [[User:SrushDigitalMedia|SrushDigitalMedia]] ([[User talk:SrushDigitalMedia|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SrushDigitalMedia|contribs]]) 00:23, 8 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Jessica “Sting” Peterson]] *[[User:Lsingh29|Lsingh29]] ([[User talk:Lsingh29|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lsingh29|contribs]]) 06:47, 19 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The Cultural Impact of Pokémon on Youth]] * [[User:Fnabong|Fnabong]] ([[User talk:Fnabong|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Fnabong|contribs]]) 03:19, 24 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Online Privacy Plan]] * [[User:Sharaf Obaid|Sharaf Obaid]] ([[User talk:Sharaf Obaid|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sharaf Obaid|contribs]]) 16:25, 25 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Impact of AI on Social Media]] * [[User:A.A2711|A.A2711]] ([[User talk:A.A2711|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/A.A2711|contribs]]) 19:15, 25 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Paul Allen's Philanthropic Practices]] * [[User:AdamFlick18|AdamFlick18]] ([[User talk:AdamFlick18|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AdamFlick18|contribs]]) 06:19, 27 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Automated Industrial Robotics Inc. (AIR)]] * [[User:Msingh132|Msingh132]] ([[User talk:Msingh132|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Msingh132|contribs]]) 07:23, 27 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The impact of renewable energy on emerging economies]] * [[User:CleaverCat2|<bdi>CleaverCat2</bdi>]] ([[User talk:CleaverCat2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/CleaverCat2|contribs]]) 06:26, 26 October 2025 (UTC) '''[[Digital Media Concepts/Generative AI on Game Development]]''' * [[User:Wesleyphin|Wesleyphin]] ([[User talk:Wesleyphin|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Wesleyphin|contribs]]) 23:04, 26 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Sora 2]] {{collapse bottom}} === Spring 2025 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Gsingh598|Gsingh598]] ([[User talk:Gsingh598|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Gsingh598|contribs]]) 18:09, 10 April 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Refik Anadol: Blending Data and Art Through Machine Learning]] * [[User:Safaiqbal11|Safaiqbal11]] ([[User talk:Safaiqbal11|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Safaiqbal11|contribs]]) 04:58, 17 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The Evolution of the iPhone and Its Cultural Impact]] * [[User:Weswu341|Weswu341]] ([[User talk:Weswu341|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Weswu341|contribs]]) 01:27, 19 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Yucef Merhi]] * [[User:Mdelacruz7|Mdelacruz7]] ([[User talk:Mdelacruz7|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mdelacruz7|contribs]]) 02:32, 25 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Technology and its Influence on Romance.]] * [[User:Amojado1|Amojado1]] ([[User talk:Amojado1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Amojado1|contribs]]) 22:09, 28 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Samir Vasavada]] * [[User:TianxinXu0201|TianxinXu0201]] ([[User talk:TianxinXu0201|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TianxinXu0201|contribs]]) 19:15, 29 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The Role of Autopilot in Tesla's Robotaxi Plan]] * [[User:Zsadozai|Zsadozai]] ([[User talk:Zsadozai|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Zsadozai|contribs]]) 05:31, 30 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The Influence of Live Creators]] * [[User:Dija8719|Dija8719]] ([[User talk:Dija8719|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dija8719|contribs]]) 06:53, 30 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Smartphones Impact on Communication]] * [[User:Ksak2|Ksak2]] ([[User talk:Ksak2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ksak2|contribs]]) 23:49, 30 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The Reflection of the Nintendo Wii on the Nintendo Switch]] * [[User:Nyanoble|Nyanoble]] ([[User talk:Nyanoble|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Nyanoble|contribs]]) 00:30, 31 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/ Impact AI has on the job market]] * [[User:Kjchai1|Kjchai1]] ([[User talk:Kjchai1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kjchai1|contribs]]) 04:00, 31 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Alex Karp's impact on the public view of AI]] * [[User:Mpiquero1]] 23:07, 30 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Quantum Computing and Information Security]] * [[User:NoahMacias1|NoahMacias1]] ([[User talk:NoahMacias1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/NoahMacias1|contribs]]) 04:15, 2 April 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Marvel Rivals vs Overwatch]] * [[User:Cassidyhalen|Cassidyhalen]] ([[User talk:Cassidyhalen|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cassidyhalen|contribs]]) 10:28, 5 April 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Waymo's impact on the economy]] * [[User:Glry2ua|Glry2ua]] ([[User talk:Glry2ua|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Glry2ua|contribs]]) 06:50, 27 May 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Counter-Drone Technologies]] {{collapse bottom}} === Fall 2024 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Dawson Travis|Dawson Travis]] ([[User talk:Dawson Travis|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dawson Travis|contribs]]) 20:03, 2 November 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Bruce Laval]] * [[User:Jillianrae247|Jillianrae247]] ([[User talk:Jillianrae247|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jillianrae247|contribs]]) 06:21, 28 October 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/David LaRochelle]] * [[User:Jmartin51|Jmartin51]] ([[User talk:Jmartin51|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jmartin51j|contribs]]) 22:46, 27 October 2024 (UTC)[[Creating Digital Media Concepts/Relationship of GPUs and Bitcoin Mining]] * [[User:Hero1ghj|Hero1ghj]] ([[User talk:Hero1ghj|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Hero1ghj|contribs]]) 01:56, 28 October 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The Fortnite Storyline]] * [[User:Catalinajordanvillar|Catalinajordanvillar]] ([[User talk:Catalinajordanvillar|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Catalinajordanvillar|contribs]]) 06:57, 27 October 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Evolution Of Disney Animation]] * [[User:Daid gem|Daid gem]] ([[User talk:Daid gem|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Daid gem|contribs]]) 22:35, 25 October 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Webtoon Adaptations]] * [[User:Hillary Cheng|Hillary Cheng]] ([[User talk:Hillary Cheng|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Hillary Cheng|contribs]]) 18:37, 15 October 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Lane Centering Technology]] * [[User:Chloecastellana|Chloecastellana]] ([[User talk:Chloecastellana|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Chloecastellana|contribs]]) 23:04, 19 October 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Jack Ma]] * [[User:Durontop7|Durontop7]] ([[User talk:Durontop7|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Durontop7|contribs]]) 02:11, 28 October 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Getting Over It with Bennett Foddy]] * [[User:Megamatt02001|Megamatt02001]] ([[User talk:Megamatt02001|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Megamatt02001|contribs]]) 13:05, 28 October 2024 (UTC) [[Hideo Kojima's Podcast "Brain Structure"]] {{collapse bottom}} === Spring 2024 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] ([[User talk:Ireicher2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ireicher2|contribs]]) 20:28, 22 April 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Can't Help Myself Robot]] * [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] ([[User talk:Ireicher2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ireicher2|contribs]]) 23:24, 25 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Online Shopping]] * [[User:Homero021004|Homero021004]] ([[User talk:Homero021004|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Homero021004|contribs]]) 03:44, 25 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/AI’s Impact on Art]] * [[User:Diegou04|Diegou04]] ([[User talk:Diegou04|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Diegou04|contribs]]) 00:39, 25 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Apple Vision Pro Environmental Considerations ]] * [[User:Omegajame456|Omegajame456]] ([[User talk:Omegajame456|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omegajame456|contribs]]) 10:40, 23 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Smart Roads]] * [[User:Ashlyn45|Ashlyn45]] ([[User talk:Ashlyn45|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ashlyn45|contribs]]) 06:50, 22 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Khan Academy Breakthrough]] * [[User:Myat K.S|Myat K.S]] ([[User talk:Myat K.S|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Myat K.S|contribs]]) 10:10, 7 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/BILL GATES (William Henry Gates III)]] * [[User:Yuyani0915|Yuyani0915]] ([[User talk:Yuyani0915|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Yuyani0915|contribs]]) 22:38, 13 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Gaming Technology]] * [[User:RobbyDAID|RobbyDAID]] ([[User talk:RobbyDAID|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/RobbyDAID|contribs]]) 19:23, 19 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Lost Cities]] * [[User:Isaiah Guerrero|Isaiah Guerrero]] ([[User talk:Isaiah Guerrero|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Isaiah Guerrero|contribs]]) 04:15, 20 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Nano Bots and CO2]] * [[User:Xavierrrrrrr01|Xavierrrrrrr01]] ([[User talk:Xavierrrrrrr01|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Xavierrrrrrr01|contribs]]) 19:20, 20 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Uses of the Raspberry Pi]] * [[User:Luna, D Media|Luna, D Media]] ([[User talk:Luna, D Media|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Luna, D Media|contribs]]) 02:09, 23 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Science S.T.E.M. Influencers]] * [[User:Yueminl|Yueminl]] ([[User talk:Yueminl|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Yueminl|contribs]]) 22:39, 23 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Information Cocoons Effect]] * [[User:Tarunya Dharma|Tarunya Dharma]] ([[User talk:Tarunya Dharma|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tarunya Dharma|contribs]]) 01:59, 24 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/AI Human Clones]] * [[User:GCanilao|GCanilao]] ([[User talk:GCanilao|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/GCanilao|contribs]]) 05:56, 24 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Evolution of "Bits" in Game Graphics]] * [[User:Helldivers.2|Helldivers.2]] ([[User talk:Helldivers.2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Helldivers.2|contribs]]) 17:12, 23 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Helldivers 2 Impact on Gaming Community]] * [[User:Arbalest zy|Arbalest zy]] ([[User talk:Arbalest zy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Arbalest zy|contribs]]) 03:45, 25 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Proprietary PS Vita memory card]] * [[User:RaymondHuang10|RaymondHuang10]] ([[User talk:RaymondHuang10|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/RaymondHuang10|contribs]]) 11:59, 25 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Keshi]] * [[User:Weijian Chen|Weijian Chen]] ([[User talk:Weijian Chen|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Weijian Chen|contribs]]) 21:17, 28 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/CPU Evolution]] {{collapse bottom}} === Fall 2023 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Homero021004|Homero021004]] ([[User talk:Homero021004|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Homero021004|contribs]]) 06:23, 23 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Autism (ASD) & Social Media]] * -~--([Digital Media Concepts/Transforming Agriculture: A Case Study on Pakistan|)) * [[User:Garylongington|Garylongington]] ([[User talk:Garylongington|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Garylongington|contribs]]) 21:04, 22 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Slender: The Eight Pages]] * [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] ([[User talk:Ireicher2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ireicher2|contribs]]) 16:06, 6 June 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Wafaa Bilal Example]] * [[User:Archelone|Archelone]] ([[User talk:Archelone|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Archelone|contribs]]) 01:32, 16 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Representation in Baldur's Gate 3]] * [[User:Gauze0001|Gauze0001]] ([[User talk:Gauze0001|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Gauze0001|contribs]]) 01:11, 17 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Cameron's World]] * [[User:Owynmlee|Owynmlee]] ([[User talk:Owynmlee|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Owynmlee|contribs]]) 01:11, 18 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Shrinkwrapping]] * [[User:Atnguyen12|Atnguyen12]] ([[User talk:Atnguyen12|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Atnguyen12|contribs]]) 05:54, 21 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Wonderlab]] * [[User:BinhNguyenSKMT|BinhNguyenSKMT]] ([[User talk:BinhNguyenSKMT|discuss]] * [[Special:Contributions/BinhNguyenSKMT|contribs]]) 01:14, 22 October 2023 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Education with Generative AI]] * [[User:Jonnmac|Jonnmac]] ([[User talk:Jonnmac|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jonnmac|contribs]]) 02:50, 23 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Team Fortress 2 Culture]] * [[Digital Media Concepts/Transportation Technologies]] * [[User:Kalvabb|Kalvabb]] ([[User talk:Kalvabb|discuss]] * [[Special:Contributions/Kalvabb|contribs]]) 10:58, 22 October 2023 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Writing and Artificial Intelligence]] * [[User:Karan 035|Karan 035]] ([[User talk:Karan 035|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Karan 035|contribs]]) 02:07, 23 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Steve jobs and his Leadership styles]] * [[User:Elyssamlee|Elyssamlee]] ([[User talk:Elyssamlee|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Elyssamlee|contribs]]) 02:53, 23 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Steve Lacy]] * [[User:Daniel Lopezzz|Daniel Lopezzz]] ([[User talk:Daniel Lopezzz|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Daniel Lopezzz|contribs]]) 23:40, 19 November 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Xbox Technological Advances]] {{collapse bottom}} === Spring 2022 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] ([[User talk:Ireicher2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ireicher2|contribs]]) 19:27, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Wafaa Bilal 3]] * [[User:Logain.Abd|Logain.Abd]] ([[User talk:Logain.Abd|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Logain.Abd|contribs]]) 16:55, 1 March 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Prosthetic Body Parts]] * [[User:Ceruleansnake|Ceruleansnake]] ([[User talk:Ceruleansnake|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ceruleansnake|contribs]]) 19:29, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/ENA (web series)]] * [[User:SPiedyW5|SPiedyW5]] ([[User talk:SPiedyW5|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SPiedyW5|contribs]]) 19:33, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Streaming Platforms]] * [[User:AkhilKandkur|AkhilKandkur]] ([[User talk:AkhilKandkur|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AkhilKandkur|contribs]]) 19:34, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/DVD-Video]] * [[User:Adamgmz|Adamgmz]] ([[User talk:Adamgmz|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Adamgmz|contribs]]) 19:47, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Physically Based Rendering]] * [[User:ZhuoL|ZhuoL]] ([[User talk:ZhuoL|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ZhuoL|contribs]]) 20:29, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Audio Editing]] * [[User:WanderingWalruses|WanderingWalruses]] ([[User talk:WanderingWalruses|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/WanderingWalruses|contribs]]) 20:32, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Youtube Monetization]] * [[User:Anammughal|Anammughal]] ([[User talk:Anammughal|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Anammughal|contribs]]) 20:36, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare]] * [[User:Vlee88|Vlee88]] ([[User talk:Vlee88|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Vlee88|contribs]]) 22:16, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Wacom/digital tablets]] * [[User:TZrng8|TZrng8]] ([[User talk:TZrng8|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TZrng8|contribs]]) 20:07, 25 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Virtual Reality]] * [[User:Nooshas|Nooshas]] ([[User talk:Nooshas|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Nooshas|contribs]]) 04:57, 28 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Eduardo Saverin]] * [[User:Rjoyner1|Rjoyner1]] ([[User talk:Rjoyner1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rjoyner1|contribs]]) 19:26, 1 March 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Higher Learning Podacast]] * [[User:Yaboiversity|Yaboiversity]] ([[User talk:Yaboiversity|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Yaboiversity|contribs]]) 19:36, 1 March 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Ceramic 3D Printers]] * [[User:Ayeitsemmie|Ayeitsemmie]] ([[User talk:Ayeitsemmie|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ayeitsemmie|contribs]]) 20:35, 1 March 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Technology Used In “Rick and Morty”]] * [[User:Navveerbhangal|Navveerbhangal]] ([[User talk:Navveerbhangal|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Navveerbhangal|contribs]]) 19:56, 1 March 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Lex Fridman]] * [[User:Mayapose|Mayapose]] ([[User talk:Mayapose|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mayapose|contribs]]) 00:23, 2 March 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Hedy Lamarr]] * [[User:Ohlonestudengo12|Ohlonestudengo12]] ([[User talk:Ohlonestudengo12|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ohlonestudengo12|contribs]]) 00:23, 2 March 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Apple AirTag]] * [[User:Aayyaz|Aayyaz]] ([[User talk:Aayyaz|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Aayyaz|contribs]]) 20:08, 3 March 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Speech Recognition]] * [[User:Brana1|Brana1]] ([[User talk:Brana1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Brana1|contribs]]) 06:56, 9 March 2022 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Sony Playstation]] {{collapse bottom}} === Fall 2021 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] ([[User talk:Ireicher2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ireicher2|contribs]]) 22:37, 21 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Five Nights at Freddy's]] * [[User:Zkeeler1|Zkeeler1]] ([[User talk:Zkeeler1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Zkeeler1|contribs]]) 01:28, 22 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/The process of Encryption]] * [[User:Ronit Dhir|Ronit Dhir]] ([[User talk:Ronit Dhir|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ronit Dhir|contribs]]) 07:15, 14 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Shantanu Narayen]] * [[User:Joachanz|Joachanz]] ([[User talk:Joachanz|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Joachanz|contribs]]) 20:32, 28 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Riot Games Gender Discrimination Controversy]] * [[User:SauerPatch|SauerPatch]] ([[User talk:SauerPatch|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SauerPatch|contribs]]) 20:35, 28 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Bitcoin]] * [[User:Vy Trieu|Vy Trieu]] ([[User talk:Vy Trieu|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Vy Trieu|contribs]]) 20:47, 28 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Virtual Influencer]] * [[User:GEEGOLLYY|GEEGOLLYY]] ([[User talk:GEEGOLLYY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/GEEGOLLYY|contribs]]) 21:01, 28 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Valorant]] * [[User:Cheesze|Cheesze]] ([[User talk:Cheesze|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cheesze|contribs]]) 21:10, 28 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Squid Game S1E6: Gganbu]] * [[User:PcPeou1|PcPeou1]] ([[User talk:PcPeou1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PcPeou1|contribs]]) 21:19, 28 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Ace Combat 7: Skies Unknown]] * [[User:Ralph Lagmay|Ralph Lagmay]] ([[User talk:Ralph Lagmay|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ralph Lagmay|contribs]]) 19:24, 3 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Beeple]] * [[User:Nicole Wood|Nicole Wood]] ([[User talk:Nicole Wood|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Nicole Wood]]) 23:29, 5 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Sam Does Arts]] * [[User:Choopa land|Choopa land]] ([[User talk:Choopa land|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Choopa land|contribs]]) 21:31, 7 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Sudha Murty]] * [[User:Alex Walsh|Alex Walsh]] ([[User talk:Alex Walsh|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Alex Walsh|contribs]]) 07:35, 9 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Twitch Hate Raids]] * [[User:Just TMar|Just TMar]] ([[User talk:Just TMar|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Just TMar|contribs]]) 01:54, 11 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Doxing]] * [[User:Ghiyasat|Ghiyasat]] ([[User talk:Ghiyasat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ghiyasat|contribs]]) 17:28, 11 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Polygraph]] * [[User:Snuckles49|Snuckles49]] ([[User talk:Snuckles49|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Snuckles49|contribs]]) 00:43, 12 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/BattlEye Anti-Cheat]] * [[User:Nino02|Nino02]] ([[User talk:Nino02|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Nino02|contribs]]) (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Video Streaming Services]] * [[User:Ishadamle|Ishadamle]] ([[User talk:Ishadamle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ishadamle|contribs]]) 16:56, 12 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Aistė Stancikaitė]] * [[User:Zainab Attarwala|Zainab Attarwala]] ([[User talk:Zainab Attarwala|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Zainab Attarwala|contribs]]) 22:37, 21 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Tokyo Medical University for Rejected Woman]] * [[User:Yusef510|Yusef510]] ([[User talk:Yusef510|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Yusef510|contribs]]) 21:26, 12 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Women In Esports]] * [[User:SLBriscoe|SLBriscoe]] ([[User talk:SLBriscoe|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SLBriscoe|contribs]]) 21:36, 12 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Dark Souls III]] * [[User:Phonemyat238|Phonemyat238]] ([[User talk:Phonemyat238|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Phonemyat238|contribs]]) 23:47, 12 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Dota 2 Esport]] * [[User:JBauer4|JBauer4]] ([[User talk:JBauer4|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JBauer4|contribs]]) 23:57, 12 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/New World (game)]] * [[User:Rburnham1740|Rburnham1740]] ([[User talk:Rburnham1740|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rburnham1740|contribs]]) 23:57, 12 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Call Of Duty: Warzone]] * [[User:HellaCinema|HellaCinema]] ([[User talk:HellaCinema|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/HellaCinema|contribs]]) 06:39, 13 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/New Age Cinema - Film Cinematography]] * [[User:Tiwarisushant|Tiwarisushant]] ([[User talk:Tiwarisushant|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tiwarisushant|contribs]]) 23:58, 12 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/CGI - Uses and Importance]] * [[User:JoseNavarro15|JoseNavarro15]] ([[User talk:JoseNavarro15|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JoseNavarro15|contribs]]) 05:26, 18 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Space X]] {{collapse bottom}} === Fall 2020 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Daniyal.ak27|Daniyal.ak27]] ([[User talk:Daniyal.ak27|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Daniyal.ak27|contribs]]) 21:42, 15 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Neuralink/]] * [[User:Alisonmp|Alisonmp]] ([[User talk:Alisonmp|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Alisonmp|contribs]]) 21:41, 15 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Video Streaming Services/]] * [[Special:Contributions/2601:641:400:4F00:39DF:F97A:724A:496D|2601:641:400:4F00:39DF:F97A:724A:496D]] ([[User talk:2601:641:400:4F00:39DF:F97A:724A:496D|discuss]]) 21:40, 15 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Metroidvania/]] * [[User:Bandz21811|Bandz21811]] ([[User talk:Bandz21811|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bandz21811|contribs]]) 03:26, 14 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Zoom Video Communications/]] * [[User:Nidhisgupta|Nidhisgupta]] ([[User talk:Nidhisgupta|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Nidhisgupta|contribs]]) 23:21, 11 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Cyber Crimes/]] * [[User:Melissalop551|Melissalop551]] ([[User talk:Melissalop551|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Melissalop551|contribs]]) 23:40, 9 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Iphone X (Face ID)/]] * [[User:Navink100|Navink100]] ([[User talk:Navink100|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Navink100|contribs]]) 20:03, 8 October 2020 (UTC) [[/The Evolution of Digital Scouting in the NBA/]] * [[User:Rthawani2|Rthawani2]] ([[User talk:Rthawani2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rthawani2|contribs]]) 22:35, 6 October 2020 (UTC) [[/LD, 2D, SD, 3D, HD, 4D, 4K, 8K/]] * [[User:Bandz21811|Bandz21811]] ([[User talk:Bandz21811|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bandz21811|contribs]]) 21:13, 6 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Tesla Inc./]] * [[User:MalakaiCaro|MalakaiCaro]] ([[User talk:MalakaiCaro|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MalakaiCaro|contribs]]) 21:03, 6 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Apple CarPlay/]] * [[User:Jb000ts|Jb000ts]] ([[User talk:Jb000ts|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jb000ts|contribs]]) 20:46, 6 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Porsche Taycan/]] * [[User:Simplyktp|Simplyktp]] ([[User talk:Simplyktp|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Simplyktp|contribs]]) 00:54, 6 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Animal Crossing: New Horizons/]] * [[User:Ankith Reddy Alwa|Ankith Reddy Alwa]] ([[User talk:Ankith Reddy Alwa|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ankith Reddy Alwa|contribs]]) 20:14, 1 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Narayana Murthy/]] * [[User:MoisesMorales04|MoisesMorales04]] ([[User talk:MoisesMorales04|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MoisesMorales04|contribs]]) 23:23, 29 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Adaptive Cruise Control/]] * [[User:Rhummdan|Rhummdan]] ([[User talk:Rhummdan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rhummdan|contribs]]) 21:45, 29 September 2020 (UTC) [[/NBA 2K/]] * [[User:Yiyi799|Yiyi799]] ([[User talk:Yiyi799|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Yiyi799|contribs]]) 20:36, 29 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Snapchat Lenses/]] * [[User:Oaramirez780|Oaramirez780]] ([[User talk:Oaramirez780|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Oaramirez780|contribs]]) 20:17, 29 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Image Comics/]] * [[User:Coleslamfreckle|Coleslamfreckle]] ([[User talk:Coleslamfreckle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Coleslamfreckle|contribs]]) 19:36, 23 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Linux Beta/]] * [[User:Shaikhhiba|Shaikhhiba]] ([[User talk:Shaikhhiba|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Shaikhhiba|contribs]]) 02:01, 24 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Cancel Culture/]] * [[User:444juptr|444juptr]] ([[User talk:444juptr|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/444juptr|contribs]]) 20:33, 29 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Otaku Life/]] *[[User:Shruthi2001|Shruthi2001]] ([[User talk:Shruthi2001|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Shruthi2001|contribs]]) 20:40, 29 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Social Media Effect on Diet/]] * [[User:Vtran50|Vtran50]] ([[User talk:Vtran50|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Vtran50|contribs]]) 20:51, 29 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Slander/]] * [[User:JayceeLorenzo|JayceeLorenzo]] ([[User talk:JayceeLorenzo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JayceeLorenzo|contribs]]) 21:24, 29 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Continuous Variable Transmission (CVT)/]] * [[User:IowaneNoka|IowaneNoka]] ([[User talk:IowaneNoka|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IowaneNoka|contribs]]) 03:12, 10 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Call Of Duty:Modern Warfare (2019)/]] * [[User:Kban2001|Kban2001]] ([[User talk:Kban2001|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kban2001|contribs]]) 16:11, 12 October 2020 (UTC) [[/ARK: Survival Evolved/]] * [[User:Christiand28|Christiand28]] ([[User talk:Christiand28|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Christiand28|contribs]]) 02:21, 13 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Call of Duty:Black Ops 2/]] {{collapse bottom}} === Spring 2020 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Deuteryium|Deuteryium]] ([[User talk:Deuteryium|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Deuteryium|contribs]]) 22:28, 5 March 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Postmodern Jukebox]] * [[User:Deuteryium|Deuteryium]] ([[User talk:Deuteryium|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Deuteryium|contribs]]) 23:16, 27 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Breaking the Fourth Wall]] * [[User:PlasticOrPapper|PlasticOrPapper]] ([[User talk:PlasticOrPapper|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PlasticOrPapper|contribs]]) 23:14, 27 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege]] * [[User:Miranda Tapioca|Miranda Tapioca]] ([[User talk:Miranda Tapioca|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Miranda Tapioca|contribs]]) 23:04, 25 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Blizzard Entertaiment]] * [[User:Christinuh|Christinuh]] ([[User talk:Christinuh|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Christinuh|contribs]]) 23:07, 25 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Breaking News on Twitter]] * [[User:Emartinez40|Emartinez40]] ([[User talk:Emartinez40|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Emartinez40|contribs]]) 23:09, 25 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/The Witcher (Game Series)]] * [[User:MarkxG|MarkxG]] ([[User talk:MarkxG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MarkxG|contribs]]) 23:26, 25 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Reddit]] * [[User:Dmusselwhite1|Dmusselwhite1]] ([[User talk:Dmusselwhite1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dmusselwhite1|contribs]]) 23:15, 25 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/CGI]] * [[User:Ericahy|Ericahy]] ([[User talk:Ericahy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ericahy|contribs]]) 23:17, 25 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Siri]] * [[User:Aphon17|Aphon17]] ([[User talk:Aphon17|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Aphon17|contribs]]) 23:23, 25 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Inside (video game)]] * [[User:Mpaing2|Mpaing2]] ([[User talk:Mpaing2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mpaing2|contribs]]) 22:15, 27 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Apple Pencil]] * [[User:TakeCare2021|TakeCare2021]] ([[User talk:TakeCare2021|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TakeCare2021|contribs]]) 22:52, 27 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Take Care (Album)]] * [[User:DixonCider1331|DixonCider1331]] ([[User talk:DixonCider1331|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DixonCider1331|contribs]]) 22:55, 27 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Riot Games]] * [[User:John.rod22|John.rod22]] ([[User talk:John.rod22|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/John.rod22|contribs]]) 23:01, 27 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Grand Theft Auto V]] * [[User:Ankits2001|Ankits2001]] ([[User talk:Ankits2001|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ankits2001|contribs]]) 23:06, 27 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/iPhone 4s (Siri)]] * [[User:MichaelP75075|MichaelP75075]] ([[User talk:MichaelP75075|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MichaelP75075|contribs]]) 22:10, 5 March 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Black Mesa]] * [[User:Kfernes1|Kfernes1]] ([[User talk:Kfernes1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kfernes1|contribs]]) 22:38, 5 March 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Joe Rogan Experience]] * [[Special:Contributions/207.62.190.33|207.62.190.33]] ([[User talk:207.62.190.33|discuss]]) 23:42, 5 March 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Tinder]] * [[User:Atul.mav|Atul.mav]] ([[User talk:Atul.mav|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Atul.mav|contribs]]) 17:48, 7 March 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Ralph Lauren]] * [[User:Namesshaikh|Namesshaikh]] ([[User talk:Namesshaikh|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Namesshaikh|contribs]]) 22:19, 9 March 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/CD Projekt Red]] {{collapse bottom}} === Fall 2019 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:HPatel40|HPatel40]] ([[User talk:HPatel40|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/HPatel40|contribs]]) 19:23, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/5G Technologies]] * [[User:Hpatel42|Hpatel42]] ([[User talk:Hpatel42|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Hpatel42|contribs]]) 19:01, 26 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Larry Page]] * [[User:CRichards17|CRichards17]] ([[User talk:CRichards17|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/CRichards17|contribs]]) 19:38, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/White Supremacy on the Internet]] * [[User:Waterbottle50|Waterbottle50]] ([[User talk:Waterbottle50|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Waterbottle50|contribs]]) 19:55, 26 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Color-blind lens/EnChroma]] * [[User:Mcaya00|Mcaya00]] ([[User talk:Mcaya00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mcaya00|contribs]]) 19:49, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Markus Perrson]] * [[User:Qinyu Chen|Qinyu Chen]] ([[User talk:Qinyu Chen|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Qinyu Chen|contribs]]) 19:36, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/teamLab]] * [[User:Soyoboy.exe|Soyboy.exe]] ([[User talk:Soyboy.exe|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Soyboy.exe|contribs]]) 20:04, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Nintendo Switch]] * [[User:Yjiang26|Yjiang26]] ([[User talk:Yjiang26|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Yjiang26|contribs]]) 19:38, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Alipay]] * [[User:Lmurffrenninger1|Lmurffrenninger1]] ([[User talk:Lmurffrenninger1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lmurffrenninger1|contribs]]) 19:39, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/MagicBands at Disneyland]] * [[User:Jalvarellos1|Jalvarellos1]] ([[User talk:Jalvarellos1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jalvarellos1|contribs]]) 19:41, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Rocket League]] * [[Adam3318|Adam3318]] ([[User talk:Adam3318|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Adam3318|contribs]]) 19:46, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/3D scanning with drones]] * [[User:SanIam|SanIam]] ([[User talk:SanIam|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SanIam|contribs]]) 19:57, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/The Legend Of Zelda: Breath of the Wild]] * [[User:Nphan16|Nphan16]] ([[User talk:Nphan16|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Nphan16|contribs]]) 20:02, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Hannah Alexander]] * [[User:Vluong6|Vluong6]] ([[User talk:Vluong6|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Vluong6|contribs]]) 20:24, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Cyberware]] * [[User:Philventi|Philventi]] ([[User talk:Philventi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Philventi|contribs]]) 22:33, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/iPadOS]] * [[User:Jwendland1|Jwendland1]] ([[User talk:Jwendland1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jwendland1|contribs]]) 19:05, 19 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Infinadeck Omnidirectional Treadmill]] * [[User:Ranle7|Ranle7]] ([[User talk:Ranle7|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ranle7|contribs]]) 19:06, 26 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/osu!]] * [[User:Andrewyamasaki|Andrewyamasaki]] ([[User talk:Andrewyamasaki|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Andrewyamasaki|contribs]]) 19:48, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Competitive Super Smash Bros Ultimate]] * [[User:Samuel3571|Samuel3571]] ([[User talk:Samuel3571|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Samuel3571|contribs]]) 20:35, 19 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Forensic Technology]] * [[User:Lmedina19|Lmedina19]] ([[User talk:Lmedina19|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lmedina19|contribs]]) 20:00, 26 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Hayley Kiyoko]] * [[User:Djh42|Djh42]] ([[User talk:Djh42|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Djh42|contribs]]) 20:25, 26 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Nintendo Switch Controller]] * [[User:CharlieDub|CharlieDub]] ([[User talk:CharlieDub|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/CharlieDub|contribs]]) 19:42, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Porsche Ignition]] * [[User:Erick.Flore|Erick.Flore]] ([[User talk:Erick.Flore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Erick.Flore|contribs]]) 20:40, 26 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The video hosting site BitChute]] * [[User:Dbarquin1|Dbarquin1]] ([[User talk:Dbarquin1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dbarquin1|contribs]]) 17:28, 27 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Custom Built Computer]] * [[User:Spcharc|Spcharc]] ([[User talk:Spcharc|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Spcharc|contribs]]) 18:07, 29 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/RSA (cryptosystem)]] * [[User:Krishnan1000|Krishnan1000]] ([[User talk:Krishnan1000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Krishnan1000|contribs]]) 18:36, 29 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Competitive Pokemon Battling]] {{collapse bottom}} === Spring 2019 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Mknight77|Mknight77]] ([[User talk:Mknight77|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mknight77|contribs]]) 22:52, 26 February 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Mayhem fest]] * [[User:Samirjan0420|Samirjan0420]] ([[User talk:Samirjan0420|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Samirjan0420|contribs]]) 22:05, 21 February 2019 (UTC) [[/The most hated car/]] * [[User:Tobilansangan|Tobilansangan]] ([[User talk:Tobilansangan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tobilansangan|contribs]]) 23:39, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy/]] * [[User:alyssamunoz|alyssamunoz]] ([[User talk: alyssamunoz|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/alyssamunoz|contribs]]) 14:57, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Dr.Pepper/]] * [[User:omergreengiant|omergreengiant]] ([[User talk:omergreengiant|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/omergreengiant|contribs]]) 14:57, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Kabul, Afghanistan/]] * [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] ([[User talk:Ireicher2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ireicher2|contribs]]) 22:14, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Wafaa Bilal/]] * [[User:Gum-POP|Gum-POP]] ([[User talk:Gum-POP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Gum-POP|contribs]]) 22:37, 14 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Gaming Desktop VS Gaming Laptop/]] * [[User:Magtotodile|Magtotodile]] ([[User talk:Magtotodile|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Magtotodile|contribs]]) 22:42, 14 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Virtual Self/]] * [[User:Tvo36|Tvo36]] ([[User talk:Tvo36|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tvo36|contribs]]) 23:13, 14 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Markelle Fultz/]] * [[User:iluca|iluca]] ([[User talk:iluca|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/iluca|contribs]]) 23:14, 14 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Nagishiro Mito/]] * [[User:Justinchau|Justinchau]] ([[User talk:Justinchau|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Justinchau|contribs]]) 23:16, 14 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Best Pizza/]] * [[User:Ashwinjambu15|Ashwinjambu15]] ([[User talk:Ashwinjambu15|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ashwinjambu15|contribs]]) 23:19, 14 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Mos Def & Talib Kweli Are Black Star/]] * [[User:Ationgson|Ationgson]] ([[User talk:Ationgson|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ationgson|contribs]]) 23:24, 14 February 2019 (UTC) [[/2JZ Engine/]] * [[User:Ddimitrov1|Ddimitrov1]] ([[User talk:Ddimitrov1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ddimitrov1|contribs]]) 23:29, 14 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Theatre Of Blood/]] * [[User:Gli15|Gli15]] ([[User talk:Gli15|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Gli15|contribs]]) 22:12, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Matcha/]] * [[User:Akanijade|Akanijade]] ([[User talk:Akanijade|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Akanijade|contribs]]) 22:39, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Batik/]] * [[User:BrokenConsole|BrokenConsole]] ([[User talk:BrokenConsole|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BrokenConsole|contribs]]) 22:46, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Custom Built Gaming Computers/]] * [[User:Lord Arugula|Lord Arugula]] ([[User talk:Lord Arugula|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lord Arugula|contribs]]) 22:47, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Aurelio Voltaire/]] * [[User:Danialmirza99|Danialmirza99]] ([[User talk:Danialmirza99|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Danialmirza99|contribs]]) 22:50, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Spelling Bee (1938)/]] * [[User:Janine8100|Janine8100]] ([[User talk:Janine8100|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Janine8100|contribs]]) 22:52, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Brunei Rainforests/]] * [[User:D_Sh1nra|D_Sh1nra]] ([[User talk:D_Sh1nra|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/D_Sh1nra|contribs]]) 15:07, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Phosphenes/]] * [[User:Jameslacdao|Jameslacdao]] ([[User talk:Jameslacdao|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jameslacdao|contribs]]) 23:34, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Love of my Life (Queen song)/]] * [[User:Janinaengo|Janinaengo]] ([[User talk:Janinaengo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Janinaengo|contribs]]) 06:04, 20 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Influence of 90s sitcom Friends/]] * [[User:Mdapostol|Mdapostol]] ([[User talk:Mdapostol|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mdapostol|contribs]]) 01:32, 26 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Regions of San Jose, California/]] * [[User:HellBlossoms|HellBlossoms]] ([[User talk:HellBlossoms|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/HellBlossoms|contribs]]) 14:13, 26 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Bill Kaulitz/]] * [[User:Nintenchris5963|Nintenchris5963]] ([[User talk:Nintenchris5963|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Nintenchris5963|contribs]]) 22:28, 28 February 2019 (UTC) [[/CrossCode/]] {{collapse bottom}} === Fall 2018 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:J3tR0cK3t|J3tR0cK3t]] ([[User talk:J3tR0cK3t|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/J3tR0cK3t|contribs]]) 19:55, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Streets of Rage (Axel Stone)/]] * [[User:William Leber|William Leber]] ([[User talk:William Leber|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/William Leber|contribs]]) 19:56, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Ethoslab/]] * [[User:Vicpimentel99|Vicpimentel99]] ([[User talk:Vicpimentel99|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Vicpimentel99|contribs]]) 20:19, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Micah Mahinay/]] * [[User:Magtotodile|Magtotodile]] ([[User talk:Magtotodile|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Magtotodile|contribs]]) 20:21, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Shelter (Song by Porter Robinson & Madeon)/]] * [[User:Ahuq2|Ahuq2]] ([[User talk:Ahuq2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ahuq2|contribs]]) 20:25, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Yakuza (video game series)/]] * [[User:Plam153|Plam153]] ([[User talk:Plam153|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Plam153|contribs]]) 20:22, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Trinh Cong Son (Vietnamese songwriter)/]] * [[User:DoomFry68|DoomFry68]] ([[User talk:DoomFry68|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DoomFry68|contribs]]) 20:23, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Yakuza: Goro Majima/]] * [[User:FizzahKafil|FizzahKafil]] ([[User talk:FizzahKafil|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/FizzahKafil|contribs]]) 20:24, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Little Big Planet/]] * [[User:Dursa1|Dursa S]] ([[User talk:Dursa1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dursa1|contribs]]) 20:24, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/r.h. Sin/]] * [[User:ZaroonIqbal|ZaroonIqbal]] ([[User talk:ZaroonIqbal|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ZaroonIqbal|contribs]]) 20:25, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Fortnite/]] * [[User:Lmascardo1|Lmascardo1]] ([[User talk:Lmascardo1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lmascardo1|contribs]]) 20:31, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Stardew Valley/]] * [[User:Aungthuhtet245|Aungthuhtet245]] ([[User talk:Aungthuhtet245|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Aungthuhtet245|contribs]]) 20:32, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Science Behind Pixar/]] * [[User:Whill4|Whill4]] ([[User talk:Whill4|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Whill4|contribs]]) 15:06, 17 September 2018 (UTC) [[ /Mariner's Apartment Complex (Lana Del Rey song)/]] * [[User:WontonsofDMG|WontonsofDMG]] ([[User talk:WontonsofDMG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/WontonsofDMG|contribs]]) 19:03, 18 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Heroes of the Storm/]] * [[User:PATISBACK9|PATISBACK9]] ([[User talk:PATISBACK9|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PATISBACK9|contribs]]) 19:19, 18 September 2018 (UTC) [[/DJ screw/]] * [[User:EnderClevToby|EnderClevToby]] ([[User talk:EnderClevToby|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EnderClevToby|contribs]]) 12:15, 18 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Matthew Fredrick/]] * [[User:Danny M487|Danny M487]] ([[User talk:Danny M487|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Danny M487|contribs]]) 19:30, 18 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Casey Neistat/]] * [[User:Itsjustkulsoom|Itsjustkulsoom]] ([[User talk:Itsjustkulsoom|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Itsjustkulsoom|contribs]]) 19:31, 18 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Zedd/]] * [[User:Josemazon123|Josemazon123]] ([[User talk:Josemazon123|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Josemazon123|contribs]]) 20:06, 18 September 2018 (UTC) [[/BROCKHAMPTON/]] * [[User:Ahernandez85|Ahernandez85]] ([[User talk:Ahernandez85|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ahernandez85|contribs]]) 19:17, 20 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Legend Of Zelda: Ocarina of Time/]] * [[User:JackyLu01|JackyLu01]] ([[User talk:JackyLu01|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JackyLu01|contribs]]) 12:30, 20 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Smartisan/]] * [[User:Manohar singh 32|Manohar singh 32]] ([[User talk:Manohar singh 32|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Manohar singh 32|contribs]]) 19:51, 20 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Motion Capture/]] * [[User:Zwo1|Zwo1]] ([[User talk:Zwo1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Zwo1|contribs]]) 23:57, 23 September 2018 (UTC) [[/DJI Mavic 2 Pro/]] * [[User:Hartveit|Hartveit]] ([[User talk:Hartveit|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Hartveit|contribs]]) 01:49, 25 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Hurdal Verk Folk High School/]] * [[User:p_ng_r|p_ng_r]] ([[User talk:p_ng_r|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/p_ng_r|contribs]]) 12:41 25 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Wenqing Yan/]] {{collapse bottom}} === Spring 2018 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] 01:01, 15 August 2016 (UTC) [[/Wafaa Bilal/]] * [[User:Wompaku|Wompaku]] ([[User talk:Wompaku|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Wompaku|contribs]]) 22:21, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Life is Strange/]] * [[User:Hamitaro|Hamitaro]] ([[User talk:Hamitaro|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Hamitaro|contribs]]) 22:22, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Persona 5/]] * [[User:Shayan223|Sean223]] ([[User talk:Shayan223|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Shayan223|contribs]]) 22:33, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/David Patrick Crane/]] * [[User:Touch92|Touch92]] ([[User talk:Touch92|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Touch92|contribs]]) 22:29, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/3D Printing/]] * [[User:Peg123|Peg123]] ([[User talk:Peg123|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Peg123|contribs]]) 22:32, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Dota 2/]] * [[User:Shadow1942oohwa|Shadow1942oohwa]] ([[User talk:Shadow1942oohwa|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Shadow1942oohwa|contribs]]) 22:34, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Dodge Charger Daytona/]] * [[User:Skullallen|Skullallen]] ([[User talk:Skullallen|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Skullallen|contribs]]) 22:38, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/DJI/]] * [[User:Johnbcuong|Johnbcuong]] ([[User talk:Johnbcuong|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Johnbcuong|contribs]]) 22:39, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Nguyen Tu Quang/]] * [[User:W popal1|W popal1]] ([[User talk:W popal1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/W popal1|contribs]]) 22:36, 15 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Lilly Singh/]] * [[User:Sankeerth1017|Sankeerth1017]] ([[User talk:Sankeerth1017|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sankeerth1017|contribs]]) 22:41, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Pewdiepie/]] * [[User:Jpierceall1|Jpierceall1]] ([[User talk:Jpierceall1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jpierceall1|contribs]]) 22:49, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/The World of FPS/]] *[[User:ShardolBGupta|ShardolBGupta]] ([[User talk:ShardolBGupta|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShardolBGupta|contribs]]) 22:42, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Chevrolet Volt/]] * [[User:JoshM75401|JoshM75401]] ([[User talk:JoshM75401|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JoshM75401|contribs]]) 22:49, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Jack Thompson/]] * [[User:Thaliatorres|Thaliatorres]] ([[User talk:Thaliatorres|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Thaliatorres|contribs]]) 23:04, 15 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Laserphaco Probe/]] * [[User:YuuchyHongroy|YuuchyHongroy]] ([[User talk:YuuchyHongroy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/YuuchyHongroy|contribs]]) 23:23, 15 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Photoshop/]] * [[User:stzyjpg|stzyjpg]] ([[User talk:stzyjpg|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/stzyjpg|contribs]]) 23:23, 18 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Jeff Bezos/]] {{collapse bottom}} === Fall 2017 === {{collapse top|Project List}} *[[User:Kbearrr|Kbearrr]] ([[User talk:Kbearrr|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kbearrr|contribs]]) 19:20, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Detriments of the Internet/]] *[[User:Ratalouie|Ratalouie]] ([[User talk:Ratalouie|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ratalouie|contribs]]) 19:45, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Overwatch/]] *[[User:Inadversity574|Inadversity574]] ([[User talk:Inadversity574|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Inadversity574|contribs]]) 19:44, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Fire Emblem/]] *[[User:Dwingdwang|Dwingdwang]] ([[User talk:Dwingdwang|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dwingdwang|contribs]]) 20:02, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Fixed Gear Bikes/]] * [[User:Isaacpacheco12|Isaacpacheco12]] ([[User talk:Isaacpacheco12|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Isaacpacheco12|contribs]]) 20:12, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Amazon Echo/]] * [[User:Gdonpadlan|Gdonpadlan]] ([[User talk:Gdonpadlan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Gdonpadlan|contribs]]) 20:21, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Nikon D850/]] *[[User:Cdb1015|Cdb1015]] ([[User talk:Cdb1015|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cdb1015|contribs]]) 21:59, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Visual Effects in Television and Movies/]] * [[User:Sjsanchez|Sjsanchez]] ([[User talk:Sjsanchez|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sjsanchez|contribs]]) 01:11, 20 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Ryan Higa/]] * [[User:Aevans28|Aevans28]] ([[User talk:Aevans28|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Aevans28|contribs]]) 03:56, 20 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Patty Jenkins/]] * [[User:Johnlee1234594|Johnlee1234594]] ([[User talk:Johnlee1234594|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Johnlee1234594|contribs]]) 11:17, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Tom Hanks/]] * [[User:Michaelellasos|Michaelellasos]] ([[User talk:Michaelellasos|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Michaelellasos|contribs]]) 21:36, 20 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Counter Strike: Global Offensive/]] * [[bilal621]] ([[User talk:bilal621|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/bilal621|contribs]]) 22:03, 20 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2/]] * [[User:Alscylla|Alscylla]] ([[User talk:Alscylla|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Alscylla|contribs]]) 13:11, 21 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Final Fantasy Record Keeper/]] * [[User:Kshadd15|Kshadd15]] ([[User talk:Kshadd15|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kshadd15|contribs]]) 10:59, 21 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Artificial Intelligence/]] * [[User:Greentea456|Greentea456]] ([[User talk:Greentea456|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Greentea456|contribs]]) 18:29, 21 September 2017 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Team Fortress 2|Team Fortress 2]] * [[User:Mehraan01|Mehraan01]] ([[User talk:Mehraan01|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mehraan01|contribs]]) 19:43, 21 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Tesla, Inc./]] * [[User:Zblazin|Zblazin]] ([[User talk:Zblazin|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Zblazin|contribs]]) 20:12, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Graphics processing unit/]] {{collapse bottom}} === Spring 2017 === {{collapse top|Project List}} *[[User:Mattvs1|Mattvs1]] ([[User talk:Mattvs1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mattvs1|contribs]]) 22:56, 7 February 2017 (UTC) [[/No Man's Sky/]] * [[User:Ebondoc98|Ebondoc98]] ([[User talk:Ebondoc98|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ebondoc98|contribs]]) 22:26, 9 February 2017 (UTC) [[/League of Legends/]] * [[User:Dmendoza1|Dmendoza1]] ([[User talk:Dmendoza1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dmendoza1|contribs]]) 22:44, 9 February 2017 (UTC) [[/The Legend Of Zelda/]] * [[User:Mmmarrufo|Mmmarrufo]] ([[User talk:Mmmarrufo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mmmarrufo|contribs]]) 22:58, 9 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Gabe Newell/]] * [[User:Jfriedenberg|Jfriedenberg]] ([[User talk:Jfriedenberg|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jfriedenberg|contribs]]) 23:19, 9 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Shinji Mikami/]] * [[User:AKW2017|AKW2017]] ([[User talk:AKW2017|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AKW2017|contribs]]) 23:32, 9 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Wii U/]] * [[User:Wramos1|Wramos1]] ([[User talk:Wramos1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Wramos1|contribs]]) 23:46, 9 February 2017 (UTC) [[/John Lasseter/]] * [[User:Yjohar1|Yjohar1]] ([[User talk:Yjohar1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Yjohar1|contribs]]) 23:48, 9 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Video Game Aggression/]] * [[User:Dzhang17|Dzhang17]] ([[User talk:Dzhang17|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dzhang17|contribs]]) 23:51, 9 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Fan Bingbing/]] * [[User:Dougalhathaway|Dougalhathaway]] ([[User talk:Dougalhathaway|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dougalhathaway|contribs]]) 00:04, 10 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Rayman/]] * [[User:Mochill|Mochill]] ([[User talk:Mochill|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mochill|contribs]]) 04:05, 10 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Commercial Head-up displays/]] *[[User:Hdo18|Hdo18]] ([[User talk:Hdo18|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Hdo18|contribs]]) 18:38, 13 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Cory Arcangel/]] * [[User:GnaF69|GnaF69]] ([[User talk:GnaF69|discuss)]] • [[Special:Contributions/GnaF69|contribs]]) 20:22, 13 February 2017 (UTC) [[/John Romero/]] * [[User:Blizz23|Blizz23]] ([[User talk:Blizz23|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Blizz23|contribs]]) 23:45, 14 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Archaeology Robots/]] * [[User:Bchu55|Bchu55]] ([[User talk:Bchu55|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bchu55|contribs]]) 23:50, 14 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Mark Zuckerberg/]] {{collapse bottom}} '''4. Research your topic'''<br> Look for at least three kinds of sources: # Articles, any published material, interviews, videos and information you can use for your own contributions to the site # Internet sources that can be linked to your page including multimedia content (please make sure that images and other visual materials not restricted by copyright)<br><br> '''5. Add or edit headings such as:''' * Early Life and Education or Biography * Career * Legacy * Personal Life * Exhibitions * Awards and Nominations (if relevant) * Bibliography or Further Reading * History * Software or Hardware * References * External Links For a detailed editing reference, go to: [[Wikiversity:FAQ/Editing|Wikiversity Editing Reference]] <br><br> '''6. Need Images?''' You can find images that are licensed under the Creative Comments license here [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page/ Wikimedia Commons]<br><br> Include <nowiki>[[Category:Digital Media Concepts]]</nowiki> at the bottom of the page to move the page into the assignment category. == Citations == APA style <ref>"Name of Article," accessed March 11, 2015, http://www.someURL.com.</ref> Chicago Style: <ref>Name of Article (for a source that does not list a copyright date, you use (n.d.) ). Retrieved October 15, 2015, from  http://www.someURL.com</ref> == Example of an annotated image == [[File:Great Wall of China in 2014.jpg|thumb|Great Wall of China in 2014]] <br style="clear: both;"> == Example of an [[Template:Infobox|infobox]] == {{Infobox |name = Wafaa Bilal |image = [[File:Wafaa-bilal2.JPG|thumb]] |title = Artist Wafaa Bilal |headerstyle = background:#ccf; |labelstyle = background:#ddf; |label1 = |data1 = Wafaa Bilal reading at Lannan Center for Poetics and Social Practice, Georgetown University |label2 = Nationality |data2 = {{{item_one| Iraqi American}}} |label3 = Born |data3 = {{{item_two|June 10, 1966}}} |label4 = Field of Research |data4 = {{{item_three|[[Video]], [[Electronic Arts]], [[New Media]]}}} |label5 = Birth Place |data5 = {{{item_Four|Najaf, Iraq}}} |label6 = Autor |data6 = {{{item_Five|Slowking4}}} }} <div style="clear:both;"></div> {{Infobox | name = Digital Media Concepts | bodystyle = | titlestyle = | abovestyle = background:#cfc; | subheaderstyle = | title = Test Infobox | above = Above text | subheader = Subheader above image | subheader2 = Second subheader | imagestyle = | captionstyle = | image = [[File:Example-serious.jpg|200px|alt=Example alt text]] | caption = Caption displayed below Example-serious.jpg | headerstyle = background:#ccf; | labelstyle = background:#ddf; | datastyle = | header1 = Header defined alone | label1 = | data1 = | header2 = | label2 = Label defined alone does not display (needs data, or is suppressed) | data2 = | header3 = | label3 = | data3 = Data defined alone | header4 = All three defined (header, label, data, all with same number) | label4 = does not display (same number as a header) | data4 = does not display (same number as a header) | header5 = | label5 = Label and data defined (label) | data5 = Label and data defined (data) | belowstyle = background:#ddf; | below = Below text }} <div style="clear:both;"></div> ==Navigational Templates== [[:w:Wikipedia:Navigation template|Navigation Template on Wikipedia]] == Media Templates == {{Listen | filename = Lion raring-sound1TamilNadu178.ogg | title = Lion roaring | plain = yes | style = float:left }} <div style="clear:both;"></div> == Useful links == * [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|Quick Reference]] * [[:w:Wikipedia:Tutorial/Wikipedia_links|Wikipedia Tutorial]] * [http://www.wikihow.com/Cite How to cite on Wikipedia] * [[:w:Help:Link|Using external links]] == Completed Assignments == {{Subpages/List}} ==References== {{reflist}} [[Category:Art]] [[Category:Culture]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:Assignments]] [[Category:Digital art]] [[Category:Courses]] [[Category:Education]] 6mjrbsfhiej4tfvrwe1lcha10fvvnn9 0 216888 2841839 1653759 2026-10-21T08:57:50Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 Attempting to solve lints 2841839 wikitext text/x-wiki [[/Archive/]] [[Category:Wright State University Lake Campus/Course reports]] ==Registration (first week of class)== To ensure full credit for your course report, complete this registration before the second week of class begins. If you need to complete this over the weekend, leave a message at [[User talk:Guy vandegrift]]. ===Pick Wikimedia (Wikipedia) username and passwords=== If you don't already have a Wikimedia (Wikiversity) <ref>Your [[Wikiversity]] account spans [[Wikipedia]], [[Wikibooks]], [[Commons]] and other Wikimedia sisters.</ref> username, you need to select one. Put some thought into your username because someday contributions to [[w:Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects#Sister_projects|these wikis]] might become a standard way for a student to establish a scholarly reputation before graduating from college. Most people chose usernames that do not reveal their true identity (you might for, example, want your username to contain all or part of your first name). It helps to make a somewhat unique choice for your Wikimedia username because that increases your chance of having identical Miraheze and Wikimedia usernames. Regarding the password<ref>It is possible to change our Wikimedia password</ref>, you have three options: #Give Wikimedia your email address and you can use that to recover your password. Wikimedia has been extremely good about not spamming you with email if you don't want it. #Give your professor your password. DO NOT DO THIS IF YOUR PASSWORD IS USED FOR OTHER PURPOSES THAT REQUIRE SECURITY #Don't forget your password. {{cot|do not change above this line <!--==_==--> {{cob} ====Alternative method: Create your own wiki==== [[File:Miraheze Request a wiki.png|right|400px]] If you choose not to use one of the wikis on [https://wright.miraheze.org wright.miraheze.org], you may instead select a private wiki on [https://meta.miraheze.org/wiki/Special:RequestWiki Miraheze:Special:RequestWiki]. To avoid confusion, use the same name for the ''Wiki&nbsp;name'' and the ''Subdomain'' name, and select the first five letters of this name to be "wright". Do not select a Custom domain unless you want to find a host outside Miraheze. ==Uploading files== Only quality files should be uploaded to Wikiversity. To upload to Wikiversity, click "Upload file" in the toolbar to the right. Give the file a category [[:Category:WSUL_file]] by placing <code><nowiki>[[Category:WSUL_file]]</nowiki></code> in the summary. For the license, I would suggest "Public Domain" or "CC-by-SA". The former will make it easier for others to use, and for resumes or other documents, you can save a permalink in your user space. The file automatically cites usage on wikimedia wikis, as you can verify by going to the file on Wikiveristy or Commons. ==Footnotes== ppts35r1ir56srtu4jmw7fwjtgwjpsn 0 235179 2841736 2836351 2026-10-20T19:35:36Z The Citer 3110681 Added phylogeny! (completion later) 2841736 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:LightRefractsOf comb-rows of ctenophore Mertensia ovum.jpg|thumb|300px|right|''Mertensia'', a Ctenophore.]] * Ctenophora * Name Meaning: Comb bearer * English Common Name: Comb jellies, Ctenophores * Major distinguishing characteristics: Eight "comb rows" of fused cilia * Approximate number of species described: about 100 modern species == Natural History == All species are marine and almost all are free-swimming. They are found around the world, and grow up to 2 meters (6 feet) in length. Comb-jellies are difficult to study because most species are extremely soft-bodied and don't survive capture intact. A few coastal species are a bit tougher, and are regularly displayed in aquaria. Most of what we know about them comes from these species. All adult ctenophores are predators. The juveniles of two species are parasites, otherwise they too are predators. Some are bioluminescent. ==Taxonomy== The Phylum Ctenophora is divided into two living classes: * Class Tentaculata (ctenophores with cilia) * Class Nuda (ctenophores without cilia) ==Phylogeny== {{Clade |label1=Ctenophora |1={{clade |label1=Nuda |1={{clade |1=''Beroe'' |2=''Neis''}} |label2=Tentaculata |2={{clade |1=''Cambodgia elegantissima'' |2={{clade |label1=Cestida |1={{clade |1=''Cestum veneris'' |2=''Velamen parallelum''}} |label2=Cryptolobiferida |2={{clade |1=''Cryptolobata primitiva'' |2=''Lobocrypta annamita''}} }} |label3=Cydippida |3={{clade |1=''Duobrachium sparksae'' |2=''Aulacoctena acuminata'' |3=''Cryptocoda gerlachi'' |4=''Ctenella aurantia'' |5=''Dryodora glandiformis'' |label6=''Bathyctena'' |6={{clade |1=''Bathyctena chuni'' |2=''Bathyctena latipharyngea'' }} |7=''Haeckelia'' |label8=''Euplokamis'' |8={{clade |1=''Euplokamis crinita'' |2=''Euplokamis dunlapae'' |3=''Euplokamis evansae'' |4=''Euplokamis evansae'' |5=''Euplokamis octoptera'' |6=''Euplokamis stationis''}} |label9=Cydippidae |9={{clade |1=''Attenboroughctena'' |2=''Hormiphora'' |3=''Minictena'' |4=''Pleurobrachia'' |5=''Tinerfe''}} |10=Lampeidae |11=Mertensiidae |12=''Pukia'' |13=''Vampyroctena delmarvensis''}} }} }} }} ==Anatomy== Ctenophora are the largest animals to move by the use of cilia. The cilia are present in lines, called combs. A few deep-sea ctenophorans lack combs. Like cnidarians, their bodies consist mostly of mesoglea, a non-living substance. Unlike the cnidarians, their body wall contains two layers of cells instead of one. Their internal anatomy consists of a mouth, pharynx, stomach, and an internal set of canals. ==The Fossil Record== Having a soft body, the fossil record of the Ctenophora is spotty and limited. The earliest known is 520 million years old. They are present in the Burgess Shale. ==Quiz== * [[/Ctenophora Quiz/]] ==References and Further Reading== * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ctenophora Ctenophora] at Wikipedia * [http://eol.org/pages/69/overview Ctenophora] at the Encyclopedia of Life * [http://tolweb.org/Ctenophora/2462 Ctenophora] at the Tree of Life [[Category:Animals]] [[Category:Taxonomy]] [[Category:Biology]] [[Category:Zoology]] gytbngiefrr7ffytdl2pscv6yj496iq 0 238352 2841775 2638573 2026-10-21T00:02:40Z ~2026-56290-91 3113026 /* Reward systems */ JPEG → PNG 2841775 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Natural euphoria:<br>How can euphoria be induced without drugs?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== Euphoria affects the body psychologically and physiologically,{{gr}} the pleasurable sensation of euphoria can be induced in various ways, such as romantic love, music, video games and exercise. The problematics surrounding the pleasurable feeling of euphoria is the addictive nature. Literature discussing chemically-induced euphoria such as stimulants or depressants has an over representation surrounding the issue. The brains{{gr}} pleasure centres have a similar reaction whether euphoria is induced naturally or chemically{{fact}}. Studies on excessive exercise or excessive video game play found the brains{{gr}} pleasure centres produced chemicals within the body such as endogenous opioids, endocannabinoid and Beta-endorphin,{{gr}} the release of these chemicals throughout the body can have positive or negative effects psychologically and physiologically. For example, a positive effect is psychological well-being,{{gr}} a negative effect is the physiological dependence or addiction to the production of such chemicals within the body. This book chapter will discuss the brains{{gr}} pleasure centres and how various activities can naturally induce feelings of euphoria. ==Euphoria== [[File:Supreme happiness.jpg|thumb|259px|''Figure 1''. Child experiencing euphoria]] [[w:Euphoria|Euphoria]] can be defined as a state of intense excitement and pleasurable feelings or happiness, [[w:Well-being|well-being]], and [[optimism]]. Euphoria can be described as [[Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2016/Euphoria_as_an_emotion|symptomatic of a mental illness]] or the influence of drugs,{{gr}} euphoria activates the [[w:brain's reward system|brain's reward system]]. The word "euphoria" is derived from the [[wiktionary:Euphoria|Ancient Greek]] terms εὐφορία: εὖ eu meaning "well" and φέρω pherō meaning "to bear". It is semantically opposite to [[w:Dysphoria|dysphoria]]. [[w:Natural rewards|Natural rewards]] and social activities have been known to induce a state of euphoria. The different types of naturally occurring euphoric [[w:Stimulus|stimuli]] are; [[exercise]], [[music]], sexual intercourse and video games,{{gr}} euphoria can also be induced chemically as a result of [[w:stimulants|stimulants]] or [[w:depressants|depressants]]. Choose the correct answer and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Can euphoria be induced from natural stimuli, chemical stimuli or both natural and chemical stimuli? |type="()"} - natural stimuli - chemical stimuli + both natural and chemical stimuli </quiz> ==Reward systems== [[File:Dopaminergic pathways.svg|thumb|400px|''Figure 2''. Picture of the brain highlighting the dopamine pathways]] The [[w:reward system|reward system]] can be defined as any stimulus activity, object, event or situation that has the potential to make us approach or consume it (Schultz, 2015). Pleasure systems in the brain produce [[w:neural structures|neural structures]] responsible for [[w:incentive salience|incentive salience]], for example, motivation or wanting to receive a reward. Pleasure is a core component for the experience of euphoria and happiness (Schultz, 2015). Rewarding stimulus{{gr}} produce attractive and motivational properties that induce [[w:appetitive behaviours|appetitive behaviours]], [[w:approach behaviour|approach behaviour]] and [[w:consummatory behaviour|consummatory behaviour]] (Schultz, 2015). [[w:Positive reinforces|Positive reinforces]]{{sp}} have been found to be rewarding and play a role in operate{{sp}} conditioning,{{gr}} for example, rewarding stimuli function as positive reinforces (Schultz, 2015). Studies of the reward system have identified three reward states,{{gr}} the first, primary rewards which facilitate the survival of one’s self and offspring. The second,{{gr}} [[w:intrinsic rewards|intrinsic rewards]] are unconditioned rewards that involve attractive and motivational behaviour producing pleasure or euphoria. Finally, [[w:extrinsic rewards|extrinsic rewards]] are conditioned rewards that involve attractive and [[w:motivational behaviour|motivational behaviour]], however, extrinsic rewards are not consistent in the production of pleasurable feelings or euphoria (Malenka, Nestler and Hyman, 2009; Nestler, 2013; Schultz, 2015). Research suggests the combination of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards influence the behaviour necessary to maximize pleasurable feelings of euphoria. For example, extrinsic rewards such as money or your favourite sports team winning can elicit euphoric pleasure. Extrinsic rewards develop their motivational value as a result of [[w:learned association|learned association]] and [[w:conditioning|conditioning]] with intrinsic rewards (Malenka, Nestler and Hyman, 2009; Nestler, 2013; Schultz, 2015). Multiple brain structures are combined to produce a functional reward system (Yager, Garcia, Wunsch and Ferguson, 2015). Within the [[w:cortico-basl|cortico-basl]] [[w:ganglia-thalamo-cortical loop|ganglia-thalamo-cortical loop]], the [[w:basal ganglia|basal ganglia]] portion of the loop drives activity within the reward system (Yager, Garcia, Wunsch and Ferguson, 2015){{gr}}. [[w:Glutamatergic interneurons|Glutamatergic interneurons]] link the structures within the reward system (Yager, Garcia, Wunsch and Ferguson, 2015). [[w:Dopaminergic projections|Dopaminergic projections]] are sets of neurons that synthesize and release the [[w:neurotransmitter|neurotransmitter]] dopamine to communicate with other neurons (Yager, Garcia, Wunsch and Ferguson, 2015). [[w:Axons|Axons]] run the full length of the dopamine neuron pathways,{{gr}} the neurons’ somata produce the [[w:enzymes|enzymes]] that synthesize dopamine neurons (Yager, Garcia, Wunsch and Ferguson, 2015). [[w:Dopamine pathways|Dopamine pathways]] within the [[w:ventral tegmental|ventral tegmental]] area are also part of the reward system,{{gr}} these dopamine pathways can stimulate or inhibit D1-like receptors or D2- like receptors (Malenka, Nestler and Hyman, 2009; Nestler, 2013; Schultz, 2015). The reward system contains [[w:Hedonic hotspot|Hedonic hotspot]]{{gr}} that are functionally linked between different brain structures that facilitate pleasure,{{gr}} the activation of one hedonic hotspot results in the recruitment of the others (Berridge & Kringelbach 2015; Pecina, Smith and Berridge, 2006). There are three psychological components for mapping pleasure in the brain (Berridge & Kringelbach 2015). The first psychological component is liking - a core reaction to hedonic impact. The second psychological component is wanting - a motivation process of [[w:incentive salience|incentive salience]]. The third psychological component is learning - a [[w:Pavlovian|Pavlovian]] or [[w:instrumental associations|instrumental associations]] and [[w:cognitive representations|cognitive representations]]. [[w:Functional magnetic resonance imaging|Functional magnetic resonance imaging]] (fMRI) have{{gr}} revealed that the inhibition of one hotspot results in blunting the activation of another hotspot. This simultaneous activation of every hedonic hotspot within the reward system is believed to be necessary for generating the sensation of intense euphoria (Berridge & Kringelbach 2015). Neuroscientists using fMRI have identified hedonic hotspots in sub-compartments within the [[w:nucleus accumbens shell|nucleus accumbens shell]], [[w:ventral pallidum|ventral pallidum]], [[w:parabrachial nucleus|parabrachial nucleus]], [[w:orbitofrontal cortex|orbitofrontal cortex]], and [[w:insular cortex|insular cortex]]. There are three main regions within the brain associated with pleasure; the ventral pallidum (pleasure does not occur without it), the nucleus accumbens (pleasure occurs when activated) and the orbitofrontal cortex (its activation correlates with pleasure) (Berridge & Kringelbach 2015). [[File:Anatomy of the basal ganglia.png|thumb|300px|''Figure 3''. The Nucleus Accumbens]] <quiz display=simple> {Does rewarding stimulus produce motivational properties such as appetitive behavior, approach behavior and consummatory behavior? |type="()"} - False + True </quiz> ==Romantic love-induced euphoria== [[File:Couple kissing in Cologne, Germany-2April2011.jpg|thumb|195px|''Figure 4''. A Couple kissing experiencing euphoria]] [[w:Romantic love|Romantic love]] or Copulation is a [[w:biological instinct|biological instinct]] within all people,{{gr}} the need to reproduce is a [[w:primitive drive|primitive drive]] that motivates individuals to seek out a mate. [[w:Vroom’s Expectancy Theory|Vroom’s Expectancy Theory]] is founded on the basic notions of effort, performance, and reward (Parijat & Bagga, 2014). The key constructs to the expectancy theory of motivation are; Valence, Expectancy, and Instrumentality. Valence - is the value or the strength an individual places on a particular outcome/reward, for example, the need to reproduce is of value to the individuals{{gr}} survival, the strength is driven by the biological instinct to reproduce. Expectancy - relates effort to performance, for example, how much effort an individual puts into seek out a mate (social or financial status). Instrumentality - is the belief that performance is related to rewards, for example, in contemporary society individual performance such as monetary gain, materialistic value or “peacocking”{{explain}} individual financial success and social class, this increases the potential of finding a suitable mate to reproduce with (Parijat & Bagga, 2014). Romantic love involves four components; cognitive, erotic, behavioural and emotional (Emanuele, Politi, Bianchi, Minoretti, Bertona and Geroldi, 2005). The early stages stimulate intense emotional and motivational responses such as euphoria, [[w:focused attention|focused attention]], and [[w:obsessive thinking|obsessive thinking]] (Aron, Fisher, Mashek, Strong, Li and Brown, 2005; Emanuele et al., 2005). Researchers suggest emotional responses such as euphoria and focused attention involve reward and motivational systems in the brain (Aron et al., 2005; Emanuele et al., 2005). Studies using MRI and fMRI revealed multiple brain structures are involved in producing the feelings of romantic love or euphoria{{fact}}. The [[w:brain structures|brain structures]] involved are located in the [[w:cortex region|cortex region]], the [[w:medial insula|medial insula]], [[w:anterior cingulate|anterior cingulate]] and the [[w:hippocampus|hippocampus]] (Zeki, 2007). The [[w:subcortical regions|subcortical regions]] that mediate reward such as nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area are also involved in the production of feelings of euphoria (Aron et al., 2005). Romantic love is a [[w:goal directed behaviour|goal directed behaviour]] that incorporates various emotions, the [[w:biochemical mechanisms|biochemical mechanisms]] effect changes in mood (Zeki, 2007; Emanuele et al., 2005). Emanuele et al., (2005) concluded the levels of neurotrophins increase, for example, [[w:plasma levels|plasma levels]] of NGF{{explain}} in the bloodstream, suggesting the increased levels could be related to specific emotions such as euphoria. Romantic love creates feelings of exhilaration and euphoria {{missing}} the same circuity that drugs such as [[w:cocaine|cocaine]] or [[w:heroin|heroin]] act on humans to produce euphoria or [[w:addiction|addiction]]. The cortex and subcortical are flooded with high concentrations of [[w:neuro-modulators|neuro-modulators]] such as [[w:dopamine|dopamine]] which is associated with reward and euphoria. Oxytocin and vasopressin are two other neuro-modulators linked to romantic love (Zeki, 2007). The dopamine release by the [[W:hypothalamus|hypothalamus]] functions as a link between the [[w:nervous|nervous]] and the [[w:endocrine systems|endocrine systems]]{{gr}} these are the same regions that become active when [[w:exogenous|exogenous]] opiate drugs are introduced to the system causing euphoria. The dopamine release by the hypothalamus creates a decrease in [[w:serotonin|serotonin]] (5-hydroxytryptamine) to levels that are common in people with [[w:obsessive-compulsive disorder|obsessive-compulsive disorder]] suggesting the increase - decrease of neuro-modulators is linked to the obsession part of romantic love (Zeki, 2007). Oxytocin and vasopressin are both produced by the hypothalamus and are linked to attachment and bonding,{{gr}} they are stored and released in the [[w:pituitary gland|pituitary gland]] then discharged into the blood during orgasm (Zeki, 2007). ==Music-induced euphoria== Certain stimuli has the potential to produce intense feelings of pleasure,{{gr}} these rewarding stimuli are either [[w:biological reinforces|biological reinforces]], [[w:synthetic chemicals|synthetic chemicals]], or tangible items referred to as secondary rewards (Salimpoor, Benovoy, Larcher, Dagher & Zatorre, 2011, p. 257). Exposure to certain stimuli such as music, has been known to stimulate dopaminergic activity in the [[w:mesolimbic system|mesolimbic system]] (Salimpoor et al., 2011). Blood & Zatorre (2011) found there is a correlation between pleasurable responses to music and feeling of euphoria. Researchers have observed an increase in [[w:cerebral blood flow|cerebral blood flow]] in multiple brain structures involving the reward system (Blood & Zatorre, 2011). The brain structures activated when listening to music stimulate the [[w:ventral striatum|ventral striatum]], [[w:mid-brain|mid-brain]], [[w:amygdala|amygdala]], [[w:orbito-frontal cortex|orbito-frontal cortex]] and [[w:ventral medial prefrontal cortex|ventral medial prefrontal cortex]] that produce the pleasurable feelings of euphoria (Blood & Zatorre, 2011). The activity observed within these brain structures is known to involve dopamine and [[w:opioid systems|opioid systems]]. Salimpoor et al., (2011) found listening to music induced an emotional arousal that stimulated a release of endogenous dopamine into the [[w:striatum|striatum]]. [[File:Mary Martin in The Sound of Music by Toni Frissell.jpg|thumb|300px|''Figure 5''. The sound of music can produce euphoria]] Here are some example quiz questions - choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Studies suggest there is a correlation between pleasurable responses and feelings of euphoria when listening to music, which of the following brain structures when stimulated produce feelings of euphoria? |type="()"} - ventral striatum - ventral medial prefrontal cortex - orbito-frontal cortex - amygdala + all the above </quiz> ==Video-game-induced euphoria== [[File:Woman playing Candy Crush Saga on iPad.jpg|thumb|200px|''Figure 6''. A Women on her iPad playing video games experiencing euphoria]] The millennial generation has become somewhat hypnotizes{{sp}} with video games online and handheld mobile devices the increased screen time has become the latest phenomena. Parents are concerned with their children's physical and psychological health and well-being (King & Delfabbro, 2009; Lemmens, Valkenburg and Peter, 2009). Parents and caregivers are concerned about video game addiction or dependence,{{gr}} many children are displaying alarming behavioural changes such as physical violence, lateral violence, and disengagement impacting their home and school life (King & Delfabbro, 2009). Children are spending more time playing video games then playing outside or doing their homework and chores (Griffiths & Hunt 1998). The severity of the situation is children no longer want, they need to play video games. The need to play video games becomes so overwhelming children neglect the fundamental pleasures of life to chase the euphoric feelings they receive from playing video games. The approach-avoidance behaviour replaces fundamental pleasures with higher order pleasures such as video games becomes the new driving motivation for gamers (Corr, 2013; Griffiths & Hunt 1998). Gamers are people who plays online video games (Griffiths & Hunt 1998). Studies have found people who play video games experience pleasurable feelings or euphoria, however, many researchers are concerned about the long-term effects of exposure to video games has on the individual (Griffiths & Hunt 1998; King & Delfabbro, 2009). One of the controversial concerns is addiction or dependence,{{gr}} many studies have revealed the potential for pathological health implications from the long-term exposure to video games. One explanation for the motivation for the excessive game play is Need Theory (McClelland, 1987). People who acquire a particular need behave differently from those who do not have that need, for example, the kinds of events people experience in the environment and culture (McClelland, 1987; Conger & Kanungo, 1988). McClelland’s Need Theory focuses on three needs; Achievement, Power and Affiliation (McClelland, 1987; Conger & Kanungo, 1988). [[File:Dopamine and serotonin pathways.png|thumb|400px|''Figure 7''. Dopamine is a major part of addiction]] ''' Achievement''' * The game rewards * Reward delivery in relation to player * Achievement points are similar to loyalty reward programs they reward players for completing the game or playing a game nonstop for hours, for example, playing for eight hours straight. * Rewards in video games are particularly salient to males * The rewards in video games are often the primary motivation for playing * Complex reward structures that require multitasking management skills and a great deal of player concentration ''' Power''' * Empowerment refers to the highlighted sense of power or authority * Experience of feeling a sense of mastery over the virtual properties of the video game * Status or rank * Control and recognition * Strong sense of personal agency within the game content * Manipulate and interact with features of video game environment * A sense of personal freedom is being able to choose how the video game stories will be resolved or controlling the outcome in the game events using personal strategy ''' Affiliation''' * The role of social networks and social responsibilities in games * Players could compare their progress in the video game with their friends or other players * Social networks have been associated with social responsibilities, a social responsibility for each play within the network as they are part of a playing group and they rely on each other * A type of online community which shares a common space, common experiences with friends in the game Children playing video games are motivated by the virtual reward frequency (variable ratio reinforcement schedules) and the structural characteristics within the video games. The video game engineers have used multiple strategies to keep gamer's dependent or addicted to the video game, similar strategies that are used for poker machines (King & Delfabbro, 2009). Research suggests prolonged exposure or excessive use of video games can lead to behavioural addictions such as compulsive, uncontrollable and psychologically or physically destructive behaviour (Lemmens, Valkenburg and Peter, 2009; Griffiths & Hunt 1998). Studies investigating the problematic use of video games have used the American Psychiatric Association diagnosis for pathological gambling as the criteria for diagnosing dependent or addicted online gamer's (Lemmens, Valkenburg and Peter, 2009; Griffiths & Hunt, 1998; King & Delfabbro, 2009). '''The addiction criteria model:''' ''' Salience''' * The excessive game play dominates the Gamer's feelings, thinking and behaviour. ''' Tolerance''' * Gamer's begin playing video games more often, gradually building up the amount of time spent on playing video games. '''Mood modification''' * Gamer's increasingly chase the 'high' or euphoria they experience from playing video games. ''' Withdrawal''' * The unpleasant emotions or physical side effects that occur when the gamer discontinues or reduces time spent from video games. ''' Relapse''' * The tendency to revert back to earlier excessive patterns of game play. ''' Conflict''' * The interpersonal conflict resulting from excessive gaming, also the conflict between the gamer and those around them. ''' Problems''' * Problems caused from excessive game play, displacement problems is the object of addiction, gaming takes preference over essential life activities, such as school work and family commitments ultimately causing psychiatric conflict and/or subjective feelings of loss of control. ==Exercise-induced euphoria== [[File:LairigGhru-8246.jpg|thumb|300px|''Figure 8''. Aerobic exercise can produce "runner's high"]] [[w:Endorphins|Endorphins]] are [[w:endogenous opioids|endogenous opioids]] that are released from the [[w:pituitary gland|pituitary gland]], endogenous opioids mediate [[w:analgesia|analgesia]] or euphoria and play a role in the brains{{gr}} reward system (Leuenberger, 2006). Research suggests that endorphins are responsible for creating the psychological state known as "runners' high". The endogenous opioid system is closely linked to different neurotransmitter systems within the brain such as [[w:dopaminergic|dopaminergic]], [[w:noradrenergic|noradrenergic]], [[w:serotonergic|serotonergic]], [[w:GABA-ergic|GABA-ergic]] and [[w:glutamatergic systems|glutamatergic]] systems (Leuenberger, 2006). The endorphin hypothesis proposes that the effects of acute exercise is beneficial for psychological and physiological well-being,{{gr}} for example, the positive effects of euphoria. Euphoria is caused by the release of endogenous opioids, for example, β-endorphin receptor sites within the brain (Leuenberger, 2006). Research suggests that physical activity is associated with positive mood and improves emotional well-being (Daley, 2002; Buckly, 2018). Daley (2002) concluded that physical exercise reduces depression and anxiety,{{gr}} there is supporting evidence that a positive relationship between exercise as a therapy for treating mental illness (Daley, 2002; Buckly, 2018). Studies have also found positive effect in relation to exercise on both the [[w:serum|serum]] and [[w:cerebrospinal fluid|cerebrospinal fluid]] concentrations of endocannabinoids (Dietrich & McDaniel, 2004; Daley, 2002; Buckly, 2018). The presence of cannabinoid receptors in the muscle, skin, endothelial cells and lungs suggest a possible role for the [[w:endocannabinoid system|endocannabinoid system]] in mediating certain physiological responses to exercise (Dietrich & McDaniel 2004). Prior to the discovery of endogenous opioid system, researchers tried to account for the analgesic and euphoric states with alterations in the [[w:catecholamine adrenaline|catecholamine adrenaline]] (epinephrine) and [[w:noradrenaline|noradrenaline]] (norepinephrine) (Dietrich & McDaniel, 2004; Daley, 2002; Buckly, 2018). Literature defines the runners' high as feelings of happiness, harmony, boundless energy and at peace with oneself. Research found the runners' high reduced the physical sensation of pain, however, the runners' high is not experienced by all runners (Sher, 1998). Studies found the runners' high does not occur consistently in all runners even if an individual has experienced it previously before{{why}}. Research suggests that plasma levels or [[w:Beta-endorphins|Beta-endorphins]] are increased during and after physical activity,{{gr}} high intensity exercise can stimulate the release of Beta-endorphins into the blood circulation (Sher, 1998). Research suggest the endogenous euphoric reward is responsible for the reinforcement of physical training and the changes in psychological functions as a direct consequence of alterations in endogenous opioid release (Sher, 1998). Exercise dependence is not currently recognized by the DSM-V. Studies suggest the µ-opiate receptor is involved in the development of exercise dependence, furthermore, the endogenous opioid system is a key factor for generating addictions (Johnston, Reilly and Kremer, 2011). The endogenous opiate system stimulates dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens,{{gr}} this suggests the endogenous opiate system influences addiction. The endogenous opiates act directly in the nucleus accumbens (Allegre, Souville, Therme and Griffiths, 2006). Studies suggest dopamine as the major component within the process of addictions. Individuals labelled as exercise dependent show similar behaviours and hormone levels to those of alcoholism and drug addicts. Researchers have found two neurotransmitter systems that correlate with addiction or dependence, the dopaminergic and the opioidergic systems. The ventral tegmental area and the nucleus accumbens are two of the brains{{gr}} regions that are involved in reward circuit of the central nervous system,{{gr}} collectively they form the mesolimbic dopamine system (Johnston, Reilly and Kremer, 2011). Groups of cells in the ventral tegmental area synapse in the nucleus accumbens and release dopamine. Studies suggest that exercise dependence is increasing and needs to be recognized within the DSM-V (Allegre, Souville, Therme and Griffiths, 2006). ==Conclusion== In conclusion, euphoria whether being naturally or chemically induced, can have problems with addiction or dependence. Literature surrounding the issue highlights the positive or negative effects of euphoria. This book chapter has looked at the brains{{gr}} pleasure centres and the similar reaction naturally or chemically induced euphoria has on the body and mind{{gr}}. The main highlights presented within this chapter focused on the various ways euphoria can be naturally induced, such as the experience of romantic love, listening to music, playing video games and exercise. More research needs to be conducted into the pros and cons of euphoria as much of the literature focuses more on chemically induced euphoric states rather than the naturally induced euphoric states. ==See also== * [[w:Emotion|Emotion]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2018/Endorphins and motivation|Endorphins and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Euphoria|Euphoria]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2016/Euphoria as an emotion|Euphoria as an emotion]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2018/Exercise types and emotion|Exercise types and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Mystical experiences and emotion|Mystical experiences and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2018) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Allegre, B., Souville, M., Therme, P., & Griffiths, M. (2006). Definitions and measures of exercise dependence. Addiction research and theory, 14(6), 631- 646. doi:10.1080/16066350600903302 Aron, A., Fisher, H., Mashek, D. J., Strong, G., Haifang, L., & Brown, L. L. (2005). Reward, motivation and emotion systems associated with early-stage intense romantic love. The American Physiological Society, 94, 327-337. doi:10.1152/jn.00838.2004 Berridge, K. C., & Kringelbach, M. L. (2015). Pleasure systems in the brain. Neuron Review, 86, 646-664. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2015.02.018 Blood, A. J., & Zatorre, R. J. (2001). Intensely pleasurable responses to music correlate with activity in brain regions implicated in reward and emotion. PNAS, 98(20), 11818-11823. doi:10.1073/pnas.191355898 Buckly, R. (2018). Nature sports, health and ageing: the value of euphoria. Annals of Leisure Research, 1-17. doi:10.1080/11745398.2018.1483734 Conger, J. A., & Kanungo, R. N. (1988). The empowerment process: Integrating theory and practice. Academy of Management Review, 13(3), 471-482. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1988.4306983 Corr, P. J. (2013). Approach and avoidance behavior: multiple systems and their interactions. Emotion review, 5(3), 285-290. Daley, A. J. (2002). Exercise therapy and mental health in clinical populations: is exercise therapy a worthwhile intervention? Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 8, 262-270. doi:10.1192/apt.8.4.262 Dietrich, A., & McDaniel, W. F. (2004). Endocannabinoids and exercise. Br J Sports Med, 38, 536-541. doi:10.1136/bjsm Emanuele, E., Politi, P., Bianchi, M., Minoretti, P., Bertona, M., & Geroldi, D. (2005). Raised plasma nerve growth factor levels associated with early-stage romantic love. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 31, 228- 294. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2005.09.002 Griffiths, M. (1997). Exercise addiction: A case study. Addiction Research, 5(2), 161-168. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3109/16066359709005257 Griffiths, M. D., & Hunt, N. (1998). Dependence on computer games by adolescents. Psychological Reports, 82, 475- 480. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.2466%2Fpr0.1998.82.2.475 Johnston, O., Reilly, J., & Kremer, J. (2011). Excessive exercise: from quantitative categorization to a qualitative continuum approach. Eating Disorders Association, 19, 237-248. doi:10.1002/erv.970 Kelley, H. H., & Michela, J. L. (1980). Attribution theory and research. Annual Reviews, 31, 457-501. King, D., & Delfabbro, P. (2009). Understanding and assisting excessive players of video games: a community psychology perspective. The Australian Community Psychiatrist, 21(1), 62- 74. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Daniel_King6/publication/284503482_Understanding_and_Assisting_Excessive_Players_of_Video_Games_A_Community_Psychology_Perspective/links/02e7e526d79ecb59d9000000/Understanding-and-Assisting-Excessive-Players-of-Video-Games-A-Community-Psychology-Perspective.pdf Lemmens, J. S., Valkenbenberg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2009). Development and validation of a game addiction scale for adolescents. Media psychology, 12, 77- 95. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1080/15213260802669458 Leuenberger, A. (2006). Endorphins, exercise, and addictions: A review of exercise dependence. Impulse: the premier Journal for undergraduate publications in the neurosciences, 1-9. Retrieved from https://impulse.appstate.edu/sites/impulse.appstate.edu/files/2006_06_05_Leuenberger.pdf Malenka, R. C., Nestler, E. J., & Hyman, S. E. (2009). Excitatory and inhibitory amino acids. Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience, 191-368. Retrieved from https://www.scirp.org/(S(lz5mqp453edsnp55rrgjct55))/reference/ReferencesPapers.aspx?ReferenceID=2074120 McClelland, D. C. (1987). Human motivation. Cambridge University press, 1-288. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=vic4AAAAIAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR3&dq=mcclelland%27s+need+theory+of+motivation+&ots=As_R9IV0b5&sig=Gn23QJh3RcCTt1vlJVnBMLBhFKA#v=onepage&q=mcclelland's%20need%20theory%20of%20motivation&f=false Nestler, E. J. (2013). Cellular basis of memory for addiction. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 15(4), 431-443. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3898681/ Nichols, D. S., & Glenn, T. M. (1994). Effects of aerobic exercise on pain perception, affect, and level of disability in individuals with fibromyalgia. Journal of the American Physical Therapy Association, 74(4), 327-332. Oh, A., & Yi, E. (2017). A study on the effects of exercise motivation of the elderly people on euphoria. Journal of Exercise Rehabilitation, 13(4), 387-392. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.12965/jer.1735084.542 Parijat, P., & Bagga, S. (2014). Victor vroom's expectancy theory of motivation – An evaluation. International Research Journal of Business and Management, 7(9), 1-8. Retrieved from http://irjbm.org/irjbm2013/Sep2014/Paper1.pdf Pecina, S., Smith, K. S., & Berridge, K. C. (2006). Hedonic hotspots in the brain. Department of Psychology, 12(6), 500-511. doi:10.1177/1073858406293154 Salimpoor, V. N., Benovoy, M., Larcher, K., Dagher, A., & Zatorre, R. J. (2011). Automatically distinct dopamine release during anticipation and experience of peak emotion to music. Nature Neuroscience, 14(2), 257-262. doi:10.1038/nn.2726 Schultz, W. (2015). Neuronal reward and decision signals: From theories to data. Physiological Reviews, 95(3), 853-951. doi:10.1152/physrev.00023.2014 Sher, L. (1998). The endogenous euphoric reward system that reinforces physical training: a mechanism for mankind's survival. Medical Hypotheses, 51, 449-450. Yager, L. M., Garcia, A. F., Wunsch, A. M., & Ferguson, S. M. (2015). The ins and outs of the striatum: Role in drug addiction. Author Manuscript, 301, 529-541. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.06.033 Zeki, S. (2007). The neurobiology of love. Federation of European Biochemical Societies, 581, 2575-2579. doi:10.1016/j.febslet.2007.03.094 }} ==External links== * A state of euphoria - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=29J62W8DUho * Brain mechanisms of pleasure and addiction - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=de_b7k9kQp0 * Endorphins: The brain's natural morphine - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QWcfTGIU2Hs * EUPHORIA - WikiVidi documentary https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AEOxA3ps0J4 * Explaining a 'runner's high' - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CV-sioJAJQQ * How to boost your happy chemicals - Dopamine, Oxytocin, Serotonin and Endorphin Hormones - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9l4PzhcYQrE * The feeling of euphoria after running - RUNNER'S HIGH (explained) - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=69vWrkySCgE * What causes runner's high? - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TElAJMm34IE [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Euphoria]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Love]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Music]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Nature]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Video games]] so1x3vtc2kdo5s9ksow5klm532s2cno 0 264277 2841745 2840731 2026-10-20T20:07:51Z Scogdill 1331941 2841745 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1840s|1840s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1850s |1850s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1860s | 1860s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1870s | 1870s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1880s | 1880s Headlines]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890s | 1890s Headlines]] 1890 [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1891 | 1891]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1892 | 1892]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1893 | 1893]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1894 | 1894]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1895 | 1895]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1896 | 1896]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1897 | 1897]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1898 | 1898]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1899 | 1899]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1900s|1900s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1910s|1910s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1920s-30s|1920s-30s]] ==January 1890== Sometime in January 1890, [[Social Victorians/People/Horniman|Annie Horniman]] was initiated into the Golden Dawn (Gilbert 86 144). Sometime in 1890 Annie Besant and [[Social Victorians/People/Helena Blavatsky|Helena Blavatsky]] founded the Working Women's Club in the East End (Besant Chronology.pdf). Maye Dilke was a member (Crawford 170). [[Social Victorians/People/Frank Harris|Frank Harris]] says,<blockquote>One day in 1890 I had George Meredith, Walter Pater and [[Social Victorians/People/Oscar Wilde|Oscar Wilde]] dining with me in Park Lane and the time of sex-awakening was discussed. Both Pater and Wilde spoke of it as a sign of puberty. Pater thought it began about thirteen or fourteen and Wilde to my amazement set it as late as sixteen. Meredith alone was inclined to put it earlier.<ref>Harris, Frank. ''My Life and Loves''.</ref></blockquote> ===1 January 1890, Wednesday, New Year's Day=== <blockquote>Sharp frost was experienced over the East of England yesterday morning, and in South London the thermometer had been as low as 27deg., and 28deg. in Hyde-park. It rose during the day to 41deg., but in the evening frost again set in. Later the thermometer rose again to 32deg., and there was an appearance as of coming rain.<ref><cite>The Morning Post. 1 January 1890 (No. 36,675): P. 4, Col. F.</cite></ref></blockquote>Influenza was spreading all over Europe. A true pandemic carried by international commerce and travel, it was called the Russian flu.<p> According to the "Court Circular: Orders for Court Mourning" in the Morning Post,<blockquote>A second supplement to the Gazette, issued last night, contains the following: — "Lord Chamberlain's Office, January 1. "Orders for the Court's going into mourning on Thursday next, the 2d instant, for her late Majesty the Empress of Brazil, viz." — "The ladies to wear black dresses, white gloves, black or white shoes, feathers, and fans, pearls, diamonds, or plain gold or silver ornaments. The gentlemen to wear black Court dress, with black swords and buckles. "The Court to change the mourning on Thursday, the 16th instant, viz.: — [new paragraph] The ladies to wear black dresses, with coloured ribbons, flowers, feathers, and ornaments, or grey or white dresses, with black ribbons, flowers, feathers, and ornaments. The gentlemen to continue the same mourning. "And on Thursday, the 23d instant, the Court to go out of mourning."<ref><cite>"Court Circular: Orders for Court Mourning." The Morning Post, 2 January 1890 (No. 36,676): page 5 Col. G.</cite></ref></blockquote>Also on 1 January, Wednesday, the Marchioness of Londonderry hosted an at-home:<blockquote>"Entertainment at Wynard Park." Seaham Weekly News 3 January 1890, Friday: 8 [of The Marchioness of Londonderry gave an "At Home" at Wynyard Park on Wednesday evening (New Year's day), at which there was present a large and fashionable company, including the following:— The house party at Wynyard Park comprises the following:— The Marquis and Marchioness of Londonderry, the Dowager Marchioness of Londonderry, Mr Wentworth Beaumont and Lady Alexandrlna Beaumont, the Viscountess Mandeville, Lady Ormonde, Viscount Castlereagh, Lady Helen Stewart, and Lord Reginald Stewart, Lord Henry Vane-Tempest, Lord Herbert Vane-Tempest, Sir William and Lady Eder [?], the Hon. Rowland Winn and the Hon. Miss Winn, the Hon. Mr F. Thelusson and the Hon. Miss Thelusson, the Hon. Violet White, Miss Wombwell, and Miss C. Wombwell, Mr and Mrs W. Jameson, Captain the Hon. C. Lambton, Mr R. Yeoman, Mr Adolphus Vane-Tempest, Mr and Mrs Richard Ord, Captain Orr-Ewing, A.D.C., 18th Lancers, Miss Sturmfells, and Mr N. W. Apperley. Invitations were issued to between seven hundred and eight hundred ladies and gentlemen, and most of them were accepted. The guests comprised the Mayors and Corporations of Stockton, Hartlepool, and West Hartlepool, the chairman and members of the South Stockton Local Board, together with their wives and daughters, the local clergy, and a large number of private residents of Stockton and the district and Seaham Harbour and its neighbourhood. The entertainment  consisted of private theatricals, Blanchard  Jerrold’s farce ** Cool as a Cucumber’” and Charles  Mathew's comedy * The Dowager” being played, The  charaoters were sustained by the Marquis of Londonderry.  Lady Alexandriva Besumont,Lady Helen Stewart.  Lord Herbert Vane-Tempest, Mr and Mrs R. Ord, and  Mr Adolpbus Vane-Tempest. Among those who received  invitations were the following from this neighbourhood  :— Lieat.-Colonel and Mrs Eminson and Miss  Meerwarth, Seabam Harbour; Mr and Mre Corbett,  Miss Corbett, and Miss Swann, Chilton Moor ; Mr and  Mrs Ditchfield, Seaham Harbour ; Mr and Mrs Clazey  and Miss Clazey, Sunderland ; Mr and Mrs Warham  and Miss Warbam, Mr and Mrs Young and Miss Young,  Mr and Miss Forster, Mr and Mrs Brydon and Miss  Brydon, Mr and Mrs Hardy and Miss Hardy, Seaham  Harbour ; Mr and Mrs Barrett, Seaham Colliery ; Mr  and Mrs Panton, Silksworth Colliery ; Mr and Mrs  Laverick, Rainton Colliery ; Revd James Colling, The  Viearage, Seaham Harbour; Revd Canon Scott, Mrs,  and Miss Scott, The Vicarage, New Seaham ; Revd  A. Bethupe, The Vicarage, Seabam; Revd J. Wallis,  Revd T. Cotloy. Mr H. B, Wright, Captain and Mrs  Dawson, Seabam Harbour ; the Revd J. J. Brown and  Mrs Brown, The Vicarage, Silksworth ; Miss Maon, Dr  and Mrs Beatty, Mr and Mrs R. Thorman and Miss  Thorman, Mr and Mrs J. J. Candlish, Dr and Mrs  Gibbon and Miss Gibbon, Dr and Mrs French and Miss  French, Seabam Harbour; Dr and Mrs Broadbent,  '''Dalton'''-le-Dale ; Mrand Mrs Gregson and Miss Gregson,  Warden Law, Houghton-le-Spring. </blockquote> === 5 January 1890, Sunday === ==== "A Very Bad Lot" ==== Reynolds's Newspaper published an article critical of the aristocracy, "the privileged classes":<blockquote>The English aristocracy is cutting a contemptible figure in the world. Scarcely a day passes that some one or other of its members does not appear in a disreputable light. They are presumed to serve as models, by reason of breeding, education, and the many social advantages they enjoy, to their fellow-men. But what do we find them? Let any brutal exhibition take place, like the recent prize-fight in Belgium, and amongst the supporters and spectators of blackguardism and blackguards are certain well known, and by no means respected, members of the privileged classes. There was, as reported at the Bruges brutal orgie, amongst other noble "patrons of the prize ring," [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lord Mandeville]], heir to the dukedom of Manchester, whose affray with a cab-man; about a bill his lordship refused to settle recently came before a police court. There was Lord Royston, heir to the earldom of Hardwicke, and several other sprigs of the nobility, all of whom, in course of time, will become hereditary legislators, notwithstanding their blackguard and immoral predilections. A den of unmitigated infamy and bestiality was recently discovered in the midst of London, where practices such as those which brought down upon Sodom and other cities of the plain the wrath of heaven were of daily occurrence. The principal patrons of this abominable resort were members of the aristocracy. "Society" will decline to recognise the enormity of these offences, or the guilt of the offenders, because the latter belong to the "privileged" classes. It saw and purposely refused to even rebuke the Duke of Marlborough belabouring his wife when in the family way for remonstrating with [4c–5a] him on the adulterous intimacy then existing between himself and the Countess of Aylesford. He was a duke, and his ruffianism was excusable! The Divorce Court is incessantly bringing to light the brutal and dastardly behaviour of impecunious aristocrats to the wives they have married solely for the money they possess. All this sort of thing passes for the most part unheeded, save and except now and then, but very rarely, a few platitudes fall from the mouth of some parson from the pulpit, uttered in a  parrot-like manner, as though he feared of offending the rich and privileged members of his congregation. Did he speak out plainly and boldly in condemnation of the terrible vices that prevail amongst what is termed "society," further preferment would be withheld, and most assuredly he would never figure as a Court preacher. Canon Liddon, however, the most eminent orator of the Church of England, and perhaps its most outspoken dignitary, is not so mealy-mouthed. In St. Paul's Cathedral he gave the following trenchant and truthful description of what is to be witnessed in the drawing-rooms of the West-end of London at the commencement of the season:— "Eager mothers, like generals setting out on a campaign, prepared to undergo any amount of fatigue if only they could marry their daughters, not necessarily to a high-souled man, but in any case to a man of fortune. They could also see a group of young men after perhaps a career of dissipation thinking that the time had arrived for settling respectably in life and looking out, not for a girl whose graces and character would  make her husband and children happy, but for somebody with a sufficient dowry to enable them to keep up a large establishment." Girls are sold to the highest bidder. They sit in the drawing-rooms of fashionable London just as the slaves do in Africa, awaiting the most eligible purchaser, or stand about like servant girls waiting to be hired at a statute fair. In very many instances they loathe and detest the man who purchases them, and love another, who, by reason of his scanty means, finds no favour in the eyes of their parents. No wonder, under such conditions, the Divorce Court teems with what are termed "aristocratic scandals." By thus preaching the truth, and denouncing the meannesses and wickednesses of the privileged orders in plain but powerful language, as John Knox did to Mary Queen of Scots, Canon Liddon is no favourite at Court. Albeit the most eloquent preacher of the State Church, he is said to be out of favour in that quarter, and has never been invited to appear in any church where royalty is likely to be found.<ref>"A Very Bad Lot." ''Reynolds's Newspaper'' 5 January 1890, Sunday: 4 [of 8], Col 4c–5a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive''https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000101%2F18900105&page=4&article=032&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> === 6 January 1890, Monday === Empress Augusta of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach died on 7 January, and her funeral was on 11 January 1890. (She had been Queen of Prussia and the first German Empress. Her mother had been a Romanov, and she had been married to William I, German Emperor; their eldest son, Frederick William, married Vicky, Princess Royal, Queen Victoria's first-born child. She had politics similar to those of her daughter-in-law, but not of her grandson, Kaiser Wilhelm II or Bismarck.) Bertie did not attend her funeral:<blockquote>The decision of the Prince of Wales not to go to Berlin for the funeral of the Empress Augusta has caused much surprise, to say the least of it; but H.R.H. preferred to conclude his visit to Baron Hirsch at Merton, where there was a prodigious slaughter of partridges during the four days' ''chasse''.<p> The guests invited to Merton to meet the Prince were the Duc de Chartres, the Duchess of Manchester, Lord Hartington, Lord and Lady de Grey, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], Mr. Henry Chaplin, and Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Sassoon.<ref>"What the World Says." ''The World'' 15 January 1890, Wednesday: 14 [of 40], Col. 2b [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0006339%2F18900115&page=14. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote>The local paper, the Thetford and Watton Times and People's Weekly Journal, has a full account:<blockquote>Royal Visit. — On Monday H.R.H. the Prince of Wales arrived here by special train on a visit to the Baron de Hirsch, who is residing at Merton Hall. The train was in charge of Mr. Kimm, the District Superintendent. The Prince was accompanied by the Marquis of Hartington, and attended by Colonel Teesdale. Long before the arrival of the train a large number of the townspeople and many from neighbouring villages gathered in the station yard, the platform being kept clear by a staff of police, who were under the direction of Inspector Knights. Crimson cloth was laid from the platform through the station to Lord Walsingham’s carriage, which was in waiting to convey the visitors to the Hall. His Royal Highness was met on the platform by the Baron. The crowd cheered most heartily as the Prince left the station yard. The company invited to meet His Royal Highness and staying at the Hall are the Duchess of Manchester, Lord Hartington, Colonel Teesdale, Mr. Mackenzie, Colonel Ellis, Lord and Lady Brook, Earl and Countess de Grey, Duc de Chartres, Mr. and Mrs. Sassoon, Viscountess Mandeville and Miss Giese. The Right Hon. Henry Chaplin was prevented by illness from being present. On Tuesday the party went partridge shooting at Stanford, where game was abundant. Lord Hartington was taken ill from the effects of a cold soon after his arrival at Merton. On Wednesday and Thursday the party had "mixed shooting," and to-day (Friday) they shoot through the Home Coverts.<ref>"Watton." ''Thetford & Watton Times'' 11 January 1890, Saturday: 5 [of 8], Col. 1a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive''https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001533%2F18900111&page=5&article=091&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Thetford and Watton Times and People's Weekly Journal'', p. 5.</ref></blockquote>''Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper'' says,<blockquote>The Prince of Wales, attended by General Teesdale, C.B., left Sandringham on Monday afternoon [Monday, 6 January] for Merton. ... The Princess of Wales, with Princesses Victoria and Maud, remains at Sandringham. The Prince of Wales is the guest of the Baron de Hirsch at Merton, the ancient seat of the De Grey's in Norfolk. Among the other guests at Merton are the Marquis of Hartington, who travelled by special train with the Prince from Wolferton, via King's Lynn and Swaffham, to Wotton, where the host met them and conducted them to Merton; the Duc de Chartres, the Duchess of Manchester, Viscountess Mandeville, and Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Sassoon.<ref>"The Queen and Royal Family." ''Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper'' 12 January 1890, Sunday: 12 [of 12], Col. 2a [of 5]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000079%2F18900112&page=12&article=046&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Lloyd's Weekly London Newspaper'', p. 12.</ref></blockquote>The ''Thetford and Watton Times and People's Weekly Journal'' has a little more:<blockquote>The Prince of Wales, attended by General Teesdale, C.B., left Sandringham on Monday afternoon for Merton. ... The Princess of Wales, with Princesses Victoria and Maud remain at Sandringham. The Prince of Wales is the guest of the Baron de Hirsch at Merton. Among the other guests at Merton are the Marquis of Hartington, M.P., who travelled by special train with the Prince from Wolferton, ''vía'' King’s Lynn and Swaffham, to Watton, where the host met them and conducted them to Merton; the Duc de Chartres, the Duchess of Manchester, the Earl and Countess de Grey, Viscountess Mandeville, General Ellis, Sir James Mackenzie, and Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Sassoon. Mr. Chaplin was expected to have joined the party, but at present is unable to do so.<ref>''Thetford & Watton Times'' 11 January 1890, Saturday: 4 [of 8], Col. 7c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001533%2F18900111&page=4&article=090&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Thetford & Watton Times and People's Weekly Journal'', p. 4.</ref></blockquote>And the ''County Gentleman'' has a little more:<blockquote>The party assembled to meet the Prince of Wales at Merton Hall included Lord Hartington, who came on from Wolferton with the Prince. Baron Hirsch met them at Walton Station, and conducted them back to Merton. There was a nice little crowd of country people at the station, who cheered H.R.H. lustily. The Duc de Chartres, the Duchess of Manchester, Lord and Lady de Grey, Lady Mandeville, and Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Sassoon were of the party. Mr. Chaplin, laid up with influenza, was unable to accept the Baron's invitation. The shooting was excellent. I hear that the Baron will, after all, buy Houghton, and take up his abode there next year. ...  Death has been busy in Imperial circles this week. Scarcely had mourning been decreed for the ex-Empress of Brazil than we heard of the death of the venerable Empress Augusta of Germany at the advanced age of 80. She had been a great invalid for many years past, and influenza found her an easy victim. ... The Empress Frederick's visit to Italy has been abruptly terminated by the death of her mother-in-law, the Empress Augusta. ... Court mourning will considerably modify the programmes arranged for next week at Bournemouth, Poole, and Canford Manor. The Prince and Princess will, of course, be Lord and Lady Wimborne's guests, but the balls will have to be given up, much to the vexation of spirit of all concerned. Mourning is to be worn for four weeks, from Wednesday until February 5.<ref>"The Man about Town." ''Sporting Gazette'' 11 January 1890, Saturday: 6 [of 34], Col. 1b–c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0002525%2F18900111&page=6&article=039&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The County Gentleman'', p. 38.</ref></blockquote> ==== Amicable Gathering of Boxers and Sportsmen ==== Also on Monday, 6 January, 1890, some sports (are the men boxers or related to boxing?) aficionados gathered at Anderton's Hotel:<blockquote>An outward bounder weighs anchor from London to-day (Tuesday) in the person of Mr. Charles "Parson" Davies. It is superfluous to remark that, as the acting manager for "Peter the Great," the "Parson" has endeared himself to all classes of English sports by reason of his quiet, unassuming ways, and the impartial manner in which he has carried out all those engagements with which he has been associated. Now he held quite a "Matinée" at Anderton’s Hotel (so ably presided over by Mr. Arthur Clemow) yesterday, where he invited his friends to quaff a friendly glass with him. First and foremost to grasp his palm and bid him "God speed" was Frank Slavin. It was, indeed, gratifying to note the kindly feeling that existed all round. Not a single "jar" ensued to mar the harmony of the proceedings. Amongst those present were [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lord Mandeville]], Messrs. E. Bayley, Lewis (Slavin’s manager), Frank Symes, Tom Kirby, Charlie Rowell, Baldock, Davenport (the black), George W. Atkinson and S. Richardson (''Sporting Life''), Frank Tarbanx, &c. "Parson" Davies leaves Euston Station to-night (Tuesday) by the midnight train for Liverpool, and it goes without saying that his numerous friends are bound to muster in round numbers in order give him a good train off. Mr. Davies sails for New York in the "Britannic" on Wednesday morning.<ref>"A Friendly Glass with "Parson" Davies." ''Sporting Life'' 7 January 1890, Tuesday: 4 [of 4], Col. 3b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000893%2F18900107&page=4&article=031&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> === 1890 January 7, Tuesday === The hundreds of newspaper reports about several boxing matches around this time lack dates, so these aggregated descriptions are still under construction. Check December 1889 and February 1890, too. The Fracas at the Trocadero and one meeting at the Pelican Club occurred on the same day. The [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Smith-Slavin 1889-12-23|Smith-Slavin Fight]] was apparently on 23 December 1889. At least 2 [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Pelican Club Meeting Smith-Slavin match|meetings at the London Pelican Club]] followed, as well as the [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Fracas at the Trocadero|Fracas at the Trocadero]]. === 9 January 1890, Thursday === ==== The York Hunt Ball ==== This account is from the ''Irish Society'', which explains which women's costumes are the focus:<blockquote>The fashionable world and his wife are out of town just now, having good times at country houses. They shed the light of their brilliant presence on those annual functions known as county balls, and enjoy themselves also at those popular and picturesque entertainments to which they are bidden by the masters and members of the various hunts. One of the smartest dances of last week took place at York on Thursday evening. It was in fancy costume, and was in aid of funds for the York County Hospital. Once upon a time the journey from London to the Minster City of the North was a far cry, and one not lightly undertaken. Now it is luxurious and short. In consequence this hall presented the appearance of one in town in mid-season. There was conspicuous for height and handsomeness the familiar figure and face of Countess de Grey. Lady Helen Duncombe, too, who shares with her Grace of Leinster, and Lady Cynthia Graham, the family beauty of the House of Feversham, was seen in the marvellously becoming (to her) costume of the Empire period. Lady Lilian Wemyss, a lady "divinely tall,” and appropriately fair, was garbed in pink and white of a fashion hailing from the Empire. A "square;” in which the lady dancers were all gowned empirically, was the event of the evening. An event worth remembering it was. The costumes were superb, but their attractions were nowhere in comparison with the charms the [Col. 1c–2a] wearers. These were all tall and each one handsome. Lady de Trafford’s pretty face and fine figure showed to great advantage in her gown of white satin, veiled with gold-bordered ''chiffon'', and with an Empire trained cloak from her shoulders of Rose du Barri velvet lined with white satin, and bordered with gold galon. The colour of the velvet in what is seen in the half-yellow, half-scarlet petals of the soft textured nasturtium bloom. [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Mrs Algernon Bourke]] looked a picture in a Gainsborough gown. The white satin skirt was flounced with sable and veiled with ''chiffon'', the setuage of which was left to show without being hemmed up. There was a broad sash of rose-pink silk and each buttonhole was filled round with crimped lisse. One might go on for long enough describing costume after costume, and then leave them half out. Therefore, we shall, like the judge "sum up” and "charge” for a verdict of the utmost brilliancy.<ref>"Our London Letter." ''Irish Society'' (Dublin) 11 January 1890, Saturday: 17 [of 24], Col. 1b–2a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001939/18900111/042/0017. Same print title, p. 29.</ref></blockquote> === 1890 January 10, Friday === The [[Social Victorians/1890-01-10 Ulster Club Ball|ball at the Ulster Club, Belfast]]. === 1890 January 13, Monday === ==== Wallace-Camp Boxing Match ==== An Important Boxing Match between two 8-stone (112-pound, Bantam-weight) boxers. Lord Mandeville seems to have been an organizer. Nunc (Edwin) Wallace in June of 1890 fought American George Dixon, who defeated Wallace to become the first Black fighter to win a world prize in boxing.<blockquote>Nunc Wallace and G. Camp for £1,000. On Monday night, at the Ormonde Club, London, the above-named met to do battle for the largest sum of money that has ever been "put up" for a glove contest. That a couple of 8st [8 stone] men could be brought together in a glove contest for the sum of £1,000 would, even in the palmy days of the Prize Ring, have been scouted by the merest tyro in ring matters. Celebrities like Peter Morris, George Holden, Joe Nolan, and Dan Thomas never fought for more than £200, but here we have a stake of £500 a-side freely put down to see who is the better man of the  two. This money, when the match was made last autumn, would have been gladly increased by either side to double the amount, therefore "the fight of his life" is applicable to both George Camp and Edwin ("Nunc") Wallace. The match, made so far back as October last was really the outcome of the bout between Camp and Wallace in the second round of an 8st competition, decided at the Royal Aquarium in December, 1888. A very close struggle ensued, so close, indeed, that the judges ordered a fourth round of two minutes. Wallace eventually get- [Col. 2c–3a] ting the award. From the moment the decision was given Camp's friends were dissatisfied, and hence the contract which was signed for Monday night's battle. With thirteen weeks in which to get fit, neither man was in a hurry to commence work, and the match had been ratified neatly a month before  Wallace took up his quarters at Sutton Coldfield, with Ben Garrington to look after him. Camp journeyed to Brighton with his old trainer, George Bagnall, and it is needless to say neither man wanted for anything. Thinking a change desirable, Wallace a mouth ago also made a move to Brighton, where his interests were studied to the minutest detail by Mr. Sam Mordecai. Both men were waited on hand and foot. Mr. Sam Blandford, representing Camp's backer, took up residence in the famous watering-place, and hardly ever lost sight of the Bermondsey youth. On the other hand Wallace hardly ever drank out of a pot that Mr. Sam Mordecai did not examine, and in this way the men progressed satisfactorily in their training. Lords and Dukes begged for the "tip" as to where the meeting would be in vain, and letters from legal luminaries, magistrates and city magnates came in shoals to those entrusted with the management. The backers on each side were obdurate, and at the final deposit the names of the fortunate <nowiki>''</nowiki>thirty" agreed upon, were handed in. The men were articled to weigh at twelve o'clock on Monday, and so as not to attract attention it was decided this important part of the programme should be performed at Brighton. Accordingly the scales having been fixed in Camp's bedroom, the rivals, in the presence of Lord  Mandeville, Mr. E W Bayly, Mr. Derriman, Mr. Sam Blandfold, and Mr. Dunning, and their trainers, "tipped the beam[.]" Wallace was the first to "pass," weighing 8ths 8st 1 1/2lb stripped. Camp failing to reach this by half a pound, also clothed in Nature's garb. Both looked in splendid trim, though Camp's ruddy complexion was more taking to the eye than the pale appearance of "Nunc." Wallace was attired in black drawers with a gold stripe, red socks, and black rubber-soled shoes. Camp was all in white, with canvas shoes, and amidst almost oppressive silence they faced each other at 8.50 p.m. The Contest ... Round 15 and Iast. The doctoring of Harper and Habbijam brought Camp round before he had again to face the music, but he looked very bad indeed when the watch holder gave the word to start once more. It was only a question of a few minutes, for Wallace was as yet little the worse for the struggle so far, while on Camp's part there was everything to fear. The latter, however, without the slightest trace of the "white feather," sprang up and met Wallace full of confidence, the latter coming at his weak opponent with a straight left on the face. The "Brum forced" Camp back to the ropes, and then smashed the left on the mouth, and only just missed with the right. Still having the best of it he popped in the left again, and down Camp went Iike a log through the ropes. In quicker time than it takes to tell the Surrey boxer was up and at it once more, but with a manifest disadvantage. Receiving right and left on the head he again went down, and in falling strunk his head against the skirting board outside the ring. Wallace stood over him, but at respectable distance, like a Roman gladiator, and the smile which played round his features, was one of victory, for Camp this time was beaten. Failing to rise within the stipulated ten second[s], Mr Angle awarded the fight to Wallace, the round having lasted 2min 45sec. The award was received with exulting shouts by the friends of Wallace, and the clever little boxer was at once raised shoulder high and lifted from the ring. Poor Camp soon came to, but was terribly cut up over his defeat, and for a time refused to be comforted. Wallace, recognising the pluck and ability of his vanquished foe, shook hands in kindly fashion, and thus ended one of the best conducted of modern contests with the gloves. Time of contest, 58 min 45secs.<ref>"A Great Glove Fight." ''Dublin Sporting News'' 17 January 1890, Friday: 3 [of 4], Col. 2c–4x [of 4]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0004807%2F18900117&page=3&article=022&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref> </blockquote> ===16 January 1890, Thursday=== <blockquote>About two hundred members of the newly formed Dulwich Literary and Scientific Association attended the conversazione given on Jan. 16 at Surrey House Museum, Forest Hill, when Mr. Horniman, F.R.G.S., acted as cicerone round the rooms, richly stored with historical relics, ornithological curiosities, and art treasures.<ref>''Illustrated London News'' (London, England), Saturday, January 25, 1890; pg. 120; Issue 2649, Col. 3.</ref></blockquote> === 1890 January 21, Tuesday === The marriage of Baron S. Alfred Oppenheim and Miss Florence Hutchins:<blockquote>In the church of St. Mary Abbotts, Kensington, the marriage took place of Baron S. Alfred von Oppenberm and Miss Florence Hutchins, daughter of Mrs. Parkinson Sharp, of Palace-gate. The Hon. and Rev E. Carr Glyn and the Rev. Henry White, M.A., officiated. Among those who attended the reception afterwards held were Prince and Princess Malcom Khan, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Dowager Countess of Harrington, Admiral Sir Edward Inglefield, Sir Arthur Sullivan, Lady Cottenham, and General Du Plat.<ref>"London Day by Day." ''Daily Telegraph & Courier'' (London) 22 January 1890, Wednesday: 5 [of 8], Col. 3b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001112%2F18900122&page=5&article=080&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Daily Telegraph'', p. 5.</ref></blockquote>The ''Pall Mall Gazette'' has a description that is slightly more full. Is Count von Alten related to [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louisa, Duchess of Manchester]]?<blockquote>At St. Mary Abbots, Kensington, yesterday, the marriage took place of Baron S. Alfred Von Oppenheim, only son of Baron Edward Von Oppenheim, of Cologne and Schloss Schlenderham, and Miss Florence Hutchins, only daughter of Mrs. Parkinson Sharp, of 10, Palace-gate. The service was fully choral, the officiating clergy being the Hon. R. E. Carr-Glyn, rector of St. Mary Abbots, and the Rev. Henry White, M.A., chaplain in ordinary to the Queen. The bride, who was given away by her stepfather, Mr Parkinson Sharp, wore a plain dress of rich white ivory satin, elaborately draped with real orange blossoms. Count C. Von Leyden, Councillor of the German Embassy, attended the Baron as best man. Half a dozen bridesmaids followed the bride elegantly attired in costumes of white cashmere, with white corded silk sashes. They were Miss Aim e [sic] Winslow, Miss Emry Von Oppenheim, Miss Vitty Von Oppenbeim, Miss Potter, Miss Eleanor Heywood, and Miss Seymour. The reception was given at Mrs. Parkinson Sharp's town residence, 10, Palace-gate, Kensington, which was largely attended among those present being Prince and Princess Malcom Khan, Baron and Baroness E. von Oppenheim, Baron Max Oppenheim, Baron von Wedd Yarlsberg, Countess de Bunsen, Baron and Baroness de Plency, Count von Alten, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Dowager Countess of Harrington, Admiral Sir Edward Inglefield, Sir Arthur Sullivan, Lady Cottenham, General Du Plat, &c.<ref>"Marriage of Baron S. Alfred Von Oppenheim." ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 22 January 1890, Wednesday: 7 [of 8m], Col. 2c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000098%2F18900122&page=7&article=016&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> === 1890 January 28, Tuesday === According to the ''Dundee Evening Telegraph'' on 28 January 1890 people were buying "Exploration" shares, which funded exploration expeditions with the possibility of rights to minerals or resources or the development of monopolies for goods that were "discovered."<blockquote>Royalty and the peerage have gone in for "Exploration" shares. The Duchess of Albany is the possessor of fifty shares, which hardly seems to assume the dimensions of a royal investment. Certainly the general public would incline to the idea that a princess would never condescend to invest so small a sum as £25 in anything unless it were a hat or a jacket. The Duke of Fife, on the other hand, has been allotted a thousand shares. The Duchess of Manchester and the Countess of Mandeville have thirty each.<ref>"Notes — Mainly Personal." ''Dundee Evening Telegraph'' 28 January 1890, Tuesday: 2 [of 4], Col. 2b [of my 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000453%2F18900128&page=2&article=001&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Evening Telegraph'', n.p.</ref></blockquote> === 1890 January 29, Wednesday === [[Social Victorians/Santurce Murrieta Wedding 1890-01-29|Santurce Murrieta Wedding 1890-01-29]] === 1890 January 30, Thursday, through at least 1890 February 8, Saturday === Kim, Lord Mandeville was in Brighton — at 80, King's-road — at least as early as 30 January.<ref>"Brighton Visitors." ''Brighton Gazette'' 30 January 1890, Thursday: 3 [of 8], Col. 2a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000938%2F18900130&page=3&article=073&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Brighton Gazette and Sussex Telegraph'', p. 3.</ref> The ''Lady's Pictorial'' lists "recent arrivals" in Brighton:<blockquote>Though a good many people have left Brighton, still fresh visitors arrive, and the front is crowded when the weather is a little kind. Amongst the most recent arrivals may be mentioned the Countess of Strafford, Lady Susan Byng, Lady Chelmsford, Lord and Lady Seaton, Lady Jane Grimston, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lord Mandeville]], Lord Romilly and the Hon. John Romilly, Viscount and Viscountess Hampden, the Hon. R. Somerset, the Hon.  Thomas Dundas, the Hon. Sidney Greville, the Hon. A. W. Verney Cave, Lady Elizabeth Cartwright, Colonel Sir Alfred and Lady Kirby, Mr. Bazley White, M.P., and Lady Bazley White, Sir Hugh Montgomery, Sir Frederick and Lady Perkins, Lady Ellis, General Seymour, &c., &c.<ref>Dorothy. "Brighton Notes." ''Lady's Pictorial'' 8 February 1890, Saturday: 51 [of 60], Col. 3a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0005980%2F18900208&page=51&article=671&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, p. 203.</ref></blockquote> ==February 1890== === 1890 February 6, Thursday === Before 6 February but not long before. The prize-fighter Pete Jackson fought a match at the New Pelican Club.<blockquote>It is always well to hear that distinguished visitors have enjoyed the hospitality which we have extended to them. This satisfaction is afforded us in full measure by the eminent "Parson" Davis, manager of Pete Jackson, the prize-fighter, who has just been regaling an American interviewer with an account of his experiences in England:— He had been treated in splendid style, and Jackson was received well everywhere. Nothing would give him greater pleasure than to revisit England, and he hoped soon to do so. "I shook a paw with the Prince,” said the parson. "We had a high old time with Albert E. His Royal Highness was exceptionally friendly with Jackson, and actually made a pump handle of his arm. He shook hands with him again and again. The Prince is in capital  health, and" —— But at this point the interviewer mysteriously breaks off. The Prince, however, was not the only British notable to whom Parson Davis referred. He explained that the cause of the trouble with Smith at the New Pelican Club was that the gloves furnished Jackson were too small in the fingers, and when he closed his hand he almost split them, and could not fight. The matter was explained to the officers of the Club, where the fight took place, and other gloves were procured for Jackson:— Fair play was given, and the audience, which included [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lords Mandeville]] and Lonsdale, were loud in their admiration of Jackson's skill.<ref>"The Tittle Tattle of the Week." ''Pall Mall Budget'' 6 February 1890, Thursday: 4 [of 36], Col. 1b [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0005967%2F18900206&page=4. Same print title, p. 162.</ref></blockquote> ==== The Fracas at the Trocadero ==== This report from the ''Eddowes's Shrewsbury Journal'', 12 January 1890, has paragraphs with gossip; the middle paragraph is not about Lord Mandeville, and the paragraph that follows these is about an epidemic in London; could it be the Russian flu?<blockquote>A great stir has been caused in London by the repert [sic] — only too well authenticated I regret to say — to the effect that a certain individual, who for some years past has been connected somewhat prominently alike with journalism and theatrical enterprise, has suddenly levanted [sic] in consequence of his name being associated with the recent West End scandals. What makes the matter all the more talked about is the fact that the person most concerned has for a long time posed as a conspicuous figure in Society, having given numerous receptions and himself being strongly to the fore at most of the big banquets, first nights and similar gatherings. He has hob-nobbed, in fact, with the wealthy and illustrious, but there is every reason to believe that his pleasant career has been prematurely cut short by a series of disclosures, which are too gross and too scandalous to be referred to in detail. The report is all the talk at the clubs.<ref>"Notes of the Week." ''Eddowes's Shrewsbury Journal'' 15 January 1890, Wednesday: 3 [of 12], Col. 2b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001504%2F18900115&page=3. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> === 12 February 1890, Wednesday === ==== Lady Constance Leslie's Reception ==== <blockquote>On Wednesday last Lady Constance Leslie had an evening party at her residence in Stratford-place.<p> The numerous guests included Prince Ernest of Hohenlohe, Princess Victor of Hohenlohe, and the Countesses Gleichen, the Austro-Hungarian Ambassador, Count Mensdorf, Count and Countess Henry Lützow, Mr. and Mrs. Henry White, Baroness de Brienen and Mdlles de Brienen, the Duke of Abercorn, the Duchess of Cleveland, the Marchioness of Blandford and Lady Frances Spencer Churchill, Earl and Countess of Portarlington, Earl Stanhope, the Earl of Northbrook, the Earl and Countess of Arran, the Earl and Countess of Erne and the Ladies Cole, Julia Countess of Jersey and Mr. Brandling, Viscount Clifden, Viscountess Bary, Viscount Torrington, Viscount and Viscountess Castlerosse and Lady Louisa Beauclerk, Viscount and Viscountess de Vesci and Lady Sarah Spencer, Viscountess Galway, and Mr Caryl Ramsden, Lord de L'Isle and Dudley, Lord Alcester, Lord and Lady Wantage, Lord Ashbourne, Lady Henry Grosvenor and Lady G. Ogilvy, Lady Cloncurry, Lord Morris and Mr. M. Morris, Lady Charles Beresford, Lord Rowton, Lady Blanche Hozier, Lady Colville, Lady Rayleigh, Lady Constance Lytton and Mr. Charles Earle, Lady Evelyn Sutton, Lady Ernest Seymour and Ladies Fortescue, Lord and Lady Sandhurst, Lady Mary Lloyd, Lady Tweedmouth, Lady Windsor, Lord and Lady William Seymour, Lady Guy Campbell, Lady Egerton, Lady Fitzgerald, Baron d'Erlanger and Mr. Charles Derenberg, Hon. R. C. Spencer, M.P., and Mrs. Spencer, Hon. Evelyn Ashley, Hon. W. Mansfield, Hon. Lionel Ashley, Hon. A. Hood, Hon. William Lowther and Miss Lowther, Hon. Sydney Greville, Hon. Fitzroy and Mrs. Stewart, Hon. Frederick Leveson Gower, Hon. Kenneth Howard, Hon. Francis Villiers, Hon. Francis Bertie, Hon. Arthur Walsh, Colonel the Hon. Charles Edgcumbe, General Hon. John Bourke, General and Hon. Mrs. Ellis and Mrs. R. Sneyd and Miss Ellis, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Algernon and Mrs. Bourke]], Hon. Alan and Hon. Evan Charteris, Hon. Alexander Yorke, Hon. Derek Keppel, General Sir Dighton Probyn, Hon. Percy Wyndham, Hon. Everard Baring and Hon. Susan Baring, Hon. Mrs. Brett, Hon. Claud Hay, the Right Hon. Henry Matthews, Sir George Arthur, Sir George Maude, Sir Philip Currie, C.B., Sir Redvers and Lady Audrey Buller, Sir Charles Grant, Sir Mackenzie Wallace, Sir Herbert Maxwell, M.P., Sir Oscar Clayton, Sir Robert Gresley, Sir Algernon West and Mr. Horace West, Sir George and Lady Russell and Miss Brackenbury, Sir Henry and Lady Longley, the Sub-Dean of the Chapels Royal, General Crealock, General Charles Fraser, Colonel Saunderson, M.P., and Hon. Mrs. Saunderson, Colonel and Mrs. Stewart and Miss Streatfeild [siv], Colonel and Miss Balfour, Colonel and Mrs. Stanley Clarke and Miss Clarke, Colonel R. Baring, Captain and Mrs. Jekyll, Captain and Mrs. J. Bagot, Captain Lambert Ward, Captain A. Bagot, Mr. Charles Hall, Q.C, M.P., Mr[.] Hussey Walsh, M.P., Mr and Mrs. W. Hartpole Lecky, Mr. and Mrs. Richard Combe, Mr Henry Foley, Mrs. Arbuthnot and Miss Guthrie, Mr. and Mrs. Heseltine and Miss Dorothy Heseltine and Lord Cantelupe, the Miss Stopford Brooke, Mr. and Mrs. Thackeray Ritchie, Mr Edmund Byng, Mr. and Mrs. Wilton Phipps, Professor Sidney Colvin, Mr. and Miss Tennant, Mr. Godfrey Webb, Mr. and Mrs. Turton and Mr. Sidney Ponsonby, Mrs. Adare, Mrs Cecil Paget and Mr. Hugo Wemyss, Mrs. L. Drummond, Mr. and Mrs E. Hope, Mrs. L. Seymour and Miss Seymour, Mr. Guy Repton, Mr. and Mrs. Julian Sturgis and Miss Beresford, Mr. Poynter, R.A., Mrs. Daniel Cooper, Mr. Hamilton Aïdé, Mr. Alwyne Maude, Mrs. C. Bentinck, Mrs. Bingham Mildmay, Mr. Philip Habord, Mr. and Mrs. George Bulteel, Mrs. Beerbohm Tree and Miss Julia Neilson, Mr. Hallé [Halle?], Mr. Rudolph Lehmann and Miss Lehmann, [[Social Victorians/People/Fanny Ronalds|Mr. R. Ronalds]], Mr. Ellice, Mr. Arthur, Madame Blumenthal, Miss Julia Leslie, Mr. and Mrs. Jeune, Mr and Mrs. Charles Stuart-Wortley and Misses Millais, Mrs. Arkwright, Mr Joachim, Mr. Gillett, Mr. Pulteney (Scots Guards), Colone| Cuthbert Larking, Mr. Harry Higgins, M. Tividar Nachez, Mr. G. Ross, Herr Johannes Woolff, Mrs. Charles Bagot and Miss Bagot, Mrs. Bischoffsheim, Mr. Henry Petre, Miss Balch, Mr. and Lady Maud Ramsden, Mr. Adolphus Liddell, Mr Knowles, Mr. Grenfell, Mr. Edward Hamilton, Mrs. Henry Gordon and Miss Gordon, Mr. Henry James, Mr. St. Leger, Mrs. Dacre Hamilton and the Misses Nugent, Mr. Harbord, Mr Somerset, Mr. Ruggles-Brise, Mr. and Miss Hughes of Kinmel, Mr. and Mrs Douglas Freshfield, Mrs. Homer, Mr. W. H. Mallock, Mr. and Mrs. Robert Benson, Mr. H. Seymour, Mr. Ernest Law, Mr. Hugh Grimston, Mr. Lionel Cust, Mr. Chappell, Mr. and Mrs. Du Maurier, Mr. Boughton, R.A., and Mrs. Boughton, Mr. R. Roche, Mr. Montagu Wilson, Mr. Herbert Hope, &c.<ref>"Lady Constance Leslie's Reception." ''Morning Post'' 15 February 1890, Saturday: 2 [of 8], Col. 5c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900215/008/0002. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> === 24 February 1890, Monday === Lilly Langtry starred in Shakespeare's ''As You Like It'' at the St. James's Theatre. The Daily Telegraph had a long review and mentioned more names:<blockquote> The motto of Petronius, which is said to have adorned the Globe Theatre in Shakespeare's time, "Totus mundus agit histrionem," and which is reproduced in Jaques' famous speech, may be said to have received a novel illustration in the brilliant audience which completely filled the St. James's Theatre last evening. A very distinguished section of the world "played the actor" in the stalls, boxes, and dress-circle, and evinced the keenest dramatic interest in the long-deferred production of "As You Like It." The Prince and Princess of Wales, with the Duchess of Fife, surveyed the scene from the Royal box, while amongst the many who secured seats for the first were the Austrian Ambassador, the [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Duchess of Manchester]], Countess de Grey, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Lady Colin Campbell, Lord Wolverton, Lord and Lady Coleridge, Sir Charles Russell, Sir Edward and Lady Guinness, Baroness de Stern, and Mr. Alfred Rothschild. Naturally enough there was much curiosity in seeing once more on the London stage an actress who has since her last appearance devoted so much serious study to her profession, and gained so much success both before American and provincial audiences; while the sympathy evoked by her recent severe illness, delaying for four weeks the production of the comedy, added an almost pathetic note to the general excitement and enthusiasm. In the second scene of the first act, when the tenderly attached cousins make their earliest appearance on the stage, Celia's first words, "| pray thee, Rosalind, sweet, my coz, be merry," answered by Rosalind’s "Dear Celia, I show more mirth than I am mistress of," were almost drowned in the applause which accompanied the recognition of Mrs. Langtry. From time to time, whenever opportunity served, enthusiasm broke out anew, culminating in the triumph of plaudits which formed the fit ending to the gracefully-delivered epilogue with which Rosalind takes her farewell of her audience. There can be no doubt that, with all due allowance for the inevitable nervousness which accompanied a first production before a critical though sympathetic house, the revival of the immortal comedy was generally pronoanced to be a success. The fancifally-named "As You Like It" — where even in nomenclature the author confesses his indebtedness to the romance of Thomas Lodge — with greater dullness than is usually the case with Shakespeare's plays. Indeed interest is hardly aroused till the scene before the Duke's Palace, where Rosalind and Celia witness the wrestling — which after a few more performances will probably go less stagily than it did last night — between Charles and Orlando. It is only when we are transported to the Forest of Arden that Shakespeare's romantic fancy allows itself full course, and it was only when she was accoutred in the doublet and hose that Mrs. Langtry exercised her full charm upon the audience. The difficulty for the actress in the character of Rosalind is the contrast between the early abandon of her frankly-expressed love for the son of Rowland de Bois and the subsequent archness and reserve with which she plays with her lover in the forest. Orlando goes through precisely an opposite change. From the careless desperateness of a man who is out of favour with fortune in the opening scene, he changes to the sentimental devotion of a "love-shaked fancy-monger" in the sylvan glades. If that interchange of parts be missed much is lost in the sprightly  contrasts of the drama. Unfortunately, no sooner did Orlando enter on the wrestling-ground last night, than he started and caught at his heart in obvious suggestion of love at first sight. Much is lost of the utter wonderment at Rosalind’s unexpected graciousness in giving him her chain, which keeps him tongue-tied later, if he betrays so early the fatal ravages of Cupid — a betrayal which is hardly likely in a man whom neglect and misery have driven to the last stage of reckless hardihood. Rosalind must love her champion before her winning thanks for his prowess have made the starred younger brother first marvel at and then adore the frank and generous advances of his benefactress. In the fine words, "My father was no traitor," Mrs. Langtry rose to the full height of the character she was depicting. Throughout the greater part of the first act there was grace, loveableness, charm, but also a kind of flatness, or, at all events, an even and somewhat uninteresting level of characterisation which did not convey the promise of all that this loveliest creation in Shakespeare's gallery could do, when the Court life was exchanged for the freer and less conventional existence in the woods. All the more praise, therefore, is Mrs. Langtry’s due, that when she finds herself in the Forest of Arden, she brings before us a truer Rosalind. The beautiful first scene between the disguised Ganymede and her amorous swain showed Mrs. Langtry at her best. The quick and nimble wit, the archness and pretty coquetry of a girl who is sick at heart with love and feeds her passion in a playful and adorable tyrannising over the unconscious lover, were depicted with a reality which won instant recognition from the spectators. For the rest, however, Mrs. Langtry’s Rosalind was an unequal performance, now rising with unexpected force into the regions of pure comedy, now sinking to an ordinary level of  uncomfortably-disguised womanishness. There were bright patches of power in the midst of a somewhat dull and colourless expanse. Much of this was, no doubt, due to the excitement and fatigue of a first night, to which also may be attributed possibly the sameness of some of her gestures and a restlessness which was something more than Rosalind's anxiety to win in her own incomparable way the happiness of which she was in search. A few nights hence firmness of carriage and self-control of manner will fill in the details of a character which was most graphically and sympathetically sketched in outline at the St. James’s last night. Mr Laurence Cautley as Orlando made most favourable impression on his audience. Through all the earlier scenes — with the exception of that wholly unnecessary lapse into amorousness on the lawn of Duke Frederick, which has been already noted — he sustained the character of a picturesque and youthful gallant with considerable success, though, possibly, a stronger dash of manly independence might not have come amiss to the Shakespearean hero. Touchstone is a more difficult part to play. Indeed, in some respects, he is the most difficult of all Shakespeare's clowns. He is on the borderland between the earlier, more conventional style of Costard, Launce, and Launcelot, and the far more elaborate and important clowns in "Twelfth Night" and "King Lear." He is not so clever as Feste, not so human and real as that inimitable and tender-hearted Edgar who tries to solace the wild ravings of his discrowned king. He is halfway between such farcical beings as Kempe and Tarlton probably depicted, and that witty, self-conscious, irresponsible Jester, which Shakespeare ultimately made an entirely new creation on Elizabethan boards. It is no discredit to Mr. Sugden that he failed to realise so ingenious a conception. He presented a Touchstone who was full of amusing quips, and he went through all the catalogue of points in the Book of Honour in the fifth act with admirable skill; the Touchstone of "As You Like It" we are probably not likely to see often on the modern stage. Mr. Bourchier’s Jaques was a far higher piece of portraiture, grave and bitter and cynical as that early disciple of Schopenhauer should be, with touches of humour which only serve to show the depths of a naturally perverse and misanthropical nature. The celebrated "Seven Ages" speech  was capitally delivered, with a conscientious care and easy mastery which are rare enough in an actor who has so lately left the ranks of the amateurs. For the rest, the Adam of Mr Everill, and the Andrey of Miss Marion Lea seemed to give most pleasure to the audience, though she was sometimes — espectally in the pronunciation of the word "poetry" — inclined to represent the boorishness of the wench with an accent  which reproduced simulated inebriation rather than native clumsiness. Miss Armbruster as Hymen also deserves a word of praise. The piece was produced under the direction of the Hon. Lewis Wingfield, and the scenery, which in the Forest Glade of Acts II., III., and IV., formed a beautiful stage picture, was designed by Messrs. Perkins and Bruce Smith. After all, was any one ever wholly satisfied with the representaton of one of Shakespeare's comedies? No thing is further from the truth as a general statement than the pedant’s theory that Shakespeare is for the study, and not for the boards. If ever, however, the paradox be true that a great dramatic artist suffers when his plays gain a dramatic representation, it is when "As You Like It," "Twelfth Night" and "Midsummer Night's Dream" are brought face to face with a modern audience and amid nineteenth century surroundings. It ts not with impunity that the light that never was on sea and land is parodied by the glare of the footlights. For, honest stage-craftsman as Shakespeare was, in the full spring-tide of his poetic genius there was a divine and masterful intolerance of the real and the commonplace, a reckless flight into an ideal world, peopled by beings coined in the mint of his dainty imagination — aerial and disembodied creations whose actions and characters refuse to submit themselves to the narrow rules of the every-day world. In such a sphere banished lovers shall be predestined to meet and cement their happy unions, and lions and snakes shall be the habitual denizens of a forest where shepherds and shepherdesses prattle their erotic strains, and even a crafty Oliver shall repent of his past sins and fall in love with gentle Celia, owing to the poetic exigencies of Cloud Cuckoo Land. How can one  see all these things with the cynical eye of the modern ''Fin de Siècle'' and not feel an inevitable shock of dissatisfaction and surprise? How is it possible to avoid the jarring sense of discord when the dream picture is realised in the setting of prosaic reality? For Shakespeare's comedy is a romantic work of the mind, a refuge for all those delightful improbabilities which an indolent or whimsical fancy strings together to construct a series of complications and incidents which interest us, while they elude the sober tests of reason and judgment. But we must not carry this vein of thought too far. It is true that we have in such plays comedies of incident rather than of character. Yet Shakespeare is too and heart-whole to linger only at the Ivory gate. He throws even into these merry plots the force of that instinctive knowledge of human nature which produces real personages, tricked out in witty and imaginative guise. Shakespeare was able to pour everything into his comedies which he did into his tragedies, though in the one there is only suggestion, while in the other there is the elaboration of that is deep and tragic as well as humorous in life. Rosalid, Orlando, Touchstone, and Jaques are none the less real because they are ideal; and it is on these grounds that we can praise the conscientious and capable artists who presented these characters in flesh and blood on the St. James's stage. Nor does Shakespeare, as some have thought, intend in this play to preach [Col. 1c–2a]  any polemic against the life of the town, or compose any passionate encomium for the simple graces of the country. He is too great to be didactic on such narrow issues. Wherever men and women live, there they can be happy; or, as Touchstone says to Corin, when he expresses ignorance of the Court, one-sided enthusiasts for either streets or hedge-rows are truly damned, "like an ill-roasted egg, all on one side." Equanimity, such that of the Duke and old Adam, carries with it, wherever it be, the gracious gentleness of an eternal Eden.<ref>"St. James's Theatre." ''Daily Telegraph & Courier'' (London) 25 February 1890, Tuesday: 5 [of 12], Col. 6a–7a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001112%2F18900225&page=5&article=048&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Daily Telegraph'', p. 5. </ref></blockquote> The ''St. James's Gazette'' reported:<blockquote> We came intending to like it very much, and we succeeded in our intention. Indeed, we spent a really pleasant evening at the St. James's Theatre, Many of us knew one another to nod to, and some of us had bowing acquaintance with the author of the play; so it was all very sociable and comfortable. There were just enough shop-window celebrities to give an air of distinction to the rest of the audience, and everybody had a right to hope that his neighbours were wondering who he was. The critics were quite at their ease, having nothing to criticise except the acting; not being expected to suggest any slight alterations in the play (such as cutting out Acts I., III., and V., and rewriting Acts II. and IV.), but just to accept it as it stood, without even tracing it back to the French vaudeville from which it was, no doubt, originally adapted. The performance had many individual merits, but it also had two general faults. The first and least striking fault was that the interludes were  slurred over instead of being played up to. Now, the plot of "As You Like It" is so loose that a lengthy interlude (provided it be pretty) does not check the flow of interest; indeed, it gives a welcome rest and allows you to pick up your thoughts again. The other fault is one which may be, and is likely to be, remedied the play goes on. But at present it is neither smart nor spontaneous: the parts do not hang well together, and there is none of the enthusiasm which helps to pass off the interior performances of less skilful actors. The deficiency which we have noted was probably due to the serious illness from which Mrs. Langtry had been suffering and from which it was evident last night that she had not made a complete recovery. She worked very hard as Rosalind, and worked very well, and several times she made a really good hit; she was, perhaps, at her best in her indignant appeal to the usurper Duke against his unexpected and unjust decree of banishment. She was charming, again, in her embarrassment (as Miss Litton was charming before her) when she had her first meeting with her unconscious lover and she suggested very cleverly the absence of her skirts. She did her love-making archly and merrily; but though the pretended pretence gave her a right to go beyond the limits of maiden coyness, she seemed occasionally to assume the masculine Initiative when the feminine Suggestive would have been prettier. it was a pleasant though uneven performance, with plenty of grace in it and plenty of brains. The Touchstone of Mr. Sugden was in every way admirable — crisp, humorous, and distinctive. That his clowning was occasionally tedious was no fault of his. The palate of a modern audience does not relish these long-drawn pedantries of buffoonery. Our sense of humour is not more refined — it is different, and that's the end of it. But in the scenes with Audrey (and Miss Marion Lea made a capital Audrey — open-mouthed and innocently wicked or wickedly innocent) Mr. Sugden had a better opportunity and he made the most of it. There the humour was not conventional, and the audience enjoyed a laugh which was not scholarly. A word of praise must given to Mr. Brodie for his conscientious and effective rendering of the difficult and ungrateful part of the moonstruck lover of the wayward Phoebe. The first appearance of Mr. Bourchier in London attracted much interest. As an amateur at Oxford and elsewhere he was believed Iikely to to great things upon the stage, and his performance of Jaques was by no means a disappointment. The fault of it was that he did not suggest either the melancholy or the sententiousness which we associate with the character. The melancholy was but skin-deep, and the sententiousness simply was not there. But every actor has a right to read a part in his own way if it is a good way. And there is much to said for Mr. Bourchier's interpretation of Jaques. The temptation is to be stagy; Mr. Bourchier's tendency is to be natural. And he carried it out with great success in speaking the lines of the Seven Ages of Man. He caught up the Duke's phrase just as if it had dropped in the course of an ordinary conversation; and he played with it for a time until it seemed of itself to suggest to his mind the famous soliloquy. Certainly Mr. Bourchier’s method was effective, as it drew one of the heartiest rounds of applause in the whole evening. Among the company were noticed the following well known persons:— His  Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, the Duke and Duchess of Fife, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], Lord De Grey, Mr. Alfred De Rothschild, Lord Lurgan, Sir Charles Russell, Sir Edward Guinness, Lady Colin Campbell, Lady Curzon, Lady Londonderry, Lady Hothfield, Hon. Alan Charteris, Mr. Oscar Wilde, Mr. Akers Douglas, M.P., Mr. Justin McCarthy, M.P., Sir Allen Young, Lord and Lady Coleridge, the Austrian Ambassador, the Spanish Ambassador, Lady Hozier, Mr. George Lewis, Mr. Whistler, Lady Greville [<nowiki/>[[Social Victorians/People/Lady Violet Greville|Lady Violet Greville]]?].<ref>"As You Like It."  ''St James's Gazette'' 25 February 1890, Tuesday: 5 [of 16], Col. 1b–c [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001485%2F18900225&page=5&article=027&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p. </ref></blockquote> This report is from ''Blalud, The Bath Society Paper'':<blockquote>Happily, there was no disappointment in store for the friends and admirers of Mrs. Langtry, who gathered on Monday night at the St. James’s Theatre in great force, to welcome this popular lady back to London and receive her with an extra warmth of cordiality in token of satisfaction at her recovery from her recent severe illness. Eight years have elapsed since she last played Rosalind in London. Since then she has travelled much, both at home and abroad, and followed the study and practice of her art with unfailing spirit and determination. She returns to the character which all leading actresses aspire to play in Shakespeare’s glorious dream of the Court of Duke Frederick and the forest of Arden a far riper artist, and, says the ''Daily News'', she presented us on Monday with an impersonation which compared to her former efforts is as the finished portrait to the crude sketch. Her performance may lack the great high tide of girlish impulsiveness, but first nights before an exceptionally critical audience and some remains of the languor of her recent indisposition doubtless contributed to rob her acting of something of its force and impulse. But her ''Rosalind'' remains a most winning and beautiful performance. A handsomer ''Rosalind'', or one that has worn the doublet and hose with more grace and picturesqueness (Mrs, Langtry, we may here note, scorns the modern heresy of boots, and appears in the more orthodox hose cross-gartered), has certainly not been seen in our time. The performance is full of good points; as when at the words, "here on the skirts of this forest like the fringe of a petticoat," she remembers with a momentary touch of maidenly shyness that petticoats no longer form part of her attire. Again, when in bantering her lover, who exhibits so strange an inability to recognize the voice and features of the woman whom he passionately loves, she pauses at "a beard neglected," and pointing at ''Orlando’s'' smooth chin bursts into uncontrollable laughter; again, when in the mock marriage scene, with ''Celia'' for the priest, her mind for the moment seems to wander away into such a dream as this mockery might suggest to one so deeply in love. The distinguishing feature of the impersonation, indeed, is the subtle suggestion of serious passion that underlies the frolicsome and bantering moods, and exhibits itself again and again in many subtle forms. The play is beautifully put on the stage, and if some of the performers fall a long way short of ideal excellence there are several impersonations that stand forth in strong relief and are of far more than common excellence. The ''Phœbe'' and ''Silvius'' of Miss Beatrice Lamb and Mr. Matthew Brodie deserve special note: but the most brilliant success of all in the case of the minor characters was undoubtedly the ''Audrey'' of Miss Marion Lee, whose hoydenish, but not ungraceful antics, whose happy, contented ignorance, whose mingled wonderment and admiration at ''Touchstone's'' philosophical utterances were admirable. Everything that taste can suggest has been done to embellish the play; the musical features are strengthened by an efficient chorus, and the costumes designed by the Hon. Lewis Wingfield are rich and handsome. Perhaps it might be objected that Mrs. Langtry’s beautiful green velvet doublet, with its slashes, tags, and laces, her cinnamon jerkin, her black cap and jewelled buckle, and her rich and massive cloak were hardly suited to her daring enterprise on the highways and in the forests of the Duke’s dominions. The restoration of Hymen, gracefully represented by Miss Violet Armbruster, and the final morris dance in honour of the nuptials, gave the crowning fanciful touch to the performance, and prepared the spectators for the playful epilogue, which was spoken by Mrs. Langtry, in her simple nuptial white robe and leopard skin, with rare elocutionary grace and effect,. [sic] The audience which greeted Mrs. Langtry was at once distinguished and interesting. The Royal box was occupied by the Prince and Princess of Wales, the Duchess of Fife, the Princesses Victoria and Maud of Wales, and the Duke of Fife. Among the representatives of "Society" were Lady Londonderry, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], Lord de Grey, Lord and Lady Coleridge, Lady Curzon, Lady Hothfield, Lord Lurgan, Lady Greville [<nowiki/>[[Social Victorians/People/Lady Violet Greville|Lady Violet Greville]]?], Lady Hozier, Mr. Alfred de Rothschild, Sir Charles Russell, Sir Edward Guinness, Mr. Coningsby Disraeli, Mr. Akers Douglas, M.P., Mr. Justin M‘Carthy, M.P., Sir Allen Young, Lady Colin Campbell, Lady Monckton, Mrs. Labouchere, and the Austrian and Spanish Ambassadors. Pictorial art was represented by Mr. Whistler; music by Mdme. Antoinette Sterling; dramatic writing by Mr. H. A. Jones; and theatrical interests by Mrs. Bancroft, Miss Genevieve Ward, Mr. and Mrs. John Lart, Mrs. John Hare, Mr. M. L. Mayer, Mr. Augustus Harris, &c.<ref>"Mrs. Langtry." ''Bladud'' 26 February 1890, Wednesday: 9 [of 16], Col. 2b–c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0005771%2F18900226&page=9&article=055&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Blalud, The Bath Society Paper'', p. 9.</ref></blockquote> === 25 February 1890, Tuesday === On 5 March, the ''World'' reports on a party hosted by Mrs. Adair that must have been held the week before:<blockquote>Many smart people were present at Mrs. Adair's party in Curzon Street on Tuesday night. The rooms, lighted by electricity, looked their prettiest with floral decorations consisting entirely of tulips, the hostess appearing in a gown of terra-cotta velvet trimmed with dark fur. The Austrian Ambassador and Madame Waddington were among those who listened to Miss Damian’s rendering of a new song by Tosti, and to the glees sung by Mr. Avon Saxon's American quartet; and among others present were Lady Charles Beresford, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], the Duchess of Marlborough, Lady Fanny Marjoribanks, who brought her sister, Lady Sarah Churchill, Sir Arthur Sullivan (just back from his annual sojourn at Monte Carlo), Lord and Lady Wharncliffe, Lady Howe and Lady Edith Curzon, Lord and Lady William Nevill, Mrs. Cavendish-Bentinck, General Charles Fraser, Lady Conyers, Madame de Brienen, and Sir Philip Currie.<ref>"What the World Says." ''The World'' 5 March 1890, Wednesday: 19 [of 44], Col. 2a [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0006339%2F18900305&page=19&article=061&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote>The ''Daily Telegraph'' covered the party with a few additional names:<blockquote>A casual passer-by in Curzon-street last night might almost have imagined from the long string of carriages assembled there that, in spite of the cold east wind blowing, the London season had already begun. Mrs. Adair had together to hear some beautiful music, including a celebrated quartette of American singers, a large and fashionable crowd, composed of the ''élite'' of London society, comprising among many others, the Austrian Ambassador, the French Ambassadress, the Marquis and Marchioness of Tweeddale, Lady Charles Beresford, Lady Fanny Marjoribanks and Lady Sarah Spencer-Churchill, Earl and Countess of Wharncliffe, Countess Howe and Lady Edith Curzon, Lord and Lady William Nevill, Lord George Nevill, Viscount and Viscountess Curzon, Countess of Sefton and Lady Rose Molyneux, Viscountess Mandeville, Julia Countess of Jersey and Mr Brandling, Viscount and Viscountess Bury and the Hon. Mary Keppel, the Countess of Crawford, the Earl of Clonmell, the Countess of Antrim and Lady Louisa Beauclerk, Viscountess Melgund, Lady Conyers, Hon. Lady Cotterell and Miss Cotterell, Lord Alington, Lord Alcester, Lord Greenock, Viscount de Vesci, Lady Hilda Brodrick, Hon. W. Lowther, M.P., and Mrs. Lowther, Hon. Mrs. Bampfylde, Hon. Hallyburton Campbell, Mrs. and Miss Campbell, Hon. Kenneth Howard, Hon. Derek Keppel, Hon. FitzRoy and Mrs. Stewart, Lady FitzGerald, Mrs. Bischoffsheim, Madame de Brienen, Lieutenant-General Sir Seymour Blane, General C. Fraser, M.P., Mr. Chamberlain, M.P., Mr. Howard Vincent, M.P., and Mrs Vincent, Mr. Charles Hall, M.P., Mrs. Cavendish-Bentinck, Sir C. Rivers Wilson, Sir Arthur Sullivan, Sir Philp Currie.<ref>"London Day by Day." ''Daily Telegraph & Courier'' (London) 26 February 1890, Wednesday: 5 [of 8], Col. 4a [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001112%2F18900226&page=5&article=094&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Daily Telegraph'', p. 5. </ref></blockquote>The ''Sporting Gazette'' also had a report, on 1 March:<blockquote>Mrs. Adair's party in Curzon-street on Tuesday night was, as usual, exceedingly smart and dressy. The "smarties" turned out strong for this Anglo-American function, and wore their best frocks and jewels. Lady Tweeddale, Lady Howe, with Lady Edith Curzon, Lady Fanny Majoribanks chaperoning her younger sister, Lady Sarah Churchill, Lady Curzon, Lady Antrim with Lady Louisa Beauclerk, Lady William Nevill with some lovely diamonds, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], Lord Alington, Sir Arthur Sullivan, Mrs Cavendish Bentinck, and others. The singing of an American quartette was ''the'' feature of the evening.<ref>"The Man About Town." "The County Gentleman." ''Sporting Gazette'' 1 March 1890, Saturday: 6 [of 38], Col. 2b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0002525%2F18900301&page=6&article=053&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, p. 274.</ref></blockquote> ==March 1890== === 10 March 1890, Monday === The Prince and Princess of Wales hosted a ball in celebration of their wedding anniversary. This report from the ''Bedfordshire Mercury'' is very brief:<blockquote> The Prince and Princess of Wales, in celebration of the anniversary of their wedding on March 10, 1863, gave a dance at Marlborough House on Monday night. The Danish Minister and Madame de Falbe were among the company invited, also the Earl and Countess Brownlow, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Lord Alwyne Compton, Baron F. de Rothschild, &c.<ref>"Notes of the Aristocracy." ''Bedfordshire Mercury'' 15 March 1890, Saturday: 7 [of 8], Col. 4b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001290%2F18900315&page=7&article=073&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> The report from the ''Morning Post'' suggests that this was a smaller party than usual for the Prince and Princess of Wales:<blockquote>In celebration of the anniversary of the Prince and Princess of Wales's wedding day, their Royal Highnesses gave an evening party (dancing) at Marlborough House last night. His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, her Royal Highness Princess Beatrice (Princess Henry of Battenberg) and his Royal Highness Prince Henry of Battenberg, her Royal Highness the Princess Louise of Wales (Duchess of Fife) and the Duke of Fife, his Royal Highness Prince George of Wales, her Royal Highness the Princess Victoria of Wales, her Royal Highness the Princess Maud of Wales, her Royal Highness the Princess Mary Adelaide (Duchess of Teck), and his Highness the Duke of Teck and her Serene Highness the Princess Victoria of Teck and his Serene Highness Prince Francis of Teck, and their Serene Highnesses the Prince and Princess Victor of  Hohenlohe-Langenburg and the Countess Victoria Gleichen were present. The following had the honour to receive invitations, but some amongst them were unavoidably prevented from attending: — The French Ambassador (M. Waddington) and Madame Waddington, the German Ambassador (Count Hatzfeldt) and the Countess Marie Hatzfeldt, the Turkish Ambassador (Rustem Pasha), the Austro-Hungarian Ambassador (Count Deym) and the Countess Deym, the Italian Ambassador  (Count Tornielli), the Countess Tornielli, and Mademoiselle Virginia dei Conti Lazzari, the Danish Minister (M. de Falbe) and Madame de Falbe, the Russian Chargé d'Affaires (M. Bontineff), his Serene Highness Prince Louis Esterhazy, M. A. Kroupensky, M. A. de Stoeckl, Count Leyden, Count Albert Mensdorff, Count Reventlow, Mr. and Mrs. Henry White, M. de Soveral, the Marques and Marquesa de Santurce, Mr. A. de Murrieta, Mr. C. de Murrieta. The Duke and Duchess of Leeds and Lady Alice Osborne, the Duke and Duchess of Buccleuch, the Duke and Duchess of Portland, the Duke and Duchess of Westminster, the Marchioness of Blandford and Lady Frances Spencer Churchill, the Marquis and Marchioness of Granby, the Marquis and Marchioness of Londonderry, the Marquis and Marchioness of Ormonde, the Marquis and Marchioness of Salisbury and Lady Gwendolen Cecil, the Marquis and Marchioness of Stafford, Count Gleichen, the Earl and Countess Brownlow, the Earl and Countess Cadogan and Lady Emily  Cadogan, the Earl and Countess of Clarendon, the Earl of Chesterfield, the Earl of Clonmell, the Earl of Dudley, the Earl and Countess of Dunraven and Lady Florence Wyndham Quin, the Earl and Countess Granville and Lady Victoria Leveson Gower, the Earl and Countess of Hardwicke, the Earl and Countess Howe and Lady Evelyn Curzon, the Earl and Countess of  Kilmorey, the Earl and Countess of Lathom and Lady Alice Wilbraham, the Earl and Countess of Lucan and Lady Rosalind Bingham, the Earl of Mount Edgcumbe and Lady Albertha Edgcumbe, the Earl and Countess of Romney and Lady Florence Marsham, the Earl and Countess of Rosebery, the Earl of Shaftesbury, the Earl of Stradbroke, the Earl and Countess of Sefton and Lady Gertrude Molyneux, the Earl and Countess Spencer, Viscount Drumlanrig, Lord and Lady Randolph Spencer Churchill, Lord Frederick Hamilton, Lord Ernest Hamilton, Lord and Lady Algernon Gordon Lennox, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Lord Charles Montagu, Viscount Chelsea, Viscount and Viscountess Coke and the Hon. Violet White, Viscount Curzon, Lady Georgina Curzon and Lady Sarah Spencer Churchill, Viscount Fincastle, Viscount Royston, Viscount Valletort, Lord and Lady Brooke, Lord Burghersh, Lord Capell, Lord and Lady Norreys and the Hon. Coralie Glyn, Lady Charles Beresford, Lord Marcus Beresford, Lord Alwyne Compton, Lord and Lady William Nevill, Lord Richard Nevill, Lord Henry Paulet, Lord Henry Vane Tempest, Lord Herbert Vane Tempest, Admiral Lord Alcester, Lady Ampthill and the Hon. Constance Russell, Lord Alington and the Hon. Winifred and Hon. Mildred Sturt, Lord and Lady Colville of Culross  and the Hon. Blanche Colville, Lord and Lady De  Ramsey, Lady Hastings, Lord and Lady Hindlip, Lord Lurgan, Lord and Lady Revelstoke and the Hon. Susan Baring, Lord and Lady Rothschild,  Lord Rowton, Lord Suffield and the Hon. Judith and Hon. Eleanor Harbord, Lord and Lady Wimborne and the Hon. Frances Guest, Lord Wolverton, Baron Ferdinand Rothschild, Captain the Hon. Maurice Bourke, R.N., Colonel the Hon. Henry Byng and the Misses Byng, the Hon. Alan Charteris, Lieutenant-Colonel the Hon. C. Edgcumbe, the Hon. Sir Spencer and Lady Ponsonby Fane, the Hon. Sidney Greville, Colonel the Hon. Oliver Montagu, the Hon. C. R. and Mrs. Spencer, the Hon. S. M'Donnell, the Hon. Alexander Yorke, the Hon. H. and Lady Feodora Sturt, the Hon. Arthur Walsh, the Hon. R. Winn, the Right Hon. W. E. and Mrs. Gladstone and Miss Gladstone, the Right Hon. A. J. Balfour, the Right Hon. H. Chaplin, the Right. Hon. Sir Henry James, the Right Hon. Sir C. L. Wyke, the Hon. S. C. Colville, the Hon. Assheton Harbord, the Hon. Julia Stonor, the Hon. H. Stonor, the Hon. E. Stonor, Captain the Hon. Henry White, Sir Edward and Lady Guinness, Sir Charles Hartopp, Sir Frederick Johnstone, Sir John and Lady Lister Kaye, Sir James and Lady  Mackenzie, Colonel Sir Nigel and Lady Emily Kingscote, Admiral Sir R. and the Hon. Lady Macdonald and Miss Macdonald, General Sir Dighton and Lady Probyn, Sir Francis and the Hon. Lady Knollys, Major-General Sir Christopher Teesdale, Sir Oscar Clayton, Sir Allen Young, Lieutenant-General Bateson, Lieutenant-General Charles Fraser, Major-General and the Hon. Mrs. Arthur Ellis and Miss Ellis, Colonel J. P. Brabazon, Colonel and Mrs. Stanley Clarke and the Misses Clarke, Captain H. F. Stephenson, R.N., Lieutenant-Colonel F. H. Poore, Lieutenant-Colonel R. Vivian, Major C. Swaine, Captain Douglas Dawson, Captain C. H. A. Hervey, the officers of the Queen's Guard, St. James's Palace, Mr. G. Byng, Mr. Henry Calcraft, Mr. Victor Cavendish, Mr. Henry Ellis, Mr. Horace Farquhar, Mr. and Mrs. George Forbes and Miss Forbes, Mr. Montagu Guest, Mr. Charles Hall, Mr. E. W. Hamilton, Mr. and Lady Hilda Higgins, Mr. Holzmann, Miss Knollys, Mr. and Mrs. F. R. Knollys, Mr. Ronald Moncrieffe, Mr. Alfred Montgomery, Mr. Arnold Morley, Mr. Henry Petre, Mr. Alfred de Rothschild, Mr. and Mrs. Leopold de Rothschild, Mr. Reuben Sassoon and Miss Sassoon, Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Sassoon, Mr. Edgar Sebright, Mr. and Mrs. Ralph Sneyd, Mr. Christopher Sykes, and Mr. O. G. St. George Williams. Messrs. Coote and Tinney's band was in attendance.<ref>"Marlborough House." ''Morning Post'' 11 March 1890, Tuesday: 5 [of 8]. Col. 6b–c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000174%2F18900311&page=5&article=055&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p. </ref></blockquote> ==April 1890== Arnold Dolmetsch took out a three-day ticket to the Reading Room in April 1890 (Campbell 22). === 9 April 1890, Wednesday === ==== The New Forest United Hunt Ball ==== <blockquote>This annual ball was beld at the New Forest Hall, Lyndhearst, on Wednesday night, and was a most brilliant gathering, upwards of 200 being present, not only the New Forest but also neighbouring hunts being well represented. Among those present were Earl and Countess of Londesborough, Lady Mildred Denison, Lady Lilian Denison, Hon. Louis Johnstone, Hon. Gerald and Mrs Lascelles, Major Downman, Capt. Sandbach, R.H.A., Col. and Mrs Sinkins, Col. Fitzroy Smyth, Lady Thursby and party, Mr Stanley Pearce (Master of the Foxhounds), Mr F. Lovell (Master of the Deerhounds) and party, Lady Adela Goff and party, Hon. Miss St. Leger Glyn and party, Mr A. H. Jeffreys, M.P., and Mrs Jeffreys, Hon. Mrs A. Peter, Mr Somerset H. Onslow, Mr Lancelot Orde, Lord Garioch, Mr and Mrs C. K. Francis, the Countess of Normandy, Lady Mary Agar, Lord Montagu, Hon. John Scott Montagu, Viscount Cantelupe, Prince Dhuleep Singh, Hon. D. Keppel, Col. Charles Needham (1st Life Guards), [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs Algernon Bourke]], Mrs Cornwallis West, Mr and Mrs Shelley Bontein, Col. Gridley, Col. Newton, Col. Elliot, R.H.A., Lady Meyrick and party, Sir W. Jervois, Lady Jervois and party, &c.<ref>"The New Forest United Hunt Ball." ''The Sportsman'' 11 April 1890, Friday: 2 [of 4], Col. 5c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001055/18900411/024/0002. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> ==May 1890== Leonora Braham appeared at the Opera Comique as Ruth Ferns in ''Gretna Green''. ===21 May 1890, Wednesday=== It was his pupil the young Countess Valda Gleichen who found a sponsor for Dolmetsch's first but brief appearance at a London concert on 21 May 1890, when the 'Magpie Minstrels' … gave one of their bi-annual performances at the Princes' Hall" (Campbell 30). ==June 1890== === 3 June 1890, Tuesday === ==== Dinner and Concert Hosted by Mrs. Arthur Williams and Ball by Mrs. Menzies ==== <blockquote>Yesterday evening society passed a large proportion of time on wheels, and the number of receptions was more than the most inveterate could get through wvith comfort. ... Meanwhile, the Duke of Clarence and Avondale dined with Mrs. Arthur Wilson in Grosvenor-place, and a small and select concert followed. The Duchess of Leinster was, as ever, the most beautiful among many beauties, the Hon. Helen Henniker, after her long mourning, was warmly greeted by swarms of friends, and the Countess of Lovelace, in grey satin, chaperoned her débutante niece, Miss Milbank. Prince "Eddie" went from Mrs. Arthur Wilson's hospitable mansion to that of Mrs. J. Graham Menzies. It is unusual to find mother and daughter entertaining this illustrious young man on the same evening. Mrs. Menzies, who has succeeded Lord Suffield in his beautiful house in Upper Grosvenor-street, had one of the smartest and most successful balls of the present season. The Blue Hungarians played with immense vigour and owing to the postponement of Lady Carnarvon's ball, there was no competition for men and married women. Countess Howe, Lady Brougham and Vaux, Lady Aveland and Miss Willoughby, Viscountess Stormont, the Hon. Lady Grey Egerton and Miss Egerton, the Duchess of Buccleuch, the [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs. Algernon Bourke]], the Earl of Craven, Countess of Coventry, Mrs. Mackay, Lady Sykes, the Marchioness of Granby, Mrs. Hwfa Williams, Lord Garioch, Sir Savile and Lady Crossley, Mr. and Mrs. Harry Lawson, and many others were present.<ref>"Yesterday Evening Society." ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 4 June 1890, Wednesday: 4 [of 8], Col. 3a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000098/18900604/015/0004. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> ==== Münster-Hay Wedding ==== Account of the wedding of Count Alexander Münster and Lady Muriel Henrietta Constance Hay. Count Bismarck sent a gift.<blockquote>St. Andrew's Church, Wells-street, was completely filled yesterday afternoon on the occasion of the marriage of Count Alexander Münster, son of Count Münster, German Ambassador in Paris, with Lady Muriel Henrietta Constance Hay, younger daughter of the Earl and Countess of Kinnoull. The ceremony was fixed for half-past two o'clock, but all the seats in the body of the church were occupied long before that time by invited guests. The rood screen was hidden with white flowers, and a number of tall palms were skilfully arranged in and about the chancel. The bridegroom was early in his place, and wore the splendid white and gold uniform of the Garde du Corps of the Emperor; his best man, Prince Hans Heinrich Pless, wearing the scarlet and gold uniform of the Garde Hussars. The six bridesmaids were Lady Mildred Denison, Lady Dorothea Stewart Murray, Hon. Marie Hay, Hon. Marjory Murray, Miss Rosalind Lovell, and Miss Gladys Hadow (niece of the bride). They wore pretty dresses of pale blue satin, veiled with white chiffon; the skirts were edged with a frill, and the bodices finished with quaint fichus of the chiffon, fastened in front with a bunch of forget-me-nots. They wore drawn hats of the chiffon, covered with forget-me-nots, and their posies were of the same flowers, intermixed with pink roses, and tied with narrow pink ribbons. Each wore a gold bangle with centre forming the initials "A.M.," and a single turquoise drop. The bride entered the church at half-past two, and was received by her father, who led her to the chancel steps, preceded by the choristers singing a nuptial hymn. The bride's dress was of ivory satin made with a very long train. The front was fringed round the hem with orange blossoms and veiled with old Brussels lace, the gift of her mother; the bodice was entirely covered with beautiful old lace, and finished at the neck on one side with a cluster of orange blossoms. She wore a small wreath of orange blossoms and myrtle arranged in the hair at the back and a tulle veil falling almost to the end of the train and held by diamond stars, the gift of the bridegroom. The bride's other jewels included two diamond drop hairpins, the gift of Count Münster; an emerald and diamond brooch, from the bridegroom; enamel and diamond heartsease brooch, from Lady Mary Mills; a diamond and emerald bracelet, from the Duke of Beaufort; and a diamond bracelet, from the Duke and Duchess of Athole. Her train was held by her two little nephews, Masters Roland and Patrick Hadow, wearing Scotch dress with lace ruffles. The service, which was fully choral, was performed by the Rev. Provost Rorison, of St. Ninian's Cathedral, Perth, assisted by the Rev. W. T. Houldsworth, rector of St. Andrew's. The Earl and Countess of Kinnoull afterwards entertained the bridal party at the residence of the Earl of Londesborough, uncle of the bride, in Grosvenor-square. Among the numerous guests were the Russian Ambassador and Madame de Staal, the German Ambassador, the Austrian Ambassador and Countess Deym, Count Münster and the Countesses Marie, Julia, and T. Münster, Prince Pless, Prince Louis Esterhazy, Count Donhoff, Baroness von Beckendorff-Hindenburg, Baron E. Fürstenberg, Count Paul Metternich, Geheimrath Schmettau, Countess Valentin, [[Social Victorians/People/de Soveral|M. de]] [[Social Victorians/People/de Soveral|Soveral]], Captain Hasenclever, Count Leyden, Herr von Rath, Count Francis Deym, Baron and Baroness Deichmann, Count Mensdorff, Herr Pilgrim Baltazzi, Count and Countess Henry Lützow, Baroness d' Erlanger [?], Herr von Kemnitz, Baron Cramm, Vicomte de Janzé, the Duke of Beaufort, the Duchess of Athole, and the Ladies Stewart Murray, the Marchioness of Downshire, the Marchioness of Stafford and Lady Sybil St. Clair Erskine, Maria Marchioness of Ailesbury, the Countess of Dunraven and Ladies Wyndham Quin, the Countess of Kilmorey, the Countess of Galloway and Miss Stewart, the Countess of Dudley and Lady Edith Ward, the Countess of Strathmore and Lady Constance Lyon, the Earl and Countess of Roden, Lady Willoughby de Eresby and Hon. Miss Willoughby, the Countess of Westmorland. Viscount and Viscountess Raincliffe, Viscountess Coke, Viscountess Stormont and Hon. MabeI Murray, Viscountess Malden and Hon. Miss Capel, Lord Hay of Kinfauns [?], Lady Delamere and Miss Cholmondeley, Lady Brougham, Lady Esher, Lord Saye and Sele and Hon. Maud and Hon. Gertrude Fiennes, Lady Helen MacGregor and Miss MacGregor, Lord and Lady Algernon Gordon Lennox and Lady Angela St. Clair Erskine, Lady Raglan, Lord Charles Innes Ker, Lady Elizabeth Bertie, Lady Frances Pratt and Lady Clementine Pratt, Lady Geraldine Somerset, Lady Dalton Fitzgerald and Miss Payne, Lady Mary Mills and Miss Pereira, Lady Dorchester, Lady Louisa Moncreiffe and Misses Moncreiffe, Lady Norreys, Lady Petre, Lady Jane Trefusis, Lord Frederic Hamilton, Baroness de Brienen and Miss de Brienen, Helen Lady Forbes and the Misses Forbes, Lady Scott, Miss Scott and Mrs. Green, Lord Zouche and Hon. Miss Curzon, Mr. and Lady Constance Hadow, Hon. Lady Campbell, Lady William Nevill and Miss Bannerman, Hon. Alastair and Mrs. Hay, Hon. Miss Greville, Captain Hon. Randolph Stewart, Hon. FitzRoy and Mrs. Stewart, Hon. Charles Walsh, Hon. William Walsh, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs. Algernon Bourke]], Colonel Hon. Charles and Mrs. Hay and Miss Maude Hay, Hon. Mrs. Greville Nugent, Hon. Mrs. Colville and Miss Streatfeild [sic], Hon. Claude Hay, Sir Charles and Lady Forbes of Newe, Laely Borthwick, Sir Francis Montefiore, Sir Henry Hoare, Sir George Arthur, Sir William Gordon Cumming, General and Mrs. Wilkinson, Colonel and Mrs. Chaine, Colonel Arthur Paget, Colonel H. M. Hozier, the Provost of St. Ninian's, Major Finch, Major Candy, Colonel Lloyd, Captain and Mrs. Stewart, Mr. and Mrs. Hay Drummond, Captain and Mrs. Lloyd, Mr. William Gillett, Mr. Hulse, M.P., and Mrs. Hulse, Captain Lumley, Captain Barrow, Major Anstruther, Mrs. Hwfa Williams, Mr. Arthur Hay, Mr. Raglan Somerset, Mr. and Mrs. George Cavendish Bentinck, Mrs. Villiers, Mr. Henry Petre, Mrs. Keighley, Mrs. E. Balfour and Miss Balfour and Miss Ellice, Mrs. Dick Cunynghame and Miss A. M'Gregor, Rev. C. Weidemann, Miss Balfour and Miss E. Balfour, Mrs. and Miss Halford, Mr. and Mrs. Toler, Mrs. and Miss Townley, Rev. Dr. M'Ewan, Mr. A. F. Levita, Mr. F. Stephens, Mrs. and Miss Leigh, Mr. and Mrs. George Forbes and Miss Forbes, Mrs. Luke Wheeler, Mrs. J. Beerbohm, Dr. and Mrs. W. M. Collins, Mrs. and Miss Orde, Mrs. Murray, Miss Glyn, Mrs. Godfrey Pearse, Mr. Balfour, Mr. Leopold Goldberg, Mr. and Miss Oswa d [Oswald], Mr. and Mrs. C. Bulteel, Mrs. Brydges Wyllyams, Mr. H. Balfour, the Misses Codrington, Miss Finch, Mrs. Barron and Miss Sullivan, Mr. Hamilton Aidé, Mr. Granville and Miss Berkeley, Mr. M'Gregor, Mrs. and Miss Needham, Mr. and Mrs. A. Consett and Miss Consett, Mrs. Herbert Naylor LeyIand, Mr. and Mrs. A. Darby, Mrs. Montefiore, Mrs. Charles Murray and Miss Murray, Mrs. Thomas Legh, the Rev. John F. Mitchell, Mr. and Mrs. Claud Hay, Mr. Fiztalan Manners, Mr. Albert Stopford, Mr. Hervey Pechell, and Mr. and Mrs. Charles Orde. Later in the day Count Alexander Münster and his bride left for Hillingdon Court, Uxbridge, the residence of the Hon. A. Mills, where they will pass the early days of the honeymoon, and then proceed to Chàlet Sans Souci, Bellaggio, Lake of Como, lent by Mr. Hervey Pechell. They will afterwards go to Wiesbaden, and thence to Count Münster's German country seat, where a great reception awaits them. The wedding presents were very numerous. Count Munster presented the bride with a diamond necklace and pair of diamond drop hairpins. The bridegroom's gifts to his bride included a tiara of three diamond stars, a brooch formed of an emerald of unusual size set in diamonds, large pearl pendant, gold bracelet set with turquoises, and diamond and turquoise ring. The Duke of Beaufort presented Lady Muriel with an emerald and diamond bracelet. The Earl and Countess of Kinnoull's presents included a quantity of plate and other articles. Prince Henry of Battenberg sent a large silver-mounted claret jug; Count Bismarck, a silver box; the Marchioness of Waterford, gold snake bracelet, with pearl head and ruby eyes; the Duke and Duchess of Athole, diamond "M" bangle; Lady Ermyntrude Malet, massive silver bowl; Countess Marie Münster, silver tea set and tray; Baron E. Fürstenberg, pair of gold-mounted claret jugs; Baron and Baroness Erlanger, large silver bowl; Baron and Baroness Gungberg, pair of antique silver mounted jugs.<ref>"Marriage of Count Alexander Münster and Lady Muriel Hay." ''Morning Post'' 4 June 1890, Wednesday: 7 [of 12], Col. 7a–c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900604/064/0007. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> ===4 June 1890, Wednesday=== Derby Day. According to the Morning Post, <quote>Lady Thurlow's first dance. / Mrs. Coddington's Ball. / The Fourth of June celebration at Eton. / ... Royal Society of Literature — Paper on "Early England," by Mr. Carmichael, S. </quote> ("Arrangements for This Day." The Morning Post Wednesday, 4 June 1890: p. 7 [of 12], Col. 6A). ===13 June 1890, Friday=== ? or on the 12th? Arnold Dolmetsch had a concert at which his students performed (Campbell 31). It was reviewed very positively in the 13 June Daily Graphic, especially Helene Dolmetsch's performance. They did Purcell's Fairy Queen. They used a harpsichord. ===26 June 1890, Thursday=== There was apparently a regular celebration of [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Collins|Arthur Collins]]' birthday, 26 June, by Bret Harte, George Du Maurier, [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Sullivan|Arthur Sullivan]], Alfred Cellier, Arthur Blunt, and John Hare (Nissen, Axel. Brent Harte: Prince and Pauper: 239. [http://books.google.com/books?id=WEDewmUnapcC]). Choosing 1885–1902 as the dates because those apparently are the dates of the close relationship between Harte and Collins, ending in Harte's death in 1902. ==July 1890== ===3 July 1890, Thursday=== <blockquote>On July 3, 1890, Besant’s house at 19 Avenue Road, St. John’s Wood, was inaugurated as a new center of Theosophical work, serving as the European headquarters of the [[Social Victorians/Theosophical Society|Theosophical Society]] and as HPB’s residence. That house became also the meeting place of HPB’s Inner Group, twelve of her students who were eager for more intense training than was feasible in a larger, more general gathering.</blockquote>That Inner Group is different from the Esoteric Section.<ref>"Esoteric World Chapter 23." ''The Theosophical Society of America, Online Resources''. http://www.theosophical.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&catid=23&id=1725&Itemid=53</ref><blockquote>The hall had a seating capacity of about 200. On the opening night [July 3, 1890] [sic] the room was crammed, and many were unable to gain admission. The speakers were Mrs. Besant, Mr. Sinnett, a Mrs. Woolff (of America), and Mr. [Bertram] Keightley. HPB was present but said nothing, on account of the critical state of her health.<ref>"23a. Henry S. Olcott, July 1890, London [Olcott 1931, 4:254–6]." Esoteric World Chapter 23. ''The Theosophical Society of America, Online Resources''. http://www.theosophical.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&catid=23&id=1725&Itemid=53.</ref></blockquote> === 4 July 1890, Friday, 11 p.m. === ==== The Queen's State Ball at Buckingham Palace ==== The Prince and Princess of Wales were hosts of this ball, as Queen Victoria was not present. Many of the Queen's children and their spouses were present.<ref>"State Ball at Buckingham Palace." ''Morning Post'' 5 July 1890, Saturday: 5 [of 8], Col. 5a–7b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900705/038/0005. Same print title and p.</ref> The dancing commenced shortly after the Prince and Princess of Wales arrived at 11:00. === 1890 July 15, Tuesday === ==== Garden Party at Marlborough House to Meet the Queen ==== The beginning of the ''Morning Post'' article, which is followed by a very long list of people invited:<blockquote>Their Royal Highnesses the Prince and Princess of Wales gave a garden party at Marlborough House yesterday afternoon to meet the Queen. Her Majesty was accompanied by their Royal Highnesses the Princesses Victoria and Margaret of Prussia, and was attended by the Duchess of Roxburghe, Miss M'Neill, the Hon. Evelyn Moore, the Hon. Bertha Lambert, and Major-General Sir Henry Ewart and Major F. A. Bigge. Madlle. De Perpigna was in attendance on the Princesses Victoria and Margaret. The following were present: — Their Royal Highnesses the Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh and Prince Alfred, and the Princesses Marie, Victoria, Alexandra, and Beatrice of Edinburgh; their Royal Highnesses the Duke and Duchess of Connaught and Prince Arthur, and the Princesses Margaret and Patricia of Connaught; their Royal Highnesses the Prince and Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein Sonderburg-Augustenburg and Princess Victoria and Princess Louisa of Schleswig-Holstein, her Royal Highness the Princess Louise, Marchioness of Lorne, and the Marquis of Lorne. Her Royal Highness the Duchess of Albany, her Royal Highness the Princess Frederica and the Baron von Pawell-Rammingen, his Royal Highness the Duke of Cambridge, her Royal Highness Princess Mary Adelaide Duchess of Teck and his Highness the Duke of Teck and Princess Victoria of Teck, his Royal Highness the Duke d'Orleans and Princess Hélène d'Orleans, his Imperial Highness Don Pedro Augustus of Coburg and Braganza, his Serene Highness the Prince of Schaumburg-Lippe, his Serene Highness the Prince of Leiningen and their Serene Highnesses Prince and Princess Victor of Hohenlohe-Langenburg and the Countesses Gleichen, and Count Gleichen.<ref>"Garden Party at Marlborough House." ''Morning Post'' 15 July 1890, Tuesday: 5 [of 8], Col. 3a–7c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900715/044/0005. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> === 19 July 1890, Saturday === ==== Wedding of James Francis Harry St. Clair-Erskine and Violet Aline Vyner ==== This report from the ''Fife Free Press'' is missing a big piece of the 2nd paragraph, where the bridesmaids' and bride's dresses are described, because the page was damaged. The digitized copy is also generally poor.<blockquote>On Saturday forenoon, in Michael’s Church, Chester Square, London, was celebrated the marriage of Lord Loughhorough, eldest son of the Earl of Rosslyn with Miss Violet Aline Vyner, younger daughter of Mr R. C. Vyner, of Fairfield, Yorkshire. The chancel was beautifully decorated with palms and a profusion of lilies most artistically arranged. The Prince of Wales, Duke of Cambridge. Princess Mary Adelaide, Duchess and the Duke of Teck, and Princess Victoria, and the Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone were among those present. The wedding party began to arrive at 11 o’clock, the bridesmaids being early in attendance. They were the Ladies Sybil and Angela St Clair Erskine, sisters of the bridegroom; Lady Anne Lambton, Miss Musgrave, Miss Rachel Gurney, and Miss Fleming. They were charmingly dressed in soft cream crepon, with violet velvet Zoave jackets, forming half sleeves and capes at the back, and pretty turn-down collars and cravats of white mosseline [mousseline?] chiffon, and the skirts were very plainly made. They wore large white hats lined with a band of violet velvet near the face, and trimmed on the crown with white ostrich plumes, a bunch of violets fastening the brim at the back. Each wore a brooch — the St Clair cross in rubies and diamonds set in a circle of the latter, and surmounted by a baron’s cornet of the same precious stones — the gift of the bri[degroom]; and carried a bouquet of Marechal Niel [roses?] ...ging sprays of the same, and tied w... ribbons. The bride entered the ... eleven o’clock, being received at ... father, who led her to the cha... her away. The service be... procession was preceded up ... choir, who sang "The voic..." The bride’s dress was ... with a long court train, ... white velvet being embro... ...und the train, and fasten... ...ver true lover’s knot. The picture... ...gh silver waistband, had full slee... mousseline chiffon; and a small ... blossoms was most becomingly arra... with a long tulle veil. The Earl of Chesterfield discharged the duties of best man. The Rev. Canon Fleming, Chaplain in Ordinary to the Queen and Vicar of St Michael's, performed the marriage rite, assisted by the Rev. Edgar Sheppard, Sub-Dean of the Chapels Royal, and the Rev. J. Thomson, of Rosslyn, near Edinburgh. The hymn “Thine for ever! For of love,” was sung the end of the service. Canon Fleming afterwards delivered a most impressive address. After the benediction the clergy and bride and bridegroom passed to the vestry, the Prince of Wales following with Mrs Vyner. Pretty wedding favours of orange blossoms, Parma violets, and white heather were then distributed amongst the congregation. Mr and Mrs Vyner afterwards welcomed the wedding party at Ashburnham House, Dover-street. The ''dejeuner'' was served in three rooms, one being reserved for the bride and bridegroom and the Royal party. The table in the latter room was decorated with several of Mr Vynet's racing trophies. The band of the Grenadier Guards performed in the garden during the reception. The Prince of Wales, Duke of Cambridge, the Duke and Duchess of Teck and Princess Victoria were present at the breakfast, and among the general company were Count Munster and Countess Maria Munster, the Marchese and Marchesa de Montagliari, the Marquis and Marchioness of Ripon, the Marquis and Marchioness of Stafford, the Marquis of Cholmondeley, the Marquis of Northampton, Maria Marchioness of Ailesbury, the Dowager Marchioness of Conyngham and Lady Blanche Conyngham, the Marchioness of Downshire, the Countess of Rosslyn, Earl and Countess Compton, the Earl of Feversham, the Earl of Durham, the Countess of Coventry and the Ladies Coventry, Countess Howe and Ladies Curzon, the Countess of Yarborough, the Earl of Clonmell, the Earl and Countess of Loudoun, the Countess of Kilmorey, Countess de Grey, Viscount Molyneux, the Bishop of Gibraltar and Mrs Sandford, Viscountess de Labrosse and Mdles. de Labrosse, Lord Greenock, Lord and Lady Algernon Lennox, Lady Lilian Wemyss, Lady Julia Wombwell and Miss Wombwell, Hon. Lady Campbell of Blythswood, Lady Constance Harris, Lady Florence Harris, Lord and Lady Burghley, Lady Dorchester, Lord Houghton, Lady Curzon, Lady Brougham and Vaux and Miss Musgrave, Baron de Hirsch, Helen Lady Forbes and the Misses Forbes, Baroness Burdett Coutts and Mr Burdett Coutts, M.P., Lady Astley, Lord and Lady William Nevill, Lord and Lady Brooke and Hon. Leopold and Hon. Marjorie Greville, Lady Dalton Fitzgerald and Miss Payne, Lord Elcho, Lady Willoughby de Eresby and the Misses Willoughby, Lady Ewart, Lady Hindlip, Lady Cecilia Rose, Lord Rowton, Lord Capell, Lady Mabel Compton, Lord and Lady Herries, Lady Sykes, Lord and Lady Alwyne Compton, Lady Ventry and Hon. Miss de Moleyns, Hon. Lady Knollys, Lady Manners, Hon. Lady Drummond and Misses Drummond, Hon. Sydney Greville, Hon. Assheton Harbord, Hon. Derek Keppel, Hon. Captain Bourke, Hon. Mrs Percy Mitford, Hon. Philip Harbord, Hon. and Rev. L. Tyrwhitt, Hon. Coralie Glyn, Hon. M. Lambton, Hon L. Greville, Hon. Alwyn Greville, Hon[.] Eva Greville, Hon. Frances Dawnay, Hon Evelyn Paget, Hon Mrs Algernon Grosvcnor, Hon and Mrs Lambton. Hon. Mrs Evelyn Pelham, Hon. Fitzroy St Clair Erskine, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs Algernon Bourke]], Hon. W. Maxwell, Hon. G. and Mrs Dawnay, Hon. Captain Lambton, General Sir Seymour Blane, Sir William Gordon Cumming, Sir Archibald and Miss Edmunstone, Sir Henry and Lady Meysey Thompson, Mrs Gladstone, Mr and Lady Margaret Cameron, Mr and Lady Florence Astley, Mr and Lady Elizabeth Melville Cartwright and Miss Melville Cartwright, General and Mrs Duff and Miss Duff, General Owen Williams, Colonel and Mrs Anstruther Thompson, Colonel Stopford Sackville, Colonel Craig, Colonel Brabazon, Colonel Forester, Colonel Stanley Clarke (in attendance on the Prince of Wales) and Miss Clarke, Major Davidson, Canon and Mrs Fleming, Captain St John Mildmay (in attendance on the Duke of Cambridge), Captain and Mrs FitzGeorge, Mrs William Portal, the Sub Dean of the Chapels Royal, Rev. W. M. and Mrs Wollaston, Rev. R. West, Mr and Miss Chamberlain. Mr and Mrs W. H. Grenfell, Mr Christopher Sykes, M.P., Mr Reuben Sassoon, Mr Arthur Sassoon, Mrs Bischoffsheim, Mr and Mrs Herbert Naylor Leyland, Dr and Mrs Anderson, Mrs Oswald, Mr and Mrs Surtees, Mr Fitzgerald, Mr and Mrs Menzies, Miss Willoughby and Miss Gertrude Willoughby, Mr Arthur Paget, Miss Christie, Mr Dowdall, Mrs Eastwood and the Misses Eastwood, Mr Frederick Warre, Mr William Williamson, Mrs Burton, Mrs Chaine, Captain and Mrs Livesey Wardle, Captain A. R. Hill, Miss Helby, Mrs and Miss Winslow, Mr and Miss Oswald, Mr Willoughby, Mr Quintin Hume, Mr F and Miss Fitzherbert, Mrs and Miss F. Hotham, Mr and Mrs Moreton Frewin, Mrs Charles Otway, Mr Calcraft, Mr Watson, Mr Fennick, Mr Montgomery, Mr Cecil Murray, Mr and Mrs Sneyd, Mr Leslie Stephen, Mr Edgar Sebright, Miss Fleetwood Wilson, Mrs and Miss Farmer of Nonsuch, Mr and Mrs Dennistoun and Miss Dennistoun, Mr and Mrs J. R. Lane Fox and Miss Lane Fox, &c. The bride and bridegroom left early in the afternoon for Easton Lodge, Dunmow, the seat of Lord and Lady Brooke, in Essex, where they will spend the honeymoon. The bride travelled in a costume of biscuit coloured armure silk, the top of the bodice and sleeves being of pale pink mousseline de soie, and the lower part of the former inserted with pink velvet ribbons to form a high band, Tuscan straw-hat trimmed with pink crepe de chine, and biscuit feathers. The presents exceeded four hundred in number. The Prince of Wales presented the bride with a trefoil moonstone and diamond brooch and the bridegroom with a sapphire and diamond pin. The Princess of Wales's gift the bridegroom was a silver-necked claret jug. The Duke of Cambridge gave an amethyst and diamond pendant, and the bridegroom a pair of silver gilt candlesticks; and Princess Mary and the Duke of Teck presented the bride with a silver sugar basin. The bridegroom’s gifts to the bride were a diamond and sapphire watch bracelet, a diamond half-hoop ring, diamond brooch with pearl centre, diamond and turquoise brooch, formed of the St Clair badge in rubies and diamonds set in a circle of diamonds, surmounted by a baron’s coronet in the same precious stones, a large salts bottle with two heart-shaped moonstones set with rubies and diamonds and a silver sugar basin. The bride presented Lord Loughborough with a turquoise and diamond stud. The Earl of Rosslyn presented the bride with diamond necklet. The Countess of Rosslyn’s gifts were diamond orchid brooch and a pink feather fan. Mr R. C. Vyner’s gifts to his daughter were a diamond and pearl tiara and gold mounted dressing case, and Mrs Vyner gave her a sapphire and diamond ring. The Marchioness of Stafford gave a ruby and diamond pin; Lady Mary Vyner antique diamond tiara; the Ladies Angela and Sybil Erskine sapphire and diamond bracelet; Hon. Fitzroy St Clair Erskine with "1890" in rubies and diamonds; Lord and Lady A. Compton large diamond star; the Earl of Rosslyn presented his son with a large silver bowl and two silver dishes; the Countess of Rosslyn's present was a travelling bag; Mr Vyner gave him a luncheon basket; Mrs Vyner a silver ''entree'' dish; the Marchioness of Stafford case containing silver coffee and tea pots, urn and stand, sugar basin, and cream jug; Lord and Lady Brooke four antique silver sauce boats; Lord and Lady Algernon Gordon ['''Col. 1c–2a'''] Lennox three antique silver ''entree'' dishes. The Earl of Rosslyn's Fifeshire tenants presented Lord Loughborough with a beautiful antique silver bowl, two antique silver dessert dishes, and two antique sugar castors; and to the bride they gave an antique silver tea service. The congregation of Rosslyn Chapel presented the bridegroom with a complete and elegant writing set, whilst Lord Rosslyn's servants gave him a silver inkstand and pair of silver candlesticks. Mr Vyner's servants presented the bride with a silver salver and six ''liqueur'' cups. The servants of Newby Hall gave a silver coffee pot, and Mr Vyner’s Cheshire tenants presented a case containing silver tea pot, sugar basin, and cream jug. The bride also received from the Duchess of Portland a travelling bag; the Duchess de Luynes, sapphire and diamond ring; the Duke of Westminister, Indian necklace; the Marquis of Northampton, diamond bracelet; the Marquis of Ripon, sapphire and diamond bracelet; the Marchioness of Ripon, turquoise and diamond bangle, the Earl of Durham, a diamond half hoop bracelet; Earl and Countess Cowper, a diamond "V V” brooch; Dowager Viscountess Downe, moonstone and diamond crescent; Lady Skyes [Sykes] ruby and diamond fish brooch; Lady Millbank, sapphire and diamond brooch Lord Douglas Compton, double heart brooch; Lord Herbert Vane Tempest, gold curb chain bracelet set with pearls; Earl and Countess Compton, bangle with “Vi” and “good luck” on it; the Duke and Duchess of St Albans, tea service with table; the Marchioness Conyngham, silver cream jug; the Marchioness of Tavistock, silver vase; the Countess of Rodin, a silver I bowl; the Countess of Yarborough, silver candlesticks; Viscountess Downe, silver tea caddie; Lady de Trafford, gold mounted salts bottle; the Hon. F. Dawnay, large silver candlesticks[;] Hon. F and Lady Lampton, travelling clock; Hon. W. Lambton, silver candlesticks; Sir R. and Lady Graham, silver salver; Sir Roderick and Miss Cameron, two silver dishes; General Williams, diamond bangle; Colonel and Mrs G. FitzGeorge, gold mounted bottle; Major and Mrs Egerton, pair of silver candlesticks; Major Stuart Wortley, diamond Swallow; Major Davidson, heart-shaped brooch in coral and diamonds; Captain and Lady Cecilia Rose, a brougham; Mr Beaumont, silver bowl; Miss Edmonstone, moonstone and diamond hat pins; Mrs Harris, sapphire and diamond bracelet; Mr Egerton, turquoise and diamond brooch; Sir Cecil Murray, sapphire and diamond pin; Mr A. Farquharson, diamond swallow brooch; Mr and Mrs Hulse, two small silver vases; Miss Fleetwood Wilson, diamond bangle; Mrs A. Wilson, tortoiseshell candlestick; Mr Quintin Hume, salts bottle mounted with diamonds and rubies; Miss Helbert, gold violet pin; Mr Chamberlain, pair of silver candlesticks; Hon. Arthur Coventry, gold mounted bottle with "Vi" in diamonds; Mrs Leopold de Rothschild, diamond hand brooch, together with a number of other gifts. Among the presents to the bridegroom were — from the Marchioness of Downshire, antique silver sugar sifter; the Marquis of Exeter, silver sandwich case; the Marchioness of Bath, antique Dutch silver box; the Marquis of Downshire, a gold pencil; Count Munster, cigarette case and match box; Count Alexander Munster, a hunting flask; the Countess of Lindsay, antique silver pen-tray; the Earl of Mar and Kellie, silver matchbox; the Earl and Countess of Loudoun, silver cigarette box; the Earl of Chesterfield, antique silver gilt inkstand; the Countess of Bradford, gold seal with agate; the Countess of Warwick, antique silver bowl; the Earl of Coventry, silver pen-tray; the Countess of Wharncliffe, two silver candlesticks; the Earl and Countess of Cromartie, two antique silver cups; Viscountess of Newport, silver paper knife; Mr and Mrs A. Sassoon, ruby and diamond pin; Lord John Cecil, silver salver; Lord and Lady Willoughby de Eresby, antique silver-mounted cruet stand; Lord William Nevtll, antique brandy carrier; Lady Margaret Spicer, silver match box; Lord Burghley, four silver salt cellars and spoons; Baron de Hirch [Hirsch?], silver inkstand; Lady W. E. Osborne Elphinstone, silver inkstand; Lord Kesteven, silver cream jug; Lord Capell, silver cigarette case; Lord and Lady Gerard, tortoiseshell and silver travelling clock; Lady Lilian Wemyss, silver cigarette case; Dad Alwyne Compton, umbrella containing matchbox and whistle; Lord and Lady Lennox, two antique silver ''entree'' dishes and bacon dish; Lord Burghersh, silver cigarette lighter; Lady Angela 8t Clair Erskine, four silver salt cellars; Lady Randolph Churchill, gold pencil case, with two sapphires; Lord Houghton, antique gold basket; Lady Sybil St Clair Erskine, umbrella; Lord and Lady Dorchester, large crystal seal; Hon. Derek P. Keppel, pair of silver candlesticks; Hon. E. and Mrs Pelham, silver inkstand; Hon. G. N. Curzon, silver gilt bowl; Hon. F. St Clair Erskine, four silver candle-sticks; [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. A. and Mrs Bourke]], four small silver dessert dishes; Hon. Mrs Elliot Yorke, pair of silver candlesticks; Hon. Mr and Mrs L. Greville, tortoise-shell and silver box; Hon. R Somerset, diamond and pearl pin; Hon. G. H. Willoughby, silver ink-stand; Hon. H. and Mrs Grosvenor, umbrella; [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs Algernon Bourke]], enamel and diamond pin; Captain Hon. Maurice Bourke, cigarette case and lighter; Hon. W. Maxwell, silver-backed clothes and hat brushes; Hon. Sidney Greville, saltspoons; Hon. M. C. Maxwell Scott, two silver ''menu'' plates; Hon. W. Edwardes, pin; [[Social Victorians/People/Greville|Captain Hon. A.]] and [[Social Victorians/People/Lady Violet Greville|Mrs Greville]], silver gilt bowl, fork, spoon, and ladle; Sir Frederick Milner, diamond and moonstone pin; Sir George Chetwynd, two long silver flagons; Sir M. and Lady Fitzgerald, two silver saltspoons; Sir N. Gordon Gumming, silver-handled paper knife, &c.<ref>"Marriage of Lord Loughborough with Miss Vyner." ''Fife Free Press'' 26 July 1890, Saturday: 2 [of 8], Col. 1a–2b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001110/18900726/015/0002. Same print title and p.</ref> </blockquote> === 24 July 1890, Thursday === ==== Dinner and Dance Hosted by Lord Alington ==== Perhaps the date on this is uncertain, since the article in ''Truth'' would suggest it was held in late May or early June. The newspaper story in the ''Queen'' mentions another occasion in which the flowers were notable as well. From ''Truth'':<blockquote> But not a quarter of a mile distant [from a dinner and dance hosted by Lord Rothschild featuring Princess Louise and the Marquis of Lorne] a more important event was proceeding, for Lord Alington, having previously walked down the Row and invited his friends right and left to Alington House, South Audley-street, proceeded to give a dance which was honoured by the presence of the Prince and Princess of Wales, the Princesses Victoria and Maud, the Duke of Clarence, Princess Mary Adelaide, and Princess "May" and Prince and Princess Christian. This without exaggeration, with the exception of Lady Leconfield's, Lady Willoughby de Eresby's, and Lady Cadogan's, was the best ball hitherto given this season, and the prolific way ortolans [small songbirds regarded as a delicacy] were distributed at supper will long linger in the memories of those by whom these delicacies are cherished. One lady displayed her enthusiastic appreciation by devouring five of these, and it is to be hoped her devotion did not endanger her life. As for beauty, seldom before have so many pre-eminent for good looks been present at one gathering, as a mere enumeration of a few of these will prove. Of course the Duchess of Leinster heads the list, followed in quick succession by the Duchess of Portland, Lady de Grey, Lady Randolph Churchill, Lady Dudley, Lady Kilmorey, Lady Brooke, Lady de Trafford, Lady Helen Duncombe, Lady Hilda Dundas, Lady Sybil St. Clair Erskine, Lady Olivia Taylour, Miss Rachael Gurney, Lady Cardross, Miss Bourke, Lady Rose Leigh and her sister-in-law, Miss Leigh, Miss Berens (sister to Lady Cairns), Mrs. Ralph Sneyd, Lady Gerard, and a host of others far too numerous to mention. I often wonder that no painter has yet attempted to give us in one picture a permanent record of the chief beauties of our day. It would make a most interesting and exquisite group of lovely women, such as could not be found probably in any other country than this.<ref>Marmaduke, pseud. "Letters from the Linkman." ''Truth'' 12 June 1890, Thursday: 26 [of 56], Col. 1a–b [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002961/18900612/064/0026. Same print title, p. 1212.</ref></blockquote> From the ''Queen'':<blockquote>The P<small>RINCE AND</small> P<small>RINCESS OF</small> W<small>ALES</small> and the Princesses Victoria and Maud honoured L<small>ORD</small> A<small>LINGTON</small> by their presence at D<small>INNER</small>, at A<small>LINGTON</small> H<small>OUSE</small>, South Audley-street, on the 24th ult., when a distinguished party was present to meet them, including, among others, the Duke and Duchess of Leinster, the Marquis of Hartington, the Marquis and Marchioness of Ormonde, Maria Marchioness of Ailesbury, Earl and Countess Cadogan and Lady Emily Cadogan, the Earl Countess of Lucan and Lady Rosaline Bingham, the Earl of Hardwicke, the Countess of Dudley and Lady Edith Ward, the EarI of Chesterfield, the Earl of Stradbroke and Lady Hilda Rous, and Earl Annesley. Covers were laid for sixty. Lord Alington afterwards gave a dance to meet the Prince and Princess of Wales and their daughters. As on the previous occasion, the floral decorations were exquisite. The entrance hall and the approaches to the reception rooms were decorated with tall palms and a profusion of lilies, pelargoniums, ferns in every variety, and roses in every imaginable shade. The conservatories at the back were carpeted and furnished luxuriously, and blocks of ice, lighted by fairy lamps, were placed about with artistic effect, serving to keep the atmosphere cool and fresh. Feathery palms, hydrangeos [hydrangeas] and arums were here used freely, and a particularly pretty result was obtained by the windows being framed, one in a fringe of ferns and red pelargoniums, and the other in ferns and fuschias. The ballroom fireplaces were adorned on each side with palms reaching to the ceiling, the mantelpieces being hidden by a delicate arrangement of roses in various shades springing from banks of hydrangeas, calceolarias, pelargoniums, and marguerites, and the walls of the staircase leading from the conservatory to the ball-room were hung with half-balls of floral roses. The supper was served in the dining-room, the tables being embellished with the loveliest orchids and roses of the most delicate tints, intermixed with pancretia; the arrangement was so light and elegant that it was difficult to believe that hands had ever touched the flowers. On those tables with silver candelabra in the centre, the flowers were all pure white, and those having gold candelabra were treated with mauve orchids and the palest pink and yellow roses. A tent, arranged near the conservatory for the Prince of Wales, was draped with Oriental hangings, and outside were groups of flowers and myriads of fairy lamps. The company began to arrive at eleven o'clock, when dancing commenced to the strains of the Blue Hungarian Band. The Princess of Wales was dressed in white striped satin and silk, the front being embroidered in pale shades, and wore handsome diamond ornaments. The Princesses Victoria and Maud wore white tulle over satin, the front being sprinkled all over with tiny sprays of lilies of the valley, each laid on a single leaf. The Duchess of Wellington was in black satin, with a pink sash arranged very prettily across the back of the bodice, and falling to the feet; a cluster of pink flowers and a beautiful diamond spray were fastened in the front of the bodicea and a diamond rivière was arranged in the hair, a diamond necklace being also worn. The Duchess of Westminster was in white satin trimmed with gold embroidery, and veiled in white chiffon. The Marchioness of Ormonde wore white striped brocade and satin trimmed with white lace, and a splendid diamond tiara and other ornaments. Countess de Grey, palest blue satin, with front beautifully embroidered in beads, and a diamond and pearl coronet. Maria, Marchioness of Ailesbury, white brocade and lace, with splendid diamond and emerald ornaments. The Marchioness of Bath, cream an violet brocaded velvet, the front being covered with mauve [38, Col. 3c – 39, Col. 1a] violets. Lady Mary Mills, rose-pink satin, with front richly embroidered; Lady Cardross, white satin, trimmed round the bodice and train with silver embroidery; Lady William Nevill, pale yellow brocade, the front veiled with black net, trimmed up the side with jet leaves, and all round the skirt was a bordering of Maréchal Niel roses, over a flounce of black net; Countess Granville wore rich white brocade and beautiful jewels; the Countess of Sefton, black satin and diamonds; Viscountess Dungan, white mousseline de soie, the skirt edged with a deep flounce; Lady Brooke, pale blue satin, trimmed with silver; Lady Emma Crichton, white satin train, with front of white lisse, prettily embroidered in red; Lady Idina Brassey, pale mauve bengaline, with front of chiffon and a handsome diamon coronet; Lady Rose Molyneux, white cross crêpe de Chine, with a pale green sash, and prettily trimmed with pink roses; Lady Wimborne, pale grey satin; the Hon. Miss Guest, pink satin, veiled with white net, sparkling with silver; Lady Sarah Spencer Churchill, white satin, with a chiffon frill; Lady Chesham, white silk, with pink roses; the Countess of Normanton, pale grey satin, with front of fine old lace; Mrs Hulse, handsome white brocade, diamond tiara, &c.; Mrs Bischoffsheim, white silk, embroidered with silver, and trimmed round the bottom of the skirt and train with a ruche of pale yellow crèpe; the Hon. Muriel Brassey, white chiffon, over satin, slightly trimmed with pink; and the [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs Algernon Bourke]] was in pink, with magnificent diamonds.<ref>"Entertainments, Balls, &c." ''The Queen'' 2 August 1890, Saturday: 38, Col. 3c – 39 [of 82], Col. 1a–1c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0002627/18900802/237/0038 and https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002627/18900802/237/0039. Print: ''The Queen, The Lady's Newspaper'', pp. 170–171.</ref></blockquote>This is the story from the ''Morning Post'':<blockquote>The Prince and Princess of Wales and the Princesses Victoria and Maud honoured Lord Alington by their company at dinner last evening at Alington House, South Audley-street. The guests present to meet their Royal Highnesses comprised the Duke and Duchess of Leinster, the Marquis of Hartington, the Marquis and Marchioness of Ormonde, Maria Marchioness of Ailesbury, Earl and Countess Cadogan and Lady Emily Cadogan, the Earl and Countess of Lucan and Lady Rosaline Bingham, the Earl of Hardwicke, the Countess of Dudley and Lady Edith Ward, the Earl of Chesterfield, Earl Annesley, the Earl of Stradbroke and Lady Hilda Rous, Lord and Lady Gerard, Lady Norreys, Lord Rowton, Lord Calthorpe, Lord Frederick Hamilton, Lord Charles Montagu, Lord Herbert Vane Tempest, Lord Arthur Grosvenor, Lady Lilian Wemyss, Colonel the Hon. Oliver Montagu, Sir John and Lady Lister Kaye, the Hon. Humphrey and Lady Feodore Sturt, the Hon. John Baring, the Hon. Henry and the Hon. Julia Stonor, the Hon. Gilbert Willoughby, Lady Suffield and Major-General Ellis, in waiting on the Prince and Princess of Wales; Sir Henry Calcraft, Mr. and Lady Rose Leigh, General and Mrs. Owen Williams, Mr. Mildmay, M.P., Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Sassoon, Mr. Montague Guest, Captain Orr-Ewing, Mrs. Bulkeley, Mr. Ricardo, and Mr. Caryl Craven. Lord Alington afterwards gave a dance expressly to meet the Prince and Princess of Wales. Among the company were— The Russian Ambassador, the Danish Minister, Prince Louis Esterhazy, Comte Costa de Beaunyardt, the Duchess of Buccleuch and Lady Evelyn Fitzmaurice, the Duchess of Westminster, the Dowager Duchess of Marlborough and Lady Sarah Spencer Churchill, the Duchess of Wellington and Lady Cardross, the Marquis and Marchioness of Granby and Miss Bourke, the Marchioness of Stafford and Lady Sybil St. Clair Erskine, the Marchioness of Bath and Lady Beatrice Thynne, the Marquis of Cholmondeley, the Marquese and Marquesa de Santurce and Lady Wilham Nevill, Countess Spencer, Countess Granville and Lady Victoria Leveson-Gower, Countess de Grey, the Earl of Dunraven, the Countess of Lathom and Lady Edith Wilbraham, the Countess of Enniskillen and Lady Christian Cole, the Earl of Ilchester, the Earl of Durham and Lady Anne Lambton, the Earl of Dalkeith and Lord Ernest Scott, the Countess of Sefton and Lady Rose Molyneux, Countess Howe and the Ladies Curzon, the Countess of Normanton and Lady Mary Agar and Miss Mary Liddell, Earl Craven, Viscount Clifden, Viscount Ennismore and Lady Beatrice Hare, Viscount Coke and the Hon. Violet White, Viscount and Viscountess Castlerosse and the Hon. Susan Baring, Viscountess Newport and the Hon. Miss Bruce, Viscount and Viscountess Melgund, Viscount and Viscountess Curzon, Viscount and Lady Violet Dangan and Lady Eva Wellesley, Viscount Dungarvan, Viscount Chelsea, Viscount Royston, Lady Hastings, Lord Capell, Lord and Lady Willoughby de Eresby and Hon. Margaret Willoughby, Lady Cloncurry and Hon. Miss Winn, Lord and Lady Brooke, Lady Wimborne and Hon. Miss Guest, Lord Sandhurst, Lord and Lady Edmund Talbot, Lord and Lady Alwyne Compton and Miss Gurney, Lord and Lady Chesham, Lady Rossmore and Miss Naylor, Lord Kenyon, Lord Garioch, Lady Alice Portal, Lady Margaret Levett and the Ladies Ashley, Lady W. Nevill, Lord Paulet, Lady Charles Beresford, Lady Forbes and Misses Forbes, Lady Claud Hamilton, Lord Carlow, Lady Mary Mills, Lord Lurgan, Lord Henry Vane Tempest, Lord and Lady Algernon Gordon Lennox, Lord Richard Nevill, the Hon. W. Coventry, the Hon. G. Joliffe, the Hon. Schomberg M'Donnell, the Hon. H. Coventry, Captain the Hon. E. Dawson, the Hon. Alistair and Mrs. Hay, the Hon. Mrs. Grosvenor, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|the Hon. Algernon and Mrs. Bourke]], the Hon. F. Dawnay, the Hon. E. J. Mills, the Hon. A. Johnstone, the Hon. Claude Hay, the Hon. Sidney Greville, the Hon. Mr. Dundas and Lady Hilda Dundas, the Hon. Thomas and Lady Idina Brassey and the Hon. Muriel Brassey, the Hon. Mr. Mansfield, Colonel the Hon. Henry Byng and Miss Byng, the Hon. Mrs. Oliphant, the Hon. Mr. Harbord, the Right Hon. Henry Chaplin, M.P., the Hon. G. Somerset, Sir William Gordon Cumming, Sir George Arthur, Sir Hubert Miller, Sir Charles Forbes, Sir William and Lady Eden, Sir George Chetwynd, Sir Frederick Johnstone, Sir John D. Poynder, Colonel and Lady Emma Crichton, the Hon. Miss Harbord, Captain and Lady Jane Combe, Colonel Paget, Captain Williams, Captain Ford, Captain Doyle, Captain Hanbury, Captain Campbell, Captain Constable, Captain Kinloch, Captain Longfield, M. Gutmansthal, Mrs. Bingham, Mr. Guthrie, Mrs. Arthur Paget, Mrs. Charles Wilson and Miss Wilson, Mr. Hulse, M.P., and Mrs. Hulse, Mr. de Murrieta, Mrs. Bischoffsheim, Mr. Spencer Portal, Mr. and Mrs. Gerald Paget, Mr. Leigh and Miss Leigh, Mr. Percy Daniell, Mr. Lister, Mr. Frederick Vincent, Mr. Cazalet, Mr. Alfred de Rothschild, Mr. John Savile Lumley, Mr. and Mrs Leopold de Rothschild, Mr. and Mrs. Skeffington Smith and Miss Taylor, Mrs. George Cavendish Bentinck, Mr. Alfred Farquhar, [[Social Victorians/People/Fanny Ronalds|Mr. Reginald Ronalds]], Miss Alice Ellice, Mr. George Marjoribanks, Mr. Wyndham, Mr. Dugdale, Mr. Montagu, Mrs. Sneyd, Mr. Wynn, Mr. Edward Hamilton, Mr. Murray Guthrie, Mr. George Lambert, Mrs. Sanford, Miss Mabel Forbes. Mr. Herbert Magniac, Mr. Bailey, Mr. Milner, Mr. Charles Kindersley, Mr. Beaumont, Mr. Walter Hervey, Mr. H. Hoare, Mr. Foley, Mr. Scott Murray, Mr. Coventry, Mr. Bertie, Mr. Jarvis, Mr. Guthrie, Mr. George Cavendish Bentinck, Mr. E. Charteris, Mr. Cholmondeley, Mr. Oswald Magniac, Mr. Cecil Campbell, Mr. and Mrs. Henry Oppenheim, Mr. Peploe, Mr. A. Charteris, Mr. Seymour Gore, Mr. Robert Antrobus, Mr. Elliot, M. de Champs, Mr. Wombwell, Mr. Charles Hoare, M.P., and many others.<ref>"Lord Alington's Ball." ''Morning Post'' 25 July 1890, Friday: 3 [of 8], Col. 5 b–c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900725/014/0003. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> ==August 1890== ===6 August 1890, Friday=== ==== Beautiful Women ==== The ''Lancaster Observer and Morecambe Chronicle'' reprinted a story from ''Vanity Fair'' about "Beautiful Women":<blockquote>Beautiful Women. — ''Vanity Fair'' asks what country in the world can show a more beautiful bevy of women than England? When Lady Helen Vincent, with her sister, Lady Cynthia Graham; when Lady Warwick with her sisters, the Duchess of Sutherland and Lady Westmorland; and when Lady Mar and Kellie, Lady de Trafford, Princess Pless, Lady de Gray[,] Lady Naylor-Leyland, the Duchess of Portland, Lady Alington, Lady Sophie Scott, Lady Chelsea, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Lady Algernon Bourke]], Lady Henry Bentinck, Mrs. Willie Grenfell, Mrs. Rupert Beckett, Mrs. Arthur Paget, and Countess Clary are gathered together it is a sight to make an old man young; while Mrs. Gerard Leigh and her sister, Lady Yarborough, and Lady Powis, Lady Norreys, Mrs Farquharson, Mrs. Willie James, Lady Dalkeith, Mrs. Pretyman, Mrs. Gervase Beckett, Lady Rossmore, Lady Sarah Wilson, Lady Colebrook, Lady Hartopp, Mrs. Willie Walker, and Lady Milton are almost equally admired. The many pretty girls include Miss Enid and Miss Muriel Wilson, who still head the list of the unmarried beauties, Lady Beatrice Butler, Lady Alexandra Hamilton, Miss Kennard, Miss Madeline Bourke, and Miss Leila Crichton; while among the debutantes Lady Evelyn Crichton and Lady Vivian's daughters have had a great success, and Lady Alice Montagu, petite and charmingly pretty, has been so much admired. The daughters of Lady Gosford, Lady Verulam, Lady Leitrim, Lady Inchiquin, and Lady Grey have also been admired, as well as Lady Helen Stewart, Lady Katherine Scott, and Miss Chaplin.<ref>"Beautiful Women." ''Lancaster Observer and Morecambe Chronicle'' 6 August 1897, Friday: 2 [of 8], Col. 5b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001804/18970806/023/0002. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> ===25 August 1890, Monday=== Summer Bank Holiday ==September 1890== ==October 1890== ===22 October 1890, Wednesday=== Arnold Dolmetsch went to the Reading Room (Campbell 22). ===25 October 1890, Saturday=== [[Social Victorians/Loder De Vere Beauclerk Wedding|Loder—De Vere Beauclerk Wedding]] ===31 October 1890, Friday=== Halloween. ==November 1890== ===5 November 1890, Wednesday=== Guy Fawkes Day ===19 November 1890, Wednesday=== Arnold Dolmetsch, with some of his students and his daughter Helene, provided musical illustrations for a lecture given by Dr. Frederick Bridge on "Mozart as Teacher," probably at Gresham College, where Bridges was professor (Campbell 34). ===21 November 1890, Friday=== Dr. Frederick Bridge's last fall 1890 lecture at Gresham College, for which Dolmetsch provided illustration. Campbell says, "it is, in fact, the first record in modern times of music by Byrd, Dr. Bull, Jenkins, Simpson, Lawes, Locke and Purcell being played 'on the instruments for which it was written'" (Campbell 34). ===25 November 1890, Tuesday=== Arnold Dolmetsch got a three-month pass to the Reading Room and "thereafter held yearly tickets until 1916" (Campbell 22). ==== 1890 November 29, Saturday ==== ===== [[Social Victorians/Dudley-Beckwith Wedding 1890-11-29|Wedding of Francis Dudley, Lord Leigh and Héléne Forbes Beckwith]] ===== ==December 1890== Sometimes in December 1890, [[Social Victorians/People/William Robert Woodman|William Woodman]], one of the founding members of the [[Social Victorians/Golden Dawn|Golden Dawn]], died (Gilbert 86 12). === 4 December 1890, Thursday === ==== [[Mure-Portal Wedding 1890-12-04|Wedding of Miss Mure and Mr. S. J. Portal]] ==== ===19 December 1890, Friday=== "The eleventh annual ''Truth'' Toy Exhibition for the children in London hospitals, workhouses, and infirmaries was held at the Grosvenor Gallery, Bond-street, on Dec. 19 and 20. There are over 22,000 children in these institutions, and each of them has a separate toy, besides the large and more expensive toys which are presented for the general use of the inmates. A special feature of the show was the dolls dressed by lady readers of ''Truth''. Several special donations in connection with the fund have been made, the principal of which is that of 10,200 new sixpences sent for distribution by the same liberal donor who has given a similar present on former occasions; while Mr. Tom Smith has had specially made, and has forwarded for distribution, over 22,000 crackers; and Mr. Horniman (as stated in our last issue) has given to the adults in hospitals and workhouses 1200 packets of tea, to be given to them as Christmas boxes." (Illustrated London News (London, England), Saturday, December 27, 1890; pg. 806; Issue 2697, Col. B) ===20 December 1890, Saturday=== "In order that the adults connected with the hospitals and workhouses may participate in the good things given to the children in the ''Truth'' toy distribution, Mr. F. J. Horniman, of Wormwood-street, City, has sent Mr. Labouchere 1200 packets of tea to be given to them as a Christmas box." (Illustrated London News (London, England), Saturday, December 20, 1890; pg. 774; Issue 2696, Col. B) From the ''Times'', 22 December 1890, "The Late Sir Edgar Boehm": <blockquote>On Saturday, in accordance with the special request of the Queen, the late Sir Edgar Boehm, R.A., was buried in St. Paul’s Cathedral, in the south aisle of the crypt, the spot being known as “The Painters Corner.” [new paragraph] The funeral cortége left the residence of the deceased at about 11 o’clock, there being five mourning and several private carriages. In the first carriage were the chief mourners, Sir Edgar Collins Boehm, the only son of the late baronet, and Mr. Conrad Herapath. The second and third carriages were occupied by Sir Frederic Leighton, P.R.A., Sir Nigel Kingscote, Mr. Richard Mills, Colonel Francis Baring, Mr. Alma-Tadema, R.A., Sir R. H. Collins, Mr. Edward J. Poynter, R.A., and Mr. Duncan MacGregor, all of whom subsequently, at the cathedral, acted as pall bearers. The fourth carriage contained representatives of the Council of the Royal Academy – Mr. Edwin Long, R.A., Mr. J. B. Burgess, R.A., Mr. F. Goodall, R.A., and Mr. Beavis. In the fifth carriage were the following members of the professional staff of the deceased – Mr. R. Glassby, Mr. E. Lantéri, Signor Finili, and Herr Gross. The cortége stopped for a few moments at the Royal Academy, in order that it might be joined by two carriages containing other representatives of the institution. Leaving Piccadilly, the route taken was Waterloo-place, Pall-mall, Cockspur-street, the Strand, Fleet-street, and Ludgate-hill, the cathedral being reached about noon. The procession was met at the great west door by Canon Gregory, the Archdeacon of London, the Rev. Dr. Baker, Minor Canons Milman, Russell, and Kelly, and the choir, who had a few minutes previously left the vestry; by Major Bigge, Equerry to the Queen, representing her Majesty; Colonel Stanley Clarke, who attended on behalf of the Prince and Princess of Wales; and Colonel W. J. Colville, representing the Duke of Edinburgh. The [[Social Victorians/People/Princess Louise|Princess Louise]] (Marchioness of Lorne) attired in deep mourning, and accompanied by [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Collins|Lieut.-Col. Arthur Collins]] and Lady Sophia Macnamara, arrived at the cathedral a few minutes before 12 o’clock, and was conducted to a seat in the south side of the nave, close to the late Sir Edgar Boehm’s two daughters, upon whom her Royal Highness had called earlier in the morning. As the procession came slowly up the nave towards the chancel, “I am the resurrection of life” and other sentences of the burial service were chanted to music by Dr. Croft. The coffin, which was completely hidden by splendid wreaths, was preceded by the choristers and the clergy. Then followed Sir E. C. Boehm, with Mr. Conrad Herapath and Mr. Alfred Gilbert, A.R.A., the officers and council of the Royal Academy, and members of the deceased’s studio. The coffin was deposited upon a bier, which had been placed under the dome in front of the opening into the crypt, through which the body was subsequently lowered. The mourners having been conducted to the seats which had been reserved for them, and the clergy and choir having proceeded to their places in the chancel, Psalms xxxix. and xc. Were sung to music by Purcell and Felton, followed by Spohr’s anthem, “Blest are the departed,” and the lesson 1 Cor. Xv. 20, which was read by Canon Gregory. Whilst the hymn “Days and moments quickly flying” was being sung the Archdeacon of London and Minor Canon Milman proceeded from the chancel and took up positions by the side of the coffin. The remainder of the service preceding and following the lowering of the body into the crypt was read by Minor Canon Milman, and the collect was impressively recited by Archdeacon Sinclair. The late Dr. Newman’s beautiful hymn, “Lead kindly light,” was afterwards sung by the choir, and the service was brought to a close by Beethoven’s Funeral March, which was played in compliance with the special request of her Majesty, at whose desire also Chopin’s Funeral March had preceded the service. Dr. Martin was the organist. While Beethoven’s march was being played the son and daughters of the late “Sculptor in ordinary to her Majesty,” together with other mourners, descended the crypt by the door near Howard’s monument, and saw the coffin for the last time. It bore the following inscription:- “Joseph Edgar Boehm. Born July 6, 1834; died at his work December 12, 1890. Thy will be done.” The coffin had already been deposited in the brick grave prepared for it, which is next to that of Sir Edwin Landseer. Immediately around it lie the remains of painters and sculptors of bygone days – Sir Joshua Reynolds, James Barry, Benjamin West, Henry Fuseli, Sir Thomas Lawrence, J. M. W. Turner, and John Henry Foley, while within half-a-dozen yards is the tomb of the great architect of the cathedral, Sir Christopher Wren. The coffin as last seen was covered by the floral tributes of loving friends, the symbolic laurel wreath forwarded by her Majesty surmounting them. This bore the inscription, “A tribute of gratitude for many beautiful memorial works executed for her. From Victoria, R. I.” Attached to the beautiful wreath sent by the Prince and Princess of Wales were the words, “A token of sincere regard and friendship.” Wreaths were forwarded by other members of the Royal Family, by Sir John and Lady Millais, Lord and Lady Reay, the Countess Sydney, Lord and Lady de Vesci, Mr. Henry Irving, Mr. and Mrs. Bancroft, by members of the council, students and officers of the Royal Academy, the Society of Artistic Sculptors (Vienna), and by the London Hungarian Association." (http://glassby.com/Chapter1.htm) </blockquote> ===24 December 1890, Wednesday=== "The people of South London and adjacent suburbs have to be grateful to Mr. Frederick Horniman, a well-known City merchant residing at Dulwich, for a munificent and beneficial Christmas gift. This gentleman has, during thirty years, formed a collection, worth above £100,000, of specimens of art, European, Indian, Chinese, and Japanese, also of decorative manufactures, and of ethnology and natural history, and rare books and manuscripts, at Surrey House, Forest Hill, which he intends to present to the public. The museum was opened by Sir Morell Mackenzie on Wednesday afternoon, Dec. 24. It already comprises twenty-four rooms, containing many beautiful specimens of horse and chain armour, Elizabethan bed-room furniture, an old English parlour and pantry, an Oriental armoury, a bible and manuscript room, an Egyptian gallery, and ethnographical saloon, a book and embroidery saloon, a porcelain and glass room, and a zoological saloon, with two live Russian bears and a monkey. We may describe the museum further, after another visit. Our Artist has sketched, in the ethnograhical saloon, an idol's shrine, made of cocoanut-fibre, from Fiji. Mr. Horniman, in acknowledging a vote of thanks, said that in an adjoining house he had accumulated a vast library of bibles and entomological works and specimens. It was his intention to build a hall at the back of the present building to contain a thousand persons, while the galleries would contain a library, and a stage would be provided, so that both eye and ear could be amused. He also contemplated buying sufficient land to enable a public body to erect class-rooms and gymnasia. Three cheers were given for Mr. Horniman, and the company proceeded to inspect the museum." "(Mr. F. Horniman's Museum, Forest Hill." Illustrated London News (London, England), Saturday, January 03, 1891; pg. 7; Issue 2698, Col. C) ===25 December 1890, Thursday=== Christmas Day ===26 December 1890, Friday=== Boxing Day ==Works Cited== *"Besant Chronology.pdf." From Anderson, Nancy Fix, Walter L Arnstein, Deborah Logan, and Susie L Steinbach, Volume Editors. Lives of Victorian Political Figures, Part III: Queen Victoria, Florence Nightingale, Annie Besant and Millicent Garrett Fawcett by their Contemporaries. Volume 3 of Lives of Victorian Political Figures. Series Editors, Nancy LoPatin-Lummis and Michael Partridge. London: Pickering and Chatto, 2008. *Crawford, Elizabeth. The Women’s Suffrage Movement: A Reference Guide, 1866–1928. Google Books. Accessed 14 October 2010. elltto6w5pitxc12u76xd5ek9ti2c2e 2841817 2841745 2026-10-21T07:40:02Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 2841817 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1840s|1840s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1850s |1850s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1860s | 1860s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1870s | 1870s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1880s | 1880s Headlines]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890s | 1890s Headlines]] 1890 [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1891 | 1891]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1892 | 1892]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1893 | 1893]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1894 | 1894]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1895 | 1895]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1896 | 1896]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1897 | 1897]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1898 | 1898]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1899 | 1899]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1900s|1900s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1910s|1910s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1920s-30s|1920s-30s]] ==January 1890== Sometime in January 1890, [[Social Victorians/People/Horniman|Annie Horniman]] was initiated into the Golden Dawn (Gilbert 86 144). Sometime in 1890 Annie Besant and [[Social Victorians/People/Helena Blavatsky|Helena Blavatsky]] founded the Working Women's Club in the East End (Besant Chronology.pdf). Maye Dilke was a member (Crawford 170). [[Social Victorians/People/Frank Harris|Frank Harris]] says,<blockquote>One day in 1890 I had George Meredith, Walter Pater and [[Social Victorians/People/Oscar Wilde|Oscar Wilde]] dining with me in Park Lane and the time of sex-awakening was discussed. Both Pater and Wilde spoke of it as a sign of puberty. Pater thought it began about thirteen or fourteen and Wilde to my amazement set it as late as sixteen. Meredith alone was inclined to put it earlier.<ref>Harris, Frank. ''My Life and Loves''.</ref></blockquote> ===1 January 1890, Wednesday, New Year's Day=== <blockquote>Sharp frost was experienced over the East of England yesterday morning, and in South London the thermometer had been as low as 27deg., and 28deg. in Hyde-park. It rose during the day to 41deg., but in the evening frost again set in. Later the thermometer rose again to 32deg., and there was an appearance as of coming rain.<ref><cite>The Morning Post. 1 January 1890 (No. 36,675): P. 4, Col. F.</cite></ref></blockquote>Influenza was spreading all over Europe. A true pandemic carried by international commerce and travel, it was called the Russian flu. {{paragraph break}} According to the "Court Circular: Orders for Court Mourning" in the Morning Post,<blockquote>A second supplement to the Gazette, issued last night, contains the following: — "Lord Chamberlain's Office, January 1. "Orders for the Court's going into mourning on Thursday next, the 2d instant, for her late Majesty the Empress of Brazil, viz." — "The ladies to wear black dresses, white gloves, black or white shoes, feathers, and fans, pearls, diamonds, or plain gold or silver ornaments. The gentlemen to wear black Court dress, with black swords and buckles. "The Court to change the mourning on Thursday, the 16th instant, viz.: — [new paragraph] The ladies to wear black dresses, with coloured ribbons, flowers, feathers, and ornaments, or grey or white dresses, with black ribbons, flowers, feathers, and ornaments. The gentlemen to continue the same mourning. "And on Thursday, the 23d instant, the Court to go out of mourning."<ref><cite>"Court Circular: Orders for Court Mourning." The Morning Post, 2 January 1890 (No. 36,676): page 5 Col. G.</cite></ref></blockquote>Also on 1 January, Wednesday, the Marchioness of Londonderry hosted an at-home:<blockquote>"Entertainment at Wynard Park." Seaham Weekly News 3 January 1890, Friday: 8 [of The Marchioness of Londonderry gave an "At Home" at Wynyard Park on Wednesday evening (New Year's day), at which there was present a large and fashionable company, including the following:— The house party at Wynyard Park comprises the following:— The Marquis and Marchioness of Londonderry, the Dowager Marchioness of Londonderry, Mr Wentworth Beaumont and Lady Alexandrlna Beaumont, the Viscountess Mandeville, Lady Ormonde, Viscount Castlereagh, Lady Helen Stewart, and Lord Reginald Stewart, Lord Henry Vane-Tempest, Lord Herbert Vane-Tempest, Sir William and Lady Eder [?], the Hon. Rowland Winn and the Hon. Miss Winn, the Hon. Mr F. Thelusson and the Hon. Miss Thelusson, the Hon. Violet White, Miss Wombwell, and Miss C. Wombwell, Mr and Mrs W. Jameson, Captain the Hon. C. Lambton, Mr R. Yeoman, Mr Adolphus Vane-Tempest, Mr and Mrs Richard Ord, Captain Orr-Ewing, A.D.C., 18th Lancers, Miss Sturmfells, and Mr N. W. Apperley. Invitations were issued to between seven hundred and eight hundred ladies and gentlemen, and most of them were accepted. The guests comprised the Mayors and Corporations of Stockton, Hartlepool, and West Hartlepool, the chairman and members of the South Stockton Local Board, together with their wives and daughters, the local clergy, and a large number of private residents of Stockton and the district and Seaham Harbour and its neighbourhood. The entertainment  consisted of private theatricals, Blanchard  Jerrold’s farce ** Cool as a Cucumber’” and Charles  Mathew's comedy * The Dowager” being played, The  charaoters were sustained by the Marquis of Londonderry.  Lady Alexandriva Besumont,Lady Helen Stewart.  Lord Herbert Vane-Tempest, Mr and Mrs R. Ord, and  Mr Adolpbus Vane-Tempest. Among those who received  invitations were the following from this neighbourhood  :— Lieat.-Colonel and Mrs Eminson and Miss  Meerwarth, Seabam Harbour; Mr and Mre Corbett,  Miss Corbett, and Miss Swann, Chilton Moor ; Mr and  Mrs Ditchfield, Seaham Harbour ; Mr and Mrs Clazey  and Miss Clazey, Sunderland ; Mr and Mrs Warham  and Miss Warbam, Mr and Mrs Young and Miss Young,  Mr and Miss Forster, Mr and Mrs Brydon and Miss  Brydon, Mr and Mrs Hardy and Miss Hardy, Seaham  Harbour ; Mr and Mrs Barrett, Seaham Colliery ; Mr  and Mrs Panton, Silksworth Colliery ; Mr and Mrs  Laverick, Rainton Colliery ; Revd James Colling, The  Viearage, Seaham Harbour; Revd Canon Scott, Mrs,  and Miss Scott, The Vicarage, New Seaham ; Revd  A. Bethupe, The Vicarage, Seabam; Revd J. Wallis,  Revd T. Cotloy. Mr H. B, Wright, Captain and Mrs  Dawson, Seabam Harbour ; the Revd J. J. Brown and  Mrs Brown, The Vicarage, Silksworth ; Miss Maon, Dr  and Mrs Beatty, Mr and Mrs R. Thorman and Miss  Thorman, Mr and Mrs J. J. Candlish, Dr and Mrs  Gibbon and Miss Gibbon, Dr and Mrs French and Miss  French, Seabam Harbour; Dr and Mrs Broadbent,  '''Dalton'''-le-Dale ; Mrand Mrs Gregson and Miss Gregson,  Warden Law, Houghton-le-Spring. </blockquote> === 5 January 1890, Sunday === ==== "A Very Bad Lot" ==== Reynolds's Newspaper published an article critical of the aristocracy, "the privileged classes":<blockquote>The English aristocracy is cutting a contemptible figure in the world. Scarcely a day passes that some one or other of its members does not appear in a disreputable light. They are presumed to serve as models, by reason of breeding, education, and the many social advantages they enjoy, to their fellow-men. But what do we find them? Let any brutal exhibition take place, like the recent prize-fight in Belgium, and amongst the supporters and spectators of blackguardism and blackguards are certain well known, and by no means respected, members of the privileged classes. There was, as reported at the Bruges brutal orgie, amongst other noble "patrons of the prize ring," [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lord Mandeville]], heir to the dukedom of Manchester, whose affray with a cab-man; about a bill his lordship refused to settle recently came before a police court. There was Lord Royston, heir to the earldom of Hardwicke, and several other sprigs of the nobility, all of whom, in course of time, will become hereditary legislators, notwithstanding their blackguard and immoral predilections. A den of unmitigated infamy and bestiality was recently discovered in the midst of London, where practices such as those which brought down upon Sodom and other cities of the plain the wrath of heaven were of daily occurrence. The principal patrons of this abominable resort were members of the aristocracy. "Society" will decline to recognise the enormity of these offences, or the guilt of the offenders, because the latter belong to the "privileged" classes. It saw and purposely refused to even rebuke the Duke of Marlborough belabouring his wife when in the family way for remonstrating with [4c–5a] him on the adulterous intimacy then existing between himself and the Countess of Aylesford. He was a duke, and his ruffianism was excusable! The Divorce Court is incessantly bringing to light the brutal and dastardly behaviour of impecunious aristocrats to the wives they have married solely for the money they possess. All this sort of thing passes for the most part unheeded, save and except now and then, but very rarely, a few platitudes fall from the mouth of some parson from the pulpit, uttered in a  parrot-like manner, as though he feared of offending the rich and privileged members of his congregation. Did he speak out plainly and boldly in condemnation of the terrible vices that prevail amongst what is termed "society," further preferment would be withheld, and most assuredly he would never figure as a Court preacher. Canon Liddon, however, the most eminent orator of the Church of England, and perhaps its most outspoken dignitary, is not so mealy-mouthed. In St. Paul's Cathedral he gave the following trenchant and truthful description of what is to be witnessed in the drawing-rooms of the West-end of London at the commencement of the season:— "Eager mothers, like generals setting out on a campaign, prepared to undergo any amount of fatigue if only they could marry their daughters, not necessarily to a high-souled man, but in any case to a man of fortune. They could also see a group of young men after perhaps a career of dissipation thinking that the time had arrived for settling respectably in life and looking out, not for a girl whose graces and character would  make her husband and children happy, but for somebody with a sufficient dowry to enable them to keep up a large establishment." Girls are sold to the highest bidder. They sit in the drawing-rooms of fashionable London just as the slaves do in Africa, awaiting the most eligible purchaser, or stand about like servant girls waiting to be hired at a statute fair. In very many instances they loathe and detest the man who purchases them, and love another, who, by reason of his scanty means, finds no favour in the eyes of their parents. No wonder, under such conditions, the Divorce Court teems with what are termed "aristocratic scandals." By thus preaching the truth, and denouncing the meannesses and wickednesses of the privileged orders in plain but powerful language, as John Knox did to Mary Queen of Scots, Canon Liddon is no favourite at Court. Albeit the most eloquent preacher of the State Church, he is said to be out of favour in that quarter, and has never been invited to appear in any church where royalty is likely to be found.<ref>"A Very Bad Lot." ''Reynolds's Newspaper'' 5 January 1890, Sunday: 4 [of 8], Col 4c–5a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive''https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000101%2F18900105&page=4&article=032&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> === 6 January 1890, Monday === Empress Augusta of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach died on 7 January, and her funeral was on 11 January 1890. (She had been Queen of Prussia and the first German Empress. Her mother had been a Romanov, and she had been married to William I, German Emperor; their eldest son, Frederick William, married Vicky, Princess Royal, Queen Victoria's first-born child. She had politics similar to those of her daughter-in-law, but not of her grandson, Kaiser Wilhelm II or Bismarck.) Bertie did not attend her funeral:<blockquote>The decision of the Prince of Wales not to go to Berlin for the funeral of the Empress Augusta has caused much surprise, to say the least of it; but H.R.H. preferred to conclude his visit to Baron Hirsch at Merton, where there was a prodigious slaughter of partridges during the four days' ''chasse''. {{paragraph break}} The guests invited to Merton to meet the Prince were the Duc de Chartres, the Duchess of Manchester, Lord Hartington, Lord and Lady de Grey, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], Mr. Henry Chaplin, and Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Sassoon.<ref>"What the World Says." ''The World'' 15 January 1890, Wednesday: 14 [of 40], Col. 2b [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0006339%2F18900115&page=14. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote>The local paper, the Thetford and Watton Times and People's Weekly Journal, has a full account:<blockquote>Royal Visit. — On Monday H.R.H. the Prince of Wales arrived here by special train on a visit to the Baron de Hirsch, who is residing at Merton Hall. The train was in charge of Mr. Kimm, the District Superintendent. The Prince was accompanied by the Marquis of Hartington, and attended by Colonel Teesdale. Long before the arrival of the train a large number of the townspeople and many from neighbouring villages gathered in the station yard, the platform being kept clear by a staff of police, who were under the direction of Inspector Knights. Crimson cloth was laid from the platform through the station to Lord Walsingham’s carriage, which was in waiting to convey the visitors to the Hall. His Royal Highness was met on the platform by the Baron. The crowd cheered most heartily as the Prince left the station yard. The company invited to meet His Royal Highness and staying at the Hall are the Duchess of Manchester, Lord Hartington, Colonel Teesdale, Mr. Mackenzie, Colonel Ellis, Lord and Lady Brook, Earl and Countess de Grey, Duc de Chartres, Mr. and Mrs. Sassoon, Viscountess Mandeville and Miss Giese. The Right Hon. Henry Chaplin was prevented by illness from being present. On Tuesday the party went partridge shooting at Stanford, where game was abundant. Lord Hartington was taken ill from the effects of a cold soon after his arrival at Merton. On Wednesday and Thursday the party had "mixed shooting," and to-day (Friday) they shoot through the Home Coverts.<ref>"Watton." ''Thetford & Watton Times'' 11 January 1890, Saturday: 5 [of 8], Col. 1a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive''https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001533%2F18900111&page=5&article=091&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Thetford and Watton Times and People's Weekly Journal'', p. 5.</ref></blockquote>''Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper'' says,<blockquote>The Prince of Wales, attended by General Teesdale, C.B., left Sandringham on Monday afternoon [Monday, 6 January] for Merton. ... The Princess of Wales, with Princesses Victoria and Maud, remains at Sandringham. The Prince of Wales is the guest of the Baron de Hirsch at Merton, the ancient seat of the De Grey's in Norfolk. Among the other guests at Merton are the Marquis of Hartington, who travelled by special train with the Prince from Wolferton, via King's Lynn and Swaffham, to Wotton, where the host met them and conducted them to Merton; the Duc de Chartres, the Duchess of Manchester, Viscountess Mandeville, and Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Sassoon.<ref>"The Queen and Royal Family." ''Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper'' 12 January 1890, Sunday: 12 [of 12], Col. 2a [of 5]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000079%2F18900112&page=12&article=046&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Lloyd's Weekly London Newspaper'', p. 12.</ref></blockquote>The ''Thetford and Watton Times and People's Weekly Journal'' has a little more:<blockquote>The Prince of Wales, attended by General Teesdale, C.B., left Sandringham on Monday afternoon for Merton. ... The Princess of Wales, with Princesses Victoria and Maud remain at Sandringham. The Prince of Wales is the guest of the Baron de Hirsch at Merton. Among the other guests at Merton are the Marquis of Hartington, M.P., who travelled by special train with the Prince from Wolferton, ''vía'' King’s Lynn and Swaffham, to Watton, where the host met them and conducted them to Merton; the Duc de Chartres, the Duchess of Manchester, the Earl and Countess de Grey, Viscountess Mandeville, General Ellis, Sir James Mackenzie, and Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Sassoon. Mr. Chaplin was expected to have joined the party, but at present is unable to do so.<ref>''Thetford & Watton Times'' 11 January 1890, Saturday: 4 [of 8], Col. 7c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001533%2F18900111&page=4&article=090&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Thetford & Watton Times and People's Weekly Journal'', p. 4.</ref></blockquote>And the ''County Gentleman'' has a little more:<blockquote>The party assembled to meet the Prince of Wales at Merton Hall included Lord Hartington, who came on from Wolferton with the Prince. Baron Hirsch met them at Walton Station, and conducted them back to Merton. There was a nice little crowd of country people at the station, who cheered H.R.H. lustily. The Duc de Chartres, the Duchess of Manchester, Lord and Lady de Grey, Lady Mandeville, and Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Sassoon were of the party. Mr. Chaplin, laid up with influenza, was unable to accept the Baron's invitation. The shooting was excellent. I hear that the Baron will, after all, buy Houghton, and take up his abode there next year. ...  Death has been busy in Imperial circles this week. Scarcely had mourning been decreed for the ex-Empress of Brazil than we heard of the death of the venerable Empress Augusta of Germany at the advanced age of 80. She had been a great invalid for many years past, and influenza found her an easy victim. ... The Empress Frederick's visit to Italy has been abruptly terminated by the death of her mother-in-law, the Empress Augusta. ... Court mourning will considerably modify the programmes arranged for next week at Bournemouth, Poole, and Canford Manor. The Prince and Princess will, of course, be Lord and Lady Wimborne's guests, but the balls will have to be given up, much to the vexation of spirit of all concerned. Mourning is to be worn for four weeks, from Wednesday until February 5.<ref>"The Man about Town." ''Sporting Gazette'' 11 January 1890, Saturday: 6 [of 34], Col. 1b–c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0002525%2F18900111&page=6&article=039&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The County Gentleman'', p. 38.</ref></blockquote> ==== Amicable Gathering of Boxers and Sportsmen ==== Also on Monday, 6 January, 1890, some sports (are the men boxers or related to boxing?) aficionados gathered at Anderton's Hotel:<blockquote>An outward bounder weighs anchor from London to-day (Tuesday) in the person of Mr. Charles "Parson" Davies. It is superfluous to remark that, as the acting manager for "Peter the Great," the "Parson" has endeared himself to all classes of English sports by reason of his quiet, unassuming ways, and the impartial manner in which he has carried out all those engagements with which he has been associated. Now he held quite a "Matinée" at Anderton’s Hotel (so ably presided over by Mr. Arthur Clemow) yesterday, where he invited his friends to quaff a friendly glass with him. First and foremost to grasp his palm and bid him "God speed" was Frank Slavin. It was, indeed, gratifying to note the kindly feeling that existed all round. Not a single "jar" ensued to mar the harmony of the proceedings. Amongst those present were [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lord Mandeville]], Messrs. E. Bayley, Lewis (Slavin’s manager), Frank Symes, Tom Kirby, Charlie Rowell, Baldock, Davenport (the black), George W. Atkinson and S. Richardson (''Sporting Life''), Frank Tarbanx, &c. "Parson" Davies leaves Euston Station to-night (Tuesday) by the midnight train for Liverpool, and it goes without saying that his numerous friends are bound to muster in round numbers in order give him a good train off. Mr. Davies sails for New York in the "Britannic" on Wednesday morning.<ref>"A Friendly Glass with "Parson" Davies." ''Sporting Life'' 7 January 1890, Tuesday: 4 [of 4], Col. 3b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000893%2F18900107&page=4&article=031&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> === 1890 January 7, Tuesday === The hundreds of newspaper reports about several boxing matches around this time lack dates, so these aggregated descriptions are still under construction. Check December 1889 and February 1890, too. The Fracas at the Trocadero and one meeting at the Pelican Club occurred on the same day. The [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Smith-Slavin 1889-12-23|Smith-Slavin Fight]] was apparently on 23 December 1889. At least 2 [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Pelican Club Meeting Smith-Slavin match|meetings at the London Pelican Club]] followed, as well as the [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Fracas at the Trocadero|Fracas at the Trocadero]]. === 9 January 1890, Thursday === ==== The York Hunt Ball ==== This account is from the ''Irish Society'', which explains which women's costumes are the focus:<blockquote>The fashionable world and his wife are out of town just now, having good times at country houses. They shed the light of their brilliant presence on those annual functions known as county balls, and enjoy themselves also at those popular and picturesque entertainments to which they are bidden by the masters and members of the various hunts. One of the smartest dances of last week took place at York on Thursday evening. It was in fancy costume, and was in aid of funds for the York County Hospital. Once upon a time the journey from London to the Minster City of the North was a far cry, and one not lightly undertaken. Now it is luxurious and short. In consequence this hall presented the appearance of one in town in mid-season. There was conspicuous for height and handsomeness the familiar figure and face of Countess de Grey. Lady Helen Duncombe, too, who shares with her Grace of Leinster, and Lady Cynthia Graham, the family beauty of the House of Feversham, was seen in the marvellously becoming (to her) costume of the Empire period. Lady Lilian Wemyss, a lady "divinely tall,” and appropriately fair, was garbed in pink and white of a fashion hailing from the Empire. A "square;” in which the lady dancers were all gowned empirically, was the event of the evening. An event worth remembering it was. The costumes were superb, but their attractions were nowhere in comparison with the charms the [Col. 1c–2a] wearers. These were all tall and each one handsome. Lady de Trafford’s pretty face and fine figure showed to great advantage in her gown of white satin, veiled with gold-bordered ''chiffon'', and with an Empire trained cloak from her shoulders of Rose du Barri velvet lined with white satin, and bordered with gold galon. The colour of the velvet in what is seen in the half-yellow, half-scarlet petals of the soft textured nasturtium bloom. [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Mrs Algernon Bourke]] looked a picture in a Gainsborough gown. The white satin skirt was flounced with sable and veiled with ''chiffon'', the setuage of which was left to show without being hemmed up. There was a broad sash of rose-pink silk and each buttonhole was filled round with crimped lisse. One might go on for long enough describing costume after costume, and then leave them half out. Therefore, we shall, like the judge "sum up” and "charge” for a verdict of the utmost brilliancy.<ref>"Our London Letter." ''Irish Society'' (Dublin) 11 January 1890, Saturday: 17 [of 24], Col. 1b–2a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001939/18900111/042/0017. Same print title, p. 29.</ref></blockquote> === 1890 January 10, Friday === The [[Social Victorians/1890-01-10 Ulster Club Ball|ball at the Ulster Club, Belfast]]. === 1890 January 13, Monday === ==== Wallace-Camp Boxing Match ==== An Important Boxing Match between two 8-stone (112-pound, Bantam-weight) boxers. Lord Mandeville seems to have been an organizer. Nunc (Edwin) Wallace in June of 1890 fought American George Dixon, who defeated Wallace to become the first Black fighter to win a world prize in boxing.<blockquote>Nunc Wallace and G. Camp for £1,000. On Monday night, at the Ormonde Club, London, the above-named met to do battle for the largest sum of money that has ever been "put up" for a glove contest. That a couple of 8st [8 stone] men could be brought together in a glove contest for the sum of £1,000 would, even in the palmy days of the Prize Ring, have been scouted by the merest tyro in ring matters. Celebrities like Peter Morris, George Holden, Joe Nolan, and Dan Thomas never fought for more than £200, but here we have a stake of £500 a-side freely put down to see who is the better man of the  two. This money, when the match was made last autumn, would have been gladly increased by either side to double the amount, therefore "the fight of his life" is applicable to both George Camp and Edwin ("Nunc") Wallace. The match, made so far back as October last was really the outcome of the bout between Camp and Wallace in the second round of an 8st competition, decided at the Royal Aquarium in December, 1888. A very close struggle ensued, so close, indeed, that the judges ordered a fourth round of two minutes. Wallace eventually get- [Col. 2c–3a] ting the award. From the moment the decision was given Camp's friends were dissatisfied, and hence the contract which was signed for Monday night's battle. With thirteen weeks in which to get fit, neither man was in a hurry to commence work, and the match had been ratified neatly a month before  Wallace took up his quarters at Sutton Coldfield, with Ben Garrington to look after him. Camp journeyed to Brighton with his old trainer, George Bagnall, and it is needless to say neither man wanted for anything. Thinking a change desirable, Wallace a mouth ago also made a move to Brighton, where his interests were studied to the minutest detail by Mr. Sam Mordecai. Both men were waited on hand and foot. Mr. Sam Blandford, representing Camp's backer, took up residence in the famous watering-place, and hardly ever lost sight of the Bermondsey youth. On the other hand Wallace hardly ever drank out of a pot that Mr. Sam Mordecai did not examine, and in this way the men progressed satisfactorily in their training. Lords and Dukes begged for the "tip" as to where the meeting would be in vain, and letters from legal luminaries, magistrates and city magnates came in shoals to those entrusted with the management. The backers on each side were obdurate, and at the final deposit the names of the fortunate <nowiki>''</nowiki>thirty" agreed upon, were handed in. The men were articled to weigh at twelve o'clock on Monday, and so as not to attract attention it was decided this important part of the programme should be performed at Brighton. Accordingly the scales having been fixed in Camp's bedroom, the rivals, in the presence of Lord  Mandeville, Mr. E W Bayly, Mr. Derriman, Mr. Sam Blandfold, and Mr. Dunning, and their trainers, "tipped the beam[.]" Wallace was the first to "pass," weighing 8ths 8st 1 1/2lb stripped. Camp failing to reach this by half a pound, also clothed in Nature's garb. Both looked in splendid trim, though Camp's ruddy complexion was more taking to the eye than the pale appearance of "Nunc." Wallace was attired in black drawers with a gold stripe, red socks, and black rubber-soled shoes. Camp was all in white, with canvas shoes, and amidst almost oppressive silence they faced each other at 8.50 p.m. The Contest ... Round 15 and Iast. The doctoring of Harper and Habbijam brought Camp round before he had again to face the music, but he looked very bad indeed when the watch holder gave the word to start once more. It was only a question of a few minutes, for Wallace was as yet little the worse for the struggle so far, while on Camp's part there was everything to fear. The latter, however, without the slightest trace of the "white feather," sprang up and met Wallace full of confidence, the latter coming at his weak opponent with a straight left on the face. The "Brum forced" Camp back to the ropes, and then smashed the left on the mouth, and only just missed with the right. Still having the best of it he popped in the left again, and down Camp went Iike a log through the ropes. In quicker time than it takes to tell the Surrey boxer was up and at it once more, but with a manifest disadvantage. Receiving right and left on the head he again went down, and in falling strunk his head against the skirting board outside the ring. Wallace stood over him, but at respectable distance, like a Roman gladiator, and the smile which played round his features, was one of victory, for Camp this time was beaten. Failing to rise within the stipulated ten second[s], Mr Angle awarded the fight to Wallace, the round having lasted 2min 45sec. The award was received with exulting shouts by the friends of Wallace, and the clever little boxer was at once raised shoulder high and lifted from the ring. Poor Camp soon came to, but was terribly cut up over his defeat, and for a time refused to be comforted. Wallace, recognising the pluck and ability of his vanquished foe, shook hands in kindly fashion, and thus ended one of the best conducted of modern contests with the gloves. Time of contest, 58 min 45secs.<ref>"A Great Glove Fight." ''Dublin Sporting News'' 17 January 1890, Friday: 3 [of 4], Col. 2c–4x [of 4]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0004807%2F18900117&page=3&article=022&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref> </blockquote> ===16 January 1890, Thursday=== <blockquote>About two hundred members of the newly formed Dulwich Literary and Scientific Association attended the conversazione given on Jan. 16 at Surrey House Museum, Forest Hill, when Mr. Horniman, F.R.G.S., acted as cicerone round the rooms, richly stored with historical relics, ornithological curiosities, and art treasures.<ref>''Illustrated London News'' (London, England), Saturday, January 25, 1890; pg. 120; Issue 2649, Col. 3.</ref></blockquote> === 1890 January 21, Tuesday === The marriage of Baron S. Alfred Oppenheim and Miss Florence Hutchins:<blockquote>In the church of St. Mary Abbotts, Kensington, the marriage took place of Baron S. Alfred von Oppenberm and Miss Florence Hutchins, daughter of Mrs. Parkinson Sharp, of Palace-gate. The Hon. and Rev E. Carr Glyn and the Rev. Henry White, M.A., officiated. Among those who attended the reception afterwards held were Prince and Princess Malcom Khan, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Dowager Countess of Harrington, Admiral Sir Edward Inglefield, Sir Arthur Sullivan, Lady Cottenham, and General Du Plat.<ref>"London Day by Day." ''Daily Telegraph & Courier'' (London) 22 January 1890, Wednesday: 5 [of 8], Col. 3b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001112%2F18900122&page=5&article=080&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Daily Telegraph'', p. 5.</ref></blockquote>The ''Pall Mall Gazette'' has a description that is slightly more full. Is Count von Alten related to [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louisa, Duchess of Manchester]]?<blockquote>At St. Mary Abbots, Kensington, yesterday, the marriage took place of Baron S. Alfred Von Oppenheim, only son of Baron Edward Von Oppenheim, of Cologne and Schloss Schlenderham, and Miss Florence Hutchins, only daughter of Mrs. Parkinson Sharp, of 10, Palace-gate. The service was fully choral, the officiating clergy being the Hon. R. E. Carr-Glyn, rector of St. Mary Abbots, and the Rev. Henry White, M.A., chaplain in ordinary to the Queen. The bride, who was given away by her stepfather, Mr Parkinson Sharp, wore a plain dress of rich white ivory satin, elaborately draped with real orange blossoms. Count C. Von Leyden, Councillor of the German Embassy, attended the Baron as best man. Half a dozen bridesmaids followed the bride elegantly attired in costumes of white cashmere, with white corded silk sashes. They were Miss Aim e [sic] Winslow, Miss Emry Von Oppenheim, Miss Vitty Von Oppenbeim, Miss Potter, Miss Eleanor Heywood, and Miss Seymour. The reception was given at Mrs. Parkinson Sharp's town residence, 10, Palace-gate, Kensington, which was largely attended among those present being Prince and Princess Malcom Khan, Baron and Baroness E. von Oppenheim, Baron Max Oppenheim, Baron von Wedd Yarlsberg, Countess de Bunsen, Baron and Baroness de Plency, Count von Alten, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Dowager Countess of Harrington, Admiral Sir Edward Inglefield, Sir Arthur Sullivan, Lady Cottenham, General Du Plat, &c.<ref>"Marriage of Baron S. Alfred Von Oppenheim." ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 22 January 1890, Wednesday: 7 [of 8m], Col. 2c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000098%2F18900122&page=7&article=016&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> === 1890 January 28, Tuesday === According to the ''Dundee Evening Telegraph'' on 28 January 1890 people were buying "Exploration" shares, which funded exploration expeditions with the possibility of rights to minerals or resources or the development of monopolies for goods that were "discovered."<blockquote>Royalty and the peerage have gone in for "Exploration" shares. The Duchess of Albany is the possessor of fifty shares, which hardly seems to assume the dimensions of a royal investment. Certainly the general public would incline to the idea that a princess would never condescend to invest so small a sum as £25 in anything unless it were a hat or a jacket. The Duke of Fife, on the other hand, has been allotted a thousand shares. The Duchess of Manchester and the Countess of Mandeville have thirty each.<ref>"Notes — Mainly Personal." ''Dundee Evening Telegraph'' 28 January 1890, Tuesday: 2 [of 4], Col. 2b [of my 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000453%2F18900128&page=2&article=001&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Evening Telegraph'', n.p.</ref></blockquote> === 1890 January 29, Wednesday === [[Social Victorians/Santurce Murrieta Wedding 1890-01-29|Santurce Murrieta Wedding 1890-01-29]] === 1890 January 30, Thursday, through at least 1890 February 8, Saturday === Kim, Lord Mandeville was in Brighton — at 80, King's-road — at least as early as 30 January.<ref>"Brighton Visitors." ''Brighton Gazette'' 30 January 1890, Thursday: 3 [of 8], Col. 2a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000938%2F18900130&page=3&article=073&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Brighton Gazette and Sussex Telegraph'', p. 3.</ref> The ''Lady's Pictorial'' lists "recent arrivals" in Brighton:<blockquote>Though a good many people have left Brighton, still fresh visitors arrive, and the front is crowded when the weather is a little kind. Amongst the most recent arrivals may be mentioned the Countess of Strafford, Lady Susan Byng, Lady Chelmsford, Lord and Lady Seaton, Lady Jane Grimston, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lord Mandeville]], Lord Romilly and the Hon. John Romilly, Viscount and Viscountess Hampden, the Hon. R. Somerset, the Hon.  Thomas Dundas, the Hon. Sidney Greville, the Hon. A. W. Verney Cave, Lady Elizabeth Cartwright, Colonel Sir Alfred and Lady Kirby, Mr. Bazley White, M.P., and Lady Bazley White, Sir Hugh Montgomery, Sir Frederick and Lady Perkins, Lady Ellis, General Seymour, &c., &c.<ref>Dorothy. "Brighton Notes." ''Lady's Pictorial'' 8 February 1890, Saturday: 51 [of 60], Col. 3a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0005980%2F18900208&page=51&article=671&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, p. 203.</ref></blockquote> ==February 1890== === 1890 February 6, Thursday === Before 6 February but not long before. The prize-fighter Pete Jackson fought a match at the New Pelican Club.<blockquote>It is always well to hear that distinguished visitors have enjoyed the hospitality which we have extended to them. This satisfaction is afforded us in full measure by the eminent "Parson" Davis, manager of Pete Jackson, the prize-fighter, who has just been regaling an American interviewer with an account of his experiences in England:— He had been treated in splendid style, and Jackson was received well everywhere. Nothing would give him greater pleasure than to revisit England, and he hoped soon to do so. "I shook a paw with the Prince,” said the parson. "We had a high old time with Albert E. His Royal Highness was exceptionally friendly with Jackson, and actually made a pump handle of his arm. He shook hands with him again and again. The Prince is in capital  health, and" —— But at this point the interviewer mysteriously breaks off. The Prince, however, was not the only British notable to whom Parson Davis referred. He explained that the cause of the trouble with Smith at the New Pelican Club was that the gloves furnished Jackson were too small in the fingers, and when he closed his hand he almost split them, and could not fight. The matter was explained to the officers of the Club, where the fight took place, and other gloves were procured for Jackson:— Fair play was given, and the audience, which included [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lords Mandeville]] and Lonsdale, were loud in their admiration of Jackson's skill.<ref>"The Tittle Tattle of the Week." ''Pall Mall Budget'' 6 February 1890, Thursday: 4 [of 36], Col. 1b [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0005967%2F18900206&page=4. Same print title, p. 162.</ref></blockquote> ==== The Fracas at the Trocadero ==== This report from the ''Eddowes's Shrewsbury Journal'', 12 January 1890, has paragraphs with gossip; the middle paragraph is not about Lord Mandeville, and the paragraph that follows these is about an epidemic in London; could it be the Russian flu?<blockquote>A great stir has been caused in London by the repert [sic] — only too well authenticated I regret to say — to the effect that a certain individual, who for some years past has been connected somewhat prominently alike with journalism and theatrical enterprise, has suddenly levanted [sic] in consequence of his name being associated with the recent West End scandals. What makes the matter all the more talked about is the fact that the person most concerned has for a long time posed as a conspicuous figure in Society, having given numerous receptions and himself being strongly to the fore at most of the big banquets, first nights and similar gatherings. He has hob-nobbed, in fact, with the wealthy and illustrious, but there is every reason to believe that his pleasant career has been prematurely cut short by a series of disclosures, which are too gross and too scandalous to be referred to in detail. The report is all the talk at the clubs.<ref>"Notes of the Week." ''Eddowes's Shrewsbury Journal'' 15 January 1890, Wednesday: 3 [of 12], Col. 2b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001504%2F18900115&page=3. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> === 12 February 1890, Wednesday === ==== Lady Constance Leslie's Reception ==== <blockquote>On Wednesday last Lady Constance Leslie had an evening party at her residence in Stratford-place. {{paragraph break}} The numerous guests included Prince Ernest of Hohenlohe, Princess Victor of Hohenlohe, and the Countesses Gleichen, the Austro-Hungarian Ambassador, Count Mensdorf, Count and Countess Henry Lützow, Mr. and Mrs. Henry White, Baroness de Brienen and Mdlles de Brienen, the Duke of Abercorn, the Duchess of Cleveland, the Marchioness of Blandford and Lady Frances Spencer Churchill, Earl and Countess of Portarlington, Earl Stanhope, the Earl of Northbrook, the Earl and Countess of Arran, the Earl and Countess of Erne and the Ladies Cole, Julia Countess of Jersey and Mr. Brandling, Viscount Clifden, Viscountess Bary, Viscount Torrington, Viscount and Viscountess Castlerosse and Lady Louisa Beauclerk, Viscount and Viscountess de Vesci and Lady Sarah Spencer, Viscountess Galway, and Mr Caryl Ramsden, Lord de L'Isle and Dudley, Lord Alcester, Lord and Lady Wantage, Lord Ashbourne, Lady Henry Grosvenor and Lady G. Ogilvy, Lady Cloncurry, Lord Morris and Mr. M. Morris, Lady Charles Beresford, Lord Rowton, Lady Blanche Hozier, Lady Colville, Lady Rayleigh, Lady Constance Lytton and Mr. Charles Earle, Lady Evelyn Sutton, Lady Ernest Seymour and Ladies Fortescue, Lord and Lady Sandhurst, Lady Mary Lloyd, Lady Tweedmouth, Lady Windsor, Lord and Lady William Seymour, Lady Guy Campbell, Lady Egerton, Lady Fitzgerald, Baron d'Erlanger and Mr. Charles Derenberg, Hon. R. C. Spencer, M.P., and Mrs. Spencer, Hon. Evelyn Ashley, Hon. W. Mansfield, Hon. Lionel Ashley, Hon. A. Hood, Hon. William Lowther and Miss Lowther, Hon. Sydney Greville, Hon. Fitzroy and Mrs. Stewart, Hon. Frederick Leveson Gower, Hon. Kenneth Howard, Hon. Francis Villiers, Hon. Francis Bertie, Hon. Arthur Walsh, Colonel the Hon. Charles Edgcumbe, General Hon. John Bourke, General and Hon. Mrs. Ellis and Mrs. R. Sneyd and Miss Ellis, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Algernon and Mrs. Bourke]], Hon. Alan and Hon. Evan Charteris, Hon. Alexander Yorke, Hon. Derek Keppel, General Sir Dighton Probyn, Hon. Percy Wyndham, Hon. Everard Baring and Hon. Susan Baring, Hon. Mrs. Brett, Hon. Claud Hay, the Right Hon. Henry Matthews, Sir George Arthur, Sir George Maude, Sir Philip Currie, C.B., Sir Redvers and Lady Audrey Buller, Sir Charles Grant, Sir Mackenzie Wallace, Sir Herbert Maxwell, M.P., Sir Oscar Clayton, Sir Robert Gresley, Sir Algernon West and Mr. Horace West, Sir George and Lady Russell and Miss Brackenbury, Sir Henry and Lady Longley, the Sub-Dean of the Chapels Royal, General Crealock, General Charles Fraser, Colonel Saunderson, M.P., and Hon. Mrs. Saunderson, Colonel and Mrs. Stewart and Miss Streatfeild [siv], Colonel and Miss Balfour, Colonel and Mrs. Stanley Clarke and Miss Clarke, Colonel R. Baring, Captain and Mrs. Jekyll, Captain and Mrs. J. Bagot, Captain Lambert Ward, Captain A. Bagot, Mr. Charles Hall, Q.C, M.P., Mr[.] Hussey Walsh, M.P., Mr and Mrs. W. Hartpole Lecky, Mr. and Mrs. Richard Combe, Mr Henry Foley, Mrs. Arbuthnot and Miss Guthrie, Mr. and Mrs. Heseltine and Miss Dorothy Heseltine and Lord Cantelupe, the Miss Stopford Brooke, Mr. and Mrs. Thackeray Ritchie, Mr Edmund Byng, Mr. and Mrs. Wilton Phipps, Professor Sidney Colvin, Mr. and Miss Tennant, Mr. Godfrey Webb, Mr. and Mrs. Turton and Mr. Sidney Ponsonby, Mrs. Adare, Mrs Cecil Paget and Mr. Hugo Wemyss, Mrs. L. Drummond, Mr. and Mrs E. Hope, Mrs. L. Seymour and Miss Seymour, Mr. Guy Repton, Mr. and Mrs. Julian Sturgis and Miss Beresford, Mr. Poynter, R.A., Mrs. Daniel Cooper, Mr. Hamilton Aïdé, Mr. Alwyne Maude, Mrs. C. Bentinck, Mrs. Bingham Mildmay, Mr. Philip Habord, Mr. and Mrs. George Bulteel, Mrs. Beerbohm Tree and Miss Julia Neilson, Mr. Hallé [Halle?], Mr. Rudolph Lehmann and Miss Lehmann, [[Social Victorians/People/Fanny Ronalds|Mr. R. Ronalds]], Mr. Ellice, Mr. Arthur, Madame Blumenthal, Miss Julia Leslie, Mr. and Mrs. Jeune, Mr and Mrs. Charles Stuart-Wortley and Misses Millais, Mrs. Arkwright, Mr Joachim, Mr. Gillett, Mr. Pulteney (Scots Guards), Colone| Cuthbert Larking, Mr. Harry Higgins, M. Tividar Nachez, Mr. G. Ross, Herr Johannes Woolff, Mrs. Charles Bagot and Miss Bagot, Mrs. Bischoffsheim, Mr. Henry Petre, Miss Balch, Mr. and Lady Maud Ramsden, Mr. Adolphus Liddell, Mr Knowles, Mr. Grenfell, Mr. Edward Hamilton, Mrs. Henry Gordon and Miss Gordon, Mr. Henry James, Mr. St. Leger, Mrs. Dacre Hamilton and the Misses Nugent, Mr. Harbord, Mr Somerset, Mr. Ruggles-Brise, Mr. and Miss Hughes of Kinmel, Mr. and Mrs Douglas Freshfield, Mrs. Homer, Mr. W. H. Mallock, Mr. and Mrs. Robert Benson, Mr. H. Seymour, Mr. Ernest Law, Mr. Hugh Grimston, Mr. Lionel Cust, Mr. Chappell, Mr. and Mrs. Du Maurier, Mr. Boughton, R.A., and Mrs. Boughton, Mr. R. Roche, Mr. Montagu Wilson, Mr. Herbert Hope, &c.<ref>"Lady Constance Leslie's Reception." ''Morning Post'' 15 February 1890, Saturday: 2 [of 8], Col. 5c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900215/008/0002. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> === 24 February 1890, Monday === Lilly Langtry starred in Shakespeare's ''As You Like It'' at the St. James's Theatre. The Daily Telegraph had a long review and mentioned more names:<blockquote> The motto of Petronius, which is said to have adorned the Globe Theatre in Shakespeare's time, "Totus mundus agit histrionem," and which is reproduced in Jaques' famous speech, may be said to have received a novel illustration in the brilliant audience which completely filled the St. James's Theatre last evening. A very distinguished section of the world "played the actor" in the stalls, boxes, and dress-circle, and evinced the keenest dramatic interest in the long-deferred production of "As You Like It." The Prince and Princess of Wales, with the Duchess of Fife, surveyed the scene from the Royal box, while amongst the many who secured seats for the first were the Austrian Ambassador, the [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Duchess of Manchester]], Countess de Grey, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Lady Colin Campbell, Lord Wolverton, Lord and Lady Coleridge, Sir Charles Russell, Sir Edward and Lady Guinness, Baroness de Stern, and Mr. Alfred Rothschild. Naturally enough there was much curiosity in seeing once more on the London stage an actress who has since her last appearance devoted so much serious study to her profession, and gained so much success both before American and provincial audiences; while the sympathy evoked by her recent severe illness, delaying for four weeks the production of the comedy, added an almost pathetic note to the general excitement and enthusiasm. In the second scene of the first act, when the tenderly attached cousins make their earliest appearance on the stage, Celia's first words, "| pray thee, Rosalind, sweet, my coz, be merry," answered by Rosalind’s "Dear Celia, I show more mirth than I am mistress of," were almost drowned in the applause which accompanied the recognition of Mrs. Langtry. From time to time, whenever opportunity served, enthusiasm broke out anew, culminating in the triumph of plaudits which formed the fit ending to the gracefully-delivered epilogue with which Rosalind takes her farewell of her audience. There can be no doubt that, with all due allowance for the inevitable nervousness which accompanied a first production before a critical though sympathetic house, the revival of the immortal comedy was generally pronoanced to be a success. The fancifally-named "As You Like It" — where even in nomenclature the author confesses his indebtedness to the romance of Thomas Lodge — with greater dullness than is usually the case with Shakespeare's plays. Indeed interest is hardly aroused till the scene before the Duke's Palace, where Rosalind and Celia witness the wrestling — which after a few more performances will probably go less stagily than it did last night — between Charles and Orlando. It is only when we are transported to the Forest of Arden that Shakespeare's romantic fancy allows itself full course, and it was only when she was accoutred in the doublet and hose that Mrs. Langtry exercised her full charm upon the audience. The difficulty for the actress in the character of Rosalind is the contrast between the early abandon of her frankly-expressed love for the son of Rowland de Bois and the subsequent archness and reserve with which she plays with her lover in the forest. Orlando goes through precisely an opposite change. From the careless desperateness of a man who is out of favour with fortune in the opening scene, he changes to the sentimental devotion of a "love-shaked fancy-monger" in the sylvan glades. If that interchange of parts be missed much is lost in the sprightly  contrasts of the drama. Unfortunately, no sooner did Orlando enter on the wrestling-ground last night, than he started and caught at his heart in obvious suggestion of love at first sight. Much is lost of the utter wonderment at Rosalind’s unexpected graciousness in giving him her chain, which keeps him tongue-tied later, if he betrays so early the fatal ravages of Cupid — a betrayal which is hardly likely in a man whom neglect and misery have driven to the last stage of reckless hardihood. Rosalind must love her champion before her winning thanks for his prowess have made the starred younger brother first marvel at and then adore the frank and generous advances of his benefactress. In the fine words, "My father was no traitor," Mrs. Langtry rose to the full height of the character she was depicting. Throughout the greater part of the first act there was grace, loveableness, charm, but also a kind of flatness, or, at all events, an even and somewhat uninteresting level of characterisation which did not convey the promise of all that this loveliest creation in Shakespeare's gallery could do, when the Court life was exchanged for the freer and less conventional existence in the woods. All the more praise, therefore, is Mrs. Langtry’s due, that when she finds herself in the Forest of Arden, she brings before us a truer Rosalind. The beautiful first scene between the disguised Ganymede and her amorous swain showed Mrs. Langtry at her best. The quick and nimble wit, the archness and pretty coquetry of a girl who is sick at heart with love and feeds her passion in a playful and adorable tyrannising over the unconscious lover, were depicted with a reality which won instant recognition from the spectators. For the rest, however, Mrs. Langtry’s Rosalind was an unequal performance, now rising with unexpected force into the regions of pure comedy, now sinking to an ordinary level of  uncomfortably-disguised womanishness. There were bright patches of power in the midst of a somewhat dull and colourless expanse. Much of this was, no doubt, due to the excitement and fatigue of a first night, to which also may be attributed possibly the sameness of some of her gestures and a restlessness which was something more than Rosalind's anxiety to win in her own incomparable way the happiness of which she was in search. A few nights hence firmness of carriage and self-control of manner will fill in the details of a character which was most graphically and sympathetically sketched in outline at the St. James’s last night. Mr Laurence Cautley as Orlando made most favourable impression on his audience. Through all the earlier scenes — with the exception of that wholly unnecessary lapse into amorousness on the lawn of Duke Frederick, which has been already noted — he sustained the character of a picturesque and youthful gallant with considerable success, though, possibly, a stronger dash of manly independence might not have come amiss to the Shakespearean hero. Touchstone is a more difficult part to play. Indeed, in some respects, he is the most difficult of all Shakespeare's clowns. He is on the borderland between the earlier, more conventional style of Costard, Launce, and Launcelot, and the far more elaborate and important clowns in "Twelfth Night" and "King Lear." He is not so clever as Feste, not so human and real as that inimitable and tender-hearted Edgar who tries to solace the wild ravings of his discrowned king. He is halfway between such farcical beings as Kempe and Tarlton probably depicted, and that witty, self-conscious, irresponsible Jester, which Shakespeare ultimately made an entirely new creation on Elizabethan boards. It is no discredit to Mr. Sugden that he failed to realise so ingenious a conception. He presented a Touchstone who was full of amusing quips, and he went through all the catalogue of points in the Book of Honour in the fifth act with admirable skill; the Touchstone of "As You Like It" we are probably not likely to see often on the modern stage. Mr. Bourchier’s Jaques was a far higher piece of portraiture, grave and bitter and cynical as that early disciple of Schopenhauer should be, with touches of humour which only serve to show the depths of a naturally perverse and misanthropical nature. The celebrated "Seven Ages" speech  was capitally delivered, with a conscientious care and easy mastery which are rare enough in an actor who has so lately left the ranks of the amateurs. For the rest, the Adam of Mr Everill, and the Andrey of Miss Marion Lea seemed to give most pleasure to the audience, though she was sometimes — espectally in the pronunciation of the word "poetry" — inclined to represent the boorishness of the wench with an accent  which reproduced simulated inebriation rather than native clumsiness. Miss Armbruster as Hymen also deserves a word of praise. The piece was produced under the direction of the Hon. Lewis Wingfield, and the scenery, which in the Forest Glade of Acts II., III., and IV., formed a beautiful stage picture, was designed by Messrs. Perkins and Bruce Smith. After all, was any one ever wholly satisfied with the representaton of one of Shakespeare's comedies? No thing is further from the truth as a general statement than the pedant’s theory that Shakespeare is for the study, and not for the boards. If ever, however, the paradox be true that a great dramatic artist suffers when his plays gain a dramatic representation, it is when "As You Like It," "Twelfth Night" and "Midsummer Night's Dream" are brought face to face with a modern audience and amid nineteenth century surroundings. It ts not with impunity that the light that never was on sea and land is parodied by the glare of the footlights. For, honest stage-craftsman as Shakespeare was, in the full spring-tide of his poetic genius there was a divine and masterful intolerance of the real and the commonplace, a reckless flight into an ideal world, peopled by beings coined in the mint of his dainty imagination — aerial and disembodied creations whose actions and characters refuse to submit themselves to the narrow rules of the every-day world. In such a sphere banished lovers shall be predestined to meet and cement their happy unions, and lions and snakes shall be the habitual denizens of a forest where shepherds and shepherdesses prattle their erotic strains, and even a crafty Oliver shall repent of his past sins and fall in love with gentle Celia, owing to the poetic exigencies of Cloud Cuckoo Land. How can one  see all these things with the cynical eye of the modern ''Fin de Siècle'' and not feel an inevitable shock of dissatisfaction and surprise? How is it possible to avoid the jarring sense of discord when the dream picture is realised in the setting of prosaic reality? For Shakespeare's comedy is a romantic work of the mind, a refuge for all those delightful improbabilities which an indolent or whimsical fancy strings together to construct a series of complications and incidents which interest us, while they elude the sober tests of reason and judgment. But we must not carry this vein of thought too far. It is true that we have in such plays comedies of incident rather than of character. Yet Shakespeare is too and heart-whole to linger only at the Ivory gate. He throws even into these merry plots the force of that instinctive knowledge of human nature which produces real personages, tricked out in witty and imaginative guise. Shakespeare was able to pour everything into his comedies which he did into his tragedies, though in the one there is only suggestion, while in the other there is the elaboration of that is deep and tragic as well as humorous in life. Rosalid, Orlando, Touchstone, and Jaques are none the less real because they are ideal; and it is on these grounds that we can praise the conscientious and capable artists who presented these characters in flesh and blood on the St. James's stage. Nor does Shakespeare, as some have thought, intend in this play to preach [Col. 1c–2a]  any polemic against the life of the town, or compose any passionate encomium for the simple graces of the country. He is too great to be didactic on such narrow issues. Wherever men and women live, there they can be happy; or, as Touchstone says to Corin, when he expresses ignorance of the Court, one-sided enthusiasts for either streets or hedge-rows are truly damned, "like an ill-roasted egg, all on one side." Equanimity, such that of the Duke and old Adam, carries with it, wherever it be, the gracious gentleness of an eternal Eden.<ref>"St. James's Theatre." ''Daily Telegraph & Courier'' (London) 25 February 1890, Tuesday: 5 [of 12], Col. 6a–7a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001112%2F18900225&page=5&article=048&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Daily Telegraph'', p. 5. </ref></blockquote> The ''St. James's Gazette'' reported:<blockquote> We came intending to like it very much, and we succeeded in our intention. Indeed, we spent a really pleasant evening at the St. James's Theatre, Many of us knew one another to nod to, and some of us had bowing acquaintance with the author of the play; so it was all very sociable and comfortable. There were just enough shop-window celebrities to give an air of distinction to the rest of the audience, and everybody had a right to hope that his neighbours were wondering who he was. The critics were quite at their ease, having nothing to criticise except the acting; not being expected to suggest any slight alterations in the play (such as cutting out Acts I., III., and V., and rewriting Acts II. and IV.), but just to accept it as it stood, without even tracing it back to the French vaudeville from which it was, no doubt, originally adapted. The performance had many individual merits, but it also had two general faults. The first and least striking fault was that the interludes were  slurred over instead of being played up to. Now, the plot of "As You Like It" is so loose that a lengthy interlude (provided it be pretty) does not check the flow of interest; indeed, it gives a welcome rest and allows you to pick up your thoughts again. The other fault is one which may be, and is likely to be, remedied the play goes on. But at present it is neither smart nor spontaneous: the parts do not hang well together, and there is none of the enthusiasm which helps to pass off the interior performances of less skilful actors. The deficiency which we have noted was probably due to the serious illness from which Mrs. Langtry had been suffering and from which it was evident last night that she had not made a complete recovery. She worked very hard as Rosalind, and worked very well, and several times she made a really good hit; she was, perhaps, at her best in her indignant appeal to the usurper Duke against his unexpected and unjust decree of banishment. She was charming, again, in her embarrassment (as Miss Litton was charming before her) when she had her first meeting with her unconscious lover and she suggested very cleverly the absence of her skirts. She did her love-making archly and merrily; but though the pretended pretence gave her a right to go beyond the limits of maiden coyness, she seemed occasionally to assume the masculine Initiative when the feminine Suggestive would have been prettier. it was a pleasant though uneven performance, with plenty of grace in it and plenty of brains. The Touchstone of Mr. Sugden was in every way admirable — crisp, humorous, and distinctive. That his clowning was occasionally tedious was no fault of his. The palate of a modern audience does not relish these long-drawn pedantries of buffoonery. Our sense of humour is not more refined — it is different, and that's the end of it. But in the scenes with Audrey (and Miss Marion Lea made a capital Audrey — open-mouthed and innocently wicked or wickedly innocent) Mr. Sugden had a better opportunity and he made the most of it. There the humour was not conventional, and the audience enjoyed a laugh which was not scholarly. A word of praise must given to Mr. Brodie for his conscientious and effective rendering of the difficult and ungrateful part of the moonstruck lover of the wayward Phoebe. The first appearance of Mr. Bourchier in London attracted much interest. As an amateur at Oxford and elsewhere he was believed Iikely to to great things upon the stage, and his performance of Jaques was by no means a disappointment. The fault of it was that he did not suggest either the melancholy or the sententiousness which we associate with the character. The melancholy was but skin-deep, and the sententiousness simply was not there. But every actor has a right to read a part in his own way if it is a good way. And there is much to said for Mr. Bourchier's interpretation of Jaques. The temptation is to be stagy; Mr. Bourchier's tendency is to be natural. And he carried it out with great success in speaking the lines of the Seven Ages of Man. He caught up the Duke's phrase just as if it had dropped in the course of an ordinary conversation; and he played with it for a time until it seemed of itself to suggest to his mind the famous soliloquy. Certainly Mr. Bourchier’s method was effective, as it drew one of the heartiest rounds of applause in the whole evening. Among the company were noticed the following well known persons:— His  Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, the Duke and Duchess of Fife, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], Lord De Grey, Mr. Alfred De Rothschild, Lord Lurgan, Sir Charles Russell, Sir Edward Guinness, Lady Colin Campbell, Lady Curzon, Lady Londonderry, Lady Hothfield, Hon. Alan Charteris, Mr. Oscar Wilde, Mr. Akers Douglas, M.P., Mr. Justin McCarthy, M.P., Sir Allen Young, Lord and Lady Coleridge, the Austrian Ambassador, the Spanish Ambassador, Lady Hozier, Mr. George Lewis, Mr. Whistler, Lady Greville [<nowiki/>[[Social Victorians/People/Lady Violet Greville|Lady Violet Greville]]?].<ref>"As You Like It."  ''St James's Gazette'' 25 February 1890, Tuesday: 5 [of 16], Col. 1b–c [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001485%2F18900225&page=5&article=027&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p. </ref></blockquote> This report is from ''Blalud, The Bath Society Paper'':<blockquote>Happily, there was no disappointment in store for the friends and admirers of Mrs. Langtry, who gathered on Monday night at the St. James’s Theatre in great force, to welcome this popular lady back to London and receive her with an extra warmth of cordiality in token of satisfaction at her recovery from her recent severe illness. Eight years have elapsed since she last played Rosalind in London. Since then she has travelled much, both at home and abroad, and followed the study and practice of her art with unfailing spirit and determination. She returns to the character which all leading actresses aspire to play in Shakespeare’s glorious dream of the Court of Duke Frederick and the forest of Arden a far riper artist, and, says the ''Daily News'', she presented us on Monday with an impersonation which compared to her former efforts is as the finished portrait to the crude sketch. Her performance may lack the great high tide of girlish impulsiveness, but first nights before an exceptionally critical audience and some remains of the languor of her recent indisposition doubtless contributed to rob her acting of something of its force and impulse. But her ''Rosalind'' remains a most winning and beautiful performance. A handsomer ''Rosalind'', or one that has worn the doublet and hose with more grace and picturesqueness (Mrs, Langtry, we may here note, scorns the modern heresy of boots, and appears in the more orthodox hose cross-gartered), has certainly not been seen in our time. The performance is full of good points; as when at the words, "here on the skirts of this forest like the fringe of a petticoat," she remembers with a momentary touch of maidenly shyness that petticoats no longer form part of her attire. Again, when in bantering her lover, who exhibits so strange an inability to recognize the voice and features of the woman whom he passionately loves, she pauses at "a beard neglected," and pointing at ''Orlando’s'' smooth chin bursts into uncontrollable laughter; again, when in the mock marriage scene, with ''Celia'' for the priest, her mind for the moment seems to wander away into such a dream as this mockery might suggest to one so deeply in love. The distinguishing feature of the impersonation, indeed, is the subtle suggestion of serious passion that underlies the frolicsome and bantering moods, and exhibits itself again and again in many subtle forms. The play is beautifully put on the stage, and if some of the performers fall a long way short of ideal excellence there are several impersonations that stand forth in strong relief and are of far more than common excellence. The ''Phœbe'' and ''Silvius'' of Miss Beatrice Lamb and Mr. Matthew Brodie deserve special note: but the most brilliant success of all in the case of the minor characters was undoubtedly the ''Audrey'' of Miss Marion Lee, whose hoydenish, but not ungraceful antics, whose happy, contented ignorance, whose mingled wonderment and admiration at ''Touchstone's'' philosophical utterances were admirable. Everything that taste can suggest has been done to embellish the play; the musical features are strengthened by an efficient chorus, and the costumes designed by the Hon. Lewis Wingfield are rich and handsome. Perhaps it might be objected that Mrs. Langtry’s beautiful green velvet doublet, with its slashes, tags, and laces, her cinnamon jerkin, her black cap and jewelled buckle, and her rich and massive cloak were hardly suited to her daring enterprise on the highways and in the forests of the Duke’s dominions. The restoration of Hymen, gracefully represented by Miss Violet Armbruster, and the final morris dance in honour of the nuptials, gave the crowning fanciful touch to the performance, and prepared the spectators for the playful epilogue, which was spoken by Mrs. Langtry, in her simple nuptial white robe and leopard skin, with rare elocutionary grace and effect,. [sic] The audience which greeted Mrs. Langtry was at once distinguished and interesting. The Royal box was occupied by the Prince and Princess of Wales, the Duchess of Fife, the Princesses Victoria and Maud of Wales, and the Duke of Fife. Among the representatives of "Society" were Lady Londonderry, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], Lord de Grey, Lord and Lady Coleridge, Lady Curzon, Lady Hothfield, Lord Lurgan, Lady Greville [<nowiki/>[[Social Victorians/People/Lady Violet Greville|Lady Violet Greville]]?], Lady Hozier, Mr. Alfred de Rothschild, Sir Charles Russell, Sir Edward Guinness, Mr. Coningsby Disraeli, Mr. Akers Douglas, M.P., Mr. Justin M‘Carthy, M.P., Sir Allen Young, Lady Colin Campbell, Lady Monckton, Mrs. Labouchere, and the Austrian and Spanish Ambassadors. Pictorial art was represented by Mr. Whistler; music by Mdme. Antoinette Sterling; dramatic writing by Mr. H. A. Jones; and theatrical interests by Mrs. Bancroft, Miss Genevieve Ward, Mr. and Mrs. John Lart, Mrs. John Hare, Mr. M. L. Mayer, Mr. Augustus Harris, &c.<ref>"Mrs. Langtry." ''Bladud'' 26 February 1890, Wednesday: 9 [of 16], Col. 2b–c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0005771%2F18900226&page=9&article=055&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Blalud, The Bath Society Paper'', p. 9.</ref></blockquote> === 25 February 1890, Tuesday === On 5 March, the ''World'' reports on a party hosted by Mrs. Adair that must have been held the week before:<blockquote>Many smart people were present at Mrs. Adair's party in Curzon Street on Tuesday night. The rooms, lighted by electricity, looked their prettiest with floral decorations consisting entirely of tulips, the hostess appearing in a gown of terra-cotta velvet trimmed with dark fur. The Austrian Ambassador and Madame Waddington were among those who listened to Miss Damian’s rendering of a new song by Tosti, and to the glees sung by Mr. Avon Saxon's American quartet; and among others present were Lady Charles Beresford, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], the Duchess of Marlborough, Lady Fanny Marjoribanks, who brought her sister, Lady Sarah Churchill, Sir Arthur Sullivan (just back from his annual sojourn at Monte Carlo), Lord and Lady Wharncliffe, Lady Howe and Lady Edith Curzon, Lord and Lady William Nevill, Mrs. Cavendish-Bentinck, General Charles Fraser, Lady Conyers, Madame de Brienen, and Sir Philip Currie.<ref>"What the World Says." ''The World'' 5 March 1890, Wednesday: 19 [of 44], Col. 2a [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0006339%2F18900305&page=19&article=061&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote>The ''Daily Telegraph'' covered the party with a few additional names:<blockquote>A casual passer-by in Curzon-street last night might almost have imagined from the long string of carriages assembled there that, in spite of the cold east wind blowing, the London season had already begun. Mrs. Adair had together to hear some beautiful music, including a celebrated quartette of American singers, a large and fashionable crowd, composed of the ''élite'' of London society, comprising among many others, the Austrian Ambassador, the French Ambassadress, the Marquis and Marchioness of Tweeddale, Lady Charles Beresford, Lady Fanny Marjoribanks and Lady Sarah Spencer-Churchill, Earl and Countess of Wharncliffe, Countess Howe and Lady Edith Curzon, Lord and Lady William Nevill, Lord George Nevill, Viscount and Viscountess Curzon, Countess of Sefton and Lady Rose Molyneux, Viscountess Mandeville, Julia Countess of Jersey and Mr Brandling, Viscount and Viscountess Bury and the Hon. Mary Keppel, the Countess of Crawford, the Earl of Clonmell, the Countess of Antrim and Lady Louisa Beauclerk, Viscountess Melgund, Lady Conyers, Hon. Lady Cotterell and Miss Cotterell, Lord Alington, Lord Alcester, Lord Greenock, Viscount de Vesci, Lady Hilda Brodrick, Hon. W. Lowther, M.P., and Mrs. Lowther, Hon. Mrs. Bampfylde, Hon. Hallyburton Campbell, Mrs. and Miss Campbell, Hon. Kenneth Howard, Hon. Derek Keppel, Hon. FitzRoy and Mrs. Stewart, Lady FitzGerald, Mrs. Bischoffsheim, Madame de Brienen, Lieutenant-General Sir Seymour Blane, General C. Fraser, M.P., Mr. Chamberlain, M.P., Mr. Howard Vincent, M.P., and Mrs Vincent, Mr. Charles Hall, M.P., Mrs. Cavendish-Bentinck, Sir C. Rivers Wilson, Sir Arthur Sullivan, Sir Philp Currie.<ref>"London Day by Day." ''Daily Telegraph & Courier'' (London) 26 February 1890, Wednesday: 5 [of 8], Col. 4a [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001112%2F18900226&page=5&article=094&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Daily Telegraph'', p. 5. </ref></blockquote>The ''Sporting Gazette'' also had a report, on 1 March:<blockquote>Mrs. Adair's party in Curzon-street on Tuesday night was, as usual, exceedingly smart and dressy. The "smarties" turned out strong for this Anglo-American function, and wore their best frocks and jewels. Lady Tweeddale, Lady Howe, with Lady Edith Curzon, Lady Fanny Majoribanks chaperoning her younger sister, Lady Sarah Churchill, Lady Curzon, Lady Antrim with Lady Louisa Beauclerk, Lady William Nevill with some lovely diamonds, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], Lord Alington, Sir Arthur Sullivan, Mrs Cavendish Bentinck, and others. The singing of an American quartette was ''the'' feature of the evening.<ref>"The Man About Town." "The County Gentleman." ''Sporting Gazette'' 1 March 1890, Saturday: 6 [of 38], Col. 2b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0002525%2F18900301&page=6&article=053&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, p. 274.</ref></blockquote> ==March 1890== === 10 March 1890, Monday === The Prince and Princess of Wales hosted a ball in celebration of their wedding anniversary. This report from the ''Bedfordshire Mercury'' is very brief:<blockquote> The Prince and Princess of Wales, in celebration of the anniversary of their wedding on March 10, 1863, gave a dance at Marlborough House on Monday night. The Danish Minister and Madame de Falbe were among the company invited, also the Earl and Countess Brownlow, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Lord Alwyne Compton, Baron F. de Rothschild, &c.<ref>"Notes of the Aristocracy." ''Bedfordshire Mercury'' 15 March 1890, Saturday: 7 [of 8], Col. 4b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001290%2F18900315&page=7&article=073&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> The report from the ''Morning Post'' suggests that this was a smaller party than usual for the Prince and Princess of Wales:<blockquote>In celebration of the anniversary of the Prince and Princess of Wales's wedding day, their Royal Highnesses gave an evening party (dancing) at Marlborough House last night. His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, her Royal Highness Princess Beatrice (Princess Henry of Battenberg) and his Royal Highness Prince Henry of Battenberg, her Royal Highness the Princess Louise of Wales (Duchess of Fife) and the Duke of Fife, his Royal Highness Prince George of Wales, her Royal Highness the Princess Victoria of Wales, her Royal Highness the Princess Maud of Wales, her Royal Highness the Princess Mary Adelaide (Duchess of Teck), and his Highness the Duke of Teck and her Serene Highness the Princess Victoria of Teck and his Serene Highness Prince Francis of Teck, and their Serene Highnesses the Prince and Princess Victor of  Hohenlohe-Langenburg and the Countess Victoria Gleichen were present. The following had the honour to receive invitations, but some amongst them were unavoidably prevented from attending: — The French Ambassador (M. Waddington) and Madame Waddington, the German Ambassador (Count Hatzfeldt) and the Countess Marie Hatzfeldt, the Turkish Ambassador (Rustem Pasha), the Austro-Hungarian Ambassador (Count Deym) and the Countess Deym, the Italian Ambassador  (Count Tornielli), the Countess Tornielli, and Mademoiselle Virginia dei Conti Lazzari, the Danish Minister (M. de Falbe) and Madame de Falbe, the Russian Chargé d'Affaires (M. Bontineff), his Serene Highness Prince Louis Esterhazy, M. A. Kroupensky, M. A. de Stoeckl, Count Leyden, Count Albert Mensdorff, Count Reventlow, Mr. and Mrs. Henry White, M. de Soveral, the Marques and Marquesa de Santurce, Mr. A. de Murrieta, Mr. C. de Murrieta. The Duke and Duchess of Leeds and Lady Alice Osborne, the Duke and Duchess of Buccleuch, the Duke and Duchess of Portland, the Duke and Duchess of Westminster, the Marchioness of Blandford and Lady Frances Spencer Churchill, the Marquis and Marchioness of Granby, the Marquis and Marchioness of Londonderry, the Marquis and Marchioness of Ormonde, the Marquis and Marchioness of Salisbury and Lady Gwendolen Cecil, the Marquis and Marchioness of Stafford, Count Gleichen, the Earl and Countess Brownlow, the Earl and Countess Cadogan and Lady Emily  Cadogan, the Earl and Countess of Clarendon, the Earl of Chesterfield, the Earl of Clonmell, the Earl of Dudley, the Earl and Countess of Dunraven and Lady Florence Wyndham Quin, the Earl and Countess Granville and Lady Victoria Leveson Gower, the Earl and Countess of Hardwicke, the Earl and Countess Howe and Lady Evelyn Curzon, the Earl and Countess of  Kilmorey, the Earl and Countess of Lathom and Lady Alice Wilbraham, the Earl and Countess of Lucan and Lady Rosalind Bingham, the Earl of Mount Edgcumbe and Lady Albertha Edgcumbe, the Earl and Countess of Romney and Lady Florence Marsham, the Earl and Countess of Rosebery, the Earl of Shaftesbury, the Earl of Stradbroke, the Earl and Countess of Sefton and Lady Gertrude Molyneux, the Earl and Countess Spencer, Viscount Drumlanrig, Lord and Lady Randolph Spencer Churchill, Lord Frederick Hamilton, Lord Ernest Hamilton, Lord and Lady Algernon Gordon Lennox, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Lord Charles Montagu, Viscount Chelsea, Viscount and Viscountess Coke and the Hon. Violet White, Viscount Curzon, Lady Georgina Curzon and Lady Sarah Spencer Churchill, Viscount Fincastle, Viscount Royston, Viscount Valletort, Lord and Lady Brooke, Lord Burghersh, Lord Capell, Lord and Lady Norreys and the Hon. Coralie Glyn, Lady Charles Beresford, Lord Marcus Beresford, Lord Alwyne Compton, Lord and Lady William Nevill, Lord Richard Nevill, Lord Henry Paulet, Lord Henry Vane Tempest, Lord Herbert Vane Tempest, Admiral Lord Alcester, Lady Ampthill and the Hon. Constance Russell, Lord Alington and the Hon. Winifred and Hon. Mildred Sturt, Lord and Lady Colville of Culross  and the Hon. Blanche Colville, Lord and Lady De  Ramsey, Lady Hastings, Lord and Lady Hindlip, Lord Lurgan, Lord and Lady Revelstoke and the Hon. Susan Baring, Lord and Lady Rothschild,  Lord Rowton, Lord Suffield and the Hon. Judith and Hon. Eleanor Harbord, Lord and Lady Wimborne and the Hon. Frances Guest, Lord Wolverton, Baron Ferdinand Rothschild, Captain the Hon. Maurice Bourke, R.N., Colonel the Hon. Henry Byng and the Misses Byng, the Hon. Alan Charteris, Lieutenant-Colonel the Hon. C. Edgcumbe, the Hon. Sir Spencer and Lady Ponsonby Fane, the Hon. Sidney Greville, Colonel the Hon. Oliver Montagu, the Hon. C. R. and Mrs. Spencer, the Hon. S. M'Donnell, the Hon. Alexander Yorke, the Hon. H. and Lady Feodora Sturt, the Hon. Arthur Walsh, the Hon. R. Winn, the Right Hon. W. E. and Mrs. Gladstone and Miss Gladstone, the Right Hon. A. J. Balfour, the Right Hon. H. Chaplin, the Right. Hon. Sir Henry James, the Right Hon. Sir C. L. Wyke, the Hon. S. C. Colville, the Hon. Assheton Harbord, the Hon. Julia Stonor, the Hon. H. Stonor, the Hon. E. Stonor, Captain the Hon. Henry White, Sir Edward and Lady Guinness, Sir Charles Hartopp, Sir Frederick Johnstone, Sir John and Lady Lister Kaye, Sir James and Lady  Mackenzie, Colonel Sir Nigel and Lady Emily Kingscote, Admiral Sir R. and the Hon. Lady Macdonald and Miss Macdonald, General Sir Dighton and Lady Probyn, Sir Francis and the Hon. Lady Knollys, Major-General Sir Christopher Teesdale, Sir Oscar Clayton, Sir Allen Young, Lieutenant-General Bateson, Lieutenant-General Charles Fraser, Major-General and the Hon. Mrs. Arthur Ellis and Miss Ellis, Colonel J. P. Brabazon, Colonel and Mrs. Stanley Clarke and the Misses Clarke, Captain H. F. Stephenson, R.N., Lieutenant-Colonel F. H. Poore, Lieutenant-Colonel R. Vivian, Major C. Swaine, Captain Douglas Dawson, Captain C. H. A. Hervey, the officers of the Queen's Guard, St. James's Palace, Mr. G. Byng, Mr. Henry Calcraft, Mr. Victor Cavendish, Mr. Henry Ellis, Mr. Horace Farquhar, Mr. and Mrs. George Forbes and Miss Forbes, Mr. Montagu Guest, Mr. Charles Hall, Mr. E. W. Hamilton, Mr. and Lady Hilda Higgins, Mr. Holzmann, Miss Knollys, Mr. and Mrs. F. R. Knollys, Mr. Ronald Moncrieffe, Mr. Alfred Montgomery, Mr. Arnold Morley, Mr. Henry Petre, Mr. Alfred de Rothschild, Mr. and Mrs. Leopold de Rothschild, Mr. Reuben Sassoon and Miss Sassoon, Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Sassoon, Mr. Edgar Sebright, Mr. and Mrs. Ralph Sneyd, Mr. Christopher Sykes, and Mr. O. G. St. George Williams. Messrs. Coote and Tinney's band was in attendance.<ref>"Marlborough House." ''Morning Post'' 11 March 1890, Tuesday: 5 [of 8]. Col. 6b–c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000174%2F18900311&page=5&article=055&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p. </ref></blockquote> ==April 1890== Arnold Dolmetsch took out a three-day ticket to the Reading Room in April 1890 (Campbell 22). === 9 April 1890, Wednesday === ==== The New Forest United Hunt Ball ==== <blockquote>This annual ball was beld at the New Forest Hall, Lyndhearst, on Wednesday night, and was a most brilliant gathering, upwards of 200 being present, not only the New Forest but also neighbouring hunts being well represented. Among those present were Earl and Countess of Londesborough, Lady Mildred Denison, Lady Lilian Denison, Hon. Louis Johnstone, Hon. Gerald and Mrs Lascelles, Major Downman, Capt. Sandbach, R.H.A., Col. and Mrs Sinkins, Col. Fitzroy Smyth, Lady Thursby and party, Mr Stanley Pearce (Master of the Foxhounds), Mr F. Lovell (Master of the Deerhounds) and party, Lady Adela Goff and party, Hon. Miss St. Leger Glyn and party, Mr A. H. Jeffreys, M.P., and Mrs Jeffreys, Hon. Mrs A. Peter, Mr Somerset H. Onslow, Mr Lancelot Orde, Lord Garioch, Mr and Mrs C. K. Francis, the Countess of Normandy, Lady Mary Agar, Lord Montagu, Hon. John Scott Montagu, Viscount Cantelupe, Prince Dhuleep Singh, Hon. D. Keppel, Col. Charles Needham (1st Life Guards), [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs Algernon Bourke]], Mrs Cornwallis West, Mr and Mrs Shelley Bontein, Col. Gridley, Col. Newton, Col. Elliot, R.H.A., Lady Meyrick and party, Sir W. Jervois, Lady Jervois and party, &c.<ref>"The New Forest United Hunt Ball." ''The Sportsman'' 11 April 1890, Friday: 2 [of 4], Col. 5c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001055/18900411/024/0002. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> ==May 1890== Leonora Braham appeared at the Opera Comique as Ruth Ferns in ''Gretna Green''. ===21 May 1890, Wednesday=== It was his pupil the young Countess Valda Gleichen who found a sponsor for Dolmetsch's first but brief appearance at a London concert on 21 May 1890, when the 'Magpie Minstrels' … gave one of their bi-annual performances at the Princes' Hall" (Campbell 30). ==June 1890== === 3 June 1890, Tuesday === ==== Dinner and Concert Hosted by Mrs. Arthur Williams and Ball by Mrs. Menzies ==== <blockquote>Yesterday evening society passed a large proportion of time on wheels, and the number of receptions was more than the most inveterate could get through wvith comfort. ... Meanwhile, the Duke of Clarence and Avondale dined with Mrs. Arthur Wilson in Grosvenor-place, and a small and select concert followed. The Duchess of Leinster was, as ever, the most beautiful among many beauties, the Hon. Helen Henniker, after her long mourning, was warmly greeted by swarms of friends, and the Countess of Lovelace, in grey satin, chaperoned her débutante niece, Miss Milbank. Prince "Eddie" went from Mrs. Arthur Wilson's hospitable mansion to that of Mrs. J. Graham Menzies. It is unusual to find mother and daughter entertaining this illustrious young man on the same evening. Mrs. Menzies, who has succeeded Lord Suffield in his beautiful house in Upper Grosvenor-street, had one of the smartest and most successful balls of the present season. The Blue Hungarians played with immense vigour and owing to the postponement of Lady Carnarvon's ball, there was no competition for men and married women. Countess Howe, Lady Brougham and Vaux, Lady Aveland and Miss Willoughby, Viscountess Stormont, the Hon. Lady Grey Egerton and Miss Egerton, the Duchess of Buccleuch, the [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs. Algernon Bourke]], the Earl of Craven, Countess of Coventry, Mrs. Mackay, Lady Sykes, the Marchioness of Granby, Mrs. Hwfa Williams, Lord Garioch, Sir Savile and Lady Crossley, Mr. and Mrs. Harry Lawson, and many others were present.<ref>"Yesterday Evening Society." ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 4 June 1890, Wednesday: 4 [of 8], Col. 3a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000098/18900604/015/0004. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> ==== Münster-Hay Wedding ==== Account of the wedding of Count Alexander Münster and Lady Muriel Henrietta Constance Hay. Count Bismarck sent a gift.<blockquote>St. Andrew's Church, Wells-street, was completely filled yesterday afternoon on the occasion of the marriage of Count Alexander Münster, son of Count Münster, German Ambassador in Paris, with Lady Muriel Henrietta Constance Hay, younger daughter of the Earl and Countess of Kinnoull. The ceremony was fixed for half-past two o'clock, but all the seats in the body of the church were occupied long before that time by invited guests. The rood screen was hidden with white flowers, and a number of tall palms were skilfully arranged in and about the chancel. The bridegroom was early in his place, and wore the splendid white and gold uniform of the Garde du Corps of the Emperor; his best man, Prince Hans Heinrich Pless, wearing the scarlet and gold uniform of the Garde Hussars. The six bridesmaids were Lady Mildred Denison, Lady Dorothea Stewart Murray, Hon. Marie Hay, Hon. Marjory Murray, Miss Rosalind Lovell, and Miss Gladys Hadow (niece of the bride). They wore pretty dresses of pale blue satin, veiled with white chiffon; the skirts were edged with a frill, and the bodices finished with quaint fichus of the chiffon, fastened in front with a bunch of forget-me-nots. They wore drawn hats of the chiffon, covered with forget-me-nots, and their posies were of the same flowers, intermixed with pink roses, and tied with narrow pink ribbons. Each wore a gold bangle with centre forming the initials "A.M.," and a single turquoise drop. The bride entered the church at half-past two, and was received by her father, who led her to the chancel steps, preceded by the choristers singing a nuptial hymn. The bride's dress was of ivory satin made with a very long train. The front was fringed round the hem with orange blossoms and veiled with old Brussels lace, the gift of her mother; the bodice was entirely covered with beautiful old lace, and finished at the neck on one side with a cluster of orange blossoms. She wore a small wreath of orange blossoms and myrtle arranged in the hair at the back and a tulle veil falling almost to the end of the train and held by diamond stars, the gift of the bridegroom. The bride's other jewels included two diamond drop hairpins, the gift of Count Münster; an emerald and diamond brooch, from the bridegroom; enamel and diamond heartsease brooch, from Lady Mary Mills; a diamond and emerald bracelet, from the Duke of Beaufort; and a diamond bracelet, from the Duke and Duchess of Athole. Her train was held by her two little nephews, Masters Roland and Patrick Hadow, wearing Scotch dress with lace ruffles. The service, which was fully choral, was performed by the Rev. Provost Rorison, of St. Ninian's Cathedral, Perth, assisted by the Rev. W. T. Houldsworth, rector of St. Andrew's. The Earl and Countess of Kinnoull afterwards entertained the bridal party at the residence of the Earl of Londesborough, uncle of the bride, in Grosvenor-square. Among the numerous guests were the Russian Ambassador and Madame de Staal, the German Ambassador, the Austrian Ambassador and Countess Deym, Count Münster and the Countesses Marie, Julia, and T. Münster, Prince Pless, Prince Louis Esterhazy, Count Donhoff, Baroness von Beckendorff-Hindenburg, Baron E. Fürstenberg, Count Paul Metternich, Geheimrath Schmettau, Countess Valentin, [[Social Victorians/People/de Soveral|M. de]] [[Social Victorians/People/de Soveral|Soveral]], Captain Hasenclever, Count Leyden, Herr von Rath, Count Francis Deym, Baron and Baroness Deichmann, Count Mensdorff, Herr Pilgrim Baltazzi, Count and Countess Henry Lützow, Baroness d' Erlanger [?], Herr von Kemnitz, Baron Cramm, Vicomte de Janzé, the Duke of Beaufort, the Duchess of Athole, and the Ladies Stewart Murray, the Marchioness of Downshire, the Marchioness of Stafford and Lady Sybil St. Clair Erskine, Maria Marchioness of Ailesbury, the Countess of Dunraven and Ladies Wyndham Quin, the Countess of Kilmorey, the Countess of Galloway and Miss Stewart, the Countess of Dudley and Lady Edith Ward, the Countess of Strathmore and Lady Constance Lyon, the Earl and Countess of Roden, Lady Willoughby de Eresby and Hon. Miss Willoughby, the Countess of Westmorland. Viscount and Viscountess Raincliffe, Viscountess Coke, Viscountess Stormont and Hon. MabeI Murray, Viscountess Malden and Hon. Miss Capel, Lord Hay of Kinfauns [?], Lady Delamere and Miss Cholmondeley, Lady Brougham, Lady Esher, Lord Saye and Sele and Hon. Maud and Hon. Gertrude Fiennes, Lady Helen MacGregor and Miss MacGregor, Lord and Lady Algernon Gordon Lennox and Lady Angela St. Clair Erskine, Lady Raglan, Lord Charles Innes Ker, Lady Elizabeth Bertie, Lady Frances Pratt and Lady Clementine Pratt, Lady Geraldine Somerset, Lady Dalton Fitzgerald and Miss Payne, Lady Mary Mills and Miss Pereira, Lady Dorchester, Lady Louisa Moncreiffe and Misses Moncreiffe, Lady Norreys, Lady Petre, Lady Jane Trefusis, Lord Frederic Hamilton, Baroness de Brienen and Miss de Brienen, Helen Lady Forbes and the Misses Forbes, Lady Scott, Miss Scott and Mrs. Green, Lord Zouche and Hon. Miss Curzon, Mr. and Lady Constance Hadow, Hon. Lady Campbell, Lady William Nevill and Miss Bannerman, Hon. Alastair and Mrs. Hay, Hon. Miss Greville, Captain Hon. Randolph Stewart, Hon. FitzRoy and Mrs. Stewart, Hon. Charles Walsh, Hon. William Walsh, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs. Algernon Bourke]], Colonel Hon. Charles and Mrs. Hay and Miss Maude Hay, Hon. Mrs. Greville Nugent, Hon. Mrs. Colville and Miss Streatfeild [sic], Hon. Claude Hay, Sir Charles and Lady Forbes of Newe, Laely Borthwick, Sir Francis Montefiore, Sir Henry Hoare, Sir George Arthur, Sir William Gordon Cumming, General and Mrs. Wilkinson, Colonel and Mrs. Chaine, Colonel Arthur Paget, Colonel H. M. Hozier, the Provost of St. Ninian's, Major Finch, Major Candy, Colonel Lloyd, Captain and Mrs. Stewart, Mr. and Mrs. Hay Drummond, Captain and Mrs. Lloyd, Mr. William Gillett, Mr. Hulse, M.P., and Mrs. Hulse, Captain Lumley, Captain Barrow, Major Anstruther, Mrs. Hwfa Williams, Mr. Arthur Hay, Mr. Raglan Somerset, Mr. and Mrs. George Cavendish Bentinck, Mrs. Villiers, Mr. Henry Petre, Mrs. Keighley, Mrs. E. Balfour and Miss Balfour and Miss Ellice, Mrs. Dick Cunynghame and Miss A. M'Gregor, Rev. C. Weidemann, Miss Balfour and Miss E. Balfour, Mrs. and Miss Halford, Mr. and Mrs. Toler, Mrs. and Miss Townley, Rev. Dr. M'Ewan, Mr. A. F. Levita, Mr. F. Stephens, Mrs. and Miss Leigh, Mr. and Mrs. George Forbes and Miss Forbes, Mrs. Luke Wheeler, Mrs. J. Beerbohm, Dr. and Mrs. W. M. Collins, Mrs. and Miss Orde, Mrs. Murray, Miss Glyn, Mrs. Godfrey Pearse, Mr. Balfour, Mr. Leopold Goldberg, Mr. and Miss Oswa d [Oswald], Mr. and Mrs. C. Bulteel, Mrs. Brydges Wyllyams, Mr. H. Balfour, the Misses Codrington, Miss Finch, Mrs. Barron and Miss Sullivan, Mr. Hamilton Aidé, Mr. Granville and Miss Berkeley, Mr. M'Gregor, Mrs. and Miss Needham, Mr. and Mrs. A. Consett and Miss Consett, Mrs. Herbert Naylor LeyIand, Mr. and Mrs. A. Darby, Mrs. Montefiore, Mrs. Charles Murray and Miss Murray, Mrs. Thomas Legh, the Rev. John F. Mitchell, Mr. and Mrs. Claud Hay, Mr. Fiztalan Manners, Mr. Albert Stopford, Mr. Hervey Pechell, and Mr. and Mrs. Charles Orde. Later in the day Count Alexander Münster and his bride left for Hillingdon Court, Uxbridge, the residence of the Hon. A. Mills, where they will pass the early days of the honeymoon, and then proceed to Chàlet Sans Souci, Bellaggio, Lake of Como, lent by Mr. Hervey Pechell. They will afterwards go to Wiesbaden, and thence to Count Münster's German country seat, where a great reception awaits them. The wedding presents were very numerous. Count Munster presented the bride with a diamond necklace and pair of diamond drop hairpins. The bridegroom's gifts to his bride included a tiara of three diamond stars, a brooch formed of an emerald of unusual size set in diamonds, large pearl pendant, gold bracelet set with turquoises, and diamond and turquoise ring. The Duke of Beaufort presented Lady Muriel with an emerald and diamond bracelet. The Earl and Countess of Kinnoull's presents included a quantity of plate and other articles. Prince Henry of Battenberg sent a large silver-mounted claret jug; Count Bismarck, a silver box; the Marchioness of Waterford, gold snake bracelet, with pearl head and ruby eyes; the Duke and Duchess of Athole, diamond "M" bangle; Lady Ermyntrude Malet, massive silver bowl; Countess Marie Münster, silver tea set and tray; Baron E. Fürstenberg, pair of gold-mounted claret jugs; Baron and Baroness Erlanger, large silver bowl; Baron and Baroness Gungberg, pair of antique silver mounted jugs.<ref>"Marriage of Count Alexander Münster and Lady Muriel Hay." ''Morning Post'' 4 June 1890, Wednesday: 7 [of 12], Col. 7a–c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900604/064/0007. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> ===4 June 1890, Wednesday=== Derby Day. According to the Morning Post, <quote>Lady Thurlow's first dance. / Mrs. Coddington's Ball. / The Fourth of June celebration at Eton. / ... Royal Society of Literature — Paper on "Early England," by Mr. Carmichael, S. </quote> ("Arrangements for This Day." The Morning Post Wednesday, 4 June 1890: p. 7 [of 12], Col. 6A). ===13 June 1890, Friday=== ? or on the 12th? Arnold Dolmetsch had a concert at which his students performed (Campbell 31). It was reviewed very positively in the 13 June Daily Graphic, especially Helene Dolmetsch's performance. They did Purcell's Fairy Queen. They used a harpsichord. ===26 June 1890, Thursday=== There was apparently a regular celebration of [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Collins|Arthur Collins]]' birthday, 26 June, by Bret Harte, George Du Maurier, [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Sullivan|Arthur Sullivan]], Alfred Cellier, Arthur Blunt, and John Hare (Nissen, Axel. Brent Harte: Prince and Pauper: 239. [http://books.google.com/books?id=WEDewmUnapcC]). Choosing 1885–1902 as the dates because those apparently are the dates of the close relationship between Harte and Collins, ending in Harte's death in 1902. ==July 1890== ===3 July 1890, Thursday=== <blockquote>On July 3, 1890, Besant’s house at 19 Avenue Road, St. John’s Wood, was inaugurated as a new center of Theosophical work, serving as the European headquarters of the [[Social Victorians/Theosophical Society|Theosophical Society]] and as HPB’s residence. That house became also the meeting place of HPB’s Inner Group, twelve of her students who were eager for more intense training than was feasible in a larger, more general gathering.</blockquote>That Inner Group is different from the Esoteric Section.<ref>"Esoteric World Chapter 23." ''The Theosophical Society of America, Online Resources''. http://www.theosophical.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&catid=23&id=1725&Itemid=53</ref><blockquote>The hall had a seating capacity of about 200. On the opening night [July 3, 1890] [sic] the room was crammed, and many were unable to gain admission. The speakers were Mrs. Besant, Mr. Sinnett, a Mrs. Woolff (of America), and Mr. [Bertram] Keightley. HPB was present but said nothing, on account of the critical state of her health.<ref>"23a. Henry S. Olcott, July 1890, London [Olcott 1931, 4:254–6]." Esoteric World Chapter 23. ''The Theosophical Society of America, Online Resources''. http://www.theosophical.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&catid=23&id=1725&Itemid=53.</ref></blockquote> === 4 July 1890, Friday, 11 p.m. === ==== The Queen's State Ball at Buckingham Palace ==== The Prince and Princess of Wales were hosts of this ball, as Queen Victoria was not present. Many of the Queen's children and their spouses were present.<ref>"State Ball at Buckingham Palace." ''Morning Post'' 5 July 1890, Saturday: 5 [of 8], Col. 5a–7b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900705/038/0005. Same print title and p.</ref> The dancing commenced shortly after the Prince and Princess of Wales arrived at 11:00. === 1890 July 15, Tuesday === ==== Garden Party at Marlborough House to Meet the Queen ==== The beginning of the ''Morning Post'' article, which is followed by a very long list of people invited:<blockquote>Their Royal Highnesses the Prince and Princess of Wales gave a garden party at Marlborough House yesterday afternoon to meet the Queen. Her Majesty was accompanied by their Royal Highnesses the Princesses Victoria and Margaret of Prussia, and was attended by the Duchess of Roxburghe, Miss M'Neill, the Hon. Evelyn Moore, the Hon. Bertha Lambert, and Major-General Sir Henry Ewart and Major F. A. Bigge. Madlle. De Perpigna was in attendance on the Princesses Victoria and Margaret. The following were present: — Their Royal Highnesses the Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh and Prince Alfred, and the Princesses Marie, Victoria, Alexandra, and Beatrice of Edinburgh; their Royal Highnesses the Duke and Duchess of Connaught and Prince Arthur, and the Princesses Margaret and Patricia of Connaught; their Royal Highnesses the Prince and Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein Sonderburg-Augustenburg and Princess Victoria and Princess Louisa of Schleswig-Holstein, her Royal Highness the Princess Louise, Marchioness of Lorne, and the Marquis of Lorne. Her Royal Highness the Duchess of Albany, her Royal Highness the Princess Frederica and the Baron von Pawell-Rammingen, his Royal Highness the Duke of Cambridge, her Royal Highness Princess Mary Adelaide Duchess of Teck and his Highness the Duke of Teck and Princess Victoria of Teck, his Royal Highness the Duke d'Orleans and Princess Hélène d'Orleans, his Imperial Highness Don Pedro Augustus of Coburg and Braganza, his Serene Highness the Prince of Schaumburg-Lippe, his Serene Highness the Prince of Leiningen and their Serene Highnesses Prince and Princess Victor of Hohenlohe-Langenburg and the Countesses Gleichen, and Count Gleichen.<ref>"Garden Party at Marlborough House." ''Morning Post'' 15 July 1890, Tuesday: 5 [of 8], Col. 3a–7c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900715/044/0005. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> === 19 July 1890, Saturday === ==== Wedding of James Francis Harry St. Clair-Erskine and Violet Aline Vyner ==== This report from the ''Fife Free Press'' is missing a big piece of the 2nd paragraph, where the bridesmaids' and bride's dresses are described, because the page was damaged. The digitized copy is also generally poor.<blockquote>On Saturday forenoon, in Michael’s Church, Chester Square, London, was celebrated the marriage of Lord Loughhorough, eldest son of the Earl of Rosslyn with Miss Violet Aline Vyner, younger daughter of Mr R. C. Vyner, of Fairfield, Yorkshire. The chancel was beautifully decorated with palms and a profusion of lilies most artistically arranged. The Prince of Wales, Duke of Cambridge. Princess Mary Adelaide, Duchess and the Duke of Teck, and Princess Victoria, and the Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone were among those present. The wedding party began to arrive at 11 o’clock, the bridesmaids being early in attendance. They were the Ladies Sybil and Angela St Clair Erskine, sisters of the bridegroom; Lady Anne Lambton, Miss Musgrave, Miss Rachel Gurney, and Miss Fleming. They were charmingly dressed in soft cream crepon, with violet velvet Zoave jackets, forming half sleeves and capes at the back, and pretty turn-down collars and cravats of white mosseline [mousseline?] chiffon, and the skirts were very plainly made. They wore large white hats lined with a band of violet velvet near the face, and trimmed on the crown with white ostrich plumes, a bunch of violets fastening the brim at the back. Each wore a brooch — the St Clair cross in rubies and diamonds set in a circle of the latter, and surmounted by a baron’s cornet of the same precious stones — the gift of the bri[degroom]; and carried a bouquet of Marechal Niel [roses?] ...ging sprays of the same, and tied w... ribbons. The bride entered the ... eleven o’clock, being received at ... father, who led her to the cha... her away. The service be... procession was preceded up ... choir, who sang "The voic..." The bride’s dress was ... with a long court train, ... white velvet being embro... ...und the train, and fasten... ...ver true lover’s knot. The picture... ...gh silver waistband, had full slee... mousseline chiffon; and a small ... blossoms was most becomingly arra... with a long tulle veil. The Earl of Chesterfield discharged the duties of best man. The Rev. Canon Fleming, Chaplain in Ordinary to the Queen and Vicar of St Michael's, performed the marriage rite, assisted by the Rev. Edgar Sheppard, Sub-Dean of the Chapels Royal, and the Rev. J. Thomson, of Rosslyn, near Edinburgh. The hymn “Thine for ever! For of love,” was sung the end of the service. Canon Fleming afterwards delivered a most impressive address. After the benediction the clergy and bride and bridegroom passed to the vestry, the Prince of Wales following with Mrs Vyner. Pretty wedding favours of orange blossoms, Parma violets, and white heather were then distributed amongst the congregation. Mr and Mrs Vyner afterwards welcomed the wedding party at Ashburnham House, Dover-street. The ''dejeuner'' was served in three rooms, one being reserved for the bride and bridegroom and the Royal party. The table in the latter room was decorated with several of Mr Vynet's racing trophies. The band of the Grenadier Guards performed in the garden during the reception. The Prince of Wales, Duke of Cambridge, the Duke and Duchess of Teck and Princess Victoria were present at the breakfast, and among the general company were Count Munster and Countess Maria Munster, the Marchese and Marchesa de Montagliari, the Marquis and Marchioness of Ripon, the Marquis and Marchioness of Stafford, the Marquis of Cholmondeley, the Marquis of Northampton, Maria Marchioness of Ailesbury, the Dowager Marchioness of Conyngham and Lady Blanche Conyngham, the Marchioness of Downshire, the Countess of Rosslyn, Earl and Countess Compton, the Earl of Feversham, the Earl of Durham, the Countess of Coventry and the Ladies Coventry, Countess Howe and Ladies Curzon, the Countess of Yarborough, the Earl of Clonmell, the Earl and Countess of Loudoun, the Countess of Kilmorey, Countess de Grey, Viscount Molyneux, the Bishop of Gibraltar and Mrs Sandford, Viscountess de Labrosse and Mdles. de Labrosse, Lord Greenock, Lord and Lady Algernon Lennox, Lady Lilian Wemyss, Lady Julia Wombwell and Miss Wombwell, Hon. Lady Campbell of Blythswood, Lady Constance Harris, Lady Florence Harris, Lord and Lady Burghley, Lady Dorchester, Lord Houghton, Lady Curzon, Lady Brougham and Vaux and Miss Musgrave, Baron de Hirsch, Helen Lady Forbes and the Misses Forbes, Baroness Burdett Coutts and Mr Burdett Coutts, M.P., Lady Astley, Lord and Lady William Nevill, Lord and Lady Brooke and Hon. Leopold and Hon. Marjorie Greville, Lady Dalton Fitzgerald and Miss Payne, Lord Elcho, Lady Willoughby de Eresby and the Misses Willoughby, Lady Ewart, Lady Hindlip, Lady Cecilia Rose, Lord Rowton, Lord Capell, Lady Mabel Compton, Lord and Lady Herries, Lady Sykes, Lord and Lady Alwyne Compton, Lady Ventry and Hon. Miss de Moleyns, Hon. Lady Knollys, Lady Manners, Hon. Lady Drummond and Misses Drummond, Hon. Sydney Greville, Hon. Assheton Harbord, Hon. Derek Keppel, Hon. Captain Bourke, Hon. Mrs Percy Mitford, Hon. Philip Harbord, Hon. and Rev. L. Tyrwhitt, Hon. Coralie Glyn, Hon. M. Lambton, Hon L. Greville, Hon. Alwyn Greville, Hon[.] Eva Greville, Hon. Frances Dawnay, Hon Evelyn Paget, Hon Mrs Algernon Grosvcnor, Hon and Mrs Lambton. Hon. Mrs Evelyn Pelham, Hon. Fitzroy St Clair Erskine, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs Algernon Bourke]], Hon. W. Maxwell, Hon. G. and Mrs Dawnay, Hon. Captain Lambton, General Sir Seymour Blane, Sir William Gordon Cumming, Sir Archibald and Miss Edmunstone, Sir Henry and Lady Meysey Thompson, Mrs Gladstone, Mr and Lady Margaret Cameron, Mr and Lady Florence Astley, Mr and Lady Elizabeth Melville Cartwright and Miss Melville Cartwright, General and Mrs Duff and Miss Duff, General Owen Williams, Colonel and Mrs Anstruther Thompson, Colonel Stopford Sackville, Colonel Craig, Colonel Brabazon, Colonel Forester, Colonel Stanley Clarke (in attendance on the Prince of Wales) and Miss Clarke, Major Davidson, Canon and Mrs Fleming, Captain St John Mildmay (in attendance on the Duke of Cambridge), Captain and Mrs FitzGeorge, Mrs William Portal, the Sub Dean of the Chapels Royal, Rev. W. M. and Mrs Wollaston, Rev. R. West, Mr and Miss Chamberlain. Mr and Mrs W. H. Grenfell, Mr Christopher Sykes, M.P., Mr Reuben Sassoon, Mr Arthur Sassoon, Mrs Bischoffsheim, Mr and Mrs Herbert Naylor Leyland, Dr and Mrs Anderson, Mrs Oswald, Mr and Mrs Surtees, Mr Fitzgerald, Mr and Mrs Menzies, Miss Willoughby and Miss Gertrude Willoughby, Mr Arthur Paget, Miss Christie, Mr Dowdall, Mrs Eastwood and the Misses Eastwood, Mr Frederick Warre, Mr William Williamson, Mrs Burton, Mrs Chaine, Captain and Mrs Livesey Wardle, Captain A. R. Hill, Miss Helby, Mrs and Miss Winslow, Mr and Miss Oswald, Mr Willoughby, Mr Quintin Hume, Mr F and Miss Fitzherbert, Mrs and Miss F. Hotham, Mr and Mrs Moreton Frewin, Mrs Charles Otway, Mr Calcraft, Mr Watson, Mr Fennick, Mr Montgomery, Mr Cecil Murray, Mr and Mrs Sneyd, Mr Leslie Stephen, Mr Edgar Sebright, Miss Fleetwood Wilson, Mrs and Miss Farmer of Nonsuch, Mr and Mrs Dennistoun and Miss Dennistoun, Mr and Mrs J. R. Lane Fox and Miss Lane Fox, &c. The bride and bridegroom left early in the afternoon for Easton Lodge, Dunmow, the seat of Lord and Lady Brooke, in Essex, where they will spend the honeymoon. The bride travelled in a costume of biscuit coloured armure silk, the top of the bodice and sleeves being of pale pink mousseline de soie, and the lower part of the former inserted with pink velvet ribbons to form a high band, Tuscan straw-hat trimmed with pink crepe de chine, and biscuit feathers. The presents exceeded four hundred in number. The Prince of Wales presented the bride with a trefoil moonstone and diamond brooch and the bridegroom with a sapphire and diamond pin. The Princess of Wales's gift the bridegroom was a silver-necked claret jug. The Duke of Cambridge gave an amethyst and diamond pendant, and the bridegroom a pair of silver gilt candlesticks; and Princess Mary and the Duke of Teck presented the bride with a silver sugar basin. The bridegroom’s gifts to the bride were a diamond and sapphire watch bracelet, a diamond half-hoop ring, diamond brooch with pearl centre, diamond and turquoise brooch, formed of the St Clair badge in rubies and diamonds set in a circle of diamonds, surmounted by a baron’s coronet in the same precious stones, a large salts bottle with two heart-shaped moonstones set with rubies and diamonds and a silver sugar basin. The bride presented Lord Loughborough with a turquoise and diamond stud. The Earl of Rosslyn presented the bride with diamond necklet. The Countess of Rosslyn’s gifts were diamond orchid brooch and a pink feather fan. Mr R. C. Vyner’s gifts to his daughter were a diamond and pearl tiara and gold mounted dressing case, and Mrs Vyner gave her a sapphire and diamond ring. The Marchioness of Stafford gave a ruby and diamond pin; Lady Mary Vyner antique diamond tiara; the Ladies Angela and Sybil Erskine sapphire and diamond bracelet; Hon. Fitzroy St Clair Erskine with "1890" in rubies and diamonds; Lord and Lady A. Compton large diamond star; the Earl of Rosslyn presented his son with a large silver bowl and two silver dishes; the Countess of Rosslyn's present was a travelling bag; Mr Vyner gave him a luncheon basket; Mrs Vyner a silver ''entree'' dish; the Marchioness of Stafford case containing silver coffee and tea pots, urn and stand, sugar basin, and cream jug; Lord and Lady Brooke four antique silver sauce boats; Lord and Lady Algernon Gordon ['''Col. 1c–2a'''] Lennox three antique silver ''entree'' dishes. The Earl of Rosslyn's Fifeshire tenants presented Lord Loughborough with a beautiful antique silver bowl, two antique silver dessert dishes, and two antique sugar castors; and to the bride they gave an antique silver tea service. The congregation of Rosslyn Chapel presented the bridegroom with a complete and elegant writing set, whilst Lord Rosslyn's servants gave him a silver inkstand and pair of silver candlesticks. Mr Vyner's servants presented the bride with a silver salver and six ''liqueur'' cups. The servants of Newby Hall gave a silver coffee pot, and Mr Vyner’s Cheshire tenants presented a case containing silver tea pot, sugar basin, and cream jug. The bride also received from the Duchess of Portland a travelling bag; the Duchess de Luynes, sapphire and diamond ring; the Duke of Westminister, Indian necklace; the Marquis of Northampton, diamond bracelet; the Marquis of Ripon, sapphire and diamond bracelet; the Marchioness of Ripon, turquoise and diamond bangle, the Earl of Durham, a diamond half hoop bracelet; Earl and Countess Cowper, a diamond "V V” brooch; Dowager Viscountess Downe, moonstone and diamond crescent; Lady Skyes [Sykes] ruby and diamond fish brooch; Lady Millbank, sapphire and diamond brooch Lord Douglas Compton, double heart brooch; Lord Herbert Vane Tempest, gold curb chain bracelet set with pearls; Earl and Countess Compton, bangle with “Vi” and “good luck” on it; the Duke and Duchess of St Albans, tea service with table; the Marchioness Conyngham, silver cream jug; the Marchioness of Tavistock, silver vase; the Countess of Rodin, a silver I bowl; the Countess of Yarborough, silver candlesticks; Viscountess Downe, silver tea caddie; Lady de Trafford, gold mounted salts bottle; the Hon. F. Dawnay, large silver candlesticks[;] Hon. F and Lady Lampton, travelling clock; Hon. W. Lambton, silver candlesticks; Sir R. and Lady Graham, silver salver; Sir Roderick and Miss Cameron, two silver dishes; General Williams, diamond bangle; Colonel and Mrs G. FitzGeorge, gold mounted bottle; Major and Mrs Egerton, pair of silver candlesticks; Major Stuart Wortley, diamond Swallow; Major Davidson, heart-shaped brooch in coral and diamonds; Captain and Lady Cecilia Rose, a brougham; Mr Beaumont, silver bowl; Miss Edmonstone, moonstone and diamond hat pins; Mrs Harris, sapphire and diamond bracelet; Mr Egerton, turquoise and diamond brooch; Sir Cecil Murray, sapphire and diamond pin; Mr A. Farquharson, diamond swallow brooch; Mr and Mrs Hulse, two small silver vases; Miss Fleetwood Wilson, diamond bangle; Mrs A. Wilson, tortoiseshell candlestick; Mr Quintin Hume, salts bottle mounted with diamonds and rubies; Miss Helbert, gold violet pin; Mr Chamberlain, pair of silver candlesticks; Hon. Arthur Coventry, gold mounted bottle with "Vi" in diamonds; Mrs Leopold de Rothschild, diamond hand brooch, together with a number of other gifts. Among the presents to the bridegroom were — from the Marchioness of Downshire, antique silver sugar sifter; the Marquis of Exeter, silver sandwich case; the Marchioness of Bath, antique Dutch silver box; the Marquis of Downshire, a gold pencil; Count Munster, cigarette case and match box; Count Alexander Munster, a hunting flask; the Countess of Lindsay, antique silver pen-tray; the Earl of Mar and Kellie, silver matchbox; the Earl and Countess of Loudoun, silver cigarette box; the Earl of Chesterfield, antique silver gilt inkstand; the Countess of Bradford, gold seal with agate; the Countess of Warwick, antique silver bowl; the Earl of Coventry, silver pen-tray; the Countess of Wharncliffe, two silver candlesticks; the Earl and Countess of Cromartie, two antique silver cups; Viscountess of Newport, silver paper knife; Mr and Mrs A. Sassoon, ruby and diamond pin; Lord John Cecil, silver salver; Lord and Lady Willoughby de Eresby, antique silver-mounted cruet stand; Lord William Nevtll, antique brandy carrier; Lady Margaret Spicer, silver match box; Lord Burghley, four silver salt cellars and spoons; Baron de Hirch [Hirsch?], silver inkstand; Lady W. E. Osborne Elphinstone, silver inkstand; Lord Kesteven, silver cream jug; Lord Capell, silver cigarette case; Lord and Lady Gerard, tortoiseshell and silver travelling clock; Lady Lilian Wemyss, silver cigarette case; Dad Alwyne Compton, umbrella containing matchbox and whistle; Lord and Lady Lennox, two antique silver ''entree'' dishes and bacon dish; Lord Burghersh, silver cigarette lighter; Lady Angela 8t Clair Erskine, four silver salt cellars; Lady Randolph Churchill, gold pencil case, with two sapphires; Lord Houghton, antique gold basket; Lady Sybil St Clair Erskine, umbrella; Lord and Lady Dorchester, large crystal seal; Hon. Derek P. Keppel, pair of silver candlesticks; Hon. E. and Mrs Pelham, silver inkstand; Hon. G. N. Curzon, silver gilt bowl; Hon. F. St Clair Erskine, four silver candle-sticks; [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. A. and Mrs Bourke]], four small silver dessert dishes; Hon. Mrs Elliot Yorke, pair of silver candlesticks; Hon. Mr and Mrs L. Greville, tortoise-shell and silver box; Hon. R Somerset, diamond and pearl pin; Hon. G. H. Willoughby, silver ink-stand; Hon. H. and Mrs Grosvenor, umbrella; [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs Algernon Bourke]], enamel and diamond pin; Captain Hon. Maurice Bourke, cigarette case and lighter; Hon. W. Maxwell, silver-backed clothes and hat brushes; Hon. Sidney Greville, saltspoons; Hon. M. C. Maxwell Scott, two silver ''menu'' plates; Hon. W. Edwardes, pin; [[Social Victorians/People/Greville|Captain Hon. A.]] and [[Social Victorians/People/Lady Violet Greville|Mrs Greville]], silver gilt bowl, fork, spoon, and ladle; Sir Frederick Milner, diamond and moonstone pin; Sir George Chetwynd, two long silver flagons; Sir M. and Lady Fitzgerald, two silver saltspoons; Sir N. Gordon Gumming, silver-handled paper knife, &c.<ref>"Marriage of Lord Loughborough with Miss Vyner." ''Fife Free Press'' 26 July 1890, Saturday: 2 [of 8], Col. 1a–2b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001110/18900726/015/0002. Same print title and p.</ref> </blockquote> === 24 July 1890, Thursday === ==== Dinner and Dance Hosted by Lord Alington ==== Perhaps the date on this is uncertain, since the article in ''Truth'' would suggest it was held in late May or early June. The newspaper story in the ''Queen'' mentions another occasion in which the flowers were notable as well. From ''Truth'':<blockquote> But not a quarter of a mile distant [from a dinner and dance hosted by Lord Rothschild featuring Princess Louise and the Marquis of Lorne] a more important event was proceeding, for Lord Alington, having previously walked down the Row and invited his friends right and left to Alington House, South Audley-street, proceeded to give a dance which was honoured by the presence of the Prince and Princess of Wales, the Princesses Victoria and Maud, the Duke of Clarence, Princess Mary Adelaide, and Princess "May" and Prince and Princess Christian. This without exaggeration, with the exception of Lady Leconfield's, Lady Willoughby de Eresby's, and Lady Cadogan's, was the best ball hitherto given this season, and the prolific way ortolans [small songbirds regarded as a delicacy] were distributed at supper will long linger in the memories of those by whom these delicacies are cherished. One lady displayed her enthusiastic appreciation by devouring five of these, and it is to be hoped her devotion did not endanger her life. As for beauty, seldom before have so many pre-eminent for good looks been present at one gathering, as a mere enumeration of a few of these will prove. Of course the Duchess of Leinster heads the list, followed in quick succession by the Duchess of Portland, Lady de Grey, Lady Randolph Churchill, Lady Dudley, Lady Kilmorey, Lady Brooke, Lady de Trafford, Lady Helen Duncombe, Lady Hilda Dundas, Lady Sybil St. Clair Erskine, Lady Olivia Taylour, Miss Rachael Gurney, Lady Cardross, Miss Bourke, Lady Rose Leigh and her sister-in-law, Miss Leigh, Miss Berens (sister to Lady Cairns), Mrs. Ralph Sneyd, Lady Gerard, and a host of others far too numerous to mention. I often wonder that no painter has yet attempted to give us in one picture a permanent record of the chief beauties of our day. It would make a most interesting and exquisite group of lovely women, such as could not be found probably in any other country than this.<ref>Marmaduke, pseud. "Letters from the Linkman." ''Truth'' 12 June 1890, Thursday: 26 [of 56], Col. 1a–b [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002961/18900612/064/0026. Same print title, p. 1212.</ref></blockquote> From the ''Queen'':<blockquote>The P<small>RINCE AND</small> P<small>RINCESS OF</small> W<small>ALES</small> and the Princesses Victoria and Maud honoured L<small>ORD</small> A<small>LINGTON</small> by their presence at D<small>INNER</small>, at A<small>LINGTON</small> H<small>OUSE</small>, South Audley-street, on the 24th ult., when a distinguished party was present to meet them, including, among others, the Duke and Duchess of Leinster, the Marquis of Hartington, the Marquis and Marchioness of Ormonde, Maria Marchioness of Ailesbury, Earl and Countess Cadogan and Lady Emily Cadogan, the Earl Countess of Lucan and Lady Rosaline Bingham, the Earl of Hardwicke, the Countess of Dudley and Lady Edith Ward, the EarI of Chesterfield, the Earl of Stradbroke and Lady Hilda Rous, and Earl Annesley. Covers were laid for sixty. Lord Alington afterwards gave a dance to meet the Prince and Princess of Wales and their daughters. As on the previous occasion, the floral decorations were exquisite. The entrance hall and the approaches to the reception rooms were decorated with tall palms and a profusion of lilies, pelargoniums, ferns in every variety, and roses in every imaginable shade. The conservatories at the back were carpeted and furnished luxuriously, and blocks of ice, lighted by fairy lamps, were placed about with artistic effect, serving to keep the atmosphere cool and fresh. Feathery palms, hydrangeos [hydrangeas] and arums were here used freely, and a particularly pretty result was obtained by the windows being framed, one in a fringe of ferns and red pelargoniums, and the other in ferns and fuschias. The ballroom fireplaces were adorned on each side with palms reaching to the ceiling, the mantelpieces being hidden by a delicate arrangement of roses in various shades springing from banks of hydrangeas, calceolarias, pelargoniums, and marguerites, and the walls of the staircase leading from the conservatory to the ball-room were hung with half-balls of floral roses. The supper was served in the dining-room, the tables being embellished with the loveliest orchids and roses of the most delicate tints, intermixed with pancretia; the arrangement was so light and elegant that it was difficult to believe that hands had ever touched the flowers. On those tables with silver candelabra in the centre, the flowers were all pure white, and those having gold candelabra were treated with mauve orchids and the palest pink and yellow roses. A tent, arranged near the conservatory for the Prince of Wales, was draped with Oriental hangings, and outside were groups of flowers and myriads of fairy lamps. The company began to arrive at eleven o'clock, when dancing commenced to the strains of the Blue Hungarian Band. The Princess of Wales was dressed in white striped satin and silk, the front being embroidered in pale shades, and wore handsome diamond ornaments. The Princesses Victoria and Maud wore white tulle over satin, the front being sprinkled all over with tiny sprays of lilies of the valley, each laid on a single leaf. The Duchess of Wellington was in black satin, with a pink sash arranged very prettily across the back of the bodice, and falling to the feet; a cluster of pink flowers and a beautiful diamond spray were fastened in the front of the bodicea and a diamond rivière was arranged in the hair, a diamond necklace being also worn. The Duchess of Westminster was in white satin trimmed with gold embroidery, and veiled in white chiffon. The Marchioness of Ormonde wore white striped brocade and satin trimmed with white lace, and a splendid diamond tiara and other ornaments. Countess de Grey, palest blue satin, with front beautifully embroidered in beads, and a diamond and pearl coronet. Maria, Marchioness of Ailesbury, white brocade and lace, with splendid diamond and emerald ornaments. The Marchioness of Bath, cream an violet brocaded velvet, the front being covered with mauve [38, Col. 3c – 39, Col. 1a] violets. Lady Mary Mills, rose-pink satin, with front richly embroidered; Lady Cardross, white satin, trimmed round the bodice and train with silver embroidery; Lady William Nevill, pale yellow brocade, the front veiled with black net, trimmed up the side with jet leaves, and all round the skirt was a bordering of Maréchal Niel roses, over a flounce of black net; Countess Granville wore rich white brocade and beautiful jewels; the Countess of Sefton, black satin and diamonds; Viscountess Dungan, white mousseline de soie, the skirt edged with a deep flounce; Lady Brooke, pale blue satin, trimmed with silver; Lady Emma Crichton, white satin train, with front of white lisse, prettily embroidered in red; Lady Idina Brassey, pale mauve bengaline, with front of chiffon and a handsome diamon coronet; Lady Rose Molyneux, white cross crêpe de Chine, with a pale green sash, and prettily trimmed with pink roses; Lady Wimborne, pale grey satin; the Hon. Miss Guest, pink satin, veiled with white net, sparkling with silver; Lady Sarah Spencer Churchill, white satin, with a chiffon frill; Lady Chesham, white silk, with pink roses; the Countess of Normanton, pale grey satin, with front of fine old lace; Mrs Hulse, handsome white brocade, diamond tiara, &c.; Mrs Bischoffsheim, white silk, embroidered with silver, and trimmed round the bottom of the skirt and train with a ruche of pale yellow crèpe; the Hon. Muriel Brassey, white chiffon, over satin, slightly trimmed with pink; and the [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs Algernon Bourke]] was in pink, with magnificent diamonds.<ref>"Entertainments, Balls, &c." ''The Queen'' 2 August 1890, Saturday: 38, Col. 3c – 39 [of 82], Col. 1a–1c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0002627/18900802/237/0038 and https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002627/18900802/237/0039. Print: ''The Queen, The Lady's Newspaper'', pp. 170–171.</ref></blockquote>This is the story from the ''Morning Post'':<blockquote>The Prince and Princess of Wales and the Princesses Victoria and Maud honoured Lord Alington by their company at dinner last evening at Alington House, South Audley-street. The guests present to meet their Royal Highnesses comprised the Duke and Duchess of Leinster, the Marquis of Hartington, the Marquis and Marchioness of Ormonde, Maria Marchioness of Ailesbury, Earl and Countess Cadogan and Lady Emily Cadogan, the Earl and Countess of Lucan and Lady Rosaline Bingham, the Earl of Hardwicke, the Countess of Dudley and Lady Edith Ward, the Earl of Chesterfield, Earl Annesley, the Earl of Stradbroke and Lady Hilda Rous, Lord and Lady Gerard, Lady Norreys, Lord Rowton, Lord Calthorpe, Lord Frederick Hamilton, Lord Charles Montagu, Lord Herbert Vane Tempest, Lord Arthur Grosvenor, Lady Lilian Wemyss, Colonel the Hon. Oliver Montagu, Sir John and Lady Lister Kaye, the Hon. Humphrey and Lady Feodore Sturt, the Hon. John Baring, the Hon. Henry and the Hon. Julia Stonor, the Hon. Gilbert Willoughby, Lady Suffield and Major-General Ellis, in waiting on the Prince and Princess of Wales; Sir Henry Calcraft, Mr. and Lady Rose Leigh, General and Mrs. Owen Williams, Mr. Mildmay, M.P., Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Sassoon, Mr. Montague Guest, Captain Orr-Ewing, Mrs. Bulkeley, Mr. Ricardo, and Mr. Caryl Craven. Lord Alington afterwards gave a dance expressly to meet the Prince and Princess of Wales. Among the company were— The Russian Ambassador, the Danish Minister, Prince Louis Esterhazy, Comte Costa de Beaunyardt, the Duchess of Buccleuch and Lady Evelyn Fitzmaurice, the Duchess of Westminster, the Dowager Duchess of Marlborough and Lady Sarah Spencer Churchill, the Duchess of Wellington and Lady Cardross, the Marquis and Marchioness of Granby and Miss Bourke, the Marchioness of Stafford and Lady Sybil St. Clair Erskine, the Marchioness of Bath and Lady Beatrice Thynne, the Marquis of Cholmondeley, the Marquese and Marquesa de Santurce and Lady Wilham Nevill, Countess Spencer, Countess Granville and Lady Victoria Leveson-Gower, Countess de Grey, the Earl of Dunraven, the Countess of Lathom and Lady Edith Wilbraham, the Countess of Enniskillen and Lady Christian Cole, the Earl of Ilchester, the Earl of Durham and Lady Anne Lambton, the Earl of Dalkeith and Lord Ernest Scott, the Countess of Sefton and Lady Rose Molyneux, Countess Howe and the Ladies Curzon, the Countess of Normanton and Lady Mary Agar and Miss Mary Liddell, Earl Craven, Viscount Clifden, Viscount Ennismore and Lady Beatrice Hare, Viscount Coke and the Hon. Violet White, Viscount and Viscountess Castlerosse and the Hon. Susan Baring, Viscountess Newport and the Hon. Miss Bruce, Viscount and Viscountess Melgund, Viscount and Viscountess Curzon, Viscount and Lady Violet Dangan and Lady Eva Wellesley, Viscount Dungarvan, Viscount Chelsea, Viscount Royston, Lady Hastings, Lord Capell, Lord and Lady Willoughby de Eresby and Hon. Margaret Willoughby, Lady Cloncurry and Hon. Miss Winn, Lord and Lady Brooke, Lady Wimborne and Hon. Miss Guest, Lord Sandhurst, Lord and Lady Edmund Talbot, Lord and Lady Alwyne Compton and Miss Gurney, Lord and Lady Chesham, Lady Rossmore and Miss Naylor, Lord Kenyon, Lord Garioch, Lady Alice Portal, Lady Margaret Levett and the Ladies Ashley, Lady W. Nevill, Lord Paulet, Lady Charles Beresford, Lady Forbes and Misses Forbes, Lady Claud Hamilton, Lord Carlow, Lady Mary Mills, Lord Lurgan, Lord Henry Vane Tempest, Lord and Lady Algernon Gordon Lennox, Lord Richard Nevill, the Hon. W. Coventry, the Hon. G. Joliffe, the Hon. Schomberg M'Donnell, the Hon. H. Coventry, Captain the Hon. E. Dawson, the Hon. Alistair and Mrs. Hay, the Hon. Mrs. Grosvenor, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|the Hon. Algernon and Mrs. Bourke]], the Hon. F. Dawnay, the Hon. E. J. Mills, the Hon. A. Johnstone, the Hon. Claude Hay, the Hon. Sidney Greville, the Hon. Mr. Dundas and Lady Hilda Dundas, the Hon. Thomas and Lady Idina Brassey and the Hon. Muriel Brassey, the Hon. Mr. Mansfield, Colonel the Hon. Henry Byng and Miss Byng, the Hon. Mrs. Oliphant, the Hon. Mr. Harbord, the Right Hon. Henry Chaplin, M.P., the Hon. G. Somerset, Sir William Gordon Cumming, Sir George Arthur, Sir Hubert Miller, Sir Charles Forbes, Sir William and Lady Eden, Sir George Chetwynd, Sir Frederick Johnstone, Sir John D. Poynder, Colonel and Lady Emma Crichton, the Hon. Miss Harbord, Captain and Lady Jane Combe, Colonel Paget, Captain Williams, Captain Ford, Captain Doyle, Captain Hanbury, Captain Campbell, Captain Constable, Captain Kinloch, Captain Longfield, M. Gutmansthal, Mrs. Bingham, Mr. Guthrie, Mrs. Arthur Paget, Mrs. Charles Wilson and Miss Wilson, Mr. Hulse, M.P., and Mrs. Hulse, Mr. de Murrieta, Mrs. Bischoffsheim, Mr. Spencer Portal, Mr. and Mrs. Gerald Paget, Mr. Leigh and Miss Leigh, Mr. Percy Daniell, Mr. Lister, Mr. Frederick Vincent, Mr. Cazalet, Mr. Alfred de Rothschild, Mr. John Savile Lumley, Mr. and Mrs Leopold de Rothschild, Mr. and Mrs. Skeffington Smith and Miss Taylor, Mrs. George Cavendish Bentinck, Mr. Alfred Farquhar, [[Social Victorians/People/Fanny Ronalds|Mr. Reginald Ronalds]], Miss Alice Ellice, Mr. George Marjoribanks, Mr. Wyndham, Mr. Dugdale, Mr. Montagu, Mrs. Sneyd, Mr. Wynn, Mr. Edward Hamilton, Mr. Murray Guthrie, Mr. George Lambert, Mrs. Sanford, Miss Mabel Forbes. Mr. Herbert Magniac, Mr. Bailey, Mr. Milner, Mr. Charles Kindersley, Mr. Beaumont, Mr. Walter Hervey, Mr. H. Hoare, Mr. Foley, Mr. Scott Murray, Mr. Coventry, Mr. Bertie, Mr. Jarvis, Mr. Guthrie, Mr. George Cavendish Bentinck, Mr. E. Charteris, Mr. Cholmondeley, Mr. Oswald Magniac, Mr. Cecil Campbell, Mr. and Mrs. Henry Oppenheim, Mr. Peploe, Mr. A. Charteris, Mr. Seymour Gore, Mr. Robert Antrobus, Mr. Elliot, M. de Champs, Mr. Wombwell, Mr. Charles Hoare, M.P., and many others.<ref>"Lord Alington's Ball." ''Morning Post'' 25 July 1890, Friday: 3 [of 8], Col. 5 b–c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900725/014/0003. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> ==August 1890== ===6 August 1890, Friday=== ==== Beautiful Women ==== The ''Lancaster Observer and Morecambe Chronicle'' reprinted a story from ''Vanity Fair'' about "Beautiful Women":<blockquote>Beautiful Women. — ''Vanity Fair'' asks what country in the world can show a more beautiful bevy of women than England? When Lady Helen Vincent, with her sister, Lady Cynthia Graham; when Lady Warwick with her sisters, the Duchess of Sutherland and Lady Westmorland; and when Lady Mar and Kellie, Lady de Trafford, Princess Pless, Lady de Gray[,] Lady Naylor-Leyland, the Duchess of Portland, Lady Alington, Lady Sophie Scott, Lady Chelsea, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Lady Algernon Bourke]], Lady Henry Bentinck, Mrs. Willie Grenfell, Mrs. Rupert Beckett, Mrs. Arthur Paget, and Countess Clary are gathered together it is a sight to make an old man young; while Mrs. Gerard Leigh and her sister, Lady Yarborough, and Lady Powis, Lady Norreys, Mrs Farquharson, Mrs. Willie James, Lady Dalkeith, Mrs. Pretyman, Mrs. Gervase Beckett, Lady Rossmore, Lady Sarah Wilson, Lady Colebrook, Lady Hartopp, Mrs. Willie Walker, and Lady Milton are almost equally admired. The many pretty girls include Miss Enid and Miss Muriel Wilson, who still head the list of the unmarried beauties, Lady Beatrice Butler, Lady Alexandra Hamilton, Miss Kennard, Miss Madeline Bourke, and Miss Leila Crichton; while among the debutantes Lady Evelyn Crichton and Lady Vivian's daughters have had a great success, and Lady Alice Montagu, petite and charmingly pretty, has been so much admired. The daughters of Lady Gosford, Lady Verulam, Lady Leitrim, Lady Inchiquin, and Lady Grey have also been admired, as well as Lady Helen Stewart, Lady Katherine Scott, and Miss Chaplin.<ref>"Beautiful Women." ''Lancaster Observer and Morecambe Chronicle'' 6 August 1897, Friday: 2 [of 8], Col. 5b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001804/18970806/023/0002. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> ===25 August 1890, Monday=== Summer Bank Holiday ==September 1890== ==October 1890== ===22 October 1890, Wednesday=== Arnold Dolmetsch went to the Reading Room (Campbell 22). ===25 October 1890, Saturday=== [[Social Victorians/Loder De Vere Beauclerk Wedding|Loder—De Vere Beauclerk Wedding]] ===31 October 1890, Friday=== Halloween. ==November 1890== ===5 November 1890, Wednesday=== Guy Fawkes Day ===19 November 1890, Wednesday=== Arnold Dolmetsch, with some of his students and his daughter Helene, provided musical illustrations for a lecture given by Dr. Frederick Bridge on "Mozart as Teacher," probably at Gresham College, where Bridges was professor (Campbell 34). ===21 November 1890, Friday=== Dr. Frederick Bridge's last fall 1890 lecture at Gresham College, for which Dolmetsch provided illustration. Campbell says, "it is, in fact, the first record in modern times of music by Byrd, Dr. Bull, Jenkins, Simpson, Lawes, Locke and Purcell being played 'on the instruments for which it was written'" (Campbell 34). ===25 November 1890, Tuesday=== Arnold Dolmetsch got a three-month pass to the Reading Room and "thereafter held yearly tickets until 1916" (Campbell 22). ==== 1890 November 29, Saturday ==== ===== [[Social Victorians/Dudley-Beckwith Wedding 1890-11-29|Wedding of Francis Dudley, Lord Leigh and Héléne Forbes Beckwith]] ===== ==December 1890== Sometimes in December 1890, [[Social Victorians/People/William Robert Woodman|William Woodman]], one of the founding members of the [[Social Victorians/Golden Dawn|Golden Dawn]], died (Gilbert 86 12). === 4 December 1890, Thursday === ==== [[Mure-Portal Wedding 1890-12-04|Wedding of Miss Mure and Mr. S. J. Portal]] ==== ===19 December 1890, Friday=== "The eleventh annual ''Truth'' Toy Exhibition for the children in London hospitals, workhouses, and infirmaries was held at the Grosvenor Gallery, Bond-street, on Dec. 19 and 20. There are over 22,000 children in these institutions, and each of them has a separate toy, besides the large and more expensive toys which are presented for the general use of the inmates. A special feature of the show was the dolls dressed by lady readers of ''Truth''. Several special donations in connection with the fund have been made, the principal of which is that of 10,200 new sixpences sent for distribution by the same liberal donor who has given a similar present on former occasions; while Mr. Tom Smith has had specially made, and has forwarded for distribution, over 22,000 crackers; and Mr. Horniman (as stated in our last issue) has given to the adults in hospitals and workhouses 1200 packets of tea, to be given to them as Christmas boxes." (Illustrated London News (London, England), Saturday, December 27, 1890; pg. 806; Issue 2697, Col. B) ===20 December 1890, Saturday=== "In order that the adults connected with the hospitals and workhouses may participate in the good things given to the children in the ''Truth'' toy distribution, Mr. F. J. Horniman, of Wormwood-street, City, has sent Mr. Labouchere 1200 packets of tea to be given to them as a Christmas box." (Illustrated London News (London, England), Saturday, December 20, 1890; pg. 774; Issue 2696, Col. B) From the ''Times'', 22 December 1890, "The Late Sir Edgar Boehm": <blockquote>On Saturday, in accordance with the special request of the Queen, the late Sir Edgar Boehm, R.A., was buried in St. Paul’s Cathedral, in the south aisle of the crypt, the spot being known as “The Painters Corner.” [new paragraph] The funeral cortége left the residence of the deceased at about 11 o’clock, there being five mourning and several private carriages. In the first carriage were the chief mourners, Sir Edgar Collins Boehm, the only son of the late baronet, and Mr. Conrad Herapath. The second and third carriages were occupied by Sir Frederic Leighton, P.R.A., Sir Nigel Kingscote, Mr. Richard Mills, Colonel Francis Baring, Mr. Alma-Tadema, R.A., Sir R. H. Collins, Mr. Edward J. Poynter, R.A., and Mr. Duncan MacGregor, all of whom subsequently, at the cathedral, acted as pall bearers. The fourth carriage contained representatives of the Council of the Royal Academy – Mr. Edwin Long, R.A., Mr. J. B. Burgess, R.A., Mr. F. Goodall, R.A., and Mr. Beavis. In the fifth carriage were the following members of the professional staff of the deceased – Mr. R. Glassby, Mr. E. Lantéri, Signor Finili, and Herr Gross. The cortége stopped for a few moments at the Royal Academy, in order that it might be joined by two carriages containing other representatives of the institution. Leaving Piccadilly, the route taken was Waterloo-place, Pall-mall, Cockspur-street, the Strand, Fleet-street, and Ludgate-hill, the cathedral being reached about noon. The procession was met at the great west door by Canon Gregory, the Archdeacon of London, the Rev. Dr. Baker, Minor Canons Milman, Russell, and Kelly, and the choir, who had a few minutes previously left the vestry; by Major Bigge, Equerry to the Queen, representing her Majesty; Colonel Stanley Clarke, who attended on behalf of the Prince and Princess of Wales; and Colonel W. J. Colville, representing the Duke of Edinburgh. The [[Social Victorians/People/Princess Louise|Princess Louise]] (Marchioness of Lorne) attired in deep mourning, and accompanied by [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Collins|Lieut.-Col. Arthur Collins]] and Lady Sophia Macnamara, arrived at the cathedral a few minutes before 12 o’clock, and was conducted to a seat in the south side of the nave, close to the late Sir Edgar Boehm’s two daughters, upon whom her Royal Highness had called earlier in the morning. As the procession came slowly up the nave towards the chancel, “I am the resurrection of life” and other sentences of the burial service were chanted to music by Dr. Croft. The coffin, which was completely hidden by splendid wreaths, was preceded by the choristers and the clergy. Then followed Sir E. C. Boehm, with Mr. Conrad Herapath and Mr. Alfred Gilbert, A.R.A., the officers and council of the Royal Academy, and members of the deceased’s studio. The coffin was deposited upon a bier, which had been placed under the dome in front of the opening into the crypt, through which the body was subsequently lowered. The mourners having been conducted to the seats which had been reserved for them, and the clergy and choir having proceeded to their places in the chancel, Psalms xxxix. and xc. Were sung to music by Purcell and Felton, followed by Spohr’s anthem, “Blest are the departed,” and the lesson 1 Cor. Xv. 20, which was read by Canon Gregory. Whilst the hymn “Days and moments quickly flying” was being sung the Archdeacon of London and Minor Canon Milman proceeded from the chancel and took up positions by the side of the coffin. The remainder of the service preceding and following the lowering of the body into the crypt was read by Minor Canon Milman, and the collect was impressively recited by Archdeacon Sinclair. The late Dr. Newman’s beautiful hymn, “Lead kindly light,” was afterwards sung by the choir, and the service was brought to a close by Beethoven’s Funeral March, which was played in compliance with the special request of her Majesty, at whose desire also Chopin’s Funeral March had preceded the service. Dr. Martin was the organist. While Beethoven’s march was being played the son and daughters of the late “Sculptor in ordinary to her Majesty,” together with other mourners, descended the crypt by the door near Howard’s monument, and saw the coffin for the last time. It bore the following inscription:- “Joseph Edgar Boehm. Born July 6, 1834; died at his work December 12, 1890. Thy will be done.” The coffin had already been deposited in the brick grave prepared for it, which is next to that of Sir Edwin Landseer. Immediately around it lie the remains of painters and sculptors of bygone days – Sir Joshua Reynolds, James Barry, Benjamin West, Henry Fuseli, Sir Thomas Lawrence, J. M. W. Turner, and John Henry Foley, while within half-a-dozen yards is the tomb of the great architect of the cathedral, Sir Christopher Wren. The coffin as last seen was covered by the floral tributes of loving friends, the symbolic laurel wreath forwarded by her Majesty surmounting them. This bore the inscription, “A tribute of gratitude for many beautiful memorial works executed for her. From Victoria, R. I.” Attached to the beautiful wreath sent by the Prince and Princess of Wales were the words, “A token of sincere regard and friendship.” Wreaths were forwarded by other members of the Royal Family, by Sir John and Lady Millais, Lord and Lady Reay, the Countess Sydney, Lord and Lady de Vesci, Mr. Henry Irving, Mr. and Mrs. Bancroft, by members of the council, students and officers of the Royal Academy, the Society of Artistic Sculptors (Vienna), and by the London Hungarian Association." (http://glassby.com/Chapter1.htm) </blockquote> ===24 December 1890, Wednesday=== "The people of South London and adjacent suburbs have to be grateful to Mr. Frederick Horniman, a well-known City merchant residing at Dulwich, for a munificent and beneficial Christmas gift. This gentleman has, during thirty years, formed a collection, worth above £100,000, of specimens of art, European, Indian, Chinese, and Japanese, also of decorative manufactures, and of ethnology and natural history, and rare books and manuscripts, at Surrey House, Forest Hill, which he intends to present to the public. The museum was opened by Sir Morell Mackenzie on Wednesday afternoon, Dec. 24. It already comprises twenty-four rooms, containing many beautiful specimens of horse and chain armour, Elizabethan bed-room furniture, an old English parlour and pantry, an Oriental armoury, a bible and manuscript room, an Egyptian gallery, and ethnographical saloon, a book and embroidery saloon, a porcelain and glass room, and a zoological saloon, with two live Russian bears and a monkey. We may describe the museum further, after another visit. Our Artist has sketched, in the ethnograhical saloon, an idol's shrine, made of cocoanut-fibre, from Fiji. Mr. Horniman, in acknowledging a vote of thanks, said that in an adjoining house he had accumulated a vast library of bibles and entomological works and specimens. It was his intention to build a hall at the back of the present building to contain a thousand persons, while the galleries would contain a library, and a stage would be provided, so that both eye and ear could be amused. He also contemplated buying sufficient land to enable a public body to erect class-rooms and gymnasia. Three cheers were given for Mr. Horniman, and the company proceeded to inspect the museum." "(Mr. F. Horniman's Museum, Forest Hill." Illustrated London News (London, England), Saturday, January 03, 1891; pg. 7; Issue 2698, Col. C) ===25 December 1890, Thursday=== Christmas Day ===26 December 1890, Friday=== Boxing Day ==Works Cited== *"Besant Chronology.pdf." From Anderson, Nancy Fix, Walter L Arnstein, Deborah Logan, and Susie L Steinbach, Volume Editors. Lives of Victorian Political Figures, Part III: Queen Victoria, Florence Nightingale, Annie Besant and Millicent Garrett Fawcett by their Contemporaries. Volume 3 of Lives of Victorian Political Figures. Series Editors, Nancy LoPatin-Lummis and Michael Partridge. London: Pickering and Chatto, 2008. *Crawford, Elizabeth. The Women’s Suffrage Movement: A Reference Guide, 1866–1928. Google Books. Accessed 14 October 2010. n7f4vrvf3jr9g6rys8sxj3oe8xzgsjv 0 264381 2841746 2840727 2026-10-20T20:08:07Z Scogdill 1331941 2841746 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Viscount Mandeville Vanity Fair 1882-04-22.jpg|alt=Old drawing for a magazine of an aristocratic man in a formal suit|thumb|"Kim," Viscount Mandeville, 1882]] == Overview == The Mandeville who was in a relationship with music-hall and vaudeville star Bessie Bellwood was Kim (George Victor Drogo) Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester (17 June 1853 – 18 August 1892). He was Viscount Mandeville from 18 August 1855 (when his grandfather died) to 22 March 1890 (when his father died).<ref name=":1" /> When he succeeded to the dukedom in 1890, he ended his relationship with Bellwood. His father was the 7th Duke and his mother was [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louise Cavendish]], "double Duchess" of [[Social Victorians/People/Manchester|Manchester]] and then [[Social Victorians/People/Devonshire|Devonshire]]. In 1882 Viscount Mandeville (right) was "Man of the Day" (#255) for ''Vanity Fair'', drawn by Leslie Ward ("Spy").<ref>"Viscount Mandeville Vanity Fair 1882-04-22.jpg." Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Viscount_Mandeville_Vanity_Fair_1882-04-22.jpg (retrieved 8 September 2026).</ref> Kim Montagu, Lord Mandeville ended the relationship with Bessie Bellwood sometime during 1890, presumably after acceding to the dukedom. In November of 1890, his son secretly married Helena Zimmerman. == Also Known As == *Family name: Montagu *The title Viscount Mandeville is a courtesy title for the heir apparent and eldest son of the [[Social Victorians/People/Manchester |Duke of Manchester]]. This title is one of only 2 (for the heir apparent of a duke) that is below the rank of Earl (the other is the heir apparent of the Duke of Somerset). (Is Mandeville a toponym?) *Viscount Mandeville **"Kim" (George Victor Drogo) Montagu [8th Duke], (18 August 1855 – 22 March 1890) **[[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drogo Montagu]], 9th Duke (22 March 1890 – 18 August 1892) **Alexander George Francis Drogo Montagu (2 October 1902 – 9 February 1947)<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-15|title=Alexander Montagu, 10th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Montagu,_10th_Duke_of_Manchester&oldid=983660353|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> *Viscountess Mandeville **Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu [8th Duchess] (22 May 1876 – 22 March 1890) **Helena Zimmerman Montagu (14 November 1890 – 18 August 1892) *Lord Kimbolton (Baron Kimbolton of Kimbolton is the courtesy title for the heir presumptive, the heir apparent's eldest son, so the son of Viscount Mandeville<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-09-21|title=Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Duke_of_Manchester&oldid=1375987697|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>) ** [[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drogo Montagu]], 9th Duke (1877 – 22 March 1890) == Acquaintances, Friends and Enemies == === "Kim" Montagu, 8th Duke, Lord Mandeville until 1890 === ==== Friends ==== * Edward Russell, 24th Baron de Clifford * Derrick Westenra, 5th Baron Rossmore * Francis Needham, 3rd Earl of Kilmorey === Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu === ==== Friends ==== *Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu was in the intimate circle of [[Social Victorians/People/Albert Edward, Prince of Wales |Albert Edward, Prince of Wales]]. ==Organizations== === "Kim" Montagu, 8th Duke, Lord Mandeville until 1890 === * Eton<ref name=":1" /> === Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu === * Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu was a member of the New York City social set called the Buccaneers when she was a teenager.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-06|title=Consuelo Montagu, Duchess of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Consuelo_Montagu,_Duchess_of_Manchester&oldid=982192002|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> Edith Wharton is said to have taken details from the 8th Duke's marriage for her novel ''The Buccaneers''.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-06|title=George Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Montagu,_8th_Duke_of_Manchester&oldid=982188929|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> == Timeline == '''1855 August 18''', the 6th Duke died. The families "placed in mourning" were the following, as listed in the ''Edinburgh Evening Post and Scottish Record'':<blockquote>He is succeeded in the Dukedom by his eldest son, Viscount Mandeville, M.P. By the melancholy event the families of the Marquess and Marchioness of Tweeddale, the Duchess of Wellington, the Duke of Montrose, Lord and Lady Olivia Ossulston [?], Lady Eliza [Elisa?] Steele, the Duke of Richmond, the Countess of St Germans, Lady Sophia Cecil, and many others of rank, are placed in mourning.<ref>"Death of the Duke of Manchester." ''Edinburgh Evening Post and Scottish Standard'' 22 August 1855, Wednesday: 2 [of 4], Col. 5c [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001177%2F18550822&page=2&article=025&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title ''Edinburgh Evening Post and Scottish Record''; n.p.</ref></blockquote>'''1855 October 11, Wednesday''', H. I. Cridland says in a "Notice,"<blockquote>I will hold Audit Days at Lyttelton, on Wednesday, 11th October, for the receipt of rents and other monies due to the 25th of September, on account of the Soames, Jackson, Ecclesiastical, and Lyttelton Trust Estates, the lands of Lord Mandeville, Lady Emily Bathurst, Lady Olivia Sparrow, Rev. J. P. Rhoades, Rev. Charles Hodge, Dr. Merrion C. T. Maunsell, George Hart, late William Draper, and J. E. Fitz Gerald, Esqrs. ... Tenants are requested to present their last receipt.<ref>"Notice." ''Lyttelton Times'' 6 October 1855, Saturday: 1 [of 10], Col. 3c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0003346%2F18551006&page=1&article=004&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Newspaper title ''The Lyttelton Times'', n.p. </ref></blockquote>This notice was repeated in the ''Lyttelton Times'' on 29 December 1855. '''1855 October 20, Saturday''', the [[Social Victorians/People/Wilton|Earl and Countess of Wilton]] hosted a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1850s#1855 October 20, Saturday|house party at Heaton Hall]], with a visit to a silk mill in town. [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Luise, Duchess of Manchester]] was present with the Duke and their son Lord Mandeville (Kim, later 8th Duke), who was 2 years old. '''1876 May 22''', Consuelo Iznaga y Clement and "Kim" (George Victor Drogo, 8th Duke) Montagu married in Grace Church, New York City.<ref name=":0" /> '''1889 December 23''', Lord Mandeville was involved in a [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Smith-Slavin 1889-12-23|boxing match in Bruges, Belgium between British Jem Smith and Australian Frank Slavin]], and the resulting social fallout. === 1890s === '''1890 January 1, Wednesday, New Year's Day''', '''1890 January 5, Sunday''', Viscount Mandeville is mentioned in a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#"A Very Bad Lot"|rant in Reynolds's Newspaper called "A Very Bad Lot,"]] talking about immoral practices in the aristocracy. '''1890 January 6, Monday''', Lady Mandeville was present at [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#11 January 1890, Saturday|Merton with a small party and the Prince of Wales]] during the funeral of Empress Augusta. Also on Monday, 6 January 1890, Viscount Mandeville took part in a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#Amicable Gathering of Boxers and Sportsmen|gathering to see "Parson" Davies off on his trip to the US]]. The gathering was amicable, Slavin was there. '''1890 January 10, Friday''', Lady Mandeville was invited to a [[Social Victorians/1890-01-10 Ulster Club Ball|ball at the Ulster Club, Belfast]]. The article in the ''Lady's Pictorial'' says the "principal families in the north of Ireland were invited,"<ref>"Court and Society Notes." ''Lady's Pictorial'' 18 January 1890, Saturday: 44 [of 60], Col. 1b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0005980%2F18900118&page=44. Same print title, p. 94.</ref> but Lord Mandeville is not mentioned. '''1890 January 13, Monday''', Lord Mandeville was an organizer of a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#Wallace-Camp Boxing Match|boxing match between "Nunc" (Edwin) Wallace and George Camp]]. This match was important and Wallace was very important in the history of this sport. Lord Mandeville was also reported to be at an [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Smith-Slavin 1889-12-23|unfair and notorious match in Bruges between a British and an Australian fighter]] that occurred on 23 December 1889. '''1890 January 14, Tuesday, probably, or January 7''', Lord Mandeville was "attacked" in a restaurant by a boxer:<blockquote>The "Evening Post" states that Charles Mitchell, the pugilist, attacked Lord Mandeville and Mr Abington at a West-End restaurant on Tuesday night. They were immediately separated.<ref>''Aberdeen Press and Journal'' 15 January 1890, Wednesday: 6 [of 8], Col. 4b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000032%2F18900115&page=6&article=097&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Aberdeen Weekly Journal'', p. 6.</ref></blockquote>'''1890 January 21, Tuesday''', on or about, Lady Mandeville attended the [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#1890 January 21, Tuesday|wedding of Baron S. Alfred Oppenheim and Miss Florence Hutchins]]. '''1890 January 28, Tuesday''', Lady Mandeville attended what was supposed to be [[Social Victorians/People/Lily Langtry#1890 January 28, Tuesday|Lily Langtry's opening-night performance at the St. James's]] with the Prince of Wales and some of his circle. Also on this date, the ''Dundee Evening Telegraph'' reported that Lady Mandeville [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#1890 January 28, Tuesday|had bought 30 "Exploration" shares]], which funded exploration expeditions with the possibility of rights to minerals or resources or the development of monopolies for goods that were "discovered."<ref>"Notes — Mainly Personal." ''Dundee Evening Telegraph'' 28 January 1890, Tuesday: 2 [of 4], Col. 2b [of my 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000453%2F18900128&page=2&article=001&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Evening Telegraph'', n.p.</ref> Her mother in law, [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louisa, Duchess of Manchester]] also had bought 30 shares, both small amounts compared to some others. '''1890 January 29, Wednesday''', Consuelo Lady Mandeville was a guest at the house party around the [[Social Victorians/Santurce Murrieta Wedding 1890-01-29|wedding of Miss Clarita de Murietta and the Duc de Santona]]. She had her eldest son with her, Lord Kimbolton (the 9th Duke of Manchester). Her mother in law, [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louise, Duchess of Manchester]] was also present. '''1890 February 6, Thursday''' '''(shortly before 6 February)''', Lord Mandeville attended a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#1890 February 6, Thursday|boxing match fought by the prize-fighter Pete Jackson]] at the New Pelican Club. '''1890 January 30, Thursday, through at least February 8, Saturday''', Lord Mandeville was among the [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#1890 February 8, Saturday|recent arrivals at Brighton]] although apparently after the most notable had already left. Certainly he does not appear to have been at the party the next evening that the Prince of Wales attended. '''1890 February 9, Sunday''', the Prince of Wales came after one of Consuelo's dinner parties:<blockquote>Lady Mandeville, who has been giving a series of small dinners in her house in Cumberland Place, had a dinner on Sunday. The Prince of Wales came in after dinner to meet a small party.<ref>"Society Gossip. (From ''The World''.)." ''Leighton Buzzard Observer and Linslade Gazette'' 11 February 1890, Tuesday: 6 [of 8], Col. 6b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001091%2F18900211&page=6&article=106&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Leighton Buzzard Observer'', p. 6. </ref></blockquote>'''1890 February 24, Monday''', Consuelo Lady Mandeville attended [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#24 February 1890, Monday|Lilly Langtry's performance as Rosalind in As You Like It at the St. James's Theatre]]. '''1890 February 25, Tuesday''', Consuelo Lady Mandeville attended a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#25 February 1890, Tuesday|party hosted by Mrs. Adair]]. Viscount Mandeville is not listed among those who attended. '''1890 March 4, Wednesday''', Consuelo's brother Fernando Yznaga married New York "beauty and society leader" Miss Mabel Wright.<ref>"Personal." ''American Register'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 5 [of 8], Col. 5a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0003338%2F18900322&page=5&article=070&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref> Presumably at least Consuelo was there? '''1890 March 10, Monday''', the Prince and Princess of Wales gave a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#10 March 1890, Monday10 March 1890, Monday|dance at Marlborough House in honor of their wedding anniversary]]. The Viscountess Mandeville is listed among the guests invited, but the Viscount is not mentioned. '''1890 March 22, Saturday''', the Portsmouth ''Evening News'' expressed outrage about a man with a reputation like Lord Mandeville's becoming 8th Duke of Manchester and joining the House of Lords:<blockquote>While the House of Commons were debating the necessity for a House of Lords, the Duke of Manchester was on his death bed in Naples. There is more in the incident than appears at first sight, for Viscount Mandeville succeeds to the Dukedom, with the attendant rights of presentation to seven livings and the privilege of mutilating or rejecting Bills demanded by the people and passed by their representatives in the Commons. {{Paragraph break}} It will hardly be urged by the moat zealous advocate of the Upper Chamber, as at present constituted, that the new Duke of Manchester, ''nee'' Viscount Mandeville, will bring much dignity, wisdom, or weight to the House of irresponsible legislators. This nobleman has had a merry time. The one sensible thing he did was to marry a charming and accomplished American lady, who, by consenting to share the name of Mandeville has kept its head above water. Viscount Mandeville himself has a weakness for bankruptcy proceedings, rows with cabmen, which music hall ladies come forward to take his part, and the class of events generally which do not approve themselves to the minds of the ordinary Briton. It is possible that Lord Mandeville may now discover that he has sown his wild oats, and may settle down with his beautiful and popular wife to the enjoyment of his 25,000 acres of land and £38,000 a-year. We have not to do with what Lord Mandeville may be. Our simple duty is to point out that it is an outrage on common decency and common sense that a man bearing the reputation of Lord Mandeville should have the right to step into the House of Lords whenever a vote is needed to swell the prejudice or sustain the selfishness that find among the Peers their natural home.<ref>"To-Day." ''Portsmouth Evening News'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 2 [of 4], Col. 1c [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000290%2F18900322&page=2&article=001&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Evening News'', n.p.</ref></blockquote>The ''Birmingham Daily Mail'' had a similar opinion, though perhaps slightly more optimistic:<blockquote>The Duke of Manchester, who expired last night at Naples, cannot be said to have been much of a public man. He led a quiet, retired life, and the announcement of his death would, if Lord Mandeville were not heir to the title, arouse but little interest. Lord Mandeville is, unfortunately for himself, more widely known than his father was. He developed tastes for gambling, with disastrous financial results, as the details of his bankruptcy made public last year, and more recently, his name has been publicly associated with those of prizefighters and music-hall singers. Altogether, he can hardly be termed a credit to the aristocracy of England, but the higher position to which he will now attain may cause him to alter his ways and try redeem the errors of the past.<ref>"Notes and News." ''Birmingham Mail'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 2 [of 4], Col. 3a [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000644%2F18900322&page=2&article=027&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Birmingham Daily Mail'', n.p.</ref></blockquote>On the same day, Consuelo's brother and new wife were reported to apparently be immigrating to the UK:<blockquote>Among the immigrants, says a London lady correspondent, is a New York belle who has just been married to Mr. Ferdinand Yznaga, brother to Lady Mandeville and of Lady Lister-Kaye. Young Mrs. Yznaga will enter London society under the wing of her sister-in-law, Lady Mandeville, and is expected to make as great a furore as did Mrs. Langtry a few seasons ago. Mr. Yznaga married a sister-in-law of Mr. Vanderbilt, who divorced him two years ago.<ref>"An American Belle." ''Huddersfield and Holmfirth Examiner'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 6 [of 16], Col. 4a [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0003869%2F18900322&page=6&article=006&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Huddersfield Examiner'', p. 6.</ref></blockquote>'''1890 November 14''', William Angus Drogo Montagu (9th Duke) and Helena Zimmerman married secretly, in London. '''1897 July 2''', the Duke and Duchess of Devonshire ( [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Luise Friederike Auguste Gräfin von Alten Montagu Cavendish]] and [[Social Victorians/People/Spencer Compton Cavendish|Spencer Cavendish]]) hosted the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House. Lord Charles Montagu, likely Charles William Augustus Montagu, attended, as did [[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drogo Montagu]]. == Demographics == ===Nationality=== *Consuelo Iznaga y Clement was Cuban-American. *Helena Zimmerman was American. *George, William and Alexander Montagu were British. === Residences === * 1890: "The family estates — 27,312 acres, with a nominal rent-roll of £40,000 — were chiefly situated in Huntingdonshire and Armagh."<ref>"Men and Things." (London) ''Echo'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 1 [of 4], Col. 6b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0004596%2F18900322&page=1&article=010&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, n.p.</ref> * In 1890 at the death of the 7th Duke, Kimbolton Castle: <blockquote>The Duke of Manchester... He was an old-fashioned Tory, and a man of simple tastes, whose chief interests were military and agricultural rather than political. Kimbolton Castle is a magnificent place, and the Duke's horses and troop of yeomanry were always the admiration of the Prince of Wales, the Marquis of Hartington, and many other visitors. Lord Hartington, it may be mentioned, was at Kimbolton when the news came of the  breaking out of the war between France and Germany [1871], he being a member of the Cabinet. The Duke had travelled much as a young man, and was familiar with the Continent, as also with South Africa, of which he was very fond. There is a private chapel at Kimbolton Castle, connected with which is a very extensive library containing some theological and historical volumes of great value. Notwithstanding his somewhat bluff manner the Duke was liked by the tenantry and poor from the kindly interest he took in their concerns. Even the poachers had a good word for his Grace. The feature, however, of the Duke's career was the marked contrast between his pursuits and those of the Duchess. The Duke loved every blade of grass, every tree and flower on his ancestral domain, and cared nothing for London life in its modern developments. Lord Mandeville [the 8th Duke] succeeds to the title, but the estates are heavily mortgaged.<ref>"Death of the Duke of Manchester." ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 6 [of 8], Col. 2b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000098%2F18900322&page=6&article=014&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p. </ref></blockquote> == Family == *Consuelo (María Consuelo) Iznaga y Clement Montagu, Duchess of Manchester (1853 – 20 November 1909), née Doña María Consuelo Iznaga y Clement<ref name=":0" /> *"Kim" (George Victor Drogo) Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester (17 June 1853 – 18 August 1892)<ref name=":1" /> #William Angus Drogo Montagu, 9th Duke of Manchester (3 March 1877 – 9 February 1947) #Jacqueline Mary Alva Montagu (27 November 1879 – 15 March 1895). #Alice Eleanor Louise Montagu (27 November 1879 – 10 January 1900) *[[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drogo Montagu]], 9th Duke of Manchester (3 March 1877 – 9 February 1947)<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-08|title=William Montagu, 9th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Montagu,_9th_Duke_of_Manchester&oldid=982513036|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> *Helena Zimmerman Montagu (25 September 1878 – 15 December 1971)<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-08|title=Helena, Countess of Kintore|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helena,_Countess_of_Kintore&oldid=982513630|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> #Mary Alice Montagu Gregory (26 October 1901 – 9 October 1962) #Alexander George Francis Drogo Montagu, 10th Duke of Manchester (2 October 1902 – 23 November 1977) #Edward Eugene Fernando Montagu (26 July 1906 – 4 May 1954/1956) #Ellen Millicent Louise Montagu Hofer Shairp (5 January 1908 – 2 August 1948) === Relations === The three Iznaga y Clement sisters were prominent in London "Society": *Consuelo (María Consuelo) Iznaga Montagu, Duchess of Manchester (1853 – 20 November 1909) *Emilie Iznaga y Clement () *Natividad (Natica) Iznaga y Clement Lister-Kaye () == Questions and Notes == *In a ''British Newspaper Archive'' search for name=mandeville keyword=#viscount for 18 August 1855–22 March 1890 (September 2026), first did "Publication date oldest first," but Kim was 2 years old when his grandfather died and his father acceded to the dukedom, so on p. 57 of the search results (the page containing 1 January 1856) I switched to "Publication date newest first." Decided it would be more fruitful to work backwards. == Papers, Memoirs and Biographies == * Personal correspondence: in the archive at Chatsworth House (group <code>CS8</code>) * The papers of Louise Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire DF14 contains correspondence to and from the 7th Duke and Duchess of Manchester. * Archives Hub: https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/ (for records of UK archives, including Northern Ireland, but not the Republic of Ireland) ** Chatsworth House: https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/search/locations/6e07905a-1893-3adb-93fa-6966fcfaf57e ** Louise Cavendish papers: https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/search/archives/7f2209dd-e364-3318-8a5e-62e0533d7a4c ** Devonshire Collection Archives: Family papers: https://www.chatsworth.org/visit-chatsworth/chatsworth-estate/art-archives/access-the-collection/archives-and-library/family-papers-guide/ == Footnotes == {{reflist}} 5l3cex7sjp8c7ubjn6z0ry9e3e60kdz 0 264724 2841733 2841551 2026-10-20T16:31:13Z Scogdill 1331941 2841733 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Dress worn by Queen Victoria at her wedding to Prince Albert in 1840}} = Sandbox = Page to draft revisions for Wikipedia articles. For Gwladys Robinson, see Gwladys Lowther Robinson, [[Social Victorians/People/Ripon|Marchioness of Ripon]] and, earlier, [[Social Victorians/People/Lowther|Countess of Lonsdale]] ==References== {{reflist|2}} [[Category:1840 works]] [[Category:Royal wedding dresses|Victoria Queen]] [[Category:1840s fashion]] [[Category:British royal attire]] [[Category:Dresses in the Royal Collection of the United Kingdom|Victoria, Wedding]] [[Category:Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria]] = Victorian fashion = == Notes and Quotes == * Women followed Paris fashion in Europe and America, but London tailors led the way for men’s fashion. The Industrial Revolution actually impacted men’s fashion more than women’s. * Sewing machines in factories began mass producing cheap clothing for the largest group in the population, working class men. * Ready-made clothing affected the social structure, the economy, and gender differentiation. * Paper patterns, introduced in fashion magazines that targeted women, along with domestic sewing machines had more impact on women’s fashion than men’s. Haute couture was still bespoke (being individually constructed by tailors or dressmakers or fashion houses like Maison Worth). Sewing Machines and Clothes Before the industrial revolution wealthy people paid others to sew their clothes by hand and those who were of much lower economic status did all the manual labor necessary to feed and clothe the rich minority. The working class had to make all their own clothes. Sewing, however, came at the end of the process.  They began with raw wool cut from the backs of sheep or gathering flax.  Only the wealthy could afford to buy fabric.  They followed processes for cleaning and spinning the wool into thread and the processes of soaking and pulling out the fibrous strips to make into thread for linen fabric. After they had thread, it was tied to a loom so it could be woven into cloth.  Then it had to be cut or torn into pieces. For many families scissors were a luxury. And the last step is sewing the pieces together to create a garment. Machines could not only sew, they could process the raw materials into thread and weave it into fabric much  quicker. Regarding clothing, working class men and their families benefitted greatly from ready-made clothes. Manufacturers marketed to them because they were the largest class. For example,<blockquote>–Men’s shirts, made by machine, take 3 hours and 10 minutes each to do; by hand, 15 hours and 20 minutes; a lady’s dress, by machine, takes 12 hours 4 minutes; by hand 20 hours 35 minutes; . . . a common frock-coat, by the machine occupies 17 hours 20 minutes; by the hand, 27 hours and 40 minutes: a linen vest, by machine, 3 hours 44 minutes; by hand 7 hours 18 minutes; a fine overcoat, by machine, 28 hours 13 minutes; by hand 31 hours 20 minutes; . . . <ref>Mitchell, Rebecca, ed. "22. 'Progress of the Sewing Machine,' ''Bow Bells'' (19 April 1865), p. 283." Part 6: Production and Industry. ''Fashioning the Victorians: A Critical Sourcebook''. Bloomsbury Visual Arts, 2018.</ref></blockquote> === Industrial Revolution and Technological Advancements === * the railroad * mass production of fabrics for working-class men's clothing ** Jacquard looms * sewing machines * aniline dyes, including black === Expanding Middle Class === * gender roles getting more clearly defined and rigid (referring back to page overview) === French Revolution === Sarah Gharmallah Alzahrani and Safia Abdelaziz Saroukh (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Safia-Saroukh/publication/385099194_The_Semiotic_Dimension_of_Men's_Fashion_in_Modern_Eras/links/671686fbd796f96b8ec4f90e/The-Semiotic-Dimension-of-Mens-Fashion-in-Modern-Eras.pdf):<blockquote>The 19th century started with a fashion landscape that was changing dramatically and rapidly from the styles of a generation earlier. The French Revolution brought fashions that had been emerging since the 1780s to the forefront. Neoclassicism now defined fashion as both men and women taking inspiration from classical antiquity. For women, the high-waisted silhouette in lightweight muslin was the dominant style, while fashionable men looked to the tailors of Britain for a new, refined look [17]. [17]  Franklin, H. (Aug 18, 2020). Published on Jun 25, 2020, Retrieved: <nowiki>https://fashionhistory.fitnyc.edu/1800-1809/</nowiki> 11/11/2023. Edited. ...</blockquote>Brent Shannon:<blockquote>"Costume," wrote Max Beerbohm in 1896, "enables us to classify any 'professional man' at a glance, be he lawyer, leech or who not" (24–25). A man's profession and class were read by his jacket, his hat, what he rode in, and how he carried himself. "Perhaps there is a tendency among Englishmen to judge a man too much by the shape of his hat or the kind of collar he wears," conduct author John Wanamaker confessed; "But one must remember that in England if you ''wear'' the wrong thing, you will probably ''do'' the wrong thing, and generally ''be'' the wrong thing" (1).¹¹ Such assertions were predicated on the powerful Victorian conviction that outward appearance reflected inner qualities.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Cut of His Coat: Men, Dress, and Consumer Culture in Britain, 1860–1914|last=Shannon|first=Brent Alan|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=2006|location=Athens, Ohio}}</ref> (148)</blockquote> ==Women's fashion== == Men's fashion == (Two intros: one to Victorian Fashion, giving background for both women's and men's fashions; two to the decades for men's fashion) Among the influences on men's styles: * differentiation of genders (domestic ideology, ideology of the spheres) * the "Great Male Renunciation," the French Revolution and English tailoring * industrial revolution: mass production of fabrics and articles of clothing, especially for working-class men * sports and country clothing * Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, later King Edward VII, influence went beyond England; tailors led by him led fashion for the upper classes * then later, cult of youth * military uniforms * comfort and convenience * evolving definitions of gender, both femininity and masculinity evolved as concepts. The changing definitions of masculinity affected men's clothing. For the growing and rising middle classes, gender roles became more and more rigid around the concept of the separate spheres, the public for men and the private sphere for women. Cultural sources for men's clothing and men's fashion: industrial revolution; expanding middle class; technological advancements; an association in the culture between outward appearance and inward nature; French Revolution; Albert Edward, Prince of Wales Citation for Victorian Hell: <ref name=":29">{{Cite web|url=https://victorianhell.substack.com/p/victorian-mens-fashion-history-and|title=Victorian Men’s Fashion History and Clothing Guide|last="It's Monty, Actually"|date=31 October 2025|website=Victorian Hell|access-date=7 September 2026}}</ref> === Frock coats === * Apostol Mănescu, politician, wearing a frock coat, butterfly tie, black waistcoat with button chain and light coloured pants, drainpipe type. Circa 1866. Photo by Franz Duschek.jpg (1866)[[File:Apostol Mănescu, politician, wearing a frock coat, butterfly tie, black waistcoat with button chain and light coloured pants, drainpipe type. Circa 1866. Photo by Franz Duschek.jpg|thumb|Romanian (?) Politician, c. 1866, ill-fitting but probably handmade suit|center]] Full-length portrait of two young men wearing frock coats with sashes and pistols at their waists LCCN2006689564.tif (right)[[File:Full-length portrait of two young men wearing frock coats with sashes and pistols at their waists LCCN2006689564.jpg|thumb|1860, American, young men with frock coats, performers??|center]] * George Augustus Henry Sala.jpg (Mathew Brady, 1855–1865) * [[File:George Augustus Henry Sala.jpg|center|thumb|George Augustus Sala, 1855–1865, LoC]] ==== Dress and Conduct Manuals, Histories, Victorian Theory, Catalogs ==== # [Baker, William Henry.]  ''Clothes Dictionary''. Chicago, Ill.: Cahn, Wampold, 1901. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Clothes_dictionary;_(IA_clothesdictionar00bake).pdf. # [[c:File:Hint's_about_men's_dress,_right_principles_economically_applied_(IA_hintsaboutmensdr00barr).pdf|Hint's about men's dress, right principles economically applied (IA hintsaboutmensdr00barr).pdf]] (book, conduct manual, American, 1888) #[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Fashion-_the_power_that_influences_the_world_%28IA_fashionpowerthat00foxg%29.pdf?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&utm_campaign=index&utm_content=original Fashion- the power that influences the world (IA fashionpowerthat00foxg).pdf] (1871) (American, incl court dress, Victorian fashion theory, livery, "White, as it is the color of day, is expressive to us of the cheerfulness or gaiety which the return of day brings." [145], "Gentlemen's Furnishing and Goods," "Head and Foot Covering," Index) # [https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/How_to_behave_and_how_to_amuse._A_handy_manual_of_etiquette_and_parlor_games_%28IA_howtobehavehowto00sand%29.pdf?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&utm_campaign=index&utm_content=original How to behave and how to amuse. A handy manual of etiquette and parlor games (IA howtobehavehowto00sand).pdf] (1895; American; Men's Dress, p. 23; besides conduct and dress, it has parlor games) # [https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/The_etiquette_of_men%27s_dress_%28IA_etiquetteofmensd00cluc%29.pdf?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&utm_campaign=index&utm_content=original The etiquette of men's dress (IA etiquetteofmensd00cluc).pdf] (1888; American; some ads; anthology of individually written articles; lots of sports, outdoor events; search for "frock" — cutaway vs Prince Albert) #[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/S.W._Silver_%26_Co.%27s_handbook_for_transatlantic_travellers_.._%28IA_swsilvercoshandb00silv%29.pdf?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&utm_campaign=index&utm_content=original S.W. Silver & Co.'s handbook for transatlantic travellers .. (IA swsilvercoshandb00silv).pdf] (1883; American; lots of ads from SW Silver, with prices; has blank pages where ppl can write "Introductions" and "Engagements," but this is not a conduct book, it's travel guide / catalog to London) #[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/How_we_go_to_those_who_cannot_come_to_us.._%28IA_howwegotothosewh00roge%29.pdf?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&utm_campaign=index&utm_content=original How we go to those who cannot come to us.. (IA howwegotothosewh00roge).pdf] (Roger, Peet & Co.; American; catalog, spring 1891; pp. 11, clerical frock; 7 "Prince Alberts" double-breasted frocks; p. 23 shirts as underwear; has a thing on fitting and mail order; bathing suits, collars and cuffs; tennis shoes) == Victorian Men's Fashion (Intro to the Men's Fashion Section) == Museums and other historical sites have plenty of women’s clothes from the nineteenth century. There is great variety in both outer wear and underwear. “Men’s garments of the Victorian period have survived in far less quantity than women’s.” Buck p. 185 More waistcoats have survived than any other garment. The hardest garment to find are trousers. Very few survived the nineteenth century. Buck p. 185 By 1850 trousers dominated the fashion for men; the trouser straps under the shoe had disappeared; and a fly front had replaced the fall-front. Buck 185 It took most of the nineteenth century for men’s fashion to evolve into the coat, trousers and vest (waistcoat) that dominated the twentieth century and appears to be unchanging in the twenty-first century. “Men’s clothing, like women’s, was specific to each occasion and type of activity during the late nineteenth century.” Payne2, p. 518 For example, formal wear for social events was different from the casual, everyday wear for upper middle class and aristocratic men. Victorians also dressed in ensembles for hunting and riding (included knickerbockers–breeches that had a fuller cut). Casual and looser clothing was worn when participating in sports. Many different cuts of coats were available, like the Norfolk jacket, the morning coat, or the sack coat. “Tailored wool garments , originally inspired by the clothing of English country gentry, formed the backbone of men’s wardrobes in the early nineteenth century.” Men’s clothing began to change from styles that were colorful and flamboyant in the eighteenth century to styles that emphasized cut over color. By the end of the century men’s clothing had settled into a kind of uniform with coats and trousers usually made of the same fabric, often with a vest or waistcoat of the same fabric. The uniform included a shirt with a stiff collar, a necktie and very little jewelry. It took the entire nineteenth century to change to a rather static style that is still worn today. Ready-made clothing affected the social structure, the economy, and the gender differentiation. David Kutcha traces the origin of the 3-piece men's suit to King Charles II of England, who may be said to be wearing a coat, pants and a waistcoat, but otherwise is not wearing a "suit" we — or the Victorians — would recognize as such: <blockquote>... since 1666, male gentility has been associated with modesty and plainness in dress. Eschewing fashion as an increasingly feminized realm Charles II's vest inaugurated a new and essentially modern era of masculine aesthetics, one that reversed a long-held association between elaborate display and high social status. Manly thrift now displayed elite status.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Three-Piece Suit and Modern Masculinity, England 1550–1850|last=Kutcha|first=David|publisher=University of California Press|year=2002|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles}}</ref> (2)</blockquote>So it's really Cromwell who should get credit?? The French Revolution caused both men and women to change stylistic direction radically. For one generation, stylish women wore simple white muslin dresses without foundation garments underneath. The changes in men's fashion was more lasting: men turned away from the ornamentation and ruffles of the ''ancien régime'', choosing instead understated and subtle tailoring to indicate good taste and wealth. Poole "comfort and convenience" — trousers, sack coats, collars and cuffs without a shirt, wool rather than silks and satins; knee breeches constantly riding up men as leaders of fashion, in spite of our sense that men didn't do fashion in the way that women did, were more serious than that === Dandy Stuff === Beau Brummell: "Men began to aspire to fine cutting, tailoring, and perfect fit in their clothes, flawless grooming and manners in themselves. The Englishman George Bryan (Beau) Brummell deserves much credit for the ideal of meticulous masculine appearance."<ref name=":25">{{Cite book|title=The History of Costume: From Ancient Mesopotamia Through the Twentieth Century|last=Payne|first=Blanche|last2=Winakor|first2=Geitel|last3=Farrell-Beck|first3=Jane|publisher=Addison-Wesley Longman|year=1992|isbn=0-06-047141-7|edition=2nd|location=New York, New York}}</ref> (458) "From 1796 to 1816, the Beau set the pattern for cleanliness and liberal use of starch." (459) === Gender Ideologies === '''Victorian gender ideologies''' relegated men to the "public sphere" and women to the "domestic sphere." (??) More than that “the cult of youth . . . the secularization of sport and the influence of modern warfare in generating men’s fashions, the tendency to prefer modern ideas of comfort and convenience, and the transformation of fashion knowledge and fashion urbanism from print to hyperreality”<ref name=":26">McNeil, Peter. "Men's Fashion: 1800–2022." Chapter 22. ''The Routledge History of Fashion and Dress, 1800 to the Present''. Routledge, 2024. https://opus.lib.uts.edu.au/bitstream/10453/182707/2/Men%27s%20Fashion%20200822_24_12_20_09_29_44.pdf DOI: 10.4324/9780429295607-27.</ref> (McNeil 1 or 411) changed the perceptions of masculinity and femininity. === Class === The growing middle class involved among other things more and more jobs and careers for young men as clerks, office workers, they were junior, subordinate, and they were commuting on the railroads from suburbs. Carolyn Kirby:<blockquote>In western Europe the fashion for plain dark suits coincided with the rise of the affluent middle-classes in a world where the pace of industrialisation and the globalisation of trade was accelerating as never before. The sharp, dark business suit became the last word in male power-dressing. And so it remains to this day.<ref name=":27">{{Cite web|url=https://historiamag.com/invent-masculine-fashion/|title=The invention of masculine fashion|last=Kirby|first=Carolyn|date=3 December 2025|website=Historia: Magazine of the Historical Writers' Association|access-date=25 August 2026}}</ref></blockquote> === Bertie === Albert Edward, Prince of Wales was very concerned with fashion and authoritative about it, with a very specific eye to small details. He was increasingly influential in men's fashion from the last third of the 19th and into the 20th century, and many noticed what he did and copied him.<blockquote>When that great lover of pleasure, Edward VII, visited Marienbad incognito as the Duke of Lancaster, he was followed by tailors from Paris, Budapest, Vienna, and Berlin who photographed him and took notes about his clothes. Edward VII introduced many [423–424] novelties into men’s fashion. ... He is also credited with making fashionable the creased trouser in 1909 (his groom dried them with a board weight after heavy rain, resulting in the line), turned-up cuff trouser (after hitching his trouser bottoms at a dirty racing track) and, as his girth grew, undoing the bottom button of his waistcoat."<ref name=":26" /> (424)</blockquote>Cowles<blockquote>The Prince was not just ‘a swell’. In the jargon of the day he was ‘a heavy swell’, and apparently there was a world of difference between the two terms. A swell was a rich young aristocrat who lived in extreme comfort; but a heavy swell added showmanship to the comfort and lived in a stylish luxury that even the French were obliged to envy. And of course the heavy swell was the acme of sartorial elegance. The Prince did not mind changing his dress half a dozen times a day. He loved clothes, and since whatever he chose to wear became the prevailing fashion overnight, he soon was regarded as an expert on the subject. His tailor-in-chief made a fortune. For many years he patronised a Mr. Poole. He discovered this gentleman by accident. He went to the theatre one night to see a well-known actor by the name of Fecher playing ‘Robert Macaire’. As an impecunious adventurer [129–130] Fechter was obliged to wear a coat that was torn and dirty, but Bertie’s expert eye noticed the elegant cut. At the end of the performance he asked Fechter for the name of his tailor, and Mr. Poole’s future was assured. The Prince had so many clothes he could never travel with less than two valets; and two more valets were left at home cleaning, brushing and pressing his vast wardrobe. There were suits and coats for every variation of every climate the world over. There were over a hundred pieces of headgear; and since Bertie was an honorary admiral and an honorary general of most of the countries of Europe, there was an entire room devoted to uniforms, sashes, epaulettes, belts, buckles, swords, feathers and other regalia. ... Men’s clothes became of such importance that new [130–131] shops sprang up like mushrooms in Savile Row, Clifford Street and Bond Street. Most of the Prince’s innovations were inspired by comfort and convenience. He altered the cut of the evening dress waistcoat, he shortened the tails on the tail coat, he left his frock coat open (due to an increasing girth), he introduced the black homburg, and he attended race meetings, not in the frock coat hitherto ''de regueur'' but in tweeds. He tried having his trousers creased down the sides rather than the front and back, in order to hide his bandy legs, but this idea did not catch on, and he soon discarded it himself. But the prince was not the only arbiter of men’s fashions. The band of  "heavy swells" who followed his lead gave him plenty of competition. Lord Raglan and Lord Petersham invented coats which are still named after them. Lord Dupplin the dinner jacket and Lord Cardigan the button-up sweater. But Lord Hardwicke made the most spectacular contribution. Men’s silk hats were made of beaver which was left in its original rough, shaggy state. Lord Hardwicke polished his hat until he could see his face in it, and consequently was known as "Glossy Top". He is responsible for the top hat as we know it today.<ref name=":28">{{Cite book|title=Gay monarch, the life and pleasures of Edward VII|last=Cowles|first=Virginia|publisher=Harper|year=1956|location=New York, New York|archive-url=https://archive.org/details/gaymonarchlifepl0000cowl/}}</ref> (129–131)</blockquote> === Men’s Clothing 1830–1900 (Intro to the Decades) === “Tailored wool garments , originally inspired by the clothing of English country gentry, formed the backbone of men’s wardrobes in the early nineteenth century.”<ref name=":25" /> (458) Men’s clothing began to change from styles that were colorful and flamboyant in the eighteenth century to styles that emphasized cut over color. By the end of the century men’s clothing had settled into a kind of uniform with coats and trousers usually made of the same fabric, often with a vest or waistcoat of the same fabric. The uniform included a shirt with a stiff collar, a necktie and very little jewelry. It took the entire nineteenth century to change to a rather static style that is still worn today. (this is middle-class men for day wear?) The silhouette for men sometimes followed the same line as women’s clothing on the top half of their bodies. For example, as women’s sleeves grew into the huge leg-of-mutton fullness, the shoulders of men’s coats also had added fabric to make a pouf at the shoulder, thus emphasizing a broad shouldered look across the front. Men’s silhouettes changed subtly without the exaggerated fullness of women’s skirts or the raising and lowering of the neckline. Once men began to wear trousers, they did not go back to formal knee breeches (except in European courts or for court wear for Victoria). The line of men’s garments changed in smaller increments than women’s. Coats and trousers might fit tighter in some decades and looser in others. They were slim, then boxy, flared, then straight and evolved into the contemporary line we see on men today. Men's fashions in the 19th century have been less researched than women's fashions, in part because of fewer artifacts of what men wore were saved in museums for study. Photography, the first century that we have actual images (rather than artists' interpretations) of what people wore. ==== Court and Formal Dress ==== Livery, working class Formal dress was separate attire, used for specified occasions, varies by decade ==== Shirts ==== Shirts and collars separated: "by 1827 detachable collars became available."<ref name=":25" /> (477) Shirts were considered more like underwear early in the century but by the end of the 1800s, they were becoming the outside garments popular in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Neck treatments (and shirt cuffs) Shirts were treated as underwear early in the century but by the end of the 1800s, they were becoming the outside garments popular in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. ==== Coats and Jackets ==== The 1901 ''Clothes Dictionary'' says coats were "The principal garment of men's attire."<ref name=":30" />{{rp|10}} Several styles of coats were available to fashion-conscious aristocratic and upper-middle-class men. Men’s suits in this period were tailor made, fitted to one specific man. The factories, however, knew that the vast majority of men were working class and began to manufacture and sell ready-made shirts, coats and trousers. More clothes were available for working men and they cost less. The cheaper work clothes enabled upper-working-class men to own more than one set of clothes and to have more formal clothes for church or other events. Ready-made shirts were also available in generic sizes, small, medium and large. Generic sizing speeded up the mass production process and, since little of the shirts could be seen, they did not need custom fitting. Almost all of the coats Victorian men wore could be single or double breasted, with a couple of exceptions like morning coats and Norfolk jackets. On more formal occasions upper-class men wore a '''cutaway morning coat''' with light trousers during the daytime, and a dark '''tail coat''' and trousers in the evening. (define these terms) Morning coats was a general term for the jacket part of "full dress" or formal daytime wear, distinguished from formal evening wear. Most morning coats were cutaways, but the shape or cut is not the distinguishing feature: the bottom was curved or tailed, so the coat was short in front, it did not have a waist seam, single-breasted. Worn over a waistcoat and shirt. According to Payne, "During the early 1820s tailcoats were the most popular type of coat."<ref name=":25" />{{rp|474}} "Tailcoats gave way to skirted frock coats by the 1840s."<ref name=":25" /> (491) Tailcoats came down as far as the waist and then had tails (or "claw hammer" tails) attached at the waist in the back. Single-breasted, could be worn buttoned or unbuttoned in the front, over a waistcoat and shirt. Nowadays, the only tailcoats are tuxedos, a term not in use until the 1880s, and named for Tuxedo Park, a village in New York populated by the elite. Originally only the white coat, ''tuxedo'' gradually came to mean the entire suit. ==== Frock Coats ==== [[File:Frock coat MET CI38.23.39 F.jpeg|alt=Old-fashioned coat hanging on a mannequin|thumb|Frock coat, 1840, American]] Frock coats were introduced in the 1820s and worn throughout the nineteenth century with only minor changes to the line or fit. Sleeves were full at the top and waists were tight, creating an hourglass form. Initially frock coats were tightly fitted and closed with buttons. The more tailored frock coats had a waist seam and a flared skirt almost to the knees. The rate of fashion change notable in women's fashion was true for men's clothing as well. The frock coat persisted for a century, but it was in a state of constant (but subtle) evolution, with collars and lapels, coat length, the waist seam, the fullness of the coat itself as well as the sleeve, color, patterns like stripes or plaids. A Prince Albert is a double-breasted, very well-tailored, form-fitting frock coat.<ref name=":30">[Baker, William Henry.] ''Clothes Dictionary''. Chicago, Ill.: Cahn, Wampold, 1901. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Clothes_dictionary;_(IA_clothesdictionar00bake).pdf.</ref>{{rp|33}} Gentlemen, clergy, military Men around the world and especially in the British Empire wore frock coats: images and descriptions exist of men wearing frock coats in India<ref>Woodyatt, Nigel Gresley. ''Under Ten Viceroys; The Reminiscences of a Gurkha''. London: H. Jenkins Limited, 1922. Pp. 31, 107, 1774.</ref>, Iran (Persia at that time)<ref>Sparroy, Wilfrid. ''Persian children of the royal family; the narrative of an English tutor at the court of H. I. H. Zillus-Sultán, G.C.S.I''. London and New York, J. Lane, 1902. Pp. 11, 29, 30.[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Persian_children_of_the_royal_family%3B_the_narrative_of_an_English_tutor_at_the_court_of_H._I._H._Zillus-Sult%C3%A1n%2C_G._C._S._I_%28IA_persianchildreno00sparrich%29.pdf?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&utm_campaign=index&utm_content=original https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Persian_children_of_the_royal_family%3B_the_narrative_of_an_English_tutor_at_the_court_of_H._I._H._Zillus-Sult%C3%A1n%2C_G._C._S._I_%28IA_persianchildreno00sparrich%29.pdf].</ref>, Japan<ref>Watson, W. Petrie. ''Japan, Aspects and Destinies''. New York, Dutton: 1904. P. 7, 19, 31.</ref>, Egypt and Turkey<ref>Butler, Alfred Joshua. ''Court Life in Egypt''. London: Chapman and Hall, 1887. P. 7.</ref>, .... ==== Trousers ==== Breeches: Men’s bifurcated garment that ended just below the knee Trousers: men’s bifurcated garment that went down to the ankles or foot The most sweeping change in men’s fashion before 1820 was in the length of their pants. Trousers that went from waist to foot were so much more comfortable and popular than knee breeches that they replaced what had dominated men’s wear since the sixteenth century. And trousers have been worn for over two centuries now. They were originally tailored but began to be mass produced. Although the aristocracy were required to wear knee breeches at court, they wore trousers more than they wore breeches, and they could afford to have their suits and shirts hand sewn and individually. Working class men had to contend with small, medium, and large from mass production. This bifurcated garment was modified in specific places, like the length, the fullness over the hips or the width of the leg. In summer trousers were lighter in color — "grayish blue, aqua and pearl gray." (Payne 2, 505) In winter trousers mixed darker colors like "steel gray and brown, black and brown, and black and green." (Payne 505) More on summer colors, winter colors? [Find quote about QV's men's court dress and the men being so cold] ==== Waistcoats ==== Victorian men put their creativity, color and specialty fabrics into their waistcoats. At the beginning of the century men's waistcoats were made from specialty fabrics, like velvet or brocade or a patterned silk, sometimes two at the same time: "During the 1820s and 1830s, men sometimes wore two waistcoats, in combinations like white velvet over rose-and-gold brocade."<ref name=":25" /> (474) Long after coats and trousers were made from the same dark wool, waistcoats continued to be colorful, making them the focus of the ensemble. By the end of the 19th century waistcoats made from the same fabric as the trousers and coat dominated men’s fashion. 1880s: "The term vest now applied to all but low-necked formal styles, which were still called waistcoats." (Payne 2 528) [[File:Homosexualitywilde.jpg|thumb|Oscar Wilde and Bosie Douglas, straw boater and derby, 1894]] ==== Overcoats ==== Overcoats became a significant fashion element and many styles were seen throughout the century. <ref name=":24" />Kay, Fiona and Neil R. Storey, ''Victorian Fashions for Women'', Pen & Sword History, Yorkshire - Philadelphia, 2022 Surtout: "An overcoat cut in the style of a frock coat."<ref name=":30" /> (39) Lewandowski says somethng more generic, "term referring to any man's long cloak or coat."<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Complete Costume Dictionary|last=Lewandowski|first=Elizabeth J.|publisher=Scarecrow Press|year=2011}}</ref> (282) ==== Hats ==== The upper-class continued to wear top hats, and [[bowler hats]] (known in America as a derby) were worn by the working class. 1830s This class of men also wore round cloth caps, often seen on male children. The straw boater was the most popular hat by the end of the century and was worn by all of the classes. Men wore [[top hats]], with wide brims in sunny weather. 1830s - 1900 Top hats briefly became the very tall "stovepipe" shape, but a variety of other hat shapes were popular. Homburgs, deerstalkers and “Trilbies” were also popular. Buck, p. 198-199 (George de Maurier novel ''Trilby'') Hats were ''de rigueur'' for all Victorians, all classes, all ages, all genders. ==== Shoes ==== [[File:Men's fashion silhouette of 1837.jpg|thumb|Men's coats, 1837]] [[File:Lev Wittgenstein by F. Kruger.JPG|thumb|Lev Wittgenstein by F. Kruger, 1836]] === 1830s and 1840s === For men's fashion, the 1830s and 1840s were dominated by a defined waist, lean limbs and tall hats. Working-class men had been wearing trousers for some time, but by the 1830s and '40s, middle- and upper-class men generally wore frock coats and trousers for casual or less formal attire in the city. In the country, what they wore depended on what they were doing — hunting, riding, shooting and so on.[[File:Man's Frock Coat LACMA M.2007.211.61 (1 of 4).jpg|alt=Male mannequin wearing a light-colored thigh-length coat similar to a suit jacket and a top hat|thumb|Men's frock coat, c. 1845]] [[File:Stockholms mode-journal- Tidskrift för den eleganta werlden 1847, illustration nr 2.jpg|thumb|Stockholm's fashion magazine, 1847]]Some men wore corsets during this time, so the waist was nipped in and the skirt of the frock coat flared out. The sleeves of their coats and jackets were slightly puffed at the shoulders. The trouser legs were straight with a strap under the instep. The figure on the left in the fashion plate from ''Modes de Paris Journal des Tailleurs'' (right) illustrates this silhouette very clearly as well as the frock coat, the strap under the instep, and the puffed shoulders. ==== Coats and Jackets ==== Frock coats had become fashionable for day wear in the 1820s<ref name=":25" />{{rp|474}} and were worn throughout the century. In the 1830s frock coats were tightly fitted and closed with buttons. The more tailored frock coats had a waist seam and a flared skirt almost to the knees. The main changes in frock coats in these two decades were in the colors and the neck treatments (collar and lapels). Initially frock coats were not necessarily black. They could be colorful — like "plum, mulberry, brown, bright blue, and bottle green" — with "contrasting velvet collars."<ref name=":25" />{{rp|474}} The truly bright, saturated colors made possible by synthetic dyes, however, were a couple of decades away still and were never used for frock coats. Middle- and upper-class men limited their use of tailcoats to evening wear and more formal occasions. (In the 1847 Stockholm fashion magazine, below right, the figure in the center is wearing a tailcoat.) A cutaway morning coat was worn with light trousers for formal events during the daytime, and a dark tail coat and trousers were worn in the evening. ==== Shirts ==== Shirts were made of linen or cotton with low collars, occasionally turned down, and were worn with wide [[cravats]] or neck ties. Before they were mass produced, shirts made of finer linen or cotton were tailored for upper and wealthy middle-class men. Depending on occupation, working-class men's shirts were made from a rougher, home-woven linen or cotton, often shaped loosely like a smock and sometimes without a front closure. Shirts were sometimes as long as knee-length. ==== Trousers ==== Trousers or long pants had been introduced and were eagerly accepted by men because they were more comfortable and looser than the tight-fitting knee breeches and coats from earlier in the century. They were originally tailored but began to be mass produced. Although the aristocracy were required to wear knee breeches at court, they wore trousers more than they wore breeches. Aristocrats and upper middle class could afford the well-tailored cut and fit of individually hand sewn trousers and coats. "Trousers of the 1830s fit quite snugly ..., but in the 1840s they became looser."<ref name=":25" /> (477) Knee breeches still existed, but only for court wear, riding and country wear (in the form of knickerbockers). ==== Waistcoats ==== waistcoat; vest “Waistcoats [or vests] remained colorful, decorative items in men’s wardrobes after the rest of their costumes had become plain.” (Payne 2 460-462) They could be single- or double-breasted, with shawl or notched collars, and might be finished in double points at the lowered waist. Collars gradually lowered over the course of the two decades. Often the colorful vests were decorated with fur or velvet collars. ==== Overcoats ==== Men wore a variety of topcoats or overcoats. Surtouts were overcoats built like long frock coats, like the one worn by Lev Wittgenstein in the portrait (above right). The redingote was most popular in the 1830s and 1840s. Redingotes had a rolled collar, sleeves with fullness at the shoulders and upper arm and narrow at the elbows to the wrist. It was fitted at the waist and reached mid-calf. ==== Original Text ==== During the [[1840s in fashion|1840s]], men wore tight-fitting, calf length [[frock coat]]s and a [[waistcoat]] or vest. Sleeves were full at the top and waists were tight, creating an hourglass form. For more formal occasions, a cutaway morning coat was worn with light trousers during the daytime, and a dark tail coat and trousers was worn in the evening. Shirts were made of linen or cotton with low collars, occasionally turned down, and were worn with wide [[Cravat (early)|cravat]]s or neck ties. Men wore [[top hat]]s, with wide brims in sunny weather. === 1850s === The 1850s revealed several industrial inventions that significantly impacted clothing. First, the Industrial Revolution began (and still does today) with machines to weave fabric and machines to sew fabrics. Manufacturers quickly learned that the majority of the population was working class. Theirs were the simplest, least trimmed garments made in the nineteenth century. Second, mass production of shirts, trousers and coats changed how most people shopped for clothes. The aristocracy and upper middle class folks could still have their clothes made to specifically fit their bodies. Manufacturers knew that they could not mass produce clothing for each individual’s body. They invented generic sizing in small, medium, and large. They could, therefore, produce many more items of clothing with generic sizing. Third, Isaac Singer patented and began to manufacture home or domestic sewing machines (treadle machines) enabling more form-fitted '''dresses''' to be constructed for an individual’s specific shape and size. The fourth item to impact fashion and clothing was the invention of the paper pattern. These were introduced in fashion magazines targeting women. Almost all women were taught to sew by hand, whether they were aristocrats or working class. Sewing machines enormously speeded up the '''process of constructing from hours to minutes'''. Finally, aniline dyes made colors brighter and longer lasting. Prints and stripes, checks and plaids, fabrics had much more vibrant color with aniline dyes. The Industrial Revolution impacted the working class and changed their lives the most. children's clothes? Women made men's clothing too According to Judith Flanders, working-class men's clothes could be colorful. For example drivers of hansom cabs () dressed more up-scale, and drivers of hackneys () did not.<blockquote>While hackney drivers were also considered to be stereotypically shabby, hansom-cab drivers were generally represented as smartly dressed. A print in 1850 showed a driver in a snappy brown coat instead of the coachman’s heavy multiple-caped outfit, pale green striped trousers, short boots and top hat, the [167–168] reins held daintily in his gloved hands. Both cab and coach drivers wore top hats, but cabbies of a sporting bent later switched to bowlers, and in summer donned bright checked outfits.<ref name=":23">{{Cite book|title=The Victorian City: Everyday Life in Dickens' London|last=Flanders|first=Judith|publisher=Thomas Dunne Books|year=2012|location=New York, New York}}</ref> (167–168 [of 972])</blockquote> A variety of silhouettes was seen in the 1850s. Trousers were long and slim with a strap under the instep of the shoe. ==== Coats and Jackets ==== "Although the frock coat was worn throughout the century, it lost its dominant position in the 1850s, when the morning coat began to replace it."<ref name=":29" /> A jacket shorter than the frock coat or morning coat that had visible pockets began to be worn in about 1850. Cutaway tail coats were still reserved for formal occasions. All of these coats could be single or double breasted. They were called “ditto suits” by those who wore them because the coat, trousers, and waistcoat were all made from the same fabric. There were morning coats and cutaway morning coats; there were Norfolk jackets and ditto suits. The most formal were the cutaway tail coats for evening wear and balls; and the least formal were the boxy shaped sack coats. By the 1860s, it had become the most popular casual coat. ==== Shirts ==== During the [[1850s in fashion|1850s]], men started wearing shirts with high upstanding or turnover [[collar (clothing)|collars]] and [[necktie#Four-in-hand|four-in-hand necktie]]s tied in a bow, or tied in a knot with the pointed ends sticking out like "wings." ==== Trousers ==== Trousers had fly fronts and breeches were used for formal functions and knickers (short pants fuller cut than breeches) for horseback riding. Men's choice to wear trousers is an instance of the importance of comfort and convenience outweighing style and presentation, a value that increased in importance through the 20th century. ==== Waistcoats ==== Waistcoats remained the one garment that could be brightly colored and copiously trimmed on exotic fabrics. Waistcoats show that men were concerned with decorative elements in their ensemble. ==== Notes & Quotes ==== * transition from frock coats to ditto suits, 1850s (Payne, 463) ==== Hats ==== The upper-class continued to wear top hats, and [[bowler hat]]s were worn by the working class. Caps ==== Overcoats ==== Overcoats were cut fuller with wider sleeves and no extra fullness at the shoulder. Unlike the redingote, the overcoats had straight seams to the knee length. Many had wide lapels that reached below the waist. Working class men and their families benefitted more from the industrial revolution in regards to clothing.  Manufacturers marketed to them because because they were the largest class. [[File:Gazette of Fashion, February 1865, RP-P-2009-2675.jpg|thumb|1865, Frock coats, etc. (Paris)]] [[File:Gazette of Fashion, October 1864, RP-P-2009-2673.jpg|thumb|1864, Frock coats, etc., Paris]] [[File:Broadway fashions, New York LCCN2003677917.jpg|thumb|Butterick, Spring-Summer 1866, Broadway Fashions]] [[File:Four young men wearing frock coats - DPLA - 4706a21c9267c45034d51c8fc5309251 (page 1).jpg|thumb|1860s, working class?, ill fitting, frock coats, trousers, shirts, vest, derby hats]] === 1860s === [[File:Corporal frock coat 1862 med.jpg|thumb|Corporal frock coat 1862, 9-botton military]]The 1860s saw fewer inventions that influenced or changed the way people were acquiring clothes. But the changes begun by mass production continued with the working class. Little changed for the higher classes, except maybe paper patterns and sewing machines. The different shape and size in clothing continued to provide slightly different silhouettes for men in the upper and middle classes. As women's clothes grew more complex in cut and style, men's clothes became simpler in cut and style. ==== Coats and Jackets ==== Individualized fittings continued for upper class and wealthy middle class clients. (Working class as well as middle and upper class.) Working class was well over 60% of the population. For the largest class, ready-made garments were ideal for men and women who were working class. For the two upper classes morning coats still led the way but frock coats were still in demand and worn in business and more casual situations. Leisure wear like knickers and ditto suits became more popular in the 1860s. Haute couture wanted every occasion or event to have special clothing. In some ways men dressed more alike (coat, trousers, waistcoat) and in some ways there was more variety in the cut of their coats and in the manufactured clothing they could buy. Many upper class men still had their shirts custom made. Frock coats were shortened to knee-length and were worn for business, while the mid-thigh length [[sack coat]] slowly displaced the frock coat for less-formal occasions, with the overall effect of a looser silhouette. The Prince of Wales: "For the countryside such as at Sandringham, he permitted an informal dress code. The Henry Poole ledger marked as 'HRH 1865' is for an evening coat without tails, the first 'dinner jacket.'"<ref name=":26" /> (424) ==== Shirts ==== Ready-made shirts rarely were seen since shirts were more underwear than outerwear. Factories began to make and sell detachable collars and cuffs. It was more convenient to replace collars and cuffs each day than the time it took a servant (working class) to wash and starch enough to look like the celluloid many of those collars were made of. ==== Trousers ==== Trousers were cut full and boxy during most of the 1850s and 1860s. The strap under the shoe disappeared and trouser legs reached the back of the heel in length. Knickers were still worn for hunting or riding and breeches were still ''de rigueur'' at court. ==== Waistcoats ==== Waistcoats remained decorative and worn with most of the coats that were popular. The young “dandies” wore the most colorful and decorated waistcoats. These “dandies” gave their highest priority to their appearance. They were the avant garde of haute couture for men. ==== Necks Treatments ==== In the [[1860s in fashion|1860s]], men started wearing wider neckties that were tied in a bow or looped into a loose knot and fastened with a stickpin. ==== Hats ==== Top hats briefly became the very tall "stovepipe" shape, but a variety of other hat shapes were popular. ==== Overcoats ==== The single-breasted redingote continued in popularity among the aristocracy and upper middle-class.  These coats were often “in colors such as plum, mulberry, brown, bright blue, and bottle green . . . [with] contrasting velvet collars.” Payne2 p. 474 [[File:Mens Coats 1872 Fashion Plate.jpg|thumb|upright|Drawing of Victorian men 1870s]] [[File:Ashurst frock coat.jpg|thumb|Ashurst Frock coat]] [[File:Grand Duke Alexis Alexandrovich of Russia Wearing a Frock Coat; Standing (fbc266c2feca43f6ad5b44e031635a8d).tif|alt=Old photograph of a man wearing a dark thigh-length coat similar to a suit coat with light-colored trousers|thumb|Grand Duke Alexis Alexandrovich of Russia Wearing a Frock Coat, c. 1872]] [[File:Caillebotte Hugot.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Paul Hugot, 1878]] [[File:Oscar Wilde (1854-1900), by Hills & Saunders, Rugby & Oxford 3 april 1876.jpg|thumb|Oscar Wilde, 1876, ditto suit]] [[File:FrockCoat.jpg|thumb|English frock coat, 1870s]] === 1870s === To correct and prevent errors being made in court dress, in 1875 the Lord Chamberlain published ''Dress Worn by Gentleman at Her Majesty's Court'', "a summary of regulations for court uniform and dress."<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Dress_worn_by_Gentlemen_at_Her_Majesty_s/pvrbQCXq0MEC?hl=en|title=Dress worn by Gentlemen at Her Majesty's Court|last=Britain)|first=Victoria (Queen of Great|date=1875|language=en}}</ref> This is the kind of thing Bertie really cared about. Define court dress. A portly, boxy silhouette was sought for most of the 1870s. Older men whose stomachs had spread outward and thus looked prosperous to the Victorians were the ideal for men’s high fashion. Sack coats and trousers were cut a little wider in the legs. Corduroy for trousers and muslin for shirts was often used in working class clothing. ==== Coats and Jackets ==== There were minor changes to some of the coats Victorian men wore. Frock coats were shortened to the knee. Sack coats (or ditto coats — the forerunner of the suits worn by men in the western cultures of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries) were found to be so comfortable that most men of the upper and middle classes had a ditto suit. Men still wore morning coats and the aristocracy still wore cutaway coats with trousers to parties and balls but cutaway coats with knee breeches at court. ==== Shirts ==== Although ready-made shirts were available, the upper and middle classes still wore bespoke clothing hand-made, with better fabric and an excellent fit but stitched on machines. The suits and shirts made for the working class were of cheaper fabrics. ==== Trousers ==== Most men were wearing trousers  all of the time (except at court) and have worn them ever since. Trousers had button flies by the 1870s which most men found to be much more convenient than laces. Trousers did not “ride up” the leg in the way that knee breeches did when dancing or sitting. If a man did not have fashionable legs, they could be obscured behind trousers. ==== Waistcoats ==== White waistcoats began to be worn by men. Black were also worn when mourning. Changes in the waistcoat could be seen but were very subtle. For example, collars were lowered as the neckline grew deeper and deeper in front, revealing more of the fancy vest. ==== Overcoats ==== A longer version of the standard overcoat, “sometimes with fur collar, cuffs, and lining” was often worn for warmth. Payne2 p. 519 Added to overcoats, “Chesterfield coats were single-breasted, with fly fronts and velvet collars.”  Payne2 p. 519 ==== Original Text ==== During the [[1870s in fashion|1870s]], three-piece suits grew in popularity along with patterned fabrics for shirts. Neckties were the four-in-hand and, later, the [[Ascot tie]]s. A narrow ribbon tie was an alternative for tropical climates, especially in the Americas. Both frock coats and sack coats became shorter and more form fitting. Flat straw boaters were worn when boating. [[File:Elliott & Fry10a.jpg|thumb|William Gladstone, 1887, morning coat]] [[File:British politicians gambling at Ascot Wellcome V0050378.jpg|thumb|British Politicians Gambling at Ascot, 1884]] [[File:Scribner's magazine (1887) (14595087238).jpg|thumb|1887, types of American servants]] === 1880s === The silhouette narrowed and straightened. That is, the line went straight down without the flare of skirts on the coats. This smooth line had few decorations. Men wore hardly any jewelry. They might have a boutonniere or a ring.  Suits were not  decorated. All coats were straighter and shorter. Depending on the time of day, the Prince of Wales might change his clothes (thus, his silhouette) up to six times per day,<ref name=":28" /> (129) and some aristocrats and upper-class men would follow his lead. ==== Coats and Jackets ==== Although the frock coat was worn throughout the nineteenth century, the single fabric sack suit was worn for casual wear and was beginning to be seen as a businessman’s suit.  Morning coats were still in use for some events as well as casual occasions. The modern tuxedo or Cowes jacket appeared and was worn for formal occasions. The tuxedo is still worn as formal dress today. ==== Shirts ==== Shirts were still custom made for the rich and the working class bought ready-made shirts. The shirt remained basically the same but it could handle the different neck treatments.  Even mass produced shirts could have buttons or button holes for detachable collars and cuffs. ==== Trousers ==== Trouser legs began to decrease in width as the coat became narrower and emphasized strong vertical lines. ==== Waistcoats ==== During the 1880s waistcoats were called vests [is it regional?] and much of their bold trim and colorful fabric disappeared and vests were constructed from the same fabric as the coat and trousers. The business suit for men developed in the 1880s and was firmly established in the 1890s. ==== Overcoats ==== Versions of topcoats increased, adding an ulster overcoat for travel and an Inverness coat with up to five cape collars and a high curved collar. Double breasted topcoats were popular and some were knee-length and some calf-length. ==== Original Text ==== During the [[1880s in fashion|1880s]], formal evening dress remained a dark tail coat and trousers with a dark waistcoat, a white bow tie, and a shirt with a winged collar. In mid-decade, the dinner jacket or [[tuxedo]], was used in more relaxed formal occasions. The [[Norfolk jacket]] and tweed or woolen breeches were used for rugged outdoor pursuits such as shooting. Knee-length topcoats, often with contrasting velvet or fur collars, and calf-length overcoats were worn in winter. Men's shoes had higher heels and a narrow toe. [[File:American fashions - The Jno. J. Mitchell Co. Litho., New York. LCCN2006676665.jpg|thumb|Fashion plate from the Jno. J. Mitchell Co., New York, 1899]] [[File:Alfred Milner Vanity Fair 1897-04-15.jpg|thumb|Alfred Milner, 1897, Leslie Ward ("Spy"), for Vanity Fair]] [[File:Nobl-08.jpg|thumb|Sherlock Holmes, 1892, Sidney Paget]] [[File:PUK1894page380rector poor.jpg|thumb|Rector and Drinker, 1894]] === 1890s === The dominant silhouette for men became the sack suit in the 1890s and while changes in the sack have been subtle, it remains the dominant silhouette today. ==== Coats and Jackets ==== “Sacks became ''the'' favored style of suit coat,”(Payne2, p. 532) especially among the younger men. Frock coats were associated with older men along with the cutaway coat. There were many more choices for sports wear and leisure wear than ever before. Norfolk jackets were often worn while hunting. Most informal styles could be purchased ready made. The rich still had their clothing custom made by tailors but even working class men could purchase most ready-made versions of the coats, trousers, and vests. ==== Shirts ==== Shirts could be made of patterned fabric as well as solid colors and white.  Shirts were beginning to be acceptable as outer wear especially when worn as sporting clothing. ==== Trousers ==== Early in the 1890s, “slim, straight trousers were news.” (Payne 2, p. 532) Trousers could be plaid or checked as well as the same fabric as the coat and vest. ==== Waistcoats ==== Fancy fabrics and bold trim were not seen much as the more subdued vest dominated the fashion scene. ==== Neck Treatments ==== In the 1860s, men started wearing wider neckties that were tied in a bow or looped into a loose knot and fastened with a stickpin. ==== Overcoats ==== “Topcoats included fingertip-length styles made of twill covert cloth. Single-breasted, fly-front overcoats were fashionable too. Roomy overcoats with fur linings and collars warmed the wealthy. Inverness overcoats remained in vogue.” Payne2, p.532 ==== Original Text ==== Starting from the [[1890s in fashion|1890s]], the [[blazer]] was introduced, and was worn for sports, sailing, and other casual activities.<ref>{{cite web|last=Landow|first=George|url=http://www.victorianweb.org/art/costume/90s/2.html|title=Men's informal sporting dress, late 1880s and '90s}}</ref> Throughout much of the Victorian era most men wore fairly short hair. This was often accompanied by various forms of facial hair including moustaches, side-burns, and full beards. A clean-shaven face did not come back into fashion until the end of the 1880s and early 1890s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.victorianweb.org/art/costume/nunn21.html|title=Victorian Men's Fashions, 1850–1900: Hair}}</ref> Distinguishing what men really wore from what was marketed to them in periodicals and advertisements is difficult, as reliable records do not exist.<ref name="shannon597">{{cite journal|last=Shannon|first=Brent|title=Refashioning Men: Fashion, Masculinity, and the Cultivation of the Male Consumer in Britain, 1860–1914|journal=Victorian Studies|year=2004|volume=46|issue=4|pages=597–630|doi=10.1353/vic.2005.0022}}</ref> === Notes === *Men's suits buttoned higher up than today (Payne, 467) * Norfolk jackets and sack suits (Payne, 471) * formal attire, tuxedos with tails, cutaways (Payne, 469) * Keith Middlemas (https://archive.org/details/storyoffiesta00huxf/page/200/mode/2up?q=fashion) *Brent Shannon. "Refashioning Men: Fashion, Masculinity, and the Cultivation of the Male Consumer in Britain, 1860–1914." Victorian Studies 46, no. 4 (Summer 2004): 597–630. == Hats and headwear == [[File:Ford.madox.brown.last.emma.study.jpg|thumb|''Emma Hill'' by [[Ford Madox Brown]] (1853), a woman wearing a later version of the [[poke bonnet]]]] [[File:Hoed,_objectnr_KA_1237.tif|left|thumb|Perched bonnet style of the early 1870s.]] Hats were crucial to a respectable appearance for both men and women. === Men's Hats === The top hat, for example, was standard formal wear for upper- and middle-class men.[Payne] According to Blanche Payne, "The high top hat, usually black or dark gray, had reached its characteristic shape by 1798 and dominated the entire nineteenth century." (457–58) Although top hats were the dominant hat in the 19th century, other hats became popular for working classes and lower income middle class. “The style of an individual’s hat varied, depending on fashion and their social position, as well as their profession or chosen activity..” ''Goodman 53 of 460'' Other hats that became necessary and popular include the Derby, the straw Boater, and a flat cap with a short brim. In many cases the class, work activity and income could be determined by what kind of hat was on the head of the wearer. For some men, a hat supporting a particular sport or team was important. The Derby or Bowler hat was designed by William and Thomas Bowler, brother shopkeepers in 1849. ''(Goodman 55 of 460)'' It cost less than a top hat but  lasted longer and was soon worn by middle class bankers and clerks. Straw boaters were worn by the aristocracy for casual events and working class factory workers and agricultural laborers. By 1901 working class men had changed their preference to the flat caps which became the most popular hat for the workers. Headdress for men was an essential part of dress for the entire period of the Victorian age, from the 1830s through the end of the century. Judith Flanders describes the hats worn by men in London, <blockquote>It is difficult to bear in mind the importance of hats as not only markers of class and income, but also as indicators of respectability. [509–519] [George Augustus] Sala commented that "every" man throughout the history of the world "must, necessarily and habitually, wear some kind of covering to his head". Postmen wore hats, small children wore hats, field labourers and market gardeners wore hats, cricketers, skaters — all sportsmen — wore hats. It was, self-evidently, impossible to go outdoors without one. ... Those in professional occupations wore pot hats, as did clerks and all those with pretensions to middle-class status. Even doctors' delivery boys wore battered hand-me-down pot hats: "the nap rusty, the band a mournful strip of tarnished lace; but still a Hat", which "stamps him as being associated, in however slender a manner, with a learned profession". Cloth caps were for labourers, for costers and for boys. ... Artisans wore caps made out of paper, which they folded [510–511] themselves and so could easily replace as they became dirty.<ref name=":23" /> (509–511 [of 972]) </blockquote>A pot-hat is a kind of derby or bowler in men's hats. (Lewandowski, 237) ==== Original Text ==== Hats were crucial to a respectable appearance for both men and women. The top hat, for example, was standard formal wear for upper- and middle-class men.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Steele |first=Valerie |url=https://archive.org/details/fashioneroticism0000stee |title=Victorian Fashion. Fashion and Eroticism: Ideals of Feminine Beauty from the Victorian Era to the Jazz Age |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-19-503530-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/fashioneroticism0000stee/page/51 51]–84 |url-access=registration}}</ref> For women, the styles of hats changed over time and were designed to match their outfits. === Women's Hats === For a discussion of the history of plumes and feathers, see [[Social Victorians/Victorian Things#Ostrich Plumes and Prince of Wales's Feathers|Ostrich Plumes and Prince of Wales's Feathers in ''Victorian Things'']]. ==== Original Wikipedia Text ==== During the early Victorian decades, hats were modest in size and design, straw and fabric bonnets being the popular choice. [[Poke bonnet]]s, which had been worn during the late [[Regency period]], had high, small crowns and brims that grew larger until the 1830s, when the face of a woman wearing a poke bonnet could only be seen directly from the front. They had rounded brims, echoing the rounded form of the bell-shaped hoop skirts. Bonnets shrunk at the end of the 1860s and moved to a perched position in the early 1870s as hairstyles grew in scale and intricacy. This led to the popularization of hats, which became the headwear of choice for the remainder of the Victorian era.<ref name="g4223">{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=Cecil Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century |date=1990-05-01 |publisher=Courier Corporation |isbn=0-486-26323-1 |publication-place=New York |page=}}</ref> [[File:The_London_and_Paris_ladies'_magazine_(Apr_1885)_03.png|thumb|Flower pot style hat of 1885.]] The 1880s saw a hat inspired by the top hat for women known as the flowerpot hat, and the 1890s saw the popularity of the boater. The hats of the late Victorian era were covered with elaborate creations of silk flowers, ribbons, and above all, exotic plumes; hats sometimes included entire exotic birds that had been stuffed. Many of these plumes came from birds in the Florida everglades, which were nearly made entirely extinct by overhunting. By 1899, early environmentalists like [[Adeline Knapp]] were engaged in efforts to curtail the hunting for plumes. By 1900, more than five million birds a year were being slaughtered, and nearly 95 per cent of Florida's shore birds had been killed by [[Plume hunting|plume hunter]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Everglades National Park|url=https://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/parks/everglades/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090927085907/http://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/parks/everglades/|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 September 2009|publisher=PBS|access-date=7 November 2011}}</ref> == Shoes == The women's shoes of the early Victorian period were narrow and heelless, in black or white satin. By 1850s and 1860s, they were slightly broader with a low heel and made of leather or cloth. Ankle-length laced or buttoned boots were also popular. From the 1870s to the twentieth century, heels grew higher and toes more pointed. Low-cut pumps were worn for the evening.<ref name=":4" /> == Cosmetics == [[Victorian-era cosmetics]] were typically less obvious than ours. However, small amounts of pale face powder or powdered blush were widely used.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=Ruth |title=How to be a Victorian |date=2014 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-670-92136-2 |location=London}}</ref> Tints were sometimes added to face creams. Some cosmetics contained toxic or caustic ingredients like lead, mercury, ammonia, and arsenic {{Citation needed|date=October 2025}}. Hair color ==Mourning black== {{See also |Mourning stationery}} [[File:The royal children in mourning Mar 1862.jpg|thumb|Victoria's five daughters (Alice, Helena, Beatrice, Victoria and Louise), photographed wearing mourning black beneath a bust of their late father, Prince Albert (1862)]] [[File:Mourning dress MET 50.40.3a-b front CP4.jpg|alt=Black Victorian mourning dress|thumb|Mourning Dress, 1894–95]] In Britain, black is the colour traditionally associated with mourning for the dead. The customs and etiquette expected of men, and especially women, were rigid but evolving during much of the Victorian era. The expectations depended on a complex hierarchy of close or distant relationship with the deceased. (Davidoff) The closer the relationship, the longer the mourning period and the wearing of black. The wearing of full black was known as First Mourning, which had its own expected attire, including fabrics, and an expected duration of 4 to 18 months. Following the initial period of First Mourning, the mourner would progress to Second Mourning, a transition period of wearing less black, which was followed by Ordinary Mourning, and then Half-mourning. Some of these stages of mourning were shortened or skipped completely if the mourner's relationship to the deceased was more distant. Half-mourning was a transition period when black was replaced by acceptable colours such as lavender and mauve, possibly considered acceptable transition colours because of the tradition of [[Church of England]] (and [[Catholic Church|Catholic]]) clergy wearing lavender or mauve [[Stole (vestment)|stoles]] for funeral services, to represent the [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion of Christ]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Colors of the Church Year|url=http://fullhomelydivinity.org/articles/colors.htm|publisher=Consortium of Country Churches|access-date=6 November 2011|archive-date=13 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113075214/http://fullhomelydivinity.org/articles/colors.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> The mourning dress worn by Queen Victoria (below, right) "shows the traditional touches of mourning attire, which she wore from the death of her husband, Prince Albert (1819–1861), until her own death."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/155839?&searchField=All&sortBy=Relevance&deptids=8&ft=queen+victoria&offset=0&rpp=20&amp;pos=2|title=Mourning Dress, 1894–95|last=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|date=7 September 2019|website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|access-date=7 September 2019}}</ref> Dating from 1894–95, Queen Victoria wore this dress as a result of the death of the eldest son of the Prince and Princess of Wales, Eddy, in line to the throne. === Norms for mourning=== ''Manners and Rules of Good Society, or, Solecisms to be Avoided'' (London, Frederick Warne & Co., 1887) gives clear instructions, such as the following:<ref>{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|pages=378–83}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Relationship to deceased !! First mourning !! Second mourning !! Ordinary mourning !! Half-mourning |- | Wife for husband || 1-year, 1-month; [[bombazine]] fabric covered with [[Crape|crepe]]; [[widow's cap]], [[lawn cuff]]s, collars || 6 months: less crepe || 6 months: no crepe, silk or wool replaces bombazine; in last 3 months jet jewellery and ribbons can be added || 6 months: colours permitted are grey, lavender, mauve, and black-and-grey |- | Daughter for parent || 6 months: black with black or white crepe (for young girls); no linen cuffs and collars; no jewellery for first 2 months || 4 months: less crepe || – || 2 months as above |- | Wife for husband's parents || 18 months in black bombazine with crepe || – || 3 months in black || 3 months as above |- | Parent for son- or daughter-in-law's parent || – Black armband in representation of someone lost || – || 1-month black || – |- | Second wife for parent of a first wife || – || – || 3 months black || – |} The complexity of these etiquette rules extends to specific mourning periods and attire for siblings, step-parents, aunts and uncles distinguished by blood and by marriage, nieces, nephews, first and second cousins, children, infants, and "connections" (who were entitled to ordinary mourning for a period of "1–3 weeks, depending on level of intimacy"). Men were expected to wear mourning black to a lesser extent than women, and for a shorter mourning period. After the mid-19th century, men would wear a black hatband and black suit, but for only half the prescribed period of mourning expected of women. Widowers were expected to mourn for a mere three months, whereas the proper mourning period expected for widows was up to four years.<ref>{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|pages=378–9}}</ref> Women who mourned in black for longer periods were accorded great respect in public for their devotion to the departed, the most prominent example being Queen Victoria herself. It was not uncommon for a widow who did not remarry to wear half-mourning for the rest of her life, except when another death necessitated full mourning. For example, Alexandra, Princess of Wales wore half-mourning for the rest of her life after her eldest son Eddy died in 1894. Empress Elisabeth of Austria did the same, as did Empress Eugénie of France. They reverted to full mourning when appropriate, but they never wore less than half-mourning after their sons' deaths. Women with lesser financial means tried to keep up with the example being set by the middle and upper classes by dyeing their daily dress. Dyers made most of their income during the Victorian period by dyeing clothes black for mourning.<ref>{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|page=341}}</ref> == Technological advancement == The technological changes that affected the manufacture and consumption of clothing in the Victorian age included the following: * the mass production of fabrics — for example, "by the early 1850s there were thousands of steam-powered looms churning out millions of miles of fabric every year"  [62] * the invention of aniline dyes, which were much more vibrantly colored and resistant to fading than the natural dyes that had been used. — . Invented by chemist [[William Henry Perkin]] in 1856, the first aniline dye mauveine (or mauve) "wash[ed] the fashionable landscape in a haze of purple."<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|title=The Dress Diary: Secrets from a Victorian Woman's Wardrobe|last=Strasdin|first=Kate|publisher=Pegasus Books|year=2023|location=New York, New York}}</ref> (247) Other intense and, to the Victorians, intensely exciting colors followed, but the new synthetic additions to fabric sometimes included chemicals harmful to their wearers. For example, a "bright-magenta hue was achieved by adding arsenical-based chemicals to existing aniline dyes, brightening the already luminous shades – but these left residues themselves, along with a toxic labour trail in their wake."<ref name=":22" /> (255) Perhaps the most famous of these is arsenic green, used on fabrics, wallpapers, and trim: "The craze for artificial foliage to adorn the heads and dresses of women of fashion in the mid-nineteenth century had seen the proliferation of flower workshops, where young women in their hundreds laboured to produce the lifelike green leaves and blooms that would make a fetching headdress or would trail becomingly across the bodice of a gown. The lushness of the green was achieved by the application of a powder, a pigment that was created by mixing copper and the highly toxic chemical, arsenic trioxide. The physical effects of working with this poisonous compound were horrific. Contemporary medical drawings depict the green hue of the skin and dreadful open lesions on the hands of the maker, whilst the daily gradual ingestion of the powder by the flower girls was eventually fatal."<ref name=":22" /> (255) * the invention of a sewing machine that could be used in the home. Although sewing machines were already in use in the clothing industry, in 1858 Isaac Merritt Singer began to sell "lightweight domestic machines" for home sewing, radically increasing women's control over their own dress.<ref name=":24">{{Cite book|title=Victorian Fashions for Women|last=Kay|first=Fiona|last2=Storey|first2=Neil R.|publisher=Pen & Sword History|year=2022|isbn=978 1 39900 416 9|location=Yorkshire and Philadelphia|pages=}}</ref> (91 [of 298]) * the spread of journalism for women and fashion journalism * the Jacquard loom: "French inventor Joseph-Marie Jacquard’s loom attachment mechanized the weaving of figured fabrics by 1804."<ref name=":25" /> (454) Perhaps not at the same scale as these but as important in 1850s designs was a technology that turned iron into steel, which could then be drawn into fine wires.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=The Culture of Fashion|last=Breward|first=Christopher|publisher=Manchester University Press|year=1995|pages=145–180}}</ref> Steel was refined to a malleable state so that thin blades could be curved into concentric circles (called hoops) and connected with wires to form the cage. Technological advancements not only influenced the economy but brought a major change in the fashion styles worn by men and women. As the Victorian era was based on the principles of gender, race and class.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Graham|first1=P|title=The Victorian Era|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.261548|journal=Digital Library of India}}</ref> Much advancement was in favor of the upper class as they were the ones who could afford the latest technology and change their fashion styles accordingly. In 1830s there was introduction of horse hair crinoline that became a symbol of status and wealth as only the upper-class women could wear it. In 1850s there were more fashion technological advancements hence 1850s could rightly be called a revolution in the Victorian fashion industry such as the innovation of artificial cage crinoline that gave women an artificial hourglass silhouette without layers of petticoats, which was lighter and more hygienic.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shrimpton|first1=J|title=Victorian Fashion|publisher=Bloomsbury Shire Publications}}</ref> Synthetic dyes, such as [[mauveine]] (aniline purple), were introduced in 1856, adding bright colours to garments. In 1855's ''[[Haute couture]]'' was introduced as tailoring became more mainstream in years to follow.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aspelund|first1=Karl|title=Fashioning Society|publisher=Fairchild Books}}</ref> Charles Frederick Worth, a prominent English designer, became popular amongst the upper class though its city of destiny always is Paris. Haute couture became popular at the same time that sewing machines were invented.<ref name="Haute Couture">{{cite book|last1=Martin|first1=Richard|last2=Koda|first2=Harold|title=Haute Couture|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art}}</ref> Princess [[Eugénie de Montijo|Eugenie]] of France wore the Englishman dressmaker, Charles Frederick Worth's couture and he instantly became famous in France though he had just arrived in Paris a few years ago. In 1855, Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Britain welcomed [[Napoleon III]] and Eugenie of France to a full state visit to England. Eugenie was considered a fashion icon in France. Queen Victoria, who had been the fashion icon for European high fashion, was inspired by Eugenie's style and the fashions she wore.{{Citation needed|date=October 2025}} Later, Queen Victoria also appointed Charles Frederick Worth as her dress maker and he became a prominent designer amongst the European upper class. Charles Frederick Worth is known as the father of the haute couture as later the concept of labels were also invented in the late 19th century as custom, made to fit tailoring became mainstream.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Saillard|first1=Olivier|last2=Zazzo|first2=Anne|title=Paris Haute Couture|publisher=Skira Flammarion}}</ref> By the 1860s, when made-to-fit tailoring was popular in Europe, crinolines were considered impractical. In the 1870s, women preferred more slimmer silhouettes, hence bodices grew longer and the polonaise, a skirt and bodice made together, was introduced. In 1870s the Cuirass Bodice, a piece of armour that covers the torso and functions like a corset, was invented. Towards the end of Victoria's reign, dresses were flared naturally as crinolines were rejected by middle-class women. Designers such as Charles Frederick Worth were also against them. All these inventions and changes in fashion led to women's liberation as tailored looks improved posture and were more practical.<ref name="Haute Couture"/> dressmakers, couturiers, modistes == Home decor == {{main|Victorian decorative arts}} Home decor started spare, veered into the elaborately draped and decorated style we today regard as Victorian, then embraced the retro-chic of [[William Morris]] as well as pseudo-[[Japonaiserie]]. == Myths and Oversimplifications == === Modesty === {{main|Victorian morality}} {{Original research|section|date=May 2008}} [[File:1868-skirt-lengths-girl-ages-Harpers-Bazar.gif|thumb|upright|"The proper length for little girls' skirts at various ages", from ''[[Harper's Bazaar]]'', showing a 1900 idea of how the hemline should descend towards the ankle as a girl got older]]Many myths and exaggerations about the period persist to the modern day. Examples include the idea of men's clothing is seen as formal and stiff, women's as elaborate and over-done; clothing covered the entire body, and even the glimpse of an ankle was scandalous. Critics contend that [[corset]]s constricted women's bodies and lives. Homes are described as gloomy, dark, cluttered with massive and over-ornate furniture and proliferating [[bric-a-brac]]. Myth has it that even piano legs were scandalous, and covered with tiny [[pantalette]]s. === Tight Lacing === Tight-lacing, which was not possible until the development of the grommet in 1828, was famously controversial in the Victorian age, generating many column inches of profitable newspaper copy, in part because it was (and still is) fetishistic and subversive in that adolescent girls used it as a means of rebellion and upper-working- or lower-middle-class shop girls saw it as a means of upward mobility.<ref name=":21">{{Cite book|title=Fashion and Fetishism: Corsets, Tight-Lacing and Other Forms of Body-sculpture|last=Kunzle|first=David|publisher=History Press|year=2013|isbn=978 0 7524 9545 3|location=Stroud, Gloucestershire|pages=}}</ref> (71 [of 1182]) No evidence exists that tight lacing was widespread or particularly dangerous.<ref name=":21" /> () In truth, men's formal clothing may have been less colourful than it was in the previous century, but brilliant [[waistcoat]]s and [[cummerbund]]s provided a touch of colour, and [[smoking jacket]]s and [[robe|dressing gown]]s were often of rich Oriental [[brocade]]s. This phenomenon was the result of the growing textile manufacturing sector, developing mass production processes, and increasing attempts to market fashion to men.<ref name="shannon597"/> Corsets stressed a woman's sexuality, exaggerating hips and bust by contrast with a tiny waist. Women's [[evening gown]]s bared the shoulders and the tops of the breasts. The [[jersey dress]]es of the 1880s may have covered the body, but the stretchy novel fabric fit the body like a glove.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gernsheim |first=Alison |title=Victorian & Edwardian Fashion: A Photographic Survey |year=1981 |publisher=Dover Publications |location=New York |page=65|edition=New |isbn=0-486-24205-6}}</ref> Home furnishing was not necessarily ornate or overstuffed. However, those who could afford lavish draperies and expensive ornaments, and wanted to display their wealth, would often do so. Since the Victorian era was one of increased social mobility, there were ever more ''[[nouveaux riches]]'' making a rich show. The items used in decoration may also have been darker and heavier than those used today, simply as a matter of practicality. London was noisy and its air was full of [[soot]] from countless coal fires. Hence those who could afford it draped their windows in heavy, sound-muffling curtains, and chose colours that didn't show soot quickly. When all washing was done by hand, curtains were not washed as frequently as they might be today. There is no actual evidence that piano legs were considered scandalous. Pianos and tables were often draped with [[shawl]]s or cloths—but if the shawls hid anything, it was the cheapness of the furniture. There are references to lower-middle-class families covering up their [[pine]] tables rather than show that they couldn't afford [[mahogany]]. The piano leg story seems to have originated in the 1839 book, ''A Diary in America'' written by Captain [[Frederick Marryat]], as a satirical comment on American prissiness.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Marryat |first1=C.B. |title=A Diary in America: With Remarks on Its Institutions |date=1839 |publisher=Longman, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longmans |location=London, England |volume=2 |pages=246–247 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2-VEAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA246}} From pp. 246-247: "I was requested by a lady to escort her to a seminary for young ladies, and on being ushered into the reception-room, conceive my astonishment at beholding a square piano-forte with four ''limbs''. However, that the ladies who visited their daughters, might feel in its full force the extreme delicacy of the mistress of the establishment, and her care to preserve in their utmost purity the ideas of the young ladies under her charge, she had dressed all these four limbs in modest little trousers, with frills at the bottom of them!"</ref> Victorian manners may have been as strict as imagined—on the surface. One simply did not speak publicly about sex, childbirth, and such matters, at least in the respectable middle and upper classes. However, as is well known, discretion covered a multitude of sins. Prostitution flourished. Upper-class men and women indulged in [[adultery|adulterous]] liaisons. == Gallery == {{gallery |2=A mid-Victorian interior: ''Hide and Seek'' by [[James Tissot]], c. 1877 Image:Winterhalter Elisabeth.jpg|3=Dress designed by [[Charles Frederick Worth]] for [[Elisabeth of Bavaria|Elisabeth of Austria]] painted by [[Franz Xaver Winterhalter]].|4=File:Frith A Private View detail.jpg|5=[[William Powell Frith]]'s painting of 1883 contrasts women's [[Aesthetic dress]] (left and right) with fashionable attire (center).|6=File:Tissot lilacs 1875.jpg|7=Day dress, c. 1875 [[James Tissot]] painting.|8=File:James Abbot McNeill Whistler 011.jpg|9=[[James McNeill Whistler|Whistler]]'s [[Portrait of Lady Meux]], 1882 Image:Jeanna_Samary-Renoir.png|10=[[Pierre-Auguste Renoir|Renoir]]'s portrait of [[Jeanne Samary]] in an [[evening gown]], 1878|11=File:Melville_-_Queen_Victoria.jpg|12=Portrait by [[Alexander Melville (artist)|Alexander Melville]] of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], 1845|13=File:Henry Treffry Dunn Rossetti and Dunton at 16 Cheyne Walk.jpg|14=An artistic interior: [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] reading to [[Theodore Watts-Dunton]] in the drawing room at No. 16 [[Cheyne Walk]], 1882|15=File:Punch - Masculine beauty retouched1.png|16=Men's swimwear: Cartoon from ''[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]'' by [[George du Maurier]]}} == See also == * [[Emily Clapham]] * [[Victorian decorative arts]] * [[Victorian dress reform]] * [[Victorian morality]] * [[Victoriana]] * [[Women in the Victorian Era]] * [[Charles Frederick Worth]] === Time periods === * [[1830s in fashion]] * [[1840s in fashion]] * [[1850s in fashion]] * [[1860s in fashion]] * [[1870s in fashion]] * [[1880s in fashion]] * [[1890s in fashion]] === Women's clothing === * [[Corset]] * [[Corset controversy]] * [[Tightlacing]] * [[Bloomers (clothing)|Bloomers]] * [[Bodice]] === Contemporary interpretations === * [[Steampunk]] * [[Neo-Victorian]] * [[Lolita Fashion|Lolita]] == References == {{Reflist}} == Further reading == *{{cite book |author=Phipps, Elena| title= ''From Queen to Empress: Victorian dress 1837-1877'' | location=New York | publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art | year=1988 | isbn=0870995340| url= http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/69547/rec/235 | display-authors=etal}} * Sweet, Matthew – ''Inventing the Victorians'', St. Martin's Press, 2001 {{ISBN|0-312-28326-1}} == External links == * [http://www.victorians.co.uk/victorian-fashion Victorian Fashion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180407223711/http://www.victorians.co.uk/victorian-fashion |date=7 April 2018 }} * [https://www.victorianvoices.net/topics/fashion/index.shtml VictorianVoices.net] – Fashion articles and illustrations from Victorian periodicals; extensive fashion image gallery * [http://www.cracked.com/article_19575_5-ridiculous-sex-myths-from-history-you-probably-believe.html Victorian myths] * [http://www.victorianstation.com/lifestylemenu.htm Victorian fashion, etiquette, and sports] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103162620/http://www.victorianstation.com/lifestylemenu.htm |date=3 January 2018 }} * [http://www.thesmartset.com/article/article12180701.aspx Background on "A Diary in America"] * [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/webtours/VQ_P2_17_EN.html Form and Fashion] — the evolution of women's dress during the 19th century (many photographs) * [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/games/jeu2/ Educational Game: Mix and Match] — build a 19th-century dress using a virtual mannequin * {{cite web |publisher= [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] |url= http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/v/victorian-dress-at-v-and-a/ |title= Victorian Dress |work= Fashion, Jewellery & Accessories |date= 14 January 2011 |access-date= 2011-04-03}} *[http://cv.vic.gov.au/stories/creative-life/fashion-detective-fashion-fiction-and-forensics/ Fashion detective: Fashion, Fiction and Forensics in nineteenth century Australian fashion] on Culture Victoria {{Timeline of clothing and fashion|state=collapsed}}{{Victorian era|state=collapsed}} [[Category:Victorian fashion| ]] [[Category:19th-century fashion|*]] [[Category:1900s fashion]] [[Category:History of Western fashion]] [[Category:19th century in the arts]] =From ''Women in the Victorian era''= ===Victorian women's fashion=== {{Multiple issues|{{tone|date=March 2023}} {{more footnotes needed|date=March 2023}}|section=y}}{{Further|Victorian fashion}} The ideal Victorian woman was pure, chaste, refined, and modest. This ideal was supported by etiquette and manners. The etiquette extended to the pretension of never acknowledging the use of undergarments (sometimes generically referred to as "unmentionables"). The discussion of such a topic, it was feared, would gravitate towards unhealthy attention on anatomical details. As one Victorian lady expressed it: "[those] are not things, my dear, that we speak of; indeed, we try not even to think of them", in contrast to current norms.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=C. Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-486-26323-6 |pages=20}}</ref> The pretence of avoiding acknowledgement of anatomical realities met with embarrassing failure on occasion. In 1859, the Hon. Eleanor Stanley wrote about an incident where the [[Louisa Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire|Duchess of Manchester]] moved too quickly while manoeuvring over a [[stile]], tripping over her large [[hoop skirt]]: {{blockquote|[the Duchess] caught a hoop of her cage in it and went regularly head over heels lighting on her feet with her cage and whole petticoats above, above her head. They say there was never such a thing seen – and the other ladies hardly knew whether to be thankful or not that a part of her undergarments consisted in a pair of scarlet tartan [[knickerbockers (clothing)|knickerbockers]] (the things Charlie shoots in) which were revealed to the view of all the world in general and the [[Aimable Pélissier|Duc de Malakoff]] in particular".<ref>{{cite book|last=Cunnington|first=C. Willett|title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations|year=1990|publisher=Dover Publications|isbn=978-0-486-26323-6|pages=20–1}}</ref>}} However, despite the fact that Victorians considered the mention of women's undergarments in mixed company unacceptable, men's entertainment made great comedic material out of the topic of ladies' [[bloomers (clothing)|bloomers]], including men's magazines and music hall skits.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=C. Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-486-26323-6 |pages=22}}</ref> Victorian women's clothing followed trends that emphasised elaborate dresses, skirts with wide volume created by the use of layered material such as [[crinoline]]s, hoop skirt frames, and heavy fabrics. Because of the impracticality and health impact of the era's fashions, a [[Victorian dress reform|dress reform movement]] began among women. The ideal silhouette of the time demanded a narrow waist, which was accomplished by constricting the abdomen with a laced [[corset]]. While the silhouette was striking, and the dresses themselves were often exquisitely detailed creations, the fashions were cumbersome. At best, they restricted women's movements and at worst, they had a harmful effect on women's health. Physicians turned their attention to the use of corsets and determined that they caused several medical problems: compression of the thorax, restricted breathing, organ displacement, poor circulation, and prolapsed uterus.<ref name="O'Connor"/> Articles advocating the reform of women's clothing by the British National Health Society, the Ladies' Dress Association, and the [[Rational Dress Society]] were reprinted in ''The Canada Lancet'', Canada's medical journal. In 1884, Dr J. Algernon Temple of Toronto even voiced concern that the fashions were having a negative impact on the health of young women from the working classes. He pointed out that a young working-class woman was likely to spend a large part of her earnings on fine hats and shawls, while "her feet are improperly protected, and she wears no flannel petticoat or woollen stockings".<ref name="O'Connor"/> [[File:Bloomers.jpg|thumb|1850s illustration of a woman wearing [[bloomers]]]] [[Florence Pomeroy]], Lady Haberton, was president of the Rational Dress movement in Britain. At a National Health Society exhibition held in 1882, Viscountess Haliburton presented her invention of a "[[divided skirt]]", which was a long skirt that cleared the ground, with separate halves at the bottom made with material attached to the bottom of the skirt. She hoped that her invention would become popular by supporting women's freedom of physical movement, but the British public was not impressed by the invention, perhaps because of the negative "unwomanly" association of the style with the American [[Bloomers]] movement.<ref>{{cite book|last=Murray|first=Janet Horowitz|title=Strong-Minded Women and Other Lost Voices from 19th Century England|year=1982|publisher=Pantheon Books|location=New York|isbn=0-394-71044-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/strongmindedwome00jane/page/68 68–70]|url=https://archive.org/details/strongmindedwome00jane/page/68}}</ref> [[Amelia Jenks Bloomer]] had encouraged the wearing of visible bloomers by feminists to assert their right to wear comfortable and practical clothing, but it was no more than a passing fashion itself among radical feminists. The movement to reform women's dress would persist and have long-term success, however; by the 1920s, [[Coco Chanel]] was successful at selling a progressive, far less restrictive silhouette that abandoned the corset and raised hemlines. The new silhouette symbolised modernism for trendy young women and became the 20th century standard. Other Paris designers continued reintroducing pants for women and the trend was gradually adopted over the next century. Fashion trends, in one sense, travelled "full circle" over the course of the Victorian era. The popular women's styles during the [[Georgian era]], and at the very beginning of Victoria's reign, emphasized a simple style influenced by flowing gowns worn by women in [[Ancient Greek clothing|Ancient Greece]] and [[Clothing in ancient Rome|Rome]]. The [[Empire waist]] silhouette was replaced by a trend towards ornate styles and an artificial silhouette, with the restrictiveness of women's clothing reaching its low point during the mid-century passion for narrow corseted waists and hoop skirts. The iconic wide-brimmed women's hats of the later Victorian era also followed the trend towards ostentatious display. Hats began the Victorian era as simple [[Bonnet (headgear)|bonnets]]. By the 1880s, milliners were tested by the competition among women to top their outfits with the most creative (and extravagant) hats, designed with expensive materials such as silk flowers and exotic plumes such as ostrich and peacock. As the Victorian era drew to a close, however, fashions were showing indications of a popular backlash against excessive styles. Model, actress and socialite [[Lillie Langtry]] took London by storm in the 1870s, attracting notice for wearing simple black dresses to social events. Combined with her natural beauty, the style appeared dramatic. Fashions followed her example (as well as Queen Victoria's wearing of mourning black later in her reign). According to [[Harold Koda]], the former Curator-in-chief of the [[Costume Institute at The Met|Metropolitan Museum of Art's Costume Institute]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/about-the-museum/press-room/exhibitions/2014/death-becomes-her|title=Death Becomes Her: A Century of Mourning Attire : October 21, 2014-February 1, 2015|website=Metmuseuim.org|access-date=7 November 2021}}</ref> "The predominantly black palette of [[mourning]] dramatizes the evolution of period silhouettes and the increasing absorption of fashion ideals into this most codified of etiquettes," said Koda, "The veiled widow could elicit sympathy as well as predatory male advances. As a woman of sexual experience without marital constraints, she was often imagined as a potential threat to the social order." ====Evolution of Victorian women's fashion==== <gallery> File:Fashion plate December 1844.jpg|Ladies' December Fashions (1844). Hand-coloured steel engraving from a women's magazine. File:Thegalleryofhmscalcutta james tissot 1876.jpg|''[[The Gallery of HMS Calcutta]]'' by [[James Tissot]] (1876). [[Bustle]]s were fashionable in the 1870s and 1880s. File:Mrs lillie langtry george frederic watts 1880.jpg|''Mrs. Lillie Langtry'' by [[George Frederic Watts]] (1880). File:Five-women-on-queenslander-steps-r.jpg|Fashionable women in [[Queensland]], Australia around 1900. </gallery> {{Short description|Irish writer (born 1963)}} {{Use Irish English|date=August 2025}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}} {{Infobox writer | name = Darach Ó Scolaí | image = Darach Ó Scolaí.JPG | alt = Man holding prize-winning book | caption = Ó Scolaí in 2019 | birth_name = Darach Ó Scolaí | birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1963|df=y}} | birth_place = [[County Galway]], The Republic of Ireland | death_date = | death_place = | occupation = Writer, artist, publisher | alma_mater = [[University of Galway]] | years_active = 1998–present | genre = Novel, retelling, translation, play, screenplay, illustrated book for children and adults | other_names = | spouse = | children = 3 | awards = [[Awards and Honors received by Darach Ó Scolaí|Awards and Honors]] | signature = | website = }}[[File:Darach Ó Scolaí.JPG|thumb|Darach Ó Scolaí, holding ''Oileán an Órchiste'' (his translation of Robert Louis Stevenson's ''Treasure Island'')]] == Darach Ó Scolaí == Darach Ó Scolaí (<small>Irish:</small> [/ˈda.rax/ /oː/ /sˠkˠoː/l̪ˠəi/]; born 1963<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://portraidi.ie/en/darach-o-scolai/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=20 October 2017|website=Portráidí (Portraits of Irish-Language Writers)|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref>) is an Irish author who works in a number of genres, from novels, plays and screenplays to illustrated books for children and adults. He began his literary career in 1998 writing screenplays, stage plays, retellings and translations; he began to publish novels in 2008. Ó Scolaí is widely recognized as a leading figure in contemporary Irish literature, known as “one of the most important Irish language writers of his generation”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poirtéir|first=Cathal|date=2022|title=? Suil an Daill: Constant Tensions and Shifting Allegiances|url=https://booksirelandmagazine.com/suil-an-daill-constant-tensions-and-shifting-allegiances/|journal=Books Ireland}}</ref> and "one of the great Irish language novelists [duine d’úrscéalaithe móra na Gaeilge]."<ref name=":17" /> His writing has been called “the high literature of the Irish language.”<ref>Ó Coimín, Maitiú. ''Nós'' 2 February 2018). Qtd. in "Táin Bó Cuailnge." ''Leabhar Breac''. Retrieved 25 August 2025.</ref> Much of his fiction is based on a knowledge of traditional Irish tales and narrative practices as well as Irish history. He specializes in literary and [[wikipedia:Historical_fiction|historical fiction]], or as novelist Alan Titley says, Ó Scolaí’s “peak (for now), or at least his greatest imaginative interest, is the historical novel [tá an chuma air gurb é a bhuaic (go fóill), nó ar a laghad, a mhórspéis samhlaíochta, an t-úrscéal staire].”<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Titley|first=Alan|date=Fall 2020|title=An Stíl Go Deo!: Soather Dharach Uí Scolaí (The style would be forever!: Worker Darach Ó Scolaí)|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27046090|journal=Comhar|volume=80, No. 10|pages=27|via=JSTOR}}</ref> His retellings of old stories and tales from their original Middle and Early-Modern Irish into Modern Irish ([[wikipedia:Irish_language|Gaeilge]]) are respected for their accessibility to students and language learners as well as for their artistry. Ó Scolaí also regularly reviews books and lectures and writes on literature and culture. Beyond his writing, Ó Scolaí is a publisher and has co-produced a number of film, television shows and stage plays. == Life == Ó Scolaí was born in Dublin and raised in the Galway [[wikipedia:Gaeltacht#Galway Gaeltacht|Gaeltacht]] (Irish-speaking) regions of Cois Fharraige on the north shore of Galway Bay, in the Republic of Ireland, where he lives now with his wife and children in Lochán Beag (Indreabhán).<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|date=30 October 2024|title=Duais don úrscéal liteartha is fearr buaite ag Darach Ó Scolaí ag Oireachtas na Samhna|url=https://tuairisc.ie/duais-don-ursceal-liteartha-is-fearr-buaite-ag-darach-o-scolai-ag-oireachtas-na-samhna/|journal=Tuairisc}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ní Scolaí|first=Aifric|date=2024|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|url=https://www.taiscecf.ie/ealaiontoiri?category=Scr%C3%ADbhneoir|journal=Taisce Chois Fharraige}}</ref> He graduated the [[wikipedia:University_of_Galway|University of Galway]] (then University College Galway) with a B.A. in 1983.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.linkedin.com/in/darach-ó-scolaí-20026920/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|last=Ó Scolaí|first=Darach|date=August 2025|website=LinkedIn}}</ref> === Writing and Publishing === Ó Scolaí writes in Irish ([[wikipedia:Irish_language|Gaeilge]]), his native language, and lives in an area defined for the predominant presence of Irish as the vernacular language, the language spoken at home. Irish was the language of his parents' home and is the language of children as well. He is fluent in Irish and English and conversant in French. None of his works has been translated into English. ==== Leabhar Breac ==== In 1995 Darach Ó Scolaí and his brother Caomhán Ó Scolaí — a [[wikipedia:Typography|typographer]] and designer — founded the publishing house Leabhar Breac at Indreabhán (Inverin), County Galway. Their father “Séamas Ó Scolaí was an editor at An Gúm and worked on the Irish-English dictionary team [bhí a n-athair Séamas Ó Scolaí ina eagarthóir sa Ghúm agus d’oibrigh sé ar fhoireann an fhoclóra Gaeilge-Béarla].”<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/about-us/|title=About Us|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 July 2025}}</ref> Darach Ó Scolaí has been publisher and literary editor at Leabhar Breac since its founding. Named for [[wikipedia:An_Leabhar_Breac|An Leabhar Breac (The Speckled Book)]], Leabhar Breac publishing house has more than 140 books in print.<ref name=":0" /> Leabhar Breac aims to publish Irish-language books that meet “a high literary and artistic standard.”<ref name=":0" /> Besides the content, Leabhar Breac is known for the typically "superb [thar cionn]" quality of the design and production of the "physical book [leabhar fisiciúil]."<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Ní Mhuilneoir|first=Gráinne|date=30 July 2024|title=‘Bláthnaid’ – leabhar álainn i sraithín álainn faoi mhná|url=https://tuairisc.ie/blathnaid-leabhar-alainn-i-sraithin-alainn-faoi-mhna/|journal=Tuairisc}}</ref> Its books regularly win awards for literary and artistic quality. Leabhar Breac also publishes translations for children and adults from various early versions of Irish as well as from French and English (and has published translations of books for young readers from Spanish, Catalan, and Italian as well). Leabhar Breac prints its books in Ireland. === Stage and Screen === ==== Rosg ==== In 1998 along with Ciarán Ó Cofaigh,<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.rosg.ie/en/about/History_6/|title=About Us: History|date=July 2025|website=Rosg|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Ó Scolaí co-founded the film and television production company [http://www.rosg.ie/en/ Rosg] and was co-director until 2006. Rosg produced Ó ScolaÍ’s films ''Cosa Nite'' (1999), ''An Leabhar'' (2001) and ''Na Cloigne'' (2010). He left Rosg in 2006 to devote his time to other artistic activities. ==== Ealaín ar Oileán ==== In 2004, along with Val Balance, Ó Scolaí co-founded the annual artists' symposium Ealaín ar Oileán (trans., Art on an Island). The Irish-language symposium was held annually in the Áras Éanna arts and cultural center on Inis Oírr ([[wikipedia:Inisheer|Inisheer]], the smallest of the [[wikipedia:Aran_Islands|Aran Islands]]) from 2004 to 2013. Ó Scolaí was its co-director from its founding<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darach_Ó_Scolaí.|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=3 February 2024|website=Vicipéid|access-date=1 July 2025}}</ref> until 2013. Besides being its co-director, Ó Scolaí has taken part in this conference as an artist<ref>{{Cite journal|date=16 January 2005|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050116163252/http://bliainiris.com/authors/darach_oscolai.html|journal=Bliainiris}}</ref> and writer<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://ealainaroilean.ie/ealainaroilean.html|title=The Conference|date=7 September 2013|website=Ealaín ar Oileán|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130907083744/http://ealainaroilean.ie/ealainaroilean.html|archive-date=7 September 2013|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref>. ==== Salamandar ==== In 2006 Ó Scolaí founded the stage production company Salamandar and directed his own play ''An Braon Aníos''. His plays ''An tSeanbhróg'' (2009) and ''Craos'' (2008) were also produced by Salamandar.<ref name=":19">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/darach-o-scolai/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 July 2025}}</ref> == Works == === Novels === * [[wikipedia:An_Cléireach|''An Cléireach'' (trans., ''The Clerk'')]], Leabhar Breac, 2007. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2007; The Ó Súilleabháin Award (Book of the Year) in 2008, and "named as ‘the best novel since the turn of the Century’ by Comhar."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/an-cleireach/|title=An Cléireach - Leabhar Breac - Irish language novel|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-10-24}}</ref> * ''Na Comharthaí'' (trans., ''The Signs''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * ''Súil an Daill'' (trans., ''The Eye of the Blind''), Leabhar Breac, 2021. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2019.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/suil-an-daill/|title=Súil an Daill|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Bódléar'', Leabhar Breac, 2024. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2024<ref name=":7" />; The Ó Súilleabháin Award (Book of the Year) in 2025; featured in the 2025 Listen-Up Irish Summer Challenge for students of the Irish language.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://connachttribune.ie/novel-approach-helps-people-learn-irish-in-a-creative-way/|title=Novel approach helps people learn Irish in a creative way|last=Murphy|first=Judy|date=3 October 2025|work=Connaught Tribune|access-date=24 October 2025}}</ref> === Retellings, Translations and Editions === The retellings and translations are into modern Irish. * ''Feis Tigh Chonáin'' (trans., ''The Feast of Conán's House''), Leabhar Breac, 2000; a retelling of a 15^th-century tale from the [[wikipedia:Fenian_Cycle|Fenian Cycle]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/feis-tigh-chonain/|title=Feis Tigh Chonáin|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''An Ceithearnach Caolriabhach'' (trans., ''The Narrow-Striped Kern''), Leabhar Breac, 2002; a retelling from c. 1500, also illustrated by Darach Ó ScolaÍ.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/an-ceithearnach-caolriabhach/|title=An Ceithearnach Caolriabhach|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' (trans., ''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''), Leabhar Breac, 2017, both a modern edition of an 11th-century epic and an annotated edition.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/tain-bo-cuailnge-2-2/|title=Táin Bó Cuailnge|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> "''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' won the Aodán Mac Poilín Memorial Prize 2017."<ref name=":19" /> * ''Deirdre'', Leabhar Breac, 2023, a “picture book for adults” with artist Anastasia Melnykova.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/deirdre/|title=Deirdre|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Part of the [[wikipedia:Ulster_Cycle|Ulster Cycle]], ''Deirdre'' is a retelling of the story of possibly the most widely known Irish figure from the early tales and sagas.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology|last=MacKillop|first=James|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=9780198609674|pages=181}}</ref> * ''Bláthnaid'', Leabhar Breac, 2024, a “picture book for adults” with artist Anastasia Melnykova; “one of the great stories of the [[wikipedia:Ulster_Cycle|Ulster Cycle]].”<ref name=":4" /> * ''Sadhbh,'' Leabhar Breac, 2025, a picture book for adult readers, illustrated by Alé Mercado; a retelling of the medieval tale ''Ceasacht Inghine Ghuile (''trans., ''The Complaint of Guile's Daughter'').<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/tales-of-wonder/|title=Tales of Wonder|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Eoghan Béal'', Leabhar Breac, 2025, a picture book for adult readers illustrated by Alé Mercado<ref name=":5" />; a retelling of the medieval tale ''[https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caithr%C3%A9im_Cellaig Cathréim Ceallaigh]'' from ''The Yellow Book of Leacan.''<ref name=":5" /> === For Young Readers === Ó Scolaí has written illustrated books for young readers (8–10 years old) in two series, the Fionn Series and the Scéalta Staire series, and translated a large number of classics and popular books for children of all ages. The number of these written and translated works suggests a commitment to children and their literacy in Irish. The Fionn Series “is a retelling ... of the great legends of the Fianna for the young Irish readers of today.”<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/8-9/doiteoir-na-samhna/|title=Dóiteoir na Samhna|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> [[wikipedia:The_Boyhood_Deeds_of_Fionn|Macgnímartha Finn (The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn)]] is a medieval story in the [[wikipedia:Fenian_Cycle|Fenian Cycle]]. * ''An Bradán Feasa'' (trans., ''The Salmon of Knowledge''), Leabhar Breac, 2010, “shortlisted for the Réics Carlo award 2010.”<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/8-9/an-bradan-feasa/|title=An Bradán Feasa|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Dóiteoir na Samhna'' (trans., ''The Halloween Burner''), 2010.<ref name=":6" /> * ''Bodach an Chóta Lachna'' (trans., ''The Churl in the Dun Coat''), 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/7-8/bodach-an-chota-lachna/|title=Bodach an Chóta Lachna|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> The Scéalta Staire (Historical Stories) series<ref name=":9" /> * ''Mánas Ó Dónaill'', 2000. * ''Seán Ó Néill'', Leabhar Breac, 2000. * ''Gráinne Mhaol Ní Mháille'', Leabhar Breac, 2003. * ''Tadhg Dall Ó hUiginn'', Leabhar Breac, 2003. ==== Translations ==== * Robert Louis Stevenson, ''Oileán an Órchiste'' (trans. of ''Treasure Island''), Leabhar Breac, 2014.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-06-19|title=Oireachtas na Gaeilge|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oireachtas_na_Gaeilge&oldid=1296394643|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> * Robert Louis Stevenson, ''An Fuadach'' (trans. of ''Kidnapped''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. * Clement Clarke Moore, ''Cuairt San Nioclás'' (trans. of ''A Visit from St. Nicholas'', or "'Twas the Night Before Christmas"), Leabhar Breac, 2022. '''''The Corto Maltese Graphic Novels''''' Written in Italian by Hugo Pratt and translated by Ó Scolaí, both adults and teenagers read this series of Italian adventure graphic novels.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-07-01|title=Corto Maltese|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Corto_Maltese&oldid=1298285365|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> Ó Scolaí's '''translation of ''Corto Maltese''''' was listed in 2017 among "The 30 Irish books that Irish people love."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ó Murchú|first=Eoin P.|date=09/06/2017|title=Na 30 leabhar Gaeilge is fearr leis na Gaeil [The 30 Irish books that Irish people love]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/an-30-leabhar-gaeilge-is-fearr-leis-na-gaeil/|journal=Nós}}</ref> * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Port na Farraige Goirt'', Leabhar Breac, 2013. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: The Golden House in Samarkand'', 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Na Liopard-Fhir ó Rufiji'' (trans. of ''Corto: The Leopard Men of Rufiji''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: In Ainm Dé Uilthrócairigh'' (trans. of ''Corto: In the Name of God All-Merciful''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Tóraíocht Eile'' (trans. of ''Corto: Another Quest''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Sa tSibéir'' (trans. of ''Corto: In Siberia''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. '''''Other Translations for Children''''' Ó Scolaí has translated into Irish six books from the ''Le Pavillon Noir'' (trans., ''Jolly Roger'') series by Alain Surget; four books from the ''Catalan First Steps'' series by Enric Lluch Girbés and the ''Caitlín & Cormac'' series by Joan Carles; three books from the ''Louisette le Taupe'' series by Bruno Heitz, and three books from the ''Loup'' series by Orianne Lallemand. === Plays and Screenplays === ==== Stage Plays ==== Ó Scolaí was writer and director of the original productions of two plays in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (trans., ''Three Drops'') trilogy; ''Coinneáil Orainn'' was directed by Darach Mac Con Iomaire and staged by An Taibhdhearc. All three plays have been published in book form by Leabhar Breac. * ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32553|title=Coinneáil Orainn|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904.|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> The first play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy. [[wikipedia:Taibhdhearc_na_Gaillimhe|An Taibhdhearc]], the national Irish-language theatre of Ireland, toured the country in 2005 with ''Coinneáil Orainn''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/coinneail-orainn/|title=Coinneáil Orainn|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Walter Macken Prize, 2005; BBC Stewart Parker Award, 2006.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/person/darach-scola|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904.|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Branwen'', 2006, by Darach Ó Scolaí and Ifor ap Glyn, in Irish, Welsh and English, co-produced by Project Arts Centre and Llwyfan Gogledd Cymru, toured the Republic of Ireland and Wales.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32418|title=Branwen|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''An Braon'' Aníos (trans., ''Rising Damp''), 2006, directed by Ó Scolaí.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32461|title=An Braon Aníos|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> The second play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy. “The Salamandar company toured the country in 2006-07 with this play, and Salamandar also produced a radio version of the play for RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta in 2009.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/an-braon-anios/|title=An Braon Aníos|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Craos'' (trans., ''Gluttony''), 2008, directed by Ó Scolaí.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32867|title=Craos|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> The third play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy, it toured to Cork and Belfast.<ref name=":13" /> A review of the 2008 Salamander performance in the ''Irish Times'' says, “a humorous play which offers plenty to think about, fine acting, and sparklingly witty dialogue.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/craos-2/|title=Craos|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''A+E'', 2008, by Ríonach Ní Néill and Darach Ó Scolaí, "dance and music drama," co-produced by Ciotóg and Salamandar.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32962|title=A+E|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''An tSeanbhróg'' (trans., ''The Old Shoe''), 2009, produced by Salamander<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=33042|title=An tSeanbhróg|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> and staged in the Axis Arts Centre, Dublin, and the Letterkenny Arts Centre. * '''In ''Mhuir Fhíondorcha/The Wine-Dark Sea: The Homer Project'', Ó Scolaí's translation of Homer's Cyclops story, performed at the 2019 IMRAM festival'''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/imram-a-festival-celebrating-the-irish-language-1.4047610|title=Imram: a festival celebrating the Irish language. Liam Carson reveals the myths and legends appearing in this year’s programme|last=Carson|first=Liam|date=11 October 2019|work=The Irish Times|access-date=15 October 2025}}</ref> ==== Screenplays ==== * ''Cosa Nite'' (trans., ''Washed Feet''), short film, 1998 (dir. Dearbhla Walsh, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg); "a prose version of ''Cosa Nite'' was published (Rosg 2000)."<ref name=":9" /> Nominated for an Irish Film and Television Award.<ref>{{Citation|title=Cosa Nite (Short 1998) - Awards - IMDb|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0191917/awards/|accessdate=2025-08-25|language=en-US}}</ref> * ''Na Glúnta'' (trans., ''The Generations''), 2001<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iftn.ie/production/production_companies/production_sub/feature/?act1=record&aid=70&rid=3917&tpl=filmography_dets&only=1&force=1|title=Na Glúnta {{!}} The Irish Film & Television Network|website=www.iftn.ie|access-date=2025-08-25}}</ref>, co-directors Ciarán Ó Cofaigh & Darach Ó Scolaí, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg. * ''An Leabhar'' (trans., ''The Book''), short film, 2000, (dir. Robert Quinn, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg) Rosg, 2000.<ref>{{Citation|title=An Leabhar|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0963767/|publisher=Bord Scannán na hÉireann / The Irish Film Board, ROSG|accessdate=2025-08-25|first=Robert|last=Quinn|others=Colm O&apos;Maonlai, Peadar O&apos;Treasaigh, Diarmuid Mac an Adhastair}}</ref> * ''Na Cloigne'' [trans., The Heads], 3-episide series, 2010 (dir. Robert Quinn, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg), TG4.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1607924/|title=Na cloigne|date=2010|website=IMDb|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> === Nonfiction === Ó Scolaí's essays and lectures are published and his interviews are broadcast regularly, making for a large body of nonfiction critical and analytical work. Here are a few, almost all published in [https://comhar.ie/iris/scribhneoiri/darach-o-scolai/ Comhar]: * “Ceol Ciúin na nÉagmaise” (trans., “The Silent Music of Absence ['''the Fall?''']”), an essay on the 2014 Nobel Prize winner for literature, [[wikipedia:Patrick_Modiano|Patrick Modiano]], ''Comhar'', December 2014. * The Ó Cadhain Lecture: [https://leachtaiuichadhain.clo.ie/leachtai/2014 “Cuimhne agus Díchuimhne (trans., “Memory & Forgetfulness"]), 2014. * “Rithim agus Réim” ("Rhythm and Register"), a public lecture in the University College Dublin lecture series “Ó Thrácht go Twitter” (trans., "From Talk to Twitter"), 2014. * Review of Pádraig Ó Cíobháin’s ''Dréachta Chrích Fodla'', '''Comhar?, ??'''. * “Na Geilt i mBun an Tí” (trans., "The Madmen in Charge"), a talk at the Merriman Winter School, Comhar April 2012.<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|url=http://darachoscolai.ie/beathaisneis.html|title=Darach Ó Scolaí: Beathaisnéis|website=darachoscolai.ie|access-date=2025-09-26}}</ref> * The EFACIS podcast: Síle Ní Choincheannain talks to Darach Ó Scolaí about the historical novel. == Critical Reception == Ó Scolaí’s style has been called “crisp and elegant, and rich in language while being highly readable,”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Heussaf|first=Anna|date=Summer 2025|title=Bláthnaid—A tale of love, violence and sorcery retold for readers today|url=https://booksirelandmagazine.com/blathnaid-a-tale-of-love-violence-and-sorcery/|journal=Books Ireland}}</ref> with “an unsurpassed richness and precision of language.”<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Ó Cróinín|first=Breandán|date=Summer 2025|title=unknown|journal=The Limerick Leader}}</ref> “Whimsical, hilarious, and subtly learned” is how Éilis Ní Dhuibhne described his writing.<ref name=":20" /> === Original Works === Ó Scolaí’s first novel, the 2007 ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'') won two prizes and was described as “one of the great historical novels in the Irish language and among the best books written in the language since the beginning of this century.”<ref name=":12" /> Novelist Alan Titley says, “In ''An Cléireach'' Ó Scolaí creates the Ireland of war in the 17th century more fully than any other Irish writer on the subject of war since ''L’Attaque'' Eoghain Ó Thuairisc around 1798 [In ''An Cléireach'' cruthaíonn Ó Scolaí Éire an chogaidh san 17ú haois níos iomláine ná mar a dhein aon scríbhneoir Gaeilge eile ar ábhar cogaidh ó ''L’Attaque'' Eoghain Uí Thuairisc timpeall ar 1798].”<ref name=":11" />{{rp|25, Col. 1a}} Not all the reviews of this first novel were so positive, however; Proinsias O' Drisceoil says for the Irish Times says,<blockquote>This then is a novel in search of a plot, a story that attempts to attain a significance that eludes it.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/a-disaffected-clerk-in-the-confederates-1.943070|title=A disaffected clerk in the confederates|last=O' Drisceoil|first=Proinsias|date=5 July 2008|work=The Irish Times|access-date=16 October 2025}}</ref></blockquote> In the ''Oxford Handbook of Modern Irish Fiction'' Pádraig Ó Siadhail analyzes rather than reviews ''An Cléireach'': <blockquote>In ''An Cléireach'', Ó Scolaí revisits the trauma of Cromwellian Ireland. The primary narrative device is once again the first-hand account, in this case by Tadhg Ó Dúbháin, a clerk and quartermaster in the Confederate Army in 1650. We sample the hardships, the friendships, the tensions, the rivalries, and the petty jealousies amongst comrades in arms, including remnants of the Gaelic literary class, as the Confederate soldiers, increasingly a rabble more than a cohesive unit, retreat in advance of Cromwell’s forces. ''An Cléireach'' concludes with the narrator and his family in exile in continental Europe. But along the retreat route, and central to the novel, members of the Confederate army camp, rest up, and tell versions of a story about the keeper of the treasured manuscript "Saltair an Easpaig" (The Bishop’s Psalter). Their versions raise issues about memory construction, the limitations of individual perspectives, personal agendas, and how minor changes in the telling of a story can alter our understanding of history, Thus, ''An Cléireach'' complements ''Fontenoy'' in moving beyond more realistic recreation of a historical event or period to interrogate the notion of history as construct.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Modern Irish Fiction|last=Ó Siadhail|first=Pádraig|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2020|isbn=9780198754893|editor-last=Harte|editor-first=Liam|pages=598–99|chapter=Contemporary Irish Fiction}}</ref> </blockquote> Of ''Súil an Daill,'' in ''Nós'', Cathal Seoighe says, "The book deserves a significant place among the collection of high-quality books published in recent years that would make you feel sorry for someone who does not speak Irish [Tá áit shuntasach ag dul don leabhar i measc an chnuasaigh leabhair ar ardchaighdeán a foilsíodh le roinnt blianta anuas a d’fhágfadh trua agat don té atá gan Ghaeilge]."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seoighe|first=Cathal|date=09/26/2022|title=‘Dar leathmhagairle an diabhail, is leabhar den scoth é seo!’ ['According to the devil’s half-wit, this is a great book!’]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/dar-leathmhagairle-an-diabhail-is-leabhar-den-scoth-e-seo/|journal=Nós}}</ref> ''Bódléar'', Ó Scolaí's most recent book, is a “beautiful novel. There is magic and craftsmanship in it. A small miracle of a book and it is highly recommended.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/bodlear-mioruilt-bheag-de-leabhar/|title=Bódléar: Míorúilt bheag de leabhar (Bódléar: A Small Miracle of a Book)|last=Ní Ghairbhí|first=Róisín|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Éilis Ní Dhuibhne in the ''Irish Times'' says,<blockquote>what a gem! An affectionately gentle satire of the Irish poetic scene during one creatively fluid 19th-century year, the story focuses on a Maigue poet and schoolteacher who goes on a trip to France and returns with camembert, a cafetiere, ‘Fleurs du Mal’, and a mission to convert the local traditionalists to la modernité. Whimsical, hilarious, and subtly learned, it’s absolutely delightful!<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Ní Dhuibhne|first=Éilis|date=30 June 2025|title=Éilís Ní Dhuibhne on the best Irish language books of 2025 so far: Including a history of the Gaeltacht Civil Rights Movements, a gem of a novel by Darach Ó Scolaí and Joe McHugh’s entertaining account of learning Irish|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/review/2025/06/30/eilis-ni-dhuibhne-on-the-best-irish-language-books-of-2025-so-far/|journal=The Irish Times|pages=22}}</ref></blockquote> === Retellings and Translations === ==== ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' ==== ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' [''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''] is a modern edition of an 11th-century epic into modern Irish.<ref name=":3" /> Gearóid Denvir reviewed ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' for ''Comhar'':<blockquote>Darach Ó Scolaí has ​​achieved a feat in this challenging reworking. He has found a high level of the Irish language to tell his story – as he has done before in his groundbreaking novel An Cléireach (2007, Leabhar Breac) and in his other prose works. This book is a decoration of the language, literature and culture of the Irish language, following the path of the old storytellers and writers and presenting material from the tradition to his own generation according to the understandings of his own time. The book will be a classic that will be of great interest to all readers of the Irish language, both ordinary readers, students, scholars and writers, and there should be a copy in every home in the country. [Tá éacht déanta ag Darach Ó Scolaí san athleagan dúshlánach seo. Tá réim ard den teanga Ghaeilge aimsithe aige lena scéal a inseacht – mar a rinne sé cheana ina úrscéal ceannródaíoch An Cléireach (2007, Leabhar Breac) agus i saothair eile phróis dá chuid. Is maisiú ar an teanga agus ar litríocht agus cultúr na Gaeilge an leabhar seo a leanas conair na seanscéalaithe agus na seanscríobhaithe agus ábhar de chuid an traidisiúin á chur i láthair a ghlúine féin aige de réir thuiscintí a linne féin. Clasaic a bheas sa leabhar a gcuirfidh léitheoirí uilig na Gaeilge, idir ghnáthléitheoirí, mhic léinn, scoláirí agus scríbhneoirí spéis thar na bearta ann, agus ba cheart cóip a bheith i chuile theach sa tír.]<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Denvir|first=Gearóid|date=April 2018|title=Táin Bó Cuailgne|url=https://comhar.ie/iris/78/4/leirmheas/|journal=Comhar|via=JSTOR}}</ref> </blockquote>Cathal Poirtéir says, "The freshness and richness of Ó Scolaí’s version are a joy …. The author delights us with the linguistic and stylistic richness of the ancient epic in a modern-Irish version that reflects the original’s spirit and language."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poirtéir|first=Cathal|date=May/June 2018|title=Leabhair Idir Lámha|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26564180|journal=Books Ireland|pages=46–47|via=JSTOR}}</ref>{{rp|47}} Novelist and academic Alan Titley calls Ó Scolaí's "a wonderful gutsy telling" of ''Táin Bó Cuailnge''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/2023/03/11/the-tain-retold-maeve-and-ailills-spat-could-be-out-of-a-soap-opera/|title=The Táin retold: ‘Maeve and Ailill’s spat could be out of a soap opera’|last=Titley|first=Alan|date=11 March 2023|work=The Irish Times|access-date=16 October 2025}}</ref> ==== ''Deirdre'' ==== Marie Whelton, in "Léann Teanga" ("Language Studies"), in the 2024 ''An Reiviú'' says,<blockquote>this version [of ''Deirdre''] by Darach Ó Scolaí succeeds in skillfully capturing and portraying the complexity of gender and power issues in the ‘Deirdre’ tradition [éiríonn leis an leagan seo le Darach Ó Scolaí castacht cheisteanna na hinscne agus na cumhachta i dtraidisiún scéal Dheirdre a ghabháil agus a léiriú go sciliúil]. … There is no doubt that this new version greatly contributes to the legacy of the story and that it revives that legacy thoughtfully and artistically [Níl amhras faoi ach go gcuireann an leagan úr seo go mór le hoidhreacht an scéil agus go ndéanann sé an oidhreacht sin a athbheochan go tuisceanach agus go healaíonta.].<ref name=":16">{{Cite web|url=https://www.tara.tcd.ie/tara8/server/api/core/bitstreams/3c20175a-7631-44b2-8b0f-f454edd712b4/content|title=An Artistic Retelling of Deirdre's Tale and the Defeat of Conor Review of Deirdre or the Ship of Mac Uisnigh by Darach Ó Scolaí [Athinsint Ealaíonta ar Oidhe Dheirdre agus ar Ansmacht Chonchúir Léirmheas ar Deirdre nó Loingeas Mhac Uisnigh le Darach Ó Scolaí]|last=Whelton|first=Marie|date=2024|website=The Review [An Reiviú], Language Studies [Léann Teanga]|access-date=25 September 2025}}</ref></blockquote> === Works for Young Readers === Meadhbh Ní Eadhra said of ''Bodach an Chóta Lachna'' that it was "Beautiful Irish, but easy to understand for young readers."<ref>Ní Eadhra, Meadhbh. In ''Gaelscéal'', qtd. in "Bodach an Chóta Lachna" https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/7-8/bodach-an-chota-lachna/.</ref> == Awards and Honors == Ó Scolaí's works are regularly nominated and make the short list for prizes, an honor in itself, but they are generally not listed here unless they are named as the first-place winner in their category. === Oireachtas Prize === The Oireachtas Prize is the literary prize awarded by [[wikipedia:Oireachtas_na_Gaeilge|Oireachtas na Gaeilge]], the annual arts festival dedicated to Irish language, arts and culture. Darach Ó Scolaí has won the Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction three times, once for ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'') in 2007, for ''Súil an Daill'' (''The Eye of the Blind'') in 2021 and for ''Bódléar'' in 2024. * 2007, for ''An Cléireach'' (trans., ''The Clerk'') — “(a special prize commemorating the 400th anniversary of the foundation of Coláiste na nGael in Louvain, awarded under the auspices of the Franciscan Province of Ireland). The prize of €10,000 was the largest prize ever awarded to an Irish language novel [(duais speisialta chomórtha 400 bliain bhunú Choláiste na nGael i Lobháin a bronnadh faoi urraíocht Phroibhinse Phroinsiasach na hÉireann). Ba é an duais €10,000 sin an duais ba mhó a bronnadh riamh ar úrscéal Gaeilge].”<ref name=":18" /> * 2021, for ''Súil an Daill'' (''The Eye of the Blind'') * 2024, for ''Bódléar'' === Ó Shúilleabháin Award, Irish language “Book of the Year” === The first prize of this award includes €5,000 to the publisher and €2,500 to the author of the winning work.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|date=15 August 2023|title=20 saothar san iomaíocht do ‘Leabhair Ghaeilge na Bliana 2023’|url=https://tuairisc.ie/20-saothar-san-iomaiocht-do-leabhair-ghaeilge-na-bliana-2023/|journal=Tuairisc}}</ref> * ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'').<ref>{{Cite web|url=http:/www.gaelport.com/uploads/documents/edition19.html|title=Eagrán / Edition 19 - 04 11 2008|date=4/11/2008|website=Internet Archive|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525011340/http:/www.gaelport.com/uploads/documents/edition19.html|archive-date=25 May 2013|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'', 2018. * ''Bódléar'', 2025. ==== De Bhaldraithe Award ==== The Gradam de Bhaldraithe is awarded to the best work in translation.<ref name=":10" /> * ''Cuairt San Nioclás,'' a translation of Clement Clarke Moore's ''A Visit from St. Nicholas'', or "'Twas the Night Before Christmas."<ref name=":10" /> ==== Other ==== * Walter Macken Prize, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005 * Bháiteir Uí Mhaicín Memorial Award, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/gaeilge/tuarascail/duais-oireachtais-1.501571|title=Oireachtas Prize: Over €50,000 was awarded to writers in the Oireachtas Literary Competitions at an event in Dublin last night. Winners… [Duais Oireachtais: Bronnadh breis agus €50,000 ar scríbhneoirí i gComórtais Liteartha an Oireachtais ar ócáid i mBaile Átha Cliath aréir. Bhuaigh…]|work=5 October 2005|access-date=15 October 2025}}</ref> * BBC Stewart Parker Award, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2006 * The Aodán Mac Póilín Commemorative Prize, for ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' (trans., ''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''), 2017 == External Links == * Leabhar Breac website: https://leabharbreac.com/en/ * Leabhar Breac Facebook pages: * Rosg website: [http://www.rosg.ie/en/ <nowiki>http://ww</nowiki>w.rosg.ie/en/] * Art on the Island (Ealaín ar Oileán) website, archived at the Wayback Machine: https://web.archive.org/web/20130601000520/http://ealainaroilean.ie/ 31 March 2012, 1 June 2013 and 8 January 2014 * Darach Ó Scolaí's website Archived 25 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine: https://web.archive.org/web/20150925103456/http://darachoscolai.ie/ * Youtube video of [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OlP2AmSBzXc Breandán Ó Cróinin introducing Deirdre at the book launch] in the pub Tigh Mholly (Molly’s House). == Primordial Ooze == * Known for his sensitivity to language and voices. * Finish scanning through JSTOR * Scan through Irish Times, 56 hits * Check Goodreads * Check YouTube (In the spring of 2013, the arts programme Imeall interviewed the author on TG4.) * Check both Wikipedias for pages on the origins of the retold tales (like Deirdre) and link to this article * Propose link from University of Galway page once Darach’s is up * Write Irish National Biography (<nowiki>https://www.dib.ie</nowiki>) to propose an article about Darach once the Wikip article is done? See what they say. * Link to Ó Scolaí from the Wikipedia * Make sure links '''to''' Wikipedia in the actual encyclopedia work right === Not Placed Yet === * "So here are the books that Irish people love the most! [Mar sin seo iad na leabhair is gile leis na Gaeil!]" — "32. An Cléireach – Darach Ó Scolaí (2)" [18 books got 2 votes, and then they're alphabetized by author's last name, so the 32 of 34 doesn't signify the specificity it seems to]<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Ó Murchú|first=Eoin P.|date=9 June 2017|title=Na 30 leabhar Gaeilge is fearr leis na Gaeil. [The 30 best Irish books for Irish people]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/an-30-leabhar-gaeilge-is-fearr-leis-na-gaeil/|journal=Nós}}</ref> * "Below is a list of those 111 works – a list that shows a great deal of diversity in the reading habits of Irish speakers.Here is a list of those 111 works – a list that shows a great deal of diversity in the reading habits of Irish speakers [Anseo thíos tá liosta den 111 saothar sin – liosta a léiríonn éagsúlacht an-mhór i nósanna léitheoireachta Gaeilgeoirí.Anseo thíos tá liosta den 111 saothar sin – liosta a léiríonn éagsúlacht an-mhór i nósanna léitheoireachta Gaeilgeoirí]." "Corto Maltese – Hugo Pratt (aistrithe ag Darach Ó Scolaí)"<ref name=":14" /> * "Ceann eile de bhuaicphointí na hÉigse a bheidh sa seisiún le Darach Ó Scolaí, duine d’úrscéalaithe móra na Gaeilge, agus duine de chomhbhunaitheoirí teach foilsitheoireachta Leabhar Breac. [Another highlight of the Éigse will be the session with Darach Ó Scolaí, one of the great Irish language novelists, and one of the co-founders of the publishing house Leabhar Breac.]"<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Nós|date=4 May 2023|title=Éigse na Bruiséile le filleadh i mí na Bealtaine. [Éigse na Bruséile to return in May]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/eigse-na-bruiseile-le-filleadh-i-mi-na-bealtaine/|journal=Nós}}</ref> === Things Taken Out for Now === “’The play is a comedy about language, lies, bureaucracy and Gaeltacht grants, in the tradition of Myles na Gcopaleen,’ according to Norma-Jean Kenny in the ''Galway Advertizer'', ‘in which the author comments and criticizes the institutions of the Irish language in Ireland without ceasing.’" Supposedly a quotation by Gearóid Denvir reviewing ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' for ''Comhar'' (but I don't find it in the article): This book has long been needed by Irish language readers and there is no doubt that it will become a classic in time and surpass Thomas Kinsella’s English version. This version remains faithful to the language of the original while at the same time finding an appropriate language in today’s Irish. Ó Scolaí masterfully overcomes the difficulties of the original’s rhetorical difficulties and the versions of the original poetic texts are extremely effective.[supposedly <ref name=":15" />] “The biggest prize ever awarded for a novel in Irish was presented at a special ceremony in the National Concert Hall in Dublin, today (Thursday, 4 October 2007). Darach Ó Scolaí, writer, artist & playwright from Casla, Co. Galway, was awarded €10,000 for his literary novel, ‘An Ardscoil’. This work, under the new title ‘An Cléireach’, will be launched at Oireachtas na Samhna in Westport in November. This is the first novel from his pen, a story set in the late seventeenth century. This competition was sponsored by the Franciscan Province of Ireland.” (archive, Oireachtas na Gaeilge site, 04 October, 2007) ''Súil an Daill'' (trans., ''The Eye of the Blind''), Leabhar Breac, 2021. number 2 in ''Comhar'' literary magazine’s list of best books of 2021. '''{6}.''' *William Shakespeare, ''Romeo agus Juliet'' (trans. of ''Romeo and Juliet''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. *Jonathan Swift, ''Camchuairt Ghuilivéir'' (trans. of ''Gulliver's Travels''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. *Hugo Pratt, ''Corto Maltese'' '''''Flag of Bones (Bratach na gCnámh) Series''''' Leabhar Breac published the Bratach na gCnámh series of books for young readers. Written in French by Alain Surget, illustrated by Annette Marnat and translated by Darach Ó Scolaí, this series uses the history of Caribbean Sea pirates<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/alain-surget/|title=Alain Surget Archives|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-09-30}}</ref>: *Alain Surget, ''Éalú as Páras'' (''Escape from Paris''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011. * Alain Surget, ''Oilean na Siorcanna'' (''Shark Island''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011. * Alain Surget, ''Long na dTaibhsi'' (''Ship of the Ghosts''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011. * Alain Surget, ''San Ochtapas Dubh'' (''In the Black Octopus''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. * Alain Surget, ''San Ionsai ar Veracruz'' (''The Attack on Veracruz''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. '''''For "First Readers" (children to 6 years old or so)''''' These books were written originally in Catalan by Spanish author Enric Lluch Girbés and translated into Irish by Ó ScolaÍ: *Enric Lluch, ''Ag Péinteáil an Tí'' (''Painting the House''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''An Colúr Bacach'' (''The Lazy Dove''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''An Phluais'' (''The Cave''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''Madra Dhaideo'' (''Grandpa's Dog''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''Fiacail Mháire'' (''Mary's Tooth''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. '''''Bruno Heitz''''' Leabhar Breac published a series of 3 Heitz books for small children. Published originally in French, this series of three comic books is about a blind mole named Cáitín Chaoch in Irish (and ''Louisette la taupe'' in French).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/bruno-heitz-en/|title=Bruno Heitz Archives|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-10-02}}</ref> Ó Scolaí translated these: *Bruno Heitz (author and illustr.), ''Práinneach'' (''Urgent''), Leabhar Breac, 2020 *Bruno Heitz (author and illustr.), ''Preab san Aer'' (''Bounce in the Air''), Leabhar Breac, 2020. '''''Books for Toddlers''''' Leabhar Breac has published 14 books written by French author Orianne Lallemand's and illustrated by Eleonore Thuillier, about Lallemmand's popular character Loup, Wolf. These are translated by Ó Scolaí: *Orianne Lallemand, ''An Mac Tire a Raibh Faitios an Domhain Air'' (trans. of ''The Son Who Saw the World in His Eyes''), Eleonore Thuillier  Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2018. *Orianne Lallemand, ''Macan agus an Goban'' (trans. of ''Macan and the Goblin''), Eleonore Thuillier (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2018. * Orianne Lallemand, ''A Mac Tíre a Chuaigh go Tóin na Farraige'' (trans. of ''The Wolf Who Went to the Bottom of the Sea''), Éléanore Thuillier  (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2019. '''''Board Books (for babies)''''' J. C. (Joan Carles) Girbés Aparisi is a Catalan author and editor. These books were written in Catalan and translated by Ó Scolai. *J. C. Girbés, ''An Phicnic'' (''The Picnic''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. * J. C. Girbés, ''An Chóisir'' (''The Party''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. *J. C. Girbés, ''Lá Mór Fada'' (''A Long Day''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2014. *J. C. Girbés, ''Tabhair Leat do Leabhar'' (''Bring Your Book''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2014. ==== Gradam Réics Carló ==== The Réics Carló prize is awarded for the best book in the Irish language for young readers. It is named for one of the characters of 20th-century writer [[wikipedia:Cathal_Ó_Sándair|Cathal Ó Sándair (Charles Saunders)]]. * ''An Bradán Feasa'' was “shortlisted for the Réics Carlo award 2010.”<ref name=":9" /> == References == {{reflist}} ijrsbeauobbrj44ro7yiwkvj7mjzan2 0 264915 2841750 2840362 2026-10-20T20:38:13Z Jtneill 10242 /* See also */ * [[w:Affect labeling|Affect labelling]] 2841750 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 9: 20 emotions|ninth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== This tutorial discusses the causes, functions, types, and consequences of 20 individual emotions. ==Individual emotions== This tutorial distinguishes 20 individual emotions and their causes and functions. When dealing with many emotions, it helps to organise them into categories. The 20 individual emotions can be organised into three categories (Reeve, 2024; see Table 1): * '''Basic''' (7) - present in early development and recognised cross-culturally <!-- ### Fear ### Anger ### Disgust ### Contempt ### Sadness ### Joy ### Interest --> * '''Self-conscious''' (5) - occur when we become self-aware about how others perceive us <!-- ### Shame ### Guilt ### Embarrassment ### Pride ### Triumph --> * '''Cognitively complex''' (8) - arise from thoughts/perceptions about life events often involving others <!-- ### Envy ### Gratitude ### Disappointment ### Regret ### Hope ### Schadenfreude ### Empathy ### Compassion --> Table 1 lists 20 emotions and describes how they ''feel'' and why do we feel them. '''Table 1''' ''20 Individual Emotions Organised Into Three Categories, Subjective Experiences, and Motivational Urges'' <div align="center"> {| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin: auto;" ! width=20%; |Category ! width=20%; |Emotion ! width=30%; |"I feel ..." ! width=30%; |Motivational urge |- | rowspan="7" | '''Basic''' (7) | [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Fear|Fear]] | I feel in danger | Flee; protect oneself |- | [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Anger|Anger]] | I feel injustice | Overcome obstacles; right an illegitimate wrong |- | [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Disgust|Disgust]] | I feel repulsed | Reject; get rid of; get away from contaminated object |- | [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sadness|Sadness]] | I feel bad about a loss | Repair a loss or failure |- | [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Contempt|Contempt]] | I feel superior to you | Maintain dominance and social hierarchy |- | [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Joy|Joy]] | I feel happiness within | Continue goal striving; play; engage in social interaction |- | [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Interest|Interest]] | I feel curious | Explore; seek; acquire new information; learn |- | rowspan="5" | '''Self-conscious''' (5) | [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Shame|Shame]] | I feel bad about myself because I am publicly wrong | Restore the self; protect the self |- | [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Guilt|Guilt]] | I feel bad about wronging you | Make amends |- | [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Embarrassment|Embarrassment]] | I feel awkward in front of you | Appease others; communicate blunder was unintended |- | [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Pride|Pride]] | I feel good about myself and achievements | '''Authentic:''' Acquire further skill; persist at challenging tasks<br>'''Hubristic:''' Self-inflation to boost self-esteem and social standing |- | [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Triumph|Triumph]] | I feel victorious | Display dominance and power over the defeated |- | rowspan="8" | '''Cognitively complex''' (8) | [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Envy|Envy]] | I feel jealous – I want what you have | '''Benign:''' Move up; improve one's position<br>'''Malicious:''' Tear down; reduce another's position |- | [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Schadenfreude|Schadenfreude]] | I feel pleasure at your misfortune | Reinforce feelings of superiority |- | [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Disappointment|Disappointment]] | I feel down about a poor outcome | Give up; helplessness |- | [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Regret|Regret]] | I feel sorrow for what I did | Undo a poor decision or behaviour |- | [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Gratitude|Gratitude]] | I feel thankful | Act prosocially; grow the relationship |- | [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Hope|Hope]] | I feel optimistic about my future | Keep engaged in pursuit of a desired goal |- | [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy|Empathy]] | I feel with you | Act prosocially; help the other |- | [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Compassion|Compassion]] | I feel caring towards you | Reduce suffering |} </div> ''Note''. The "I feel ..." descriptions represent the subjective experience of each emotion. Motivational urges indicate typical functions served by each emotion. Links go to Wikiveristy categories which list relevant [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]. Adapted from Reeve (2024). To gain experiential insight into these emotions: * practice using "I feel... " statements when experiencing each of a wide range of different emotions * play emotion bingo using the 20 emotions — tick each one off as you experience it, until complete ==Emotion matching exercise== {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} '''Activity: Emotion matching''' [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] # Collaborate in pairs to discuss and complete the <!-- Handout: [[:File:20 Individual Emotions Matching Exercise.pdf|20 Individual Emotions Matching Exercise]] --> [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1OvG1jp1OBEGBzcDmL5W_yczXNGsqN43D_Zpdn9jHqsU 20 Emotion Matching Exercise] # Each pair completes two sheets, to match: ## the emotion and category to the definition ## the definition and category to the emotion {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Discussion== <ol> <li> What are your '''favourite''' or '''most interesting''' emotion(s)? Why?</li> <!-- <li> What emotions are '''missing'''?</li> --> <li> What is the difference between '''shame''', '''guilt''', and '''embarrassment'''?</li> <ol> <li> Shame and guilt both involve feeling bad about the standard of the self's behaviour</li> <li> Shame is public; guilt is private (''shame in the courtroom''; ''guilt in the cell'')</li> <li> Shame focuses on the inadequacy of the ''self''; guilt focuses on the poor ''behaviour'' and harm to others</li> <li> Embarrassment arises from innocent social blunder; it acknowledge this awareness and asks for forgiveness</li> </ol> <li> What is the difference between '''pride''' and '''triumph'''?</li> <ol> <li> Both involve feeling good</li> <li> Pride is more personal, based on achievement</li> <li> Triumph is more social, based on competitive victory over others</li> </ol> <li> What are the two types of '''pride'''?</li> <ol> <li> Authentic: Based on genuine achievement</li> <li> Hubristic/Narcissistic: Self-puffery; based on desire to be better/more dominant than others; undermines relationships</li> </ol> <li> What emotions are associated with these '''interpersonal scenarios'''?</li> </ol> {| class="wikitable" style="width: 90%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" ! !'''I feel good because...''' !'''I feel bad because...''' |- style="vertical-align:top;" |'''...other person feels good''' |[[w:compersion|compersion]], [[w:confelicity|confelicity]], empathy, [[wikt:freudenfreude|freudenfreude]], mudita, vicarious joy, vicarious pride |bitterness, envy, gluckschmerz, jealousy, resentment, spite |- style="vertical-align:top;" |'''...other person feels bad''' |arrogance, contempt, gloatrage, hate, narcissism, [[wikt:schadenfreude|schadenfreude]], vindication |compassion, empathy, sympathy |} <ol start="6"> <li> What are the two types of '''envy'''?</li> <ol> <li> Benign: Focuses on self-improvement (''building up'')</li> <li> Malicious: Focuses on undermining another (''tearing down'')</li> </ol> <li> What is the difference between '''empathy''', '''compassion''', and '''sympathy'''?</li> <ol> <li> Empathy: Mirrors the feelings of another </li> <li> Compassion: Motivates action to help another </li> <li> Sympathy: Pitying of others; involves power </li> </ol> <li> What is the difference between '''disappointment''' and '''regret'''?</li> <ol> <li> Both involve experiencing a worse outcome than expected; the difference is the amount of perceived control</li> <li> Disappointment: Perceives that one's behaviour could not have lead to a different outcome</li> <li> Regret: Perceives that, had one's behaviour been different, a better outcome could have been achieved</li> </ol> <li> What are the two aspects of '''gratitude'''?</li> <ol> <li> Indebtedness <math>\rightarrow</math> Exchange-based relationship: If the receiver focuses on what was received (e.g., $50), then the receiver may feel indebted to repay, leading to an exchange-based relationship</li> <li> Care <math>\rightarrow</math> Communal relationship: If the receiver focuses on the giver (e.g., a friend), then the receiver may feel cared for and loved, leading to a communal relationship</li> </ol> <li> What is the opposite of '''hope'''?</li> <ol> <li> Fear</li> <li> Fear and hope are about expectations of the future</li> <li> Fear arises from a negative view of the future; hope arises from a positive view of the future <li> Also consider hopelessness / helplessness</li> </ol> </ol> ==Readings== * Chapter 13: Individual emotions ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]) ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/3931a3d2715a41209a9e325ab733a506 Tutorial 9] (2026)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/ad82252fd3b942dab76549b587afdc21 Tutorial 9] (2025) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/805b463d37464601986875924da3588a Tutorial 9] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/7ba704c041be4506b9b9176dd7063e9c Tutorial 9] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/30253ce91beb4a02907ddca89ab11a8d Tutorial 9 recording Pt 1] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/60135634ce83484482bf7a2ef8199bd0 Tutorial 9 recording Pt 2] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/3d5dd6db621d4c309db303408bdcaa19 Tutorial 9 recording], 2021 * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1efcf556a5384d3586d2abc55a7b2109 Tutorial 9 recording], 2020 --> ==See also== <!-- ;Book chapters --> ;Wikipedia * [[w:Affect labeling|Affect labelling]] ;Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Individual emotions|Individual emotions]] (Lecture) ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Measuring emotion|Measuring emotion]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Time perspective|Time perspective]] (Next tutorial) ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= {{:Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024}} }} ==External links== * [https://atlasofemotions.org/ Atlas of emotions] (atlasofemotions.org) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Evwgu369Jw Brené Brown on empathy] (YouTube; 2:53 mins) * [https://twentyonetoys.com/blogs/teaching-empathy/brene-brown-empathy-vs-sympathy Empathy vs sympathy (Dr Brené Brown)] (twentyonetoys.com) * [https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/lifematters/talkback-how-to-deal-with-guilt/102450958 How to deal with guilt] (Life Matters, ABC Radio National, 9 June, 2023) <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/20 emotions]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Emotion/Embarrassment]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Emotion/Guilt]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Emotion/Shame]] nv5mq4kmhxav7077wx178516x4ijpf2 0 264916 2841792 2830408 2026-10-21T01:55:32Z Jtneill 10242 Update for 2026 2841792 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 10: Time perspective|tenth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Person holding clock in front of head.jpg|right|200px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. We all travel through time by using memory and imagination]] This tutorial is about: * the psychology of time and, more specifically, * [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Zimbardo]]'s model of time perspective and how it relates to motivation and emotion Take-home messages: * Time perspective unconsciously influences our thoughts, feelings, and behaviour * The [[#Ideal|ideal]] profile involves balanced and flexible use of past, present, and future time perspectives ==Mental time travel== Would you like to time travel? It turns out, you are already a time traveller (see [[w:Mental time travel|mental time travel]]) because you unconsciously adopt different cognition perceptions about time—or time perspectives—particulary, the past, present, and future. Time perspectives relate to cognitive psychology, personality, motivation, and emotion. Humans are unconsciously influenced by their cognitions about time. By understanding this, we can optimise our time perspective to live better lives. ==What is time perspective?== Did you know that we can travel through time (see Figure 1)? Time travel is very simple to do and we do it "all the time". [[File:Doctor Who (13).jpg|right|200px|thumb|''Figure 2''. People unconsciously adopt different time perspectives - whether past, present, or future.]] For example, close your eyes and think about what happened: * 10 minutes ago * yesterday * many years ago Similarly, you imagine various futures for yourself e.g., in: * 1 hour * 1 year * 30 years Or you could focus all your thought and attention could be focused on what is happening in the present. Time perspective (TP) refers to how we think about time. It can be broadly divided into (see Figure 2): * Past * Present * Future ==ZTPI== {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] '''Activity: ZTPI''' # Complete the [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSfoIK9pW-KNtiWsXwa9pFVZiHwR6ioOe6V703Fk7W7YPKjICw/viewform?usp=sf_link Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory] (ZTPI) # Discuss the underlying theory # Discuss class results {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Theory=== Time perspective theory considers: * the types of time perspective * time perspective principles ====Types==== [[File:TUSSTMQ9 StructuralModel TimePerspective.png|right|thumb|450px|'''Figure 3'''. Six possible time perspective factors, based on Zimbardo (2009).]] Time perspective can be conceptualised in terms of whether it focuses on past, present, and future, but also by the valence of that focus (e.g., positive or negative). This leads to the five time perspectives suggested by Zimbardo (2009; see Figure 3): * Past Negative * Past Positive * Present Hedonistic * Present Fatalistic * Future It is unclear whether future should be separated into future negative and future positive (there is mixed evidence). Zimbardo also suggests another time perspective: * Transcendental ([https://www.thetimeparadox.com/transcendental-future-time-perspective-inventory/ TFTPI]) which is about focusing on time beyond one's lifetime. For more information, see [https://www.thetimeparadox.com/2008/08/03/an-overview-of-time-perspective-types/ an overview of time perspective types] (thetimeparadox.com) ====Principles==== * Time perspective influences thoughts, feelings, and behaviour unconsciously * Each time perspective has benefits, but excesses create negative consequences * Time perspectives are learned through personal experience * We can learn to change our time perspectives ===Results=== Compare your ZTPI scores with the: * Norms: **Past Negative (''Mdn'' = 3.0<!-- 0 -->) **Past Positive (''Mdn'' = 3.2<!--2 -->) **Present Hedonism (''Mdn'' = 3.9<!--3 -->) **Present Fatalism (''Mdn'' = 2.3<!--3 -->) **Future (''Mdn'' = 3.4<!-- 38 -->) <!-- ***Transcendental Future --> * {{anchor|Ideal}}[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/graph-september2012-all-v21.png Ideal profile] ** Past Positive - High (like your past) ** Present Hedonism - Moderate (choose when to select pleasure in the present)[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ** Future - Moderately high (work for the future) * Worst profile: ** Past Negative - High ** Present Fatalism - High ** = living in a negative past and believing you can do nothing to change it[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ==Multimedia== [[File:Philip Zimbardo (cropped).jpg|thumb|175px|'''Figure 4'''. [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]], one of the most famous 20th-21st century psychologists.]] Does the name, [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]] ring a bell (see Figure 4)? It should for psychology students! Maybe something about the [[w:Stanford prison experiment|Stanford prison experiment]]? In the early 1970s Zimbardo contoversially tackled a fundamental question that had plagued psychologists since [[w:World War II|World War II]] – are humans fundamentally evil – or can extreme circumstances lead normal people to act inhumanely? Fast forward a few decades and Zimbardo has worked on many other areas of psychology including, more recently, time perspective. Watch: [https://www.youtube.com/embed/bo4HiVetBd0?start=52&end=388 Philip Zimbardo prescribes a healthy take on time] (Philip Zimbardo, 5:36 min, TED talk, 2009) ==Discussion== <!-- * What do you think about time perspective? --> * How could your time perspective be improved? * How could time perspective be applied? ==Books== Zimbardo's two books on this topic are: * [https://www.thetimeparadox.com "The Time Paradox"] * [https://www.thetimecure.com "The Time Cure"] ==Recording== * [Tutorial 10] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b940b077e122487faf849cf433ef54d8 Tutorial 10] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/39ff934bedf04acab0d62a7cea89dd92 Tutorial 10] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/d91d9b477c544654a5acba16f786bd46 Tutorial 10] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1a6b38b823ff473a9dc78924b598e21a Tutorial 10] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9f60d554697b4830a5e92b206af7c369 Tutorial 10] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material --> ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Book chapters * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Time perspective|Time perspective]] <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ;Lectures and tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/20 emotions|20 emotions]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] (Next tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|1}}/Lectures/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Lecture) ;Wikipedia * [[w:Mental time travel|Mental time travel]] * [[w:Philip Zimbardo#Time perspective|Philip Zimbardo - Time perspective]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Sword, R. M., Sword, R. K., Brunskill, S. R., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2014). Time perspective therapy: A new time-based metaphor therapy for PTSD. ''Journal of Loss and Trauma'', ''19''(3), 197–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 Zimbardo, P. G. & Boyd, J. N. (2009). ''[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/ The time paradox: Using the new psychology of time to your advantage]''. Free Press. Zimbardo, P. G., Sword, R. M., & Sword, R. K. M. (2012). ''[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+Time+Cure%3A+Overcoming+PTSD+with+the+New+Psychology+of+Time+Perspective+Therapy-p-9781118205679 The time cure: Overcoming PTSD with the new psychology of time perspective therapy]''. Jossey-Bass. }} <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective]] mho6mc6o1inxec12gqzypz9yczu90ow 2841795 2841792 2026-10-21T02:20:09Z Jtneill 10242 /* Multimedia */ Update link 2841795 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 10: Time perspective|tenth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Person holding clock in front of head.jpg|right|200px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. We all travel through time by using memory and imagination]] This tutorial is about: * the psychology of time and, more specifically, * [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Zimbardo]]'s model of time perspective and how it relates to motivation and emotion Take-home messages: * Time perspective unconsciously influences our thoughts, feelings, and behaviour * The [[#Ideal|ideal]] profile involves balanced and flexible use of past, present, and future time perspectives ==Mental time travel== Would you like to time travel? It turns out, you are already a time traveller (see [[w:Mental time travel|mental time travel]]) because you unconsciously adopt different cognition perceptions about time—or time perspectives—particulary, the past, present, and future. Time perspectives relate to cognitive psychology, personality, motivation, and emotion. Humans are unconsciously influenced by their cognitions about time. By understanding this, we can optimise our time perspective to live better lives. ==What is time perspective?== Did you know that we can travel through time (see Figure 1)? Time travel is very simple to do and we do it "all the time". [[File:Doctor Who (13).jpg|right|200px|thumb|''Figure 2''. People unconsciously adopt different time perspectives - whether past, present, or future.]] For example, close your eyes and think about what happened: * 10 minutes ago * yesterday * many years ago Similarly, you imagine various futures for yourself e.g., in: * 1 hour * 1 year * 30 years Or you could focus all your thought and attention could be focused on what is happening in the present. Time perspective (TP) refers to how we think about time. It can be broadly divided into (see Figure 2): * Past * Present * Future ==ZTPI== {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] '''Activity: ZTPI''' # Complete the [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSfoIK9pW-KNtiWsXwa9pFVZiHwR6ioOe6V703Fk7W7YPKjICw/viewform?usp=sf_link Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory] (ZTPI) # Discuss the underlying theory # Discuss class results {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Theory=== Time perspective theory considers: * the types of time perspective * time perspective principles ====Types==== [[File:TUSSTMQ9 StructuralModel TimePerspective.png|right|thumb|450px|'''Figure 3'''. Six possible time perspective factors, based on Zimbardo (2009).]] Time perspective can be conceptualised in terms of whether it focuses on past, present, and future, but also by the valence of that focus (e.g., positive or negative). This leads to the five time perspectives suggested by Zimbardo (2009; see Figure 3): * Past Negative * Past Positive * Present Hedonistic * Present Fatalistic * Future It is unclear whether future should be separated into future negative and future positive (there is mixed evidence). Zimbardo also suggests another time perspective: * Transcendental ([https://www.thetimeparadox.com/transcendental-future-time-perspective-inventory/ TFTPI]) which is about focusing on time beyond one's lifetime. For more information, see [https://www.thetimeparadox.com/2008/08/03/an-overview-of-time-perspective-types/ an overview of time perspective types] (thetimeparadox.com) ====Principles==== * Time perspective influences thoughts, feelings, and behaviour unconsciously * Each time perspective has benefits, but excesses create negative consequences * Time perspectives are learned through personal experience * We can learn to change our time perspectives ===Results=== Compare your ZTPI scores with the: * Norms: **Past Negative (''Mdn'' = 3.0<!-- 0 -->) **Past Positive (''Mdn'' = 3.2<!--2 -->) **Present Hedonism (''Mdn'' = 3.9<!--3 -->) **Present Fatalism (''Mdn'' = 2.3<!--3 -->) **Future (''Mdn'' = 3.4<!-- 38 -->) <!-- ***Transcendental Future --> * {{anchor|Ideal}}[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/graph-september2012-all-v21.png Ideal profile] ** Past Positive - High (like your past) ** Present Hedonism - Moderate (choose when to select pleasure in the present)[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ** Future - Moderately high (work for the future) * Worst profile: ** Past Negative - High ** Present Fatalism - High ** = living in a negative past and believing you can do nothing to change it[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ==Multimedia== [[File:Philip Zimbardo (cropped).jpg|thumb|175px|'''Figure 4'''. [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]], one of the most famous 20th-21st century psychologists.]] Does the name, [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]] ring a bell (see Figure 4)? It should for psychology students! Maybe something about the [[w:Stanford prison experiment|Stanford prison experiment]]? In the early 1970s Zimbardo contoversially tackled a fundamental question that had plagued psychologists since [[w:World War II|World War II]] – are humans fundamentally evil – or can extreme circumstances lead normal people to act inhumanely? Fast forward a few decades and Zimbardo has worked on many other areas of psychology including, more recently, time perspective. Watch: [https://youtu.be/bo4HiVetBd0?si=S0pe1QJxB_HPaCDq&t=52 Philip Zimbardo prescribes a healthy take on time] (Philip Zimbardo, 5:36 min, TED talk, 2009; finish at 6:28 mins) ==Discussion== <!-- * What do you think about time perspective? --> * How could your time perspective be improved? * How could time perspective be applied? ==Books== Zimbardo's two books on this topic are: * [https://www.thetimeparadox.com "The Time Paradox"] * [https://www.thetimecure.com "The Time Cure"] ==Recording== * [Tutorial 10] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b940b077e122487faf849cf433ef54d8 Tutorial 10] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/39ff934bedf04acab0d62a7cea89dd92 Tutorial 10] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/d91d9b477c544654a5acba16f786bd46 Tutorial 10] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1a6b38b823ff473a9dc78924b598e21a Tutorial 10] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9f60d554697b4830a5e92b206af7c369 Tutorial 10] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material --> ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Book chapters * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Time perspective|Time perspective]] <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ;Lectures and tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/20 emotions|20 emotions]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] (Next tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|1}}/Lectures/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Lecture) ;Wikipedia * [[w:Mental time travel|Mental time travel]] * [[w:Philip Zimbardo#Time perspective|Philip Zimbardo - Time perspective]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Sword, R. M., Sword, R. K., Brunskill, S. R., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2014). Time perspective therapy: A new time-based metaphor therapy for PTSD. ''Journal of Loss and Trauma'', ''19''(3), 197–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 Zimbardo, P. G. & Boyd, J. N. (2009). ''[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/ The time paradox: Using the new psychology of time to your advantage]''. Free Press. Zimbardo, P. G., Sword, R. M., & Sword, R. K. M. (2012). ''[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+Time+Cure%3A+Overcoming+PTSD+with+the+New+Psychology+of+Time+Perspective+Therapy-p-9781118205679 The time cure: Overcoming PTSD with the new psychology of time perspective therapy]''. Jossey-Bass. }} <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective]] as35cik4golfh24yaowmsiyzjz8e0f9 2841796 2841795 2026-10-21T02:25:31Z Jtneill 10242 /* Discussion */ 2841796 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 10: Time perspective|tenth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Person holding clock in front of head.jpg|right|200px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. We all travel through time by using memory and imagination]] This tutorial is about: * the psychology of time and, more specifically, * [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Zimbardo]]'s model of time perspective and how it relates to motivation and emotion Take-home messages: * Time perspective unconsciously influences our thoughts, feelings, and behaviour * The [[#Ideal|ideal]] profile involves balanced and flexible use of past, present, and future time perspectives ==Mental time travel== Would you like to time travel? It turns out, you are already a time traveller (see [[w:Mental time travel|mental time travel]]) because you unconsciously adopt different cognition perceptions about time—or time perspectives—particulary, the past, present, and future. Time perspectives relate to cognitive psychology, personality, motivation, and emotion. Humans are unconsciously influenced by their cognitions about time. By understanding this, we can optimise our time perspective to live better lives. ==What is time perspective?== Did you know that we can travel through time (see Figure 1)? Time travel is very simple to do and we do it "all the time". [[File:Doctor Who (13).jpg|right|200px|thumb|''Figure 2''. People unconsciously adopt different time perspectives - whether past, present, or future.]] For example, close your eyes and think about what happened: * 10 minutes ago * yesterday * many years ago Similarly, you imagine various futures for yourself e.g., in: * 1 hour * 1 year * 30 years Or you could focus all your thought and attention could be focused on what is happening in the present. Time perspective (TP) refers to how we think about time. It can be broadly divided into (see Figure 2): * Past * Present * Future ==ZTPI== {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] '''Activity: ZTPI''' # Complete the [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSfoIK9pW-KNtiWsXwa9pFVZiHwR6ioOe6V703Fk7W7YPKjICw/viewform?usp=sf_link Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory] (ZTPI) # Discuss the underlying theory # Discuss class results {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Theory=== Time perspective theory considers: * the types of time perspective * time perspective principles ====Types==== [[File:TUSSTMQ9 StructuralModel TimePerspective.png|right|thumb|450px|'''Figure 3'''. Six possible time perspective factors, based on Zimbardo (2009).]] Time perspective can be conceptualised in terms of whether it focuses on past, present, and future, but also by the valence of that focus (e.g., positive or negative). This leads to the five time perspectives suggested by Zimbardo (2009; see Figure 3): * Past Negative * Past Positive * Present Hedonistic * Present Fatalistic * Future It is unclear whether future should be separated into future negative and future positive (there is mixed evidence). Zimbardo also suggests another time perspective: * Transcendental ([https://www.thetimeparadox.com/transcendental-future-time-perspective-inventory/ TFTPI]) which is about focusing on time beyond one's lifetime. For more information, see [https://www.thetimeparadox.com/2008/08/03/an-overview-of-time-perspective-types/ an overview of time perspective types] (thetimeparadox.com) ====Principles==== * Time perspective influences thoughts, feelings, and behaviour unconsciously * Each time perspective has benefits, but excesses create negative consequences * Time perspectives are learned through personal experience * We can learn to change our time perspectives ===Results=== Compare your ZTPI scores with the: * Norms: **Past Negative (''Mdn'' = 3.0<!-- 0 -->) **Past Positive (''Mdn'' = 3.2<!--2 -->) **Present Hedonism (''Mdn'' = 3.9<!--3 -->) **Present Fatalism (''Mdn'' = 2.3<!--3 -->) **Future (''Mdn'' = 3.4<!-- 38 -->) <!-- ***Transcendental Future --> * {{anchor|Ideal}}[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/graph-september2012-all-v21.png Ideal profile] ** Past Positive - High (like your past) ** Present Hedonism - Moderate (choose when to select pleasure in the present)[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ** Future - Moderately high (work for the future) * Worst profile: ** Past Negative - High ** Present Fatalism - High ** = living in a negative past and believing you can do nothing to change it[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ==Multimedia== [[File:Philip Zimbardo (cropped).jpg|thumb|175px|'''Figure 4'''. [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]], one of the most famous 20th-21st century psychologists.]] Does the name, [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]] ring a bell (see Figure 4)? It should for psychology students! Maybe something about the [[w:Stanford prison experiment|Stanford prison experiment]]? In the early 1970s Zimbardo contoversially tackled a fundamental question that had plagued psychologists since [[w:World War II|World War II]] – are humans fundamentally evil – or can extreme circumstances lead normal people to act inhumanely? Fast forward a few decades and Zimbardo has worked on many other areas of psychology including, more recently, time perspective. Watch: [https://youtu.be/bo4HiVetBd0?si=S0pe1QJxB_HPaCDq&t=52 Philip Zimbardo prescribes a healthy take on time] (Philip Zimbardo, 5:36 min, TED talk, 2009; finish at 6:28 mins) ==Discussion== <!-- * What do you think about time perspective? --> * How could your time perspective be improved? * Where/how could time perspective be applied? ==Books== Zimbardo's two books on this topic are: * [https://www.thetimeparadox.com "The Time Paradox"] * [https://www.thetimecure.com "The Time Cure"] ==Recording== * [Tutorial 10] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b940b077e122487faf849cf433ef54d8 Tutorial 10] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/39ff934bedf04acab0d62a7cea89dd92 Tutorial 10] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/d91d9b477c544654a5acba16f786bd46 Tutorial 10] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1a6b38b823ff473a9dc78924b598e21a Tutorial 10] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9f60d554697b4830a5e92b206af7c369 Tutorial 10] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material --> ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Book chapters * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Time perspective|Time perspective]] <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ;Lectures and tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/20 emotions|20 emotions]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] (Next tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|1}}/Lectures/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Lecture) ;Wikipedia * [[w:Mental time travel|Mental time travel]] * [[w:Philip Zimbardo#Time perspective|Philip Zimbardo - Time perspective]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Sword, R. M., Sword, R. K., Brunskill, S. R., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2014). Time perspective therapy: A new time-based metaphor therapy for PTSD. ''Journal of Loss and Trauma'', ''19''(3), 197–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 Zimbardo, P. G. & Boyd, J. N. (2009). ''[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/ The time paradox: Using the new psychology of time to your advantage]''. Free Press. Zimbardo, P. G., Sword, R. M., & Sword, R. K. M. (2012). ''[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+Time+Cure%3A+Overcoming+PTSD+with+the+New+Psychology+of+Time+Perspective+Therapy-p-9781118205679 The time cure: Overcoming PTSD with the new psychology of time perspective therapy]''. Jossey-Bass. }} <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective]] ah1fef67vf16sgfdm3udfieub816hsi 2841797 2841796 2026-10-21T02:30:06Z Jtneill 10242 /* Discussion */ + steps of time perspective therapy with assistance of ChatGPT: https://chatgpt.com/share/6ad8238a-1028-83ec-b2aa-c07dc68a9b2a 2841797 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 10: Time perspective|tenth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Person holding clock in front of head.jpg|right|200px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. We all travel through time by using memory and imagination]] This tutorial is about: * the psychology of time and, more specifically, * [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Zimbardo]]'s model of time perspective and how it relates to motivation and emotion Take-home messages: * Time perspective unconsciously influences our thoughts, feelings, and behaviour * The [[#Ideal|ideal]] profile involves balanced and flexible use of past, present, and future time perspectives ==Mental time travel== Would you like to time travel? It turns out, you are already a time traveller (see [[w:Mental time travel|mental time travel]]) because you unconsciously adopt different cognition perceptions about time—or time perspectives—particulary, the past, present, and future. Time perspectives relate to cognitive psychology, personality, motivation, and emotion. Humans are unconsciously influenced by their cognitions about time. By understanding this, we can optimise our time perspective to live better lives. ==What is time perspective?== Did you know that we can travel through time (see Figure 1)? Time travel is very simple to do and we do it "all the time". [[File:Doctor Who (13).jpg|right|200px|thumb|''Figure 2''. People unconsciously adopt different time perspectives - whether past, present, or future.]] For example, close your eyes and think about what happened: * 10 minutes ago * yesterday * many years ago Similarly, you imagine various futures for yourself e.g., in: * 1 hour * 1 year * 30 years Or you could focus all your thought and attention could be focused on what is happening in the present. Time perspective (TP) refers to how we think about time. It can be broadly divided into (see Figure 2): * Past * Present * Future ==ZTPI== {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] '''Activity: ZTPI''' # Complete the [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSfoIK9pW-KNtiWsXwa9pFVZiHwR6ioOe6V703Fk7W7YPKjICw/viewform?usp=sf_link Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory] (ZTPI) # Discuss the underlying theory # Discuss class results {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Theory=== Time perspective theory considers: * the types of time perspective * time perspective principles ====Types==== [[File:TUSSTMQ9 StructuralModel TimePerspective.png|right|thumb|450px|'''Figure 3'''. Six possible time perspective factors, based on Zimbardo (2009).]] Time perspective can be conceptualised in terms of whether it focuses on past, present, and future, but also by the valence of that focus (e.g., positive or negative). This leads to the five time perspectives suggested by Zimbardo (2009; see Figure 3): * Past Negative * Past Positive * Present Hedonistic * Present Fatalistic * Future It is unclear whether future should be separated into future negative and future positive (there is mixed evidence). Zimbardo also suggests another time perspective: * Transcendental ([https://www.thetimeparadox.com/transcendental-future-time-perspective-inventory/ TFTPI]) which is about focusing on time beyond one's lifetime. For more information, see [https://www.thetimeparadox.com/2008/08/03/an-overview-of-time-perspective-types/ an overview of time perspective types] (thetimeparadox.com) ====Principles==== * Time perspective influences thoughts, feelings, and behaviour unconsciously * Each time perspective has benefits, but excesses create negative consequences * Time perspectives are learned through personal experience * We can learn to change our time perspectives ===Results=== Compare your ZTPI scores with the: * Norms: **Past Negative (''Mdn'' = 3.0<!-- 0 -->) **Past Positive (''Mdn'' = 3.2<!--2 -->) **Present Hedonism (''Mdn'' = 3.9<!--3 -->) **Present Fatalism (''Mdn'' = 2.3<!--3 -->) **Future (''Mdn'' = 3.4<!-- 38 -->) <!-- ***Transcendental Future --> * {{anchor|Ideal}}[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/graph-september2012-all-v21.png Ideal profile] ** Past Positive - High (like your past) ** Present Hedonism - Moderate (choose when to select pleasure in the present)[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ** Future - Moderately high (work for the future) * Worst profile: ** Past Negative - High ** Present Fatalism - High ** = living in a negative past and believing you can do nothing to change it[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ==Multimedia== [[File:Philip Zimbardo (cropped).jpg|thumb|175px|'''Figure 4'''. [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]], one of the most famous 20th-21st century psychologists.]] Does the name, [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]] ring a bell (see Figure 4)? It should for psychology students! Maybe something about the [[w:Stanford prison experiment|Stanford prison experiment]]? In the early 1970s Zimbardo contoversially tackled a fundamental question that had plagued psychologists since [[w:World War II|World War II]] – are humans fundamentally evil – or can extreme circumstances lead normal people to act inhumanely? Fast forward a few decades and Zimbardo has worked on many other areas of psychology including, more recently, time perspective. Watch: [https://youtu.be/bo4HiVetBd0?si=S0pe1QJxB_HPaCDq&t=52 Philip Zimbardo prescribes a healthy take on time] (Philip Zimbardo, 5:36 min, TED talk, 2009; finish at 6:28 mins) ==Discussion== <!-- * What do you think about time perspective? --> * How could your time perspective be improved? * Where/how could time perspective be applied? ;Steps of time perspective therapy # Assess time perspective # Identify and balance time biases # Develop and maintain a balanced perspective The overall aim is to replace a narrative dominated by traumatic experiences with one that incorporates positive past experiences, present possibilities, and a hopeful future. ==Books== Zimbardo's two books on this topic are: * [https://www.thetimeparadox.com "The Time Paradox"] * [https://www.thetimecure.com "The Time Cure"] ==Recording== * [Tutorial 10] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b940b077e122487faf849cf433ef54d8 Tutorial 10] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/39ff934bedf04acab0d62a7cea89dd92 Tutorial 10] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/d91d9b477c544654a5acba16f786bd46 Tutorial 10] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1a6b38b823ff473a9dc78924b598e21a Tutorial 10] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9f60d554697b4830a5e92b206af7c369 Tutorial 10] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material --> ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Book chapters * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Time perspective|Time perspective]] <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ;Lectures and tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/20 emotions|20 emotions]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] (Next tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|1}}/Lectures/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Lecture) ;Wikipedia * [[w:Mental time travel|Mental time travel]] * [[w:Philip Zimbardo#Time perspective|Philip Zimbardo - Time perspective]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Sword, R. M., Sword, R. K., Brunskill, S. R., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2014). Time perspective therapy: A new time-based metaphor therapy for PTSD. ''Journal of Loss and Trauma'', ''19''(3), 197–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 Zimbardo, P. G. & Boyd, J. N. (2009). ''[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/ The time paradox: Using the new psychology of time to your advantage]''. Free Press. Zimbardo, P. G., Sword, R. M., & Sword, R. K. M. (2012). ''[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+Time+Cure%3A+Overcoming+PTSD+with+the+New+Psychology+of+Time+Perspective+Therapy-p-9781118205679 The time cure: Overcoming PTSD with the new psychology of time perspective therapy]''. Jossey-Bass. }} <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective]] mz02inuobmexk2l7a4fii1kyve2gul2 2841799 2841797 2026-10-21T02:38:39Z Jtneill 10242 /* Discussion */ 2841799 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 10: Time perspective|tenth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Person holding clock in front of head.jpg|right|200px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. We all travel through time by using memory and imagination]] This tutorial is about: * the psychology of time and, more specifically, * [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Zimbardo]]'s model of time perspective and how it relates to motivation and emotion Take-home messages: * Time perspective unconsciously influences our thoughts, feelings, and behaviour * The [[#Ideal|ideal]] profile involves balanced and flexible use of past, present, and future time perspectives ==Mental time travel== Would you like to time travel? It turns out, you are already a time traveller (see [[w:Mental time travel|mental time travel]]) because you unconsciously adopt different cognition perceptions about time—or time perspectives—particulary, the past, present, and future. Time perspectives relate to cognitive psychology, personality, motivation, and emotion. Humans are unconsciously influenced by their cognitions about time. By understanding this, we can optimise our time perspective to live better lives. ==What is time perspective?== Did you know that we can travel through time (see Figure 1)? Time travel is very simple to do and we do it "all the time". [[File:Doctor Who (13).jpg|right|200px|thumb|''Figure 2''. People unconsciously adopt different time perspectives - whether past, present, or future.]] For example, close your eyes and think about what happened: * 10 minutes ago * yesterday * many years ago Similarly, you imagine various futures for yourself e.g., in: * 1 hour * 1 year * 30 years Or you could focus all your thought and attention could be focused on what is happening in the present. Time perspective (TP) refers to how we think about time. It can be broadly divided into (see Figure 2): * Past * Present * Future ==ZTPI== {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] '''Activity: ZTPI''' # Complete the [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSfoIK9pW-KNtiWsXwa9pFVZiHwR6ioOe6V703Fk7W7YPKjICw/viewform?usp=sf_link Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory] (ZTPI) # Discuss the underlying theory # Discuss class results {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Theory=== Time perspective theory considers: * the types of time perspective * time perspective principles ====Types==== [[File:TUSSTMQ9 StructuralModel TimePerspective.png|right|thumb|450px|'''Figure 3'''. Six possible time perspective factors, based on Zimbardo (2009).]] Time perspective can be conceptualised in terms of whether it focuses on past, present, and future, but also by the valence of that focus (e.g., positive or negative). This leads to the five time perspectives suggested by Zimbardo (2009; see Figure 3): * Past Negative * Past Positive * Present Hedonistic * Present Fatalistic * Future It is unclear whether future should be separated into future negative and future positive (there is mixed evidence). Zimbardo also suggests another time perspective: * Transcendental ([https://www.thetimeparadox.com/transcendental-future-time-perspective-inventory/ TFTPI]) which is about focusing on time beyond one's lifetime. For more information, see [https://www.thetimeparadox.com/2008/08/03/an-overview-of-time-perspective-types/ an overview of time perspective types] (thetimeparadox.com) ====Principles==== * Time perspective influences thoughts, feelings, and behaviour unconsciously * Each time perspective has benefits, but excesses create negative consequences * Time perspectives are learned through personal experience * We can learn to change our time perspectives ===Results=== Compare your ZTPI scores with the: * Norms: **Past Negative (''Mdn'' = 3.0<!-- 0 -->) **Past Positive (''Mdn'' = 3.2<!--2 -->) **Present Hedonism (''Mdn'' = 3.9<!--3 -->) **Present Fatalism (''Mdn'' = 2.3<!--3 -->) **Future (''Mdn'' = 3.4<!-- 38 -->) <!-- ***Transcendental Future --> * {{anchor|Ideal}}[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/graph-september2012-all-v21.png Ideal profile] ** Past Positive - High (like your past) ** Present Hedonism - Moderate (choose when to select pleasure in the present)[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ** Future - Moderately high (work for the future) * Worst profile: ** Past Negative - High ** Present Fatalism - High ** = living in a negative past and believing you can do nothing to change it[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ==Multimedia== [[File:Philip Zimbardo (cropped).jpg|thumb|175px|'''Figure 4'''. [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]], one of the most famous 20th-21st century psychologists.]] Does the name, [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]] ring a bell (see Figure 4)? It should for psychology students! Maybe something about the [[w:Stanford prison experiment|Stanford prison experiment]]? In the early 1970s Zimbardo contoversially tackled a fundamental question that had plagued psychologists since [[w:World War II|World War II]] – are humans fundamentally evil – or can extreme circumstances lead normal people to act inhumanely? Fast forward a few decades and Zimbardo has worked on many other areas of psychology including, more recently, time perspective. Watch: [https://youtu.be/bo4HiVetBd0?si=S0pe1QJxB_HPaCDq&t=52 Philip Zimbardo prescribes a healthy take on time] (Philip Zimbardo, 5:36 min, TED talk, 2009; finish at 6:28 mins) ==Steps of time perspective therapy== # Assess time perspective # Identify and balance time biases # Develop and maintain a balanced perspective The overall aim is to replace a narrative dominated by traumatic experiences with one that incorporates positive past experiences, present possibilities, and a hopeful future. ==Discussion== <!-- * What do you think about time perspective? --> * How could your time perspective be improved? * Where/how could time perspective be applied? ==Books== Zimbardo's two books on this topic are: * [https://www.thetimeparadox.com "The Time Paradox"] * [https://www.thetimecure.com "The Time Cure"] ==Recording== * [Tutorial 10] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b940b077e122487faf849cf433ef54d8 Tutorial 10] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/39ff934bedf04acab0d62a7cea89dd92 Tutorial 10] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/d91d9b477c544654a5acba16f786bd46 Tutorial 10] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1a6b38b823ff473a9dc78924b598e21a Tutorial 10] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9f60d554697b4830a5e92b206af7c369 Tutorial 10] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material --> ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Book chapters * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Time perspective|Time perspective]] <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ;Lectures and tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/20 emotions|20 emotions]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] (Next tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|1}}/Lectures/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Lecture) ;Wikipedia * [[w:Mental time travel|Mental time travel]] * [[w:Philip Zimbardo#Time perspective|Philip Zimbardo - Time perspective]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Sword, R. M., Sword, R. K., Brunskill, S. R., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2014). Time perspective therapy: A new time-based metaphor therapy for PTSD. ''Journal of Loss and Trauma'', ''19''(3), 197–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 Zimbardo, P. G. & Boyd, J. N. (2009). ''[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/ The time paradox: Using the new psychology of time to your advantage]''. Free Press. Zimbardo, P. G., Sword, R. M., & Sword, R. K. M. (2012). ''[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+Time+Cure%3A+Overcoming+PTSD+with+the+New+Psychology+of+Time+Perspective+Therapy-p-9781118205679 The time cure: Overcoming PTSD with the new psychology of time perspective therapy]''. Jossey-Bass. }} <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective]] 5adfgy2xvgdpa96uunr20kggfi2e0oj 2841800 2841799 2026-10-21T02:39:27Z Jtneill 10242 /* Steps of time perspective therapy */ 2841800 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 10: Time perspective|tenth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Person holding clock in front of head.jpg|right|200px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. We all travel through time by using memory and imagination]] This tutorial is about: * the psychology of time and, more specifically, * [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Zimbardo]]'s model of time perspective and how it relates to motivation and emotion Take-home messages: * Time perspective unconsciously influences our thoughts, feelings, and behaviour * The [[#Ideal|ideal]] profile involves balanced and flexible use of past, present, and future time perspectives ==Mental time travel== Would you like to time travel? It turns out, you are already a time traveller (see [[w:Mental time travel|mental time travel]]) because you unconsciously adopt different cognition perceptions about time—or time perspectives—particulary, the past, present, and future. Time perspectives relate to cognitive psychology, personality, motivation, and emotion. Humans are unconsciously influenced by their cognitions about time. By understanding this, we can optimise our time perspective to live better lives. ==What is time perspective?== Did you know that we can travel through time (see Figure 1)? Time travel is very simple to do and we do it "all the time". [[File:Doctor Who (13).jpg|right|200px|thumb|''Figure 2''. People unconsciously adopt different time perspectives - whether past, present, or future.]] For example, close your eyes and think about what happened: * 10 minutes ago * yesterday * many years ago Similarly, you imagine various futures for yourself e.g., in: * 1 hour * 1 year * 30 years Or you could focus all your thought and attention could be focused on what is happening in the present. Time perspective (TP) refers to how we think about time. It can be broadly divided into (see Figure 2): * Past * Present * Future ==ZTPI== {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] '''Activity: ZTPI''' # Complete the [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSfoIK9pW-KNtiWsXwa9pFVZiHwR6ioOe6V703Fk7W7YPKjICw/viewform?usp=sf_link Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory] (ZTPI) # Discuss the underlying theory # Discuss class results {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Theory=== Time perspective theory considers: * the types of time perspective * time perspective principles ====Types==== [[File:TUSSTMQ9 StructuralModel TimePerspective.png|right|thumb|450px|'''Figure 3'''. Six possible time perspective factors, based on Zimbardo (2009).]] Time perspective can be conceptualised in terms of whether it focuses on past, present, and future, but also by the valence of that focus (e.g., positive or negative). This leads to the five time perspectives suggested by Zimbardo (2009; see Figure 3): * Past Negative * Past Positive * Present Hedonistic * Present Fatalistic * Future It is unclear whether future should be separated into future negative and future positive (there is mixed evidence). Zimbardo also suggests another time perspective: * Transcendental ([https://www.thetimeparadox.com/transcendental-future-time-perspective-inventory/ TFTPI]) which is about focusing on time beyond one's lifetime. For more information, see [https://www.thetimeparadox.com/2008/08/03/an-overview-of-time-perspective-types/ an overview of time perspective types] (thetimeparadox.com) ====Principles==== * Time perspective influences thoughts, feelings, and behaviour unconsciously * Each time perspective has benefits, but excesses create negative consequences * Time perspectives are learned through personal experience * We can learn to change our time perspectives ===Results=== Compare your ZTPI scores with the: * Norms: **Past Negative (''Mdn'' = 3.0<!-- 0 -->) **Past Positive (''Mdn'' = 3.2<!--2 -->) **Present Hedonism (''Mdn'' = 3.9<!--3 -->) **Present Fatalism (''Mdn'' = 2.3<!--3 -->) **Future (''Mdn'' = 3.4<!-- 38 -->) <!-- ***Transcendental Future --> * {{anchor|Ideal}}[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/graph-september2012-all-v21.png Ideal profile] ** Past Positive - High (like your past) ** Present Hedonism - Moderate (choose when to select pleasure in the present)[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ** Future - Moderately high (work for the future) * Worst profile: ** Past Negative - High ** Present Fatalism - High ** = living in a negative past and believing you can do nothing to change it[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ==Multimedia== [[File:Philip Zimbardo (cropped).jpg|thumb|175px|'''Figure 4'''. [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]], one of the most famous 20th-21st century psychologists.]] Does the name, [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]] ring a bell (see Figure 4)? It should for psychology students! Maybe something about the [[w:Stanford prison experiment|Stanford prison experiment]]? In the early 1970s Zimbardo contoversially tackled a fundamental question that had plagued psychologists since [[w:World War II|World War II]] – are humans fundamentally evil – or can extreme circumstances lead normal people to act inhumanely? Fast forward a few decades and Zimbardo has worked on many other areas of psychology including, more recently, time perspective. Watch: [https://youtu.be/bo4HiVetBd0?si=S0pe1QJxB_HPaCDq&t=52 Philip Zimbardo prescribes a healthy take on time] (Philip Zimbardo, 5:36 min, TED talk, 2009; finish at 6:28 mins) ==Steps of time perspective therapy== # Assess time perspective # Identify and balance time biases # Develop and maintain a balanced perspective The overall aim is to replace a narrative dominated by traumatic experiences with one that incorporates: * positive past experiences * present possibilities, and * a hopeful future. ==Discussion== <!-- * What do you think about time perspective? --> * How could your time perspective be improved? * Where/how could time perspective be applied? ==Books== Zimbardo's two books on this topic are: * [https://www.thetimeparadox.com "The Time Paradox"] * [https://www.thetimecure.com "The Time Cure"] ==Recording== * [Tutorial 10] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b940b077e122487faf849cf433ef54d8 Tutorial 10] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/39ff934bedf04acab0d62a7cea89dd92 Tutorial 10] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/d91d9b477c544654a5acba16f786bd46 Tutorial 10] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1a6b38b823ff473a9dc78924b598e21a Tutorial 10] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9f60d554697b4830a5e92b206af7c369 Tutorial 10] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material --> ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Book chapters * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Time perspective|Time perspective]] <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ;Lectures and tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/20 emotions|20 emotions]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] (Next tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|1}}/Lectures/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Lecture) ;Wikipedia * [[w:Mental time travel|Mental time travel]] * [[w:Philip Zimbardo#Time perspective|Philip Zimbardo - Time perspective]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Sword, R. M., Sword, R. K., Brunskill, S. R., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2014). Time perspective therapy: A new time-based metaphor therapy for PTSD. ''Journal of Loss and Trauma'', ''19''(3), 197–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 Zimbardo, P. G. & Boyd, J. N. (2009). ''[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/ The time paradox: Using the new psychology of time to your advantage]''. Free Press. Zimbardo, P. G., Sword, R. M., & Sword, R. K. M. (2012). ''[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+Time+Cure%3A+Overcoming+PTSD+with+the+New+Psychology+of+Time+Perspective+Therapy-p-9781118205679 The time cure: Overcoming PTSD with the new psychology of time perspective therapy]''. Jossey-Bass. }} <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective]] 3s0mmt5mea5g44fn4v7h75i4mtjjsip 2841801 2841800 2026-10-21T02:40:38Z Jtneill 10242 /* Steps of time perspective therapy */ 2841801 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 10: Time perspective|tenth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Person holding clock in front of head.jpg|right|200px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. We all travel through time by using memory and imagination]] This tutorial is about: * the psychology of time and, more specifically, * [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Zimbardo]]'s model of time perspective and how it relates to motivation and emotion Take-home messages: * Time perspective unconsciously influences our thoughts, feelings, and behaviour * The [[#Ideal|ideal]] profile involves balanced and flexible use of past, present, and future time perspectives ==Mental time travel== Would you like to time travel? It turns out, you are already a time traveller (see [[w:Mental time travel|mental time travel]]) because you unconsciously adopt different cognition perceptions about time—or time perspectives—particulary, the past, present, and future. Time perspectives relate to cognitive psychology, personality, motivation, and emotion. Humans are unconsciously influenced by their cognitions about time. By understanding this, we can optimise our time perspective to live better lives. ==What is time perspective?== Did you know that we can travel through time (see Figure 1)? Time travel is very simple to do and we do it "all the time". [[File:Doctor Who (13).jpg|right|200px|thumb|''Figure 2''. People unconsciously adopt different time perspectives - whether past, present, or future.]] For example, close your eyes and think about what happened: * 10 minutes ago * yesterday * many years ago Similarly, you imagine various futures for yourself e.g., in: * 1 hour * 1 year * 30 years Or you could focus all your thought and attention could be focused on what is happening in the present. Time perspective (TP) refers to how we think about time. It can be broadly divided into (see Figure 2): * Past * Present * Future ==ZTPI== {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] '''Activity: ZTPI''' # Complete the [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSfoIK9pW-KNtiWsXwa9pFVZiHwR6ioOe6V703Fk7W7YPKjICw/viewform?usp=sf_link Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory] (ZTPI) # Discuss the underlying theory # Discuss class results {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Theory=== Time perspective theory considers: * the types of time perspective * time perspective principles ====Types==== [[File:TUSSTMQ9 StructuralModel TimePerspective.png|right|thumb|450px|'''Figure 3'''. Six possible time perspective factors, based on Zimbardo (2009).]] Time perspective can be conceptualised in terms of whether it focuses on past, present, and future, but also by the valence of that focus (e.g., positive or negative). This leads to the five time perspectives suggested by Zimbardo (2009; see Figure 3): * Past Negative * Past Positive * Present Hedonistic * Present Fatalistic * Future It is unclear whether future should be separated into future negative and future positive (there is mixed evidence). Zimbardo also suggests another time perspective: * Transcendental ([https://www.thetimeparadox.com/transcendental-future-time-perspective-inventory/ TFTPI]) which is about focusing on time beyond one's lifetime. For more information, see [https://www.thetimeparadox.com/2008/08/03/an-overview-of-time-perspective-types/ an overview of time perspective types] (thetimeparadox.com) ====Principles==== * Time perspective influences thoughts, feelings, and behaviour unconsciously * Each time perspective has benefits, but excesses create negative consequences * Time perspectives are learned through personal experience * We can learn to change our time perspectives ===Results=== Compare your ZTPI scores with the: * Norms: **Past Negative (''Mdn'' = 3.0<!-- 0 -->) **Past Positive (''Mdn'' = 3.2<!--2 -->) **Present Hedonism (''Mdn'' = 3.9<!--3 -->) **Present Fatalism (''Mdn'' = 2.3<!--3 -->) **Future (''Mdn'' = 3.4<!-- 38 -->) <!-- ***Transcendental Future --> * {{anchor|Ideal}}[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/graph-september2012-all-v21.png Ideal profile] ** Past Positive - High (like your past) ** Present Hedonism - Moderate (choose when to select pleasure in the present)[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ** Future - Moderately high (work for the future) * Worst profile: ** Past Negative - High ** Present Fatalism - High ** = living in a negative past and believing you can do nothing to change it[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ==Multimedia== [[File:Philip Zimbardo (cropped).jpg|thumb|175px|'''Figure 4'''. [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]], one of the most famous 20th-21st century psychologists.]] Does the name, [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]] ring a bell (see Figure 4)? It should for psychology students! Maybe something about the [[w:Stanford prison experiment|Stanford prison experiment]]? In the early 1970s Zimbardo contoversially tackled a fundamental question that had plagued psychologists since [[w:World War II|World War II]] – are humans fundamentally evil – or can extreme circumstances lead normal people to act inhumanely? Fast forward a few decades and Zimbardo has worked on many other areas of psychology including, more recently, time perspective. Watch: [https://youtu.be/bo4HiVetBd0?si=S0pe1QJxB_HPaCDq&t=52 Philip Zimbardo prescribes a healthy take on time] (Philip Zimbardo, 5:36 min, TED talk, 2009; finish at 6:28 mins) ==Steps of time perspective therapy== Time perspective therapy (Sword et al., 2014) uses this approach: # Assess time perspective # Identify and balance time biases # Develop and maintain a balanced perspective The overall aim is to replace a narrative dominated by traumatic experiences with one that incorporates: * positive past experiences * present possibilities, and * a hopeful future. ==Discussion== <!-- * What do you think about time perspective? --> * How could your time perspective be improved? * Where/how could time perspective be applied? ==Books== Zimbardo's two books on this topic are: * [https://www.thetimeparadox.com "The Time Paradox"] * [https://www.thetimecure.com "The Time Cure"] ==Recording== * [Tutorial 10] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b940b077e122487faf849cf433ef54d8 Tutorial 10] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/39ff934bedf04acab0d62a7cea89dd92 Tutorial 10] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/d91d9b477c544654a5acba16f786bd46 Tutorial 10] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1a6b38b823ff473a9dc78924b598e21a Tutorial 10] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9f60d554697b4830a5e92b206af7c369 Tutorial 10] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material --> ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Book chapters * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Time perspective|Time perspective]] <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ;Lectures and tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/20 emotions|20 emotions]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] (Next tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|1}}/Lectures/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Lecture) ;Wikipedia * [[w:Mental time travel|Mental time travel]] * [[w:Philip Zimbardo#Time perspective|Philip Zimbardo - Time perspective]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Sword, R. M., Sword, R. K., Brunskill, S. R., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2014). Time perspective therapy: A new time-based metaphor therapy for PTSD. ''Journal of Loss and Trauma'', ''19''(3), 197–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 Zimbardo, P. G. & Boyd, J. N. (2009). ''[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/ The time paradox: Using the new psychology of time to your advantage]''. Free Press. Zimbardo, P. G., Sword, R. M., & Sword, R. K. M. (2012). ''[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+Time+Cure%3A+Overcoming+PTSD+with+the+New+Psychology+of+Time+Perspective+Therapy-p-9781118205679 The time cure: Overcoming PTSD with the new psychology of time perspective therapy]''. Jossey-Bass. }} <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective]] hx5pjqrivku6yamqb9ulwsz3bhtzfbx 2841802 2841801 2026-10-21T02:41:26Z Jtneill 10242 /* Steps of time perspective therapy */ 2841802 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 10: Time perspective|tenth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Person holding clock in front of head.jpg|right|200px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. We all travel through time by using memory and imagination]] This tutorial is about: * the psychology of time and, more specifically, * [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Zimbardo]]'s model of time perspective and how it relates to motivation and emotion Take-home messages: * Time perspective unconsciously influences our thoughts, feelings, and behaviour * The [[#Ideal|ideal]] profile involves balanced and flexible use of past, present, and future time perspectives ==Mental time travel== Would you like to time travel? It turns out, you are already a time traveller (see [[w:Mental time travel|mental time travel]]) because you unconsciously adopt different cognition perceptions about time—or time perspectives—particulary, the past, present, and future. Time perspectives relate to cognitive psychology, personality, motivation, and emotion. Humans are unconsciously influenced by their cognitions about time. By understanding this, we can optimise our time perspective to live better lives. ==What is time perspective?== Did you know that we can travel through time (see Figure 1)? Time travel is very simple to do and we do it "all the time". [[File:Doctor Who (13).jpg|right|200px|thumb|''Figure 2''. People unconsciously adopt different time perspectives - whether past, present, or future.]] For example, close your eyes and think about what happened: * 10 minutes ago * yesterday * many years ago Similarly, you imagine various futures for yourself e.g., in: * 1 hour * 1 year * 30 years Or you could focus all your thought and attention could be focused on what is happening in the present. Time perspective (TP) refers to how we think about time. It can be broadly divided into (see Figure 2): * Past * Present * Future ==ZTPI== {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] '''Activity: ZTPI''' # Complete the [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSfoIK9pW-KNtiWsXwa9pFVZiHwR6ioOe6V703Fk7W7YPKjICw/viewform?usp=sf_link Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory] (ZTPI) # Discuss the underlying theory # Discuss class results {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Theory=== Time perspective theory considers: * the types of time perspective * time perspective principles ====Types==== [[File:TUSSTMQ9 StructuralModel TimePerspective.png|right|thumb|450px|'''Figure 3'''. Six possible time perspective factors, based on Zimbardo (2009).]] Time perspective can be conceptualised in terms of whether it focuses on past, present, and future, but also by the valence of that focus (e.g., positive or negative). This leads to the five time perspectives suggested by Zimbardo (2009; see Figure 3): * Past Negative * Past Positive * Present Hedonistic * Present Fatalistic * Future It is unclear whether future should be separated into future negative and future positive (there is mixed evidence). Zimbardo also suggests another time perspective: * Transcendental ([https://www.thetimeparadox.com/transcendental-future-time-perspective-inventory/ TFTPI]) which is about focusing on time beyond one's lifetime. For more information, see [https://www.thetimeparadox.com/2008/08/03/an-overview-of-time-perspective-types/ an overview of time perspective types] (thetimeparadox.com) ====Principles==== * Time perspective influences thoughts, feelings, and behaviour unconsciously * Each time perspective has benefits, but excesses create negative consequences * Time perspectives are learned through personal experience * We can learn to change our time perspectives ===Results=== Compare your ZTPI scores with the: * Norms: **Past Negative (''Mdn'' = 3.0<!-- 0 -->) **Past Positive (''Mdn'' = 3.2<!--2 -->) **Present Hedonism (''Mdn'' = 3.9<!--3 -->) **Present Fatalism (''Mdn'' = 2.3<!--3 -->) **Future (''Mdn'' = 3.4<!-- 38 -->) <!-- ***Transcendental Future --> * {{anchor|Ideal}}[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/graph-september2012-all-v21.png Ideal profile] ** Past Positive - High (like your past) ** Present Hedonism - Moderate (choose when to select pleasure in the present)[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ** Future - Moderately high (work for the future) * Worst profile: ** Past Negative - High ** Present Fatalism - High ** = living in a negative past and believing you can do nothing to change it[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ==Multimedia== [[File:Philip Zimbardo (cropped).jpg|thumb|175px|'''Figure 4'''. [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]], one of the most famous 20th-21st century psychologists.]] Does the name, [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]] ring a bell (see Figure 4)? It should for psychology students! Maybe something about the [[w:Stanford prison experiment|Stanford prison experiment]]? In the early 1970s Zimbardo contoversially tackled a fundamental question that had plagued psychologists since [[w:World War II|World War II]] – are humans fundamentally evil – or can extreme circumstances lead normal people to act inhumanely? Fast forward a few decades and Zimbardo has worked on many other areas of psychology including, more recently, time perspective. Watch: [https://youtu.be/bo4HiVetBd0?si=S0pe1QJxB_HPaCDq&t=52 Philip Zimbardo prescribes a healthy take on time] (Philip Zimbardo, 5:36 min, TED talk, 2009; finish at 6:28 mins) ==Steps of time perspective therapy== Time perspective therapy (Sword et al., 2014) uses this approach to psychotherapy: # Assess time perspective # Identify and balance time biases # Develop and maintain a balanced perspective The overall aim is to replace a narrative dominated by traumatic experiences with one that incorporates: * positive past experiences * present possibilities, and * a hopeful future. ==Discussion== <!-- * What do you think about time perspective? --> * How could your time perspective be improved? * Where/how could time perspective be applied? ==Books== Zimbardo's two books on this topic are: * [https://www.thetimeparadox.com "The Time Paradox"] * [https://www.thetimecure.com "The Time Cure"] ==Recording== * [Tutorial 10] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b940b077e122487faf849cf433ef54d8 Tutorial 10] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/39ff934bedf04acab0d62a7cea89dd92 Tutorial 10] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/d91d9b477c544654a5acba16f786bd46 Tutorial 10] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1a6b38b823ff473a9dc78924b598e21a Tutorial 10] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9f60d554697b4830a5e92b206af7c369 Tutorial 10] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material --> ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Book chapters * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Time perspective|Time perspective]] <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ;Lectures and tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/20 emotions|20 emotions]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] (Next tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|1}}/Lectures/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Lecture) ;Wikipedia * [[w:Mental time travel|Mental time travel]] * [[w:Philip Zimbardo#Time perspective|Philip Zimbardo - Time perspective]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Sword, R. M., Sword, R. K., Brunskill, S. R., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2014). Time perspective therapy: A new time-based metaphor therapy for PTSD. ''Journal of Loss and Trauma'', ''19''(3), 197–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 Zimbardo, P. G. & Boyd, J. N. (2009). ''[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/ The time paradox: Using the new psychology of time to your advantage]''. Free Press. Zimbardo, P. G., Sword, R. M., & Sword, R. K. M. (2012). ''[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+Time+Cure%3A+Overcoming+PTSD+with+the+New+Psychology+of+Time+Perspective+Therapy-p-9781118205679 The time cure: Overcoming PTSD with the new psychology of time perspective therapy]''. Jossey-Bass. }} <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective]] hwt4volcog50f0bk7cnb5vzkjj5eu0p 2841804 2841802 2026-10-21T03:22:58Z Jtneill 10242 /* Results */ Expand 2841804 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 10: Time perspective|tenth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Person holding clock in front of head.jpg|right|200px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. We all travel through time by using memory and imagination]] This tutorial is about: * the psychology of time and, more specifically, * [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Zimbardo]]'s model of time perspective and how it relates to motivation and emotion Take-home messages: * Time perspective unconsciously influences our thoughts, feelings, and behaviour * The [[#Ideal|ideal]] profile involves balanced and flexible use of past, present, and future time perspectives ==Mental time travel== Would you like to time travel? It turns out, you are already a time traveller (see [[w:Mental time travel|mental time travel]]) because you unconsciously adopt different cognition perceptions about time—or time perspectives—particulary, the past, present, and future. Time perspectives relate to cognitive psychology, personality, motivation, and emotion. Humans are unconsciously influenced by their cognitions about time. By understanding this, we can optimise our time perspective to live better lives. ==What is time perspective?== Did you know that we can travel through time (see Figure 1)? Time travel is very simple to do and we do it "all the time". [[File:Doctor Who (13).jpg|right|200px|thumb|''Figure 2''. People unconsciously adopt different time perspectives - whether past, present, or future.]] For example, close your eyes and think about what happened: * 10 minutes ago * yesterday * many years ago Similarly, you imagine various futures for yourself e.g., in: * 1 hour * 1 year * 30 years Or you could focus all your thought and attention could be focused on what is happening in the present. Time perspective (TP) refers to how we think about time. It can be broadly divided into (see Figure 2): * Past * Present * Future ==ZTPI== {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] '''Activity: ZTPI''' # Complete the [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSfoIK9pW-KNtiWsXwa9pFVZiHwR6ioOe6V703Fk7W7YPKjICw/viewform?usp=sf_link Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory] (ZTPI) # Discuss the underlying theory # Discuss class results {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Theory=== Time perspective theory considers: * the types of time perspective * time perspective principles ====Types==== [[File:TUSSTMQ9 StructuralModel TimePerspective.png|right|thumb|450px|'''Figure 3'''. Six possible time perspective factors, based on Zimbardo (2009).]] Time perspective can be conceptualised in terms of whether it focuses on past, present, and future, but also by the valence of that focus (e.g., positive or negative). This leads to the five time perspectives suggested by Zimbardo (2009; see Figure 3): * Past Negative * Past Positive * Present Hedonistic * Present Fatalistic * Future It is unclear whether future should be separated into future negative and future positive (there is mixed evidence). Zimbardo also suggests another time perspective: * Transcendental ([https://www.thetimeparadox.com/transcendental-future-time-perspective-inventory/ TFTPI]) which is about focusing on time beyond one's lifetime. For more information, see [https://www.thetimeparadox.com/2008/08/03/an-overview-of-time-perspective-types/ an overview of time perspective types] (thetimeparadox.com) ====Principles==== * Time perspective influences thoughts, feelings, and behaviour unconsciously * Each time perspective has benefits, but excesses create negative consequences * Time perspectives are learned through personal experience * We can learn to change our time perspectives ===Results=== Compare your ZTPI scores with the: * Norms: **Past Negative (''Mdn'' = 3.0<!-- 0 -->) **Past Positive (''Mdn'' = 3.2<!--2 -->) **Present Hedonism (''Mdn'' = 3.9<!--3 -->) **Present Fatalism (''Mdn'' = 2.3<!--3 -->) **Future (''Mdn'' = 3.4<!-- 38 -->) <!-- ***Transcendental Future --> * {{anchor|Ideal}}[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/graph-september2012-all-v21.png Ideal profile] ** Past Negative - Low (learn from and resolve your past) ** Past Positive - High (like and draw on your past) ** Present Fatalism - Low (take control) ** Present Hedonism - Moderate (choose when to select pleasure in the present)[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ** Future - Moderately high (work for the future) * Worst profile: ** Past Negative - High ** Present Fatalism - High ** = living in a negative past and believing you can do nothing to change it[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ==Multimedia== [[File:Philip Zimbardo (cropped).jpg|thumb|175px|'''Figure 4'''. [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]], one of the most famous 20th-21st century psychologists.]] Does the name, [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]] ring a bell (see Figure 4)? It should for psychology students! Maybe something about the [[w:Stanford prison experiment|Stanford prison experiment]]? In the early 1970s Zimbardo contoversially tackled a fundamental question that had plagued psychologists since [[w:World War II|World War II]] – are humans fundamentally evil – or can extreme circumstances lead normal people to act inhumanely? Fast forward a few decades and Zimbardo has worked on many other areas of psychology including, more recently, time perspective. Watch: [https://youtu.be/bo4HiVetBd0?si=S0pe1QJxB_HPaCDq&t=52 Philip Zimbardo prescribes a healthy take on time] (Philip Zimbardo, 5:36 min, TED talk, 2009; finish at 6:28 mins) ==Steps of time perspective therapy== Time perspective therapy (Sword et al., 2014) uses this approach to psychotherapy: # Assess time perspective # Identify and balance time biases # Develop and maintain a balanced perspective The overall aim is to replace a narrative dominated by traumatic experiences with one that incorporates: * positive past experiences * present possibilities, and * a hopeful future. ==Discussion== <!-- * What do you think about time perspective? --> * How could your time perspective be improved? * Where/how could time perspective be applied? ==Books== Zimbardo's two books on this topic are: * [https://www.thetimeparadox.com "The Time Paradox"] * [https://www.thetimecure.com "The Time Cure"] ==Recording== * [Tutorial 10] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b940b077e122487faf849cf433ef54d8 Tutorial 10] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/39ff934bedf04acab0d62a7cea89dd92 Tutorial 10] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/d91d9b477c544654a5acba16f786bd46 Tutorial 10] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1a6b38b823ff473a9dc78924b598e21a Tutorial 10] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9f60d554697b4830a5e92b206af7c369 Tutorial 10] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material --> ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Book chapters * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Time perspective|Time perspective]] <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ;Lectures and tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/20 emotions|20 emotions]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] (Next tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|1}}/Lectures/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Lecture) ;Wikipedia * [[w:Mental time travel|Mental time travel]] * [[w:Philip Zimbardo#Time perspective|Philip Zimbardo - Time perspective]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Sword, R. M., Sword, R. K., Brunskill, S. R., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2014). Time perspective therapy: A new time-based metaphor therapy for PTSD. ''Journal of Loss and Trauma'', ''19''(3), 197–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 Zimbardo, P. G. & Boyd, J. N. (2009). ''[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/ The time paradox: Using the new psychology of time to your advantage]''. Free Press. Zimbardo, P. G., Sword, R. M., & Sword, R. K. M. (2012). ''[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+Time+Cure%3A+Overcoming+PTSD+with+the+New+Psychology+of+Time+Perspective+Therapy-p-9781118205679 The time cure: Overcoming PTSD with the new psychology of time perspective therapy]''. Jossey-Bass. }} <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective]] t6qty0qsoaj2moydp743k0pa5mv4mts 2841805 2841804 2026-10-21T04:00:58Z Jtneill 10242 /* Discussion */ How do cultures differ in time perspective? 2841805 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 10: Time perspective|tenth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Person holding clock in front of head.jpg|right|200px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. We all travel through time by using memory and imagination]] This tutorial is about: * the psychology of time and, more specifically, * [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Zimbardo]]'s model of time perspective and how it relates to motivation and emotion Take-home messages: * Time perspective unconsciously influences our thoughts, feelings, and behaviour * The [[#Ideal|ideal]] profile involves balanced and flexible use of past, present, and future time perspectives ==Mental time travel== Would you like to time travel? It turns out, you are already a time traveller (see [[w:Mental time travel|mental time travel]]) because you unconsciously adopt different cognition perceptions about time—or time perspectives—particulary, the past, present, and future. Time perspectives relate to cognitive psychology, personality, motivation, and emotion. Humans are unconsciously influenced by their cognitions about time. By understanding this, we can optimise our time perspective to live better lives. ==What is time perspective?== Did you know that we can travel through time (see Figure 1)? Time travel is very simple to do and we do it "all the time". [[File:Doctor Who (13).jpg|right|200px|thumb|''Figure 2''. People unconsciously adopt different time perspectives - whether past, present, or future.]] For example, close your eyes and think about what happened: * 10 minutes ago * yesterday * many years ago Similarly, you imagine various futures for yourself e.g., in: * 1 hour * 1 year * 30 years Or you could focus all your thought and attention could be focused on what is happening in the present. Time perspective (TP) refers to how we think about time. It can be broadly divided into (see Figure 2): * Past * Present * Future ==ZTPI== {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] '''Activity: ZTPI''' # Complete the [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSfoIK9pW-KNtiWsXwa9pFVZiHwR6ioOe6V703Fk7W7YPKjICw/viewform?usp=sf_link Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory] (ZTPI) # Discuss the underlying theory # Discuss class results {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Theory=== Time perspective theory considers: * the types of time perspective * time perspective principles ====Types==== [[File:TUSSTMQ9 StructuralModel TimePerspective.png|right|thumb|450px|'''Figure 3'''. Six possible time perspective factors, based on Zimbardo (2009).]] Time perspective can be conceptualised in terms of whether it focuses on past, present, and future, but also by the valence of that focus (e.g., positive or negative). This leads to the five time perspectives suggested by Zimbardo (2009; see Figure 3): * Past Negative * Past Positive * Present Hedonistic * Present Fatalistic * Future It is unclear whether future should be separated into future negative and future positive (there is mixed evidence). Zimbardo also suggests another time perspective: * Transcendental ([https://www.thetimeparadox.com/transcendental-future-time-perspective-inventory/ TFTPI]) which is about focusing on time beyond one's lifetime. For more information, see [https://www.thetimeparadox.com/2008/08/03/an-overview-of-time-perspective-types/ an overview of time perspective types] (thetimeparadox.com) ====Principles==== * Time perspective influences thoughts, feelings, and behaviour unconsciously * Each time perspective has benefits, but excesses create negative consequences * Time perspectives are learned through personal experience * We can learn to change our time perspectives ===Results=== Compare your ZTPI scores with the: * Norms: **Past Negative (''Mdn'' = 3.0<!-- 0 -->) **Past Positive (''Mdn'' = 3.2<!--2 -->) **Present Hedonism (''Mdn'' = 3.9<!--3 -->) **Present Fatalism (''Mdn'' = 2.3<!--3 -->) **Future (''Mdn'' = 3.4<!-- 38 -->) <!-- ***Transcendental Future --> * {{anchor|Ideal}}[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/graph-september2012-all-v21.png Ideal profile] ** Past Negative - Low (learn from and resolve your past) ** Past Positive - High (like and draw on your past) ** Present Fatalism - Low (take control) ** Present Hedonism - Moderate (choose when to select pleasure in the present)[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ** Future - Moderately high (work for the future) * Worst profile: ** Past Negative - High ** Present Fatalism - High ** = living in a negative past and believing you can do nothing to change it[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ==Multimedia== [[File:Philip Zimbardo (cropped).jpg|thumb|175px|'''Figure 4'''. [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]], one of the most famous 20th-21st century psychologists.]] Does the name, [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]] ring a bell (see Figure 4)? It should for psychology students! Maybe something about the [[w:Stanford prison experiment|Stanford prison experiment]]? In the early 1970s Zimbardo contoversially tackled a fundamental question that had plagued psychologists since [[w:World War II|World War II]] – are humans fundamentally evil – or can extreme circumstances lead normal people to act inhumanely? Fast forward a few decades and Zimbardo has worked on many other areas of psychology including, more recently, time perspective. Watch: [https://youtu.be/bo4HiVetBd0?si=S0pe1QJxB_HPaCDq&t=52 Philip Zimbardo prescribes a healthy take on time] (Philip Zimbardo, 5:36 min, TED talk, 2009; finish at 6:28 mins) ==Steps of time perspective therapy== Time perspective therapy (Sword et al., 2014) uses this approach to psychotherapy: # Assess time perspective # Identify and balance time biases # Develop and maintain a balanced perspective The overall aim is to replace a narrative dominated by traumatic experiences with one that incorporates: * positive past experiences * present possibilities, and * a hopeful future. ==Discussion== <!-- * What do you think about time perspective? --> * How could your time perspective be improved? * Where/how could time perspective be applied? * How do cultures differ in time perspective? ==Books== Zimbardo's two books on this topic are: * [https://www.thetimeparadox.com "The Time Paradox"] * [https://www.thetimecure.com "The Time Cure"] ==Recording== * [Tutorial 10] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b940b077e122487faf849cf433ef54d8 Tutorial 10] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/39ff934bedf04acab0d62a7cea89dd92 Tutorial 10] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/d91d9b477c544654a5acba16f786bd46 Tutorial 10] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1a6b38b823ff473a9dc78924b598e21a Tutorial 10] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9f60d554697b4830a5e92b206af7c369 Tutorial 10] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material --> ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Book chapters * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Time perspective|Time perspective]] <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ;Lectures and tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/20 emotions|20 emotions]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] (Next tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|1}}/Lectures/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Lecture) ;Wikipedia * [[w:Mental time travel|Mental time travel]] * [[w:Philip Zimbardo#Time perspective|Philip Zimbardo - Time perspective]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Sword, R. M., Sword, R. K., Brunskill, S. R., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2014). Time perspective therapy: A new time-based metaphor therapy for PTSD. ''Journal of Loss and Trauma'', ''19''(3), 197–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 Zimbardo, P. G. & Boyd, J. N. (2009). ''[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/ The time paradox: Using the new psychology of time to your advantage]''. Free Press. Zimbardo, P. G., Sword, R. M., & Sword, R. K. M. (2012). ''[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+Time+Cure%3A+Overcoming+PTSD+with+the+New+Psychology+of+Time+Perspective+Therapy-p-9781118205679 The time cure: Overcoming PTSD with the new psychology of time perspective therapy]''. Jossey-Bass. }} <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective]] 2mgnkcy312a3lr3hpoef1ml37uuwc9j 2841807 2841805 2026-10-21T04:17:57Z Jtneill 10242 /* Mental time travel */ + image and expand 2841807 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 10: Time perspective|tenth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Person holding clock in front of head.jpg|right|200px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. We all travel through time by using memory and imagination]] This tutorial is about: * the psychology of time and, more specifically, * [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Zimbardo]]'s model of time perspective and how it relates to motivation and emotion Take-home messages: * Time perspective unconsciously influences our thoughts, feelings, and behaviour * The [[#Ideal|ideal]] profile involves balanced and flexible use of past, present, and future time perspectives ==Mental time travel== [[File:Tardis in Snow.jpg|thumb|160px|Do you know how to time travel? By the end of this tutorial, you will know how to use mental time travel to optimise your wellbeing.]] Would you like to [[w:Time travel|time travel]]? It turns out, you are already a time traveller (see [[w:Mental time travel|mental time travel]]) because you unconsciously adopt different cognition perceptions about time—or time perspectives. In particular, our cognitions can focus on the past, present, or future. Time perspective relates to cognitive psychology (it is about cognitions), personality (individual differences in thinking and behaviour patterns or styles), motivation (it influences what we care about) , and emotion (it relates to how we feel). Humans are unconsciously influenced by their cognitions about time. By understanding and measuring our individual time perspectives, we can work towards optimising our time perspective to live better lives. ==What is time perspective?== Did you know that we can travel through time (see Figure 1)? Time travel is very simple to do and we do it "all the time". [[File:Doctor Who (13).jpg|right|200px|thumb|''Figure 2''. People unconsciously adopt different time perspectives - whether past, present, or future.]] For example, close your eyes and think about what happened: * 10 minutes ago * yesterday * many years ago Similarly, you imagine various futures for yourself e.g., in: * 1 hour * 1 year * 30 years Or you could focus all your thought and attention could be focused on what is happening in the present. Time perspective (TP) refers to how we think about time. It can be broadly divided into (see Figure 2): * Past * Present * Future ==ZTPI== {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] '''Activity: ZTPI''' # Complete the [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSfoIK9pW-KNtiWsXwa9pFVZiHwR6ioOe6V703Fk7W7YPKjICw/viewform?usp=sf_link Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory] (ZTPI) # Discuss the underlying theory # Discuss class results {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Theory=== Time perspective theory considers: * the types of time perspective * time perspective principles ====Types==== [[File:TUSSTMQ9 StructuralModel TimePerspective.png|right|thumb|450px|'''Figure 3'''. Six possible time perspective factors, based on Zimbardo (2009).]] Time perspective can be conceptualised in terms of whether it focuses on past, present, and future, but also by the valence of that focus (e.g., positive or negative). This leads to the five time perspectives suggested by Zimbardo (2009; see Figure 3): * Past Negative * Past Positive * Present Hedonistic * Present Fatalistic * Future It is unclear whether future should be separated into future negative and future positive (there is mixed evidence). Zimbardo also suggests another time perspective: * Transcendental ([https://www.thetimeparadox.com/transcendental-future-time-perspective-inventory/ TFTPI]) which is about focusing on time beyond one's lifetime. For more information, see [https://www.thetimeparadox.com/2008/08/03/an-overview-of-time-perspective-types/ an overview of time perspective types] (thetimeparadox.com) ====Principles==== * Time perspective influences thoughts, feelings, and behaviour unconsciously * Each time perspective has benefits, but excesses create negative consequences * Time perspectives are learned through personal experience * We can learn to change our time perspectives ===Results=== Compare your ZTPI scores with the: * Norms: **Past Negative (''Mdn'' = 3.0<!-- 0 -->) **Past Positive (''Mdn'' = 3.2<!--2 -->) **Present Hedonism (''Mdn'' = 3.9<!--3 -->) **Present Fatalism (''Mdn'' = 2.3<!--3 -->) **Future (''Mdn'' = 3.4<!-- 38 -->) <!-- ***Transcendental Future --> * {{anchor|Ideal}}[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/graph-september2012-all-v21.png Ideal profile] ** Past Negative - Low (learn from and resolve your past) ** Past Positive - High (like and draw on your past) ** Present Fatalism - Low (take control) ** Present Hedonism - Moderate (choose when to select pleasure in the present)[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ** Future - Moderately high (work for the future) * Worst profile: ** Past Negative - High ** Present Fatalism - High ** = living in a negative past and believing you can do nothing to change it[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ==Multimedia== [[File:Philip Zimbardo (cropped).jpg|thumb|175px|'''Figure 4'''. [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]], one of the most famous 20th-21st century psychologists.]] Does the name, [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]] ring a bell (see Figure 4)? It should for psychology students! Maybe something about the [[w:Stanford prison experiment|Stanford prison experiment]]? In the early 1970s Zimbardo contoversially tackled a fundamental question that had plagued psychologists since [[w:World War II|World War II]] – are humans fundamentally evil – or can extreme circumstances lead normal people to act inhumanely? Fast forward a few decades and Zimbardo has worked on many other areas of psychology including, more recently, time perspective. Watch: [https://youtu.be/bo4HiVetBd0?si=S0pe1QJxB_HPaCDq&t=52 Philip Zimbardo prescribes a healthy take on time] (Philip Zimbardo, 5:36 min, TED talk, 2009; finish at 6:28 mins) ==Steps of time perspective therapy== Time perspective therapy (Sword et al., 2014) uses this approach to psychotherapy: # Assess time perspective # Identify and balance time biases # Develop and maintain a balanced perspective The overall aim is to replace a narrative dominated by traumatic experiences with one that incorporates: * positive past experiences * present possibilities, and * a hopeful future. ==Discussion== <!-- * What do you think about time perspective? --> * How could your time perspective be improved? * Where/how could time perspective be applied? * How do cultures differ in time perspective? ==Books== Zimbardo's two books on this topic are: * [https://www.thetimeparadox.com "The Time Paradox"] * [https://www.thetimecure.com "The Time Cure"] ==Recording== * [Tutorial 10] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b940b077e122487faf849cf433ef54d8 Tutorial 10] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/39ff934bedf04acab0d62a7cea89dd92 Tutorial 10] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/d91d9b477c544654a5acba16f786bd46 Tutorial 10] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1a6b38b823ff473a9dc78924b598e21a Tutorial 10] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9f60d554697b4830a5e92b206af7c369 Tutorial 10] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material --> ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Book chapters * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Time perspective|Time perspective]] <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ;Lectures and tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/20 emotions|20 emotions]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] (Next tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|1}}/Lectures/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Lecture) ;Wikipedia * [[w:Mental time travel|Mental time travel]] * [[w:Philip Zimbardo#Time perspective|Philip Zimbardo - Time perspective]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Sword, R. M., Sword, R. K., Brunskill, S. R., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2014). Time perspective therapy: A new time-based metaphor therapy for PTSD. ''Journal of Loss and Trauma'', ''19''(3), 197–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 Zimbardo, P. G. & Boyd, J. N. (2009). ''[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/ The time paradox: Using the new psychology of time to your advantage]''. Free Press. Zimbardo, P. G., Sword, R. M., & Sword, R. K. M. (2012). ''[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+Time+Cure%3A+Overcoming+PTSD+with+the+New+Psychology+of+Time+Perspective+Therapy-p-9781118205679 The time cure: Overcoming PTSD with the new psychology of time perspective therapy]''. Jossey-Bass. }} <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective]] puehav26ykmq3d89uohab51luhd5p06 2841809 2841807 2026-10-21T04:20:31Z Jtneill 10242 Swap figures 1 and 2 2841809 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 10: Time perspective|tenth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Tardis in Snow.jpg|thumb|160px|'''Figure 1'''.Do you know how to time travel? By the end of this tutorial, you will know how to use mental time travel to optimise your wellbeing.]] This tutorial is about: * the psychology of time and, more specifically, * [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Zimbardo]]'s model of time perspective and how it relates to motivation and emotion Take-home messages: * Time perspective unconsciously influences our thoughts, feelings, and behaviour * The [[#Ideal|ideal]] profile involves balanced and flexible use of past, present, and future time perspectives ==Mental time travel== [[File:Person holding clock in front of head.jpg|right|200px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. We all travel through time by using memory and imagination]] Would you like to [[w:Time travel|time travel]] (see Figure 1)? It turns out, you are already a time traveller (see [[w:Mental time travel|mental time travel]]) because you unconsciously adopt different cognition perceptions about time—or time perspectives (see Figure 2). In particular, our cognitions can focus on the past, present, or future. Time perspective relates to cognitive psychology (it is about cognitions), personality (individual differences in thinking and behaviour patterns or styles), motivation (it influences what we care about) , and emotion (it relates to how we feel). Humans are unconsciously influenced by their cognitions about time. By understanding and measuring our individual time perspectives, we can work towards optimising our time perspective to live better lives. ==What is time perspective?== Did you know that we can travel through time (see Figure 1)? Time travel is very simple to do and we do it "all the time". [[File:Doctor Who (13).jpg|right|200px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. People unconsciously adopt different time perspectives - whether past, present, or future.]] For example, close your eyes and think about what happened: * 10 minutes ago * yesterday * many years ago Similarly, you imagine various futures for yourself e.g., in: * 1 hour * 1 year * 30 years Or you could focus all your thought and attention could be focused on what is happening in the present. Time perspective (TP) refers to how we think about time. It can be broadly divided into (see Figure 3): * Past * Present * Future ==ZTPI== {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] '''Activity: ZTPI''' # Complete the [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSfoIK9pW-KNtiWsXwa9pFVZiHwR6ioOe6V703Fk7W7YPKjICw/viewform?usp=sf_link Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory] (ZTPI) # Discuss the underlying theory # Discuss class results {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Theory=== Time perspective theory considers: * the types of time perspective * time perspective principles ====Types==== [[File:TUSSTMQ9 StructuralModel TimePerspective.png|right|thumb|450px|'''Figure 4'''. Six possible time perspective factors, based on Zimbardo (2009).]] Time perspective can be conceptualised in terms of whether it focuses on past, present, and future, but also by the valence of that focus (e.g., positive or negative). This leads to the five time perspectives suggested by Zimbardo (2009; see Figure 4): * Past Negative * Past Positive * Present Hedonistic * Present Fatalistic * Future It is unclear whether future should be separated into future negative and future positive (there is mixed evidence). Zimbardo also suggests another time perspective: * Transcendental ([https://www.thetimeparadox.com/transcendental-future-time-perspective-inventory/ TFTPI]) which is about focusing on time beyond one's lifetime. For more information, see [https://www.thetimeparadox.com/2008/08/03/an-overview-of-time-perspective-types/ an overview of time perspective types] (thetimeparadox.com) ====Principles==== * Time perspective influences thoughts, feelings, and behaviour unconsciously * Each time perspective has benefits, but excesses create negative consequences * Time perspectives are learned through personal experience * We can learn to change our time perspectives ===Results=== Compare your ZTPI scores with the: * Norms: **Past Negative (''Mdn'' = 3.0<!-- 0 -->) **Past Positive (''Mdn'' = 3.2<!--2 -->) **Present Hedonism (''Mdn'' = 3.9<!--3 -->) **Present Fatalism (''Mdn'' = 2.3<!--3 -->) **Future (''Mdn'' = 3.4<!-- 38 -->) <!-- ***Transcendental Future --> * {{anchor|Ideal}}[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/graph-september2012-all-v21.png Ideal profile] ** Past Negative - Low (learn from and resolve your past) ** Past Positive - High (like and draw on your past) ** Present Fatalism - Low (take control) ** Present Hedonism - Moderate (choose when to select pleasure in the present)[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ** Future - Moderately high (work for the future) * Worst profile: ** Past Negative - High ** Present Fatalism - High ** = living in a negative past and believing you can do nothing to change it[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ==Multimedia== [[File:Philip Zimbardo (cropped).jpg|thumb|175px|'''Figure 5'''. [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]], one of the most famous 20th-21st century psychologists.]] Does the name, [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]] ring a bell (see Figure 5)? It should for psychology students! Maybe something about the [[w:Stanford prison experiment|Stanford prison experiment]]? In the early 1970s Zimbardo contoversially tackled a fundamental question that had plagued psychologists since [[w:World War II|World War II]] – are humans fundamentally evil – or can extreme circumstances lead normal people to act inhumanely? Fast forward a few decades and Zimbardo has worked on many other areas of psychology including, more recently, time perspective. Watch: [https://youtu.be/bo4HiVetBd0?si=S0pe1QJxB_HPaCDq&t=52 Philip Zimbardo prescribes a healthy take on time] (Philip Zimbardo, 5:36 min, TED talk, 2009; finish at 6:28 mins) ==Steps of time perspective therapy== Time perspective therapy (Sword et al., 2014) uses this approach to psychotherapy: # Assess time perspective # Identify and balance time biases # Develop and maintain a balanced perspective The overall aim is to replace a narrative dominated by traumatic experiences with one that incorporates: * positive past experiences * present possibilities, and * a hopeful future. ==Discussion== <!-- * What do you think about time perspective? --> * How could your time perspective be improved? * Where/how could time perspective be applied? * How do cultures differ in time perspective? ==Books== Zimbardo's two books on this topic are: * [https://www.thetimeparadox.com "The Time Paradox"] * [https://www.thetimecure.com "The Time Cure"] ==Recording== * [Tutorial 10] (2026) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b940b077e122487faf849cf433ef54d8 Tutorial 10] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/39ff934bedf04acab0d62a7cea89dd92 Tutorial 10] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/d91d9b477c544654a5acba16f786bd46 Tutorial 10] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1a6b38b823ff473a9dc78924b598e21a Tutorial 10] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9f60d554697b4830a5e92b206af7c369 Tutorial 10] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material --> ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Book chapters * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Time perspective|Time perspective]] <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ;Lectures and tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/20 emotions|20 emotions]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] (Next tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|1}}/Lectures/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Lecture) ;Wikipedia * [[w:Mental time travel|Mental time travel]] * [[w:Philip Zimbardo#Time perspective|Philip Zimbardo - Time perspective]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Sword, R. M., Sword, R. K., Brunskill, S. R., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2014). Time perspective therapy: A new time-based metaphor therapy for PTSD. ''Journal of Loss and Trauma'', ''19''(3), 197–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 Zimbardo, P. G. & Boyd, J. N. (2009). ''[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/ The time paradox: Using the new psychology of time to your advantage]''. Free Press. Zimbardo, P. G., Sword, R. M., & Sword, R. K. M. (2012). ''[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+Time+Cure%3A+Overcoming+PTSD+with+the+New+Psychology+of+Time+Perspective+Therapy-p-9781118205679 The time cure: Overcoming PTSD with the new psychology of time perspective therapy]''. Jossey-Bass. }} <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective]] fv3r3vsiz8mdecxtyvrboq2vn2wieec 2841818 2841809 2026-10-21T07:40:07Z Jtneill 10242 /* Recording */ Update for 2026 2841818 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 10: Time perspective|tenth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Tardis in Snow.jpg|thumb|160px|'''Figure 1'''.Do you know how to time travel? By the end of this tutorial, you will know how to use mental time travel to optimise your wellbeing.]] This tutorial is about: * the psychology of time and, more specifically, * [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Zimbardo]]'s model of time perspective and how it relates to motivation and emotion Take-home messages: * Time perspective unconsciously influences our thoughts, feelings, and behaviour * The [[#Ideal|ideal]] profile involves balanced and flexible use of past, present, and future time perspectives ==Mental time travel== [[File:Person holding clock in front of head.jpg|right|200px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. We all travel through time by using memory and imagination]] Would you like to [[w:Time travel|time travel]] (see Figure 1)? It turns out, you are already a time traveller (see [[w:Mental time travel|mental time travel]]) because you unconsciously adopt different cognition perceptions about time—or time perspectives (see Figure 2). In particular, our cognitions can focus on the past, present, or future. Time perspective relates to cognitive psychology (it is about cognitions), personality (individual differences in thinking and behaviour patterns or styles), motivation (it influences what we care about) , and emotion (it relates to how we feel). Humans are unconsciously influenced by their cognitions about time. By understanding and measuring our individual time perspectives, we can work towards optimising our time perspective to live better lives. ==What is time perspective?== Did you know that we can travel through time (see Figure 1)? Time travel is very simple to do and we do it "all the time". [[File:Doctor Who (13).jpg|right|200px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. People unconsciously adopt different time perspectives - whether past, present, or future.]] For example, close your eyes and think about what happened: * 10 minutes ago * yesterday * many years ago Similarly, you imagine various futures for yourself e.g., in: * 1 hour * 1 year * 30 years Or you could focus all your thought and attention could be focused on what is happening in the present. Time perspective (TP) refers to how we think about time. It can be broadly divided into (see Figure 3): * Past * Present * Future ==ZTPI== {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] '''Activity: ZTPI''' # Complete the [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSfoIK9pW-KNtiWsXwa9pFVZiHwR6ioOe6V703Fk7W7YPKjICw/viewform?usp=sf_link Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory] (ZTPI) # Discuss the underlying theory # Discuss class results {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Theory=== Time perspective theory considers: * the types of time perspective * time perspective principles ====Types==== [[File:TUSSTMQ9 StructuralModel TimePerspective.png|right|thumb|450px|'''Figure 4'''. Six possible time perspective factors, based on Zimbardo (2009).]] Time perspective can be conceptualised in terms of whether it focuses on past, present, and future, but also by the valence of that focus (e.g., positive or negative). This leads to the five time perspectives suggested by Zimbardo (2009; see Figure 4): * Past Negative * Past Positive * Present Hedonistic * Present Fatalistic * Future It is unclear whether future should be separated into future negative and future positive (there is mixed evidence). Zimbardo also suggests another time perspective: * Transcendental ([https://www.thetimeparadox.com/transcendental-future-time-perspective-inventory/ TFTPI]) which is about focusing on time beyond one's lifetime. For more information, see [https://www.thetimeparadox.com/2008/08/03/an-overview-of-time-perspective-types/ an overview of time perspective types] (thetimeparadox.com) ====Principles==== * Time perspective influences thoughts, feelings, and behaviour unconsciously * Each time perspective has benefits, but excesses create negative consequences * Time perspectives are learned through personal experience * We can learn to change our time perspectives ===Results=== Compare your ZTPI scores with the: * Norms: **Past Negative (''Mdn'' = 3.0<!-- 0 -->) **Past Positive (''Mdn'' = 3.2<!--2 -->) **Present Hedonism (''Mdn'' = 3.9<!--3 -->) **Present Fatalism (''Mdn'' = 2.3<!--3 -->) **Future (''Mdn'' = 3.4<!-- 38 -->) <!-- ***Transcendental Future --> * {{anchor|Ideal}}[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/graph-september2012-all-v21.png Ideal profile] ** Past Negative - Low (learn from and resolve your past) ** Past Positive - High (like and draw on your past) ** Present Fatalism - Low (take control) ** Present Hedonism - Moderate (choose when to select pleasure in the present)[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ** Future - Moderately high (work for the future) * Worst profile: ** Past Negative - High ** Present Fatalism - High ** = living in a negative past and believing you can do nothing to change it[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ==Multimedia== [[File:Philip Zimbardo (cropped).jpg|thumb|175px|'''Figure 5'''. [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]], one of the most famous 20th-21st century psychologists.]] Does the name, [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]] ring a bell (see Figure 5)? It should for psychology students! Maybe something about the [[w:Stanford prison experiment|Stanford prison experiment]]? In the early 1970s Zimbardo contoversially tackled a fundamental question that had plagued psychologists since [[w:World War II|World War II]] – are humans fundamentally evil – or can extreme circumstances lead normal people to act inhumanely? Fast forward a few decades and Zimbardo has worked on many other areas of psychology including, more recently, time perspective. Watch: [https://youtu.be/bo4HiVetBd0?si=S0pe1QJxB_HPaCDq&t=52 Philip Zimbardo prescribes a healthy take on time] (Philip Zimbardo, 5:36 min, TED talk, 2009; finish at 6:28 mins) ==Steps of time perspective therapy== Time perspective therapy (Sword et al., 2014) uses this approach to psychotherapy: # Assess time perspective # Identify and balance time biases # Develop and maintain a balanced perspective The overall aim is to replace a narrative dominated by traumatic experiences with one that incorporates: * positive past experiences * present possibilities, and * a hopeful future. ==Discussion== <!-- * What do you think about time perspective? --> * How could your time perspective be improved? * Where/how could time perspective be applied? * How do cultures differ in time perspective? ==Books== Zimbardo's two books on this topic are: * [https://www.thetimeparadox.com "The Time Paradox"] * [https://www.thetimecure.com "The Time Cure"] ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/258e61068a164af2a7e574484aa956c6 Tutorial 10] (2026)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b940b077e122487faf849cf433ef54d8 Tutorial 10] (2025) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/39ff934bedf04acab0d62a7cea89dd92 Tutorial 10] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/d91d9b477c544654a5acba16f786bd46 Tutorial 10] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1a6b38b823ff473a9dc78924b598e21a Tutorial 10] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9f60d554697b4830a5e92b206af7c369 Tutorial 10] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material --> ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Book chapters * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Time perspective|Time perspective]] <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ;Lectures and tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/20 emotions|20 emotions]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] (Next tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|1}}/Lectures/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Lecture) ;Wikipedia * [[w:Mental time travel|Mental time travel]] * [[w:Philip Zimbardo#Time perspective|Philip Zimbardo - Time perspective]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Sword, R. M., Sword, R. K., Brunskill, S. R., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2014). Time perspective therapy: A new time-based metaphor therapy for PTSD. ''Journal of Loss and Trauma'', ''19''(3), 197–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 Zimbardo, P. G. & Boyd, J. N. (2009). ''[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/ The time paradox: Using the new psychology of time to your advantage]''. Free Press. Zimbardo, P. G., Sword, R. M., & Sword, R. K. M. (2012). ''[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+Time+Cure%3A+Overcoming+PTSD+with+the+New+Psychology+of+Time+Perspective+Therapy-p-9781118205679 The time cure: Overcoming PTSD with the new psychology of time perspective therapy]''. Jossey-Bass. }} <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective]] rge1xxzwylua4kys5r09y0w5bssf1pe 0 269601 2841847 2601359 2026-10-21T10:37:45Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 Attempting to solve lints 2841847 wikitext text/x-wiki [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_medicine Evidence-based medicine] [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Occupational_Epidemiology/Research_tools/Theoretical_Program_-_open_here] ==[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Occupational_Epidemiology/Research_tools/Theoretical_Program_-_open_here/Electronic_Research_tools_1/Search_scientific_literature Search the literature] == [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Occupational_Epidemiology/Research_tools/Theoretical_Program_-_open_here/How_to_start_and_complete_research_projects_-_methodology] == [[/Electronic Research tools 1/]] == == [[/Electronic Research tools 2/]] == == [[/ Use of primary and secondary research data in the thesis /]] == == [[/Reading of scientific articles for learning epidemiology and biostatstics/]] == == [[/Theoretical epidemiology and biostatstics/]] == == [[/Authors´s guidelines for scientific publications/]] == == [https://www.dropbox.com/s/qhpp74mew9qj8kg/2018%20how-to-write-a-flawless-manuscript.pdf?dl=0 How to write a flawless manuscript] == == [[/How to write the Thesis/]] == == [https://www.dropbox.com/sh/8n5ow47zo0ryfol/AABxqXHpWJUsBdNg_epp_jn-a?dl=0 Standard questionnaires in English] == == [http://www.equator-network.org/reporting-guidelines/record/ The EQUATOR -network guidelines] == == [http://www.strobe-statement.org/index.php?id=strobe-home The STROBE statement] == == [https://www.strobe-statement.org/fileadmin/Strobe/uploads/checklists/STROBE_checklist_cross-sectional.doc Checklist/STROBE cross-sectional] == ==[http://www.equator-network.org/reporting-guidelines/prisma-scr/ PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR)]== == [http://www.prisma-statement.org/PRISMAStatement/PRISMAStatement.aspx The PRISMA Statement] == == [https://www.equator-network.org/ EQUATOR-NETWORK research tools] == == [http://www.equator-network.org/reporting-guidelines/record/ The EQUATOR -network CLINCAL CASE reporting-guidelines] == ==2. Study work == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/Cohort_protocols/GHQ12_Cohort_protocol&action=edit '''Research questions and protocol'''] # [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1OK7FmSkQT-MzJ2abZYeo1FDhQQZj7KTkuGFP2-L2FSk/edit '''Questionnaire Google Form - Thai'''] # [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1c-7HquXGxKaibDLTLPAuk-A6s3jUSEULtI4e_YLMqcM/edit '''Questionnaire Google Form - UMIP'''] Feb 2022 new data # Literature search and review writing # Data analysis and thesis writing # Thesis ready and defence # Scientific publication, conference presentations {{CourseCat}} i2gx13rj8cb6q3mvrbudt3owwo1kltj 0 307211 2841825 2839338 2026-10-21T08:14:35Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 Attempting to solve lints 2841825 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Youth environmental activism motivation:<br>What motivates young people to engage in environmental activism?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Case Study 1: 2010 Study on Chile Environmental Activism''' Recently there have been growing concerns about mining and its risks for individuals as well as the environment. The mining of gold, has a high environmental impact. This impact has increased over time as new and riskier technologies have been developed (Mudd, 2007). One of the biggest environmental impacts of open pit mining is high water consumption and acid mine drainage (Urkidi, 2010) . Socially studies have shown that mining areas tend to have comparatively higher levels of economic inequity, AIDS, alcoholism, prostitution and child labour, accentuating poverty and social conflict (Pegg, 2006). [[File:Chilean people protesting for climate action.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Chilian's protesting against mine's in Chile]] In Chile from 2009 to 2019, Scherman and colleagues (2022) wrote about a fluctuation of environmental activism in Chili due to the above conditions. During this period they saw a drastic rise in younger generations dominating among environmental activists (Scherman et al., 2022). This correlated with social media and different ways to protest through instant messaging and sharing ideas. Scherman and colleagues (2022) found social media use was positively associated with participation in environmental issues. Because of the large scale of protesters, they were able to block mining and energy work from being continued. What other motivators do youth have for environmental activism? {{grammar}}{{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' *Why are more youth participating in activism? same question as below have another *What is motivating youth to engage in activism? *What role does nature, nurture and culture play on youth activism? *What is the relationship between education and environmental activism? *How can we motivate young people to engage in environmental activism? {{RoundBoxBottom}} What is [https://www.liberties.eu/en/stories/activism/44871 activism]? What is [https://www.liberties.eu/en/stories/activism/44871 environmental activism]? What is [[motivation]]? Who are considered [https://www.un.org/esa/socdev/documents/youth/fact-sheets/youth-definition.pdf youth?] Climate change is one of the largest threats to the planet and humankind and can no longer be ignored, therefore urgent climate action is required to transition to more sustainable societies. Combating climate change and its impact is now one of the main goals of the UN Agenda 2030 (Romano et al., 2023). One way climate action can be achieved is with environmental activism. Activism is often described as an effort by individuals or a group of people to stand up to injustice or stand for a cause whether it be social, political, or environmental (environmental activism) with an ultimate aim to achieve societal change (Sherrod, 2006). Everyday activism can be understood as changing, adapting or disrupting one’s own and others’ everyday practices in individual and/or collective ways (Walker, 2017). Environmental issues have risen to the top of young people’s priorities (Sloam et al., 2022). This may be due to young people having to in the future experience stronger consequences of climate change than older people are facing today (Wallis & Loy, 2021). This means that youth and young adults play an important role in creating a much needed major cultural shift toward sustainability and environmental justice. More and more young people are joining collective pro-environmental movements, raising their voices against the current inadequate sustainable policies and being the main actors of change. The climate strikes that took place across the world in 2018 and 2019 showed that young people are at the leading force of action on climate change (Sloam et al., 2022).Young people have expressed their concern about their futures and their voices are now at the forefront of climate activism, leading them to become official stakeholders at COP27 (Hohenhaus et al., 2023). Existing literature tells us about how young people engage in environmental politics (Wahlström et al. 2019; Pickard, Bowman, and Arya 2022), but we know relatively little about why they do (or do not) become engaged, who these young people are, or the extent to which engagement in environmental issues varies across different countries (Sloam et al., 2022). Thoughout this chapter I will try to explain some of the motivations we can see. Young people are shown to be motivated to engage in environmental activism for multiple reasons. These include rise in the threat climate change, future security, social media, culture, education, school environment, emotions, psychological reasons, self efficacy, Identity, role models, family history, culture, school environment, and exposure to mass media (Ménard 2010; Andolina et al. 2003; Hohenhaus et al., 2023). These motivations will be discussed more throughly in the following chapter. Those participating in climate activism assist in slowing climate change and encouraging others to act. '''Problem statement''': Although Climate change awareness is increasing in all people including youth, the earth is still heating rapidly. How can individuals especially youth help combat this? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Key Points *Worsening climate change *Rise of youth in protesting. *Motivators behind youth protesting {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Overview Quiz === <quiz display="simple"> Why were there protests in Chili: |type="()"} + Risks associated with mining - Climate change -Bushfires -Political corruption &lt;/quiz> <quiz> {The protests in Chili got young people involved due to social media: |type="()"} +True - False &lt;/quiz> <quiz> {What motivates young people to participate in environmental activism: |type="()"} - Social media - Education - Rise in the climate change threat + All of the above &lt;/quiz> </quiz> == History of Activism & Youth Environmental Activism == History has a long record of activism and environmental activism that we will brush over to get an idea of why people protest, how long this has being going on and when environmental and youth activism came in. === Early history of activism === The roots of activism can be traced back to the Enlightenment era during the 17th and 18th centuries (Global Society World News., 2024) when individual's started thinking for themselves and protesting for better conditions. From there the first form of environmental activism can be traced back to ancient civilizations, where practices like soil conservation were established as early as 2,000 years ago in China, India, and Peru. Then the modern environmental movement began to take shape in the late 19th century, primarily in response to pollution and industrialization, leading to significant legislative changes and public awareness (Elliot, Britannica., 2026). === Environmental activism in the 21st century === After the start of environmental activism in the 19th century in 2018 youth around the world united to demand greater action on climate change (Brugger et al., 2020). A key characteristic of the climate strike movement is that it has been founded and sustained by young people (Brugger et al., 2020).These movements have played a significant role in shaping history and pushing for social and political change (Luttrell., 2023). This is partly due to more in depth knowledge about our environment and climate change being spread rapidly through social media and television that earlier movements did not have. Climate activism has been around for much longer than 2010-2019. However, there was a clear shift in the amount of people listening these years, and the way it was portrayed in the media. Throughout these years it was clear that it climate change was happening. It wasn't a concern, it wasn't something oncoming, it was here. There was an emergence of not only regular climate protest (See Figure 1), but they began to emerge on a global scale (Scherman et al., 2022). Rather than them staying entirely within individual groups, social media forced it to be within the public conscious. Now we know how activism and environmental activism began but how did these youth become motivated for change? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Key points *Activism has been happening for thousands of years *Environmental activism is relatively new starting in the 19th century *Activism always occurs to help fight some sort of perceived injustice *Due to more visible effects of climate change *Young people have not always been interested in activism{{RoundBoxBottom}} === Quiz on history of activism === <quiz display="simple"> When was the first form of activism: |type="()"} - Started in 2018 + 2000 years ago - During the Enlightenment era &lt;/quiz> <quiz> {Youth founded the Climate strike movement: |type="()"} +True - False &lt;/quiz> </quiz> == The landscape == The current landscape that requires and encourages environmental action is one of rapid climate change, empowered youth, social change and publicized climate action. There has been growing acceptance of the climate emergency and empowered young political representatives such as United States Congresswoman Alexandra Ocasio-Cortez, whose advocacy for a green deal directly influenced the environmental turn of the Biden administration (Sloam et al., 2022). Youth strikes on climate change have grown rapidly, calling for change and increasing public awareness and concern which have achieved much in a short time such as extensive media attention, support from almost 27,000 scientists, and the foundation of numerous like-minded regional, national, and international groups such as “parents for future” and “artists for future.” (Brugger et al., 2020). The current landscape sees public figures calling for change such as Greta Thunberg and movements such as Fridays for Future (FFF). === Fridays for Future === Against this background, large demonstrations and school strikes for climate protection started all over the globe, called the Fridays For Future (FFF) movement (Wallis & Loy, 2021). The movement protested against climate change inaction and was organized by [[wikipedia:Greta_Thunberg|Greta Thunberg]]. The young activists of Fridays For Future (FFF) received attention because of their consistent protests every week in many different locations. At the strikes on 20 and 27 September 2019, more than 3 million people were reported to have participated in the strikes, which took place in more than 150 countries. This shows how serious, united and widespread the young people are doing something themselves not waiting for politicians to catch up. These young activists also received attention because of their age and their speeches, which embarrassed political and economic leaders (Kowasch et al., 2021). [[File:Thunberg.webp|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Swedish environmental activist Greta Thunberg|150x150px]] === Greta Thunberg === Greta Thunberg (Figure 2) has being instrumental in youth environmental activism due to her outspoken views and coverage. Greta is someone a lot of young activists look up to and who has encouraged climate movements throughout the world. She has told world leaders at Davos Economic Forum in 2019: “I don’t want you to be hopeful, I want you to panic.” . The young Swedish activist has initiated a students’ movement and Fridays for Future, arguing that climate emergency does not allow for further delays: political leaders should take radical social-ecological transformation measures (Kowasch et al., 2021). <quiz display="simple"> Who is Greta Thunberg: |type="()"} - The activist behind Fridays For Future -A congresswoman for Bidens administration -A Swedish activist who initiated a students movement and who stated a climate emergency does not allow for delays +Both A & C are correct &lt;/quiz> <quiz> {What did FFF protest against: |type="()"} -For climate change +Against climate change inaction &lt;/quiz> </quiz> {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Key Points *Youth groups formed to encourage activism *Spread worldwide *Role model of Greta Thunberg *Landscape that encourages and needs environmental action *Shift in activism due to social media {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Psychological Motivations behind Youth Environmental Activism == Psychological motivations refer to the motivations a person has that are not always logical but are about how they are feeling and individuals behaviours. Two psychological motivations behind youth environmental activism include the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) and emotional motivation. === Theory of Planned Behaviour === The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) is a psychological model developed by Ajzen that links individual belief to human action It states that the best predictor of human behavior is behavioral intention. The theory of planned behavior (TPB) and its extensions are the most widely used models in the study of behavioral intentions (Chai et al., 2020; Varah et al., 2021) and in recent years, TPB has emerged as one of the most popular and reliable theoretical frameworks for forecasting and comprehending behavioral patterns (Varah et al., 2021).For example, TPB can be used to explain why an individual has planned to participate in a climate strike. However, it focuses more on individual rational choices and lacks predictive power for perceptual choices such as habits and emotions that are formed over time (Russell et al., 2017; Fu et al., 2021; Yeow and Loo, 2022). Therefore its cannot always be reliable to explain spur of the moment actions. Previous research has demonstrated that TPB offers unique advantages as a rational choice model for assessing an individual's pro-environmental conduct (Ajzen, 1991; Yeow and Loo, 2022). Hence TPB can be used for explaining an individuals motivations behind youth environmental activism. === Emotional motivation === Emotions are important for motivating an individual as without emotions we would not care enough to do anything let alone activism. Research showed that emotions have the most significant effect on the willingness of individuals to engage in social good behaviours, followed by attitudes toward environmental protection and pro-natural emotion (Fu et al., 2023). Gousse-Lessard (2013) proposed that passion is a strong motivator behind radical environmental activism. This shows that individuals emotions can motivate them towards pro-environmental behaviour. For example if an individual is told that climate change affects their future adding a personal stake may make them more likely to act. Youth may also participate in climate change protests so they feel they are in control as they are not included in decision making processing regarding sustainability (Romano et al., 2023). Emotions and feelings such as frustration, powerless, but also hope and trust, offer some insights into the affective reasons to mobilize, and the role of affective bonds in motivating participation (Kowasch et al., 2021). Therefore both TPB and Emotions can help motivate and explain the motivations behind youth climate activism. <quiz display="simple"> What is the Theory of Planned Behaviour: |type="()"} - The theory that states why individuals spontaneously act + The theory that links individual belief to human action &lt;/quiz> </quiz> {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Key Points *Theory of Planned behaviour helps explain behvaiour and intention *Emotions motivating behaviour {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Influence of Social Identity, Culture and Community on Youth Activism == Social identity, culture and community all have a role in motivating youth activism. This is explained below. === Social Identity as a motivator === Social identity is shaped at young age by family views, norms and beliefs meaning familys influence young peoples environmental behaviours from a young age. This is supported by Gifford & Nilsson (2014) who state pro-environmental concern and behaviour are influenced by a complex interplay between personal, social, economic and contextual antecedents. Social identity plays a key role in driving and motivating climate movements, both online and on the street, as argued by Doolen. Participation is therefore about taking part in a social process and it shapes the identity of the protestors. Identity is “central to participation in meaningful patterns of social and political action” (p. 84). Thus, social identity can be used as a predictor of pro-environmental behaviour. Social identities are shaped and participants became familiar with climate demonstrations, and the need to feel comfortable decreased once the strikes became known as normal and inclusive. Meaning some individuals only keep participating as that is a space where they feel safe and that they belong. Research in developmental and environmental psychology demonstrates that moral values and identities motivate people’s involvement in environmental commitments, including environmental activism behavior (Jia et al. 2017). Incentives and self-satisfaction are also a motivator for youth activism, motivations related to incentives and self-improvement/self-interest (Fung and Adams, 2017). Therefore social identity can be used to motivate pro-environmental behaviour as individuals views are shaped from a young age and participating in climate activism can help individuals feel included. === Self determination and self as a motivator === Self-determination theory behaviour that is experienced as personally important and consistent with one's values (SDT, Deci & Ryan, 1985) can be applied to predicting intentions to engage in pro-environmental behaviour (e.g., De Groot & Steg, 2010). The theory posits that motivation is a multifaceted antecedent of behaviour that can be based on different levels of self-determination. People are more inclined to engage in societally desired behaviours, such as (Gronhoj & Thogersen, 2017). As shown SDT can predict pro-environmental behaviour by examining individuals determinations. Kramer et al. (2026) tested whether associations between climate-related worry, pro-environmental behaviour and affective wellbeing depend on the quality of youths motivation to engage in pro-environmental behaviour. They found that climate-related worry was associated with increased pro-environmental behaviour for youth who acted out of interest and enjoyment (Intrinsic motivation) or internal pressure (introjected motivation) (Kramer et al., 2026). Therefore climate worry influences an individuals motivation. Youth who had internalized pro-environmental behaviour as personally important (identified motivation) showed high levels of pro-environmental behaviour regardless of worry. Climate-related worry was robustly associated with reduced affective wellbeing irrespective of motivation type (Kramer et al., 2026). Young people’s activist motivations are not stand-alone phenomena; they work in tandem with other processes and factors in a dynamic way and are influenced by an individual’s history, previous experiences and passion, a sense of community, existing incentives, and self-satisfaction derived from activist behaviour (Fung & Adams, 2017). Self determination and self are important motivations and predictors as self determination can explain how an individual is determined towards climate action and self shows how intrinsic motivation can predict behaviour. Self determination will be discussed more below. === Culture === Cultural factors also play an important role in environmental activism behavior, as does surrounding oneself with like-minded people such as joining activism groups. Similarly, exposure to such groups may build upon environmental knowledge and concern (Fung & Adams, 2017). Culture shapes the values young people grow up with, the groups they identify with, and what they see as their responsibilities to other people and to the natural world. For many young people, environmental activism is less an individual lifestyle choice and more an expression of [[w:Cultural identity|cultural identity]] and obligation to family, community and future generations. This is particularly clear for [[w:Indigenous peoples|Indigenous]] young people, whose climate activism is often grounded in relationships with land, water and Country, and in long histories of resistance to dispossession (Ritchie, 2021). Sense of Community is shown to be a strong motivator for pro-environmental behaviour (Fung & Adams, 2017) this ties into culture. The following case study shows how culture, identity and collective action can combine to motivate youth climate activism. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Case study 2: Seed Mob – identity, Country and climate justice''' <!-- Figure 3: find a freely licensed Seed Mob / First Nations climate rally image on Wikimedia Commons. Do not upload images from Seed's website or social media (copyright). Then uncomment and update the line below. [[File:FILENAME.jpg|thumb|right|250px|'''Figure 3.''' First Nations young people at a climate justice rally. Collective cultural identity can turn concern into action.]] --> [[w:Seed Mob|Seed]] is Australia's first [[w:Indigenous Australians|Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander]] youth-led climate network. It was co-founded in 2014 by Amelia Telford, a Bundjalung and South Sea Islander woman, and Larissa Baldwin-Roberts, and began as part of the [[w:Australian Youth Climate Coalition|Australian Youth Climate Coalition]] (AYCC) before becoming an independent, First Nations-governed organisation in 2020 (Hocking, 2020). Seed aims to build the leadership of young Indigenous people through Caring for Country, and has been described as having around 250 young First Nations volunteers and 35,000 supporters (Hohenhaus et al., 2023). Seed's campaigns connect climate change to land, water, health and culture. Members have worked with Traditional Owners to oppose gas fracking in the Beetaloo Basin (Northern Territory) and the Narrabri gas project in the Pilliga forest on Gomeroi Country (New South Wales). Its 2018 documentary ''Water is Life'' featured community leaders from Borroloola talking about the effects of climate change and fracking on water and bush foods (The Feed, 2020). Hohenhaus et al. (2023) argue that Seed frames climate justice through land rights, self-determination and recognition of the unequal harms that fossil fuel projects place on First Nations communities. '''Why this matters for motivation:''' For Seed members, climate action is not only an environmental choice. It is an expression of who they are and of their responsibilities to Country, community and future generations. {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Seed case study demonstrates how social identity, cultural values and collective strength motivate youth environmental activism. The social identity model of collective action suggests that people are more likely to act together when they identify with another group, perceive injustice and believe they can create change (van Zomeren et al., 2008). Seed combines all three factors through shared First Nations identity, a clear injustice (fossil fuel projects on Country approved without adequate consent), and evidence of collective wins. Fritsche et al. (2018). Additionally, [[w:Self-determination theory|self-determination theory]], is more persistent than behaviour driven by external pressure (Ryan & Deci, 2000). When protecting Country is part of who a young person is, climate action becomes an expression of identity rather than a chore. This is consistent with Kramer et al.'s (2026) finding that youth with identified motivation engaged in high levels of pro-environmental behaviour regardless of their level of climate worry Seed also demonstrates [[w:Collective efficacy|collective efficacy]], the shared belief that a group can achieve its goals (Bandura, 2000). Kramer et al. (2026) found that young people felt individual action was "useless" alone and preferred collective, systemic action. Through peer leadership, training and visible campaigns, Seed gives young people evidence that acting together can make a difference, which may protect against the hopelessness linked to climate worry. Role models such as Telford, who received the NAIDOC Youth of the Year award in 2014, may further strengthen young people's belief that people like them can lead change. Western motivation theories may also not fully capture Indigenous concepts such as relational responsibility to Country, which Ritchie (2021) suggests is central to Indigenous youth climate activism. Future research should be led by, or co-designed with, First Nations young people. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Reflection:''' Think of a cultural or community group you strongly identify with. How might that identity shape the causes you care about, and whether you take action? {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Community === Community and Communities help motivate youth climate action. This is demonstrated by the theory of normative social behaviour (TNSB), showing youth had a greater intention to engage in climate change activism if they viewed it to be common and accepted among their peers, if they perceived positive benefits of activism, and if they identified as a climate activist (Gonzalez et al., 2021). Environmental activism also requires a collective environment with other people of shared ideologies about environmental protection (Lee et al. 2014). Individuals are often more empowered to protest when they are with others “together to achieve a common goal” and which may include diverse actions such as signing a petition, street protests, or striking (Brugger et al., 2020). Community motivates environmental actions by the rising trend of young groups being formed with the intent on educating peers and elders on the social and elders on the social and political implications of climate change (Goldman et al., 2014; Feldmann, 2020). Participants of environmental activism can be motivated by helping others in their collective and their relationships (Akiva et al., 2017). In conclusion having a community encourages climate activism as youth are motivated by collective because of benefits for motivation ("alone it feels useless"), affective well-being ("doing something together gives me hope") and sustainability ("cheaper public transport would make my choices matter") (Kramer et al., 2026) * {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Key Points *Culture, community and social identity impacting young peoples beliefs *How people were raised impacting their activism *Different cultures valuing volunteering and activism more *Cultural identity and connection to Country can motivate climate action (e.g., Seed) *Group identification, perceived injustice and collective efficacy predict collective action {{RoundBoxBottom}} * ;<quiz display="simple"> Climate related worry reduces pro-environmental behaviour: |type="()"} - True +False &lt;/quiz> <quiz> {According to the theory of normative social behaviour, what can increase young people's intention to participate in climate activism: |type="()"} -Avoiding contact with like minded people -Believing all peers oppose climate activism -Believing collective action cannot create change +Believing activism is common and accepted by peers &lt;/quiz> </quiz> == The Role of Education, Social media and Political engagement == Education, social media and political engagement are so important for youth motivation as these factors are where most youth receive their information and knowledge. === Education === Education is shown to motivate youth into pro-environmental behaviour. This is supported by suggestions that learning rather than maturation is responsible for the higher environmental commitment seen in older generations (Otto & Kaiser, 2014). This confirms the importance of formal sustainability education, but it also suggests a need for increasing young people's exposure to credible information about the state of the natural environment through more informal sources including social media used by the youth (Larsson, Andersson, & Osbeck, 2010). School environments are also supported as important spaces where interest in civic engagement develops (Flanagan and Levine 2010). The undergraduate college experience can be an ideal time and space for individuals to cultivate and foster pro-environmental behavior. Many argue that university students may end up becoming leaders and policy makers of the future, and therefore should be an important focus of activities aimed at sustainable environmental development (Vicente-Molina et al. 2013). Furthermore evidence suggests previous experiences and education are related to awareness (Fung & Adams, 2017). Once a youth are aware of growing environmental threats they have been shown to significantly increase the tendency to engage in environmental activism (Lubell 2002). Risk perceptions may be higher among younger people for at least two reasons. First, young people are more likely to have learnt about climate change through formal education and to be aware of its negative effects. Second, contemporary young people may see climate change as more relevant because they are more at risk to personally experience serious impacts of climate change in the future; indeed, Fisher argues that young people become active on climate change because they recognize their obligations as current and future citizens to address the issue (Brugger et al., 2020). Therefore as youth learn about climate change they become more motivated to protest and are less likely to sit by idly. === Social media === Social media influences youths environmental action as this is where youth receive their news, information and share movement links. There has been a clear rise in global awareness due to the broad scope of [[wikipedia:Social_media|social media]]. (Scherman et al., 2022). This is due to information being quickly passed around in comparison to previous generation and youth able to see the effects at a rapid pace, rather than articles and TV programs. Young people are also constantly aware of how climate change with effect their futures. Social media plays a crucial role in the sharing of campaigns, movements and platforms as individuals can share information at the click of a button. The current youth have a clear understanding of environmental issues, and have a clear level of self efficacy towards them (Goldman, D. et al). They believe that the engaging with social media, having the conversations and living sustainable lives will make a difference. Therefore social media has a huge role on motivating youth into participating in activism they see videos of protests, injustices and can share this information rapidly. === Politics === Politics are important for motivating youth environmental activism. Environmental movements involving young people of all ages have reshaped the political landscape (della Porta and Diani 2020), bringing the subject to the fore in the media and impacting upon Government policy, such as through commitments to ambitious targets for the reduction of carbon emissions and the creation of citizens’ assemblies on climate and environmental justice. We are seeing a more politically active generation (Scherman et al., 2022). With youth awareness on how policies affect environment (Sloam et al., 2022). Youth engagement with environmental politics in these countries is underpinned by value change the increasing prevalence of post materialist and ‘left-cosmopolitan’ attitudes amongst younger generations, reflected in a prioritisations of environmental, social justice and redistributive policies, with a vision for more connected, humane and equitable societies. In doing so, the authors draw attention to divisions based on gender and educational attainment between those young people who share these values (and who engage with environmental politics) and those who do not (Sloam et al., 2022). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Key Points *Education motivating action *Social media sharing information in seconds *Youth more involved in politics now {{RoundBoxBottom}}<quiz display="simple"> What can happen when young people become aware of environmental threats? |type="()"} - They are less likely to participate + They may become more likely to engage in activism -They stop being concerned about the future -They avoid environmental information &lt;/quiz> <quiz> {What is one major way social media supports youth climate activism? |type="()"} - It limits the spread of campaigns - It prevents young people sharing information - It replaces all formal education + It allows campaigns and information to spread rapidly &lt;/quiz> <quiz> {Which factors may influence whether young people engage with environmental politics? |type="()"} + Gender and educational attainment - Favourite social media platform only - Age alone - Access to television only &lt;/quiz> </quiz> == Barriers to Youth Activism and Encouraging Lasting Engagement == There is also a ‘cultural backlash’, driven by older generations, against cosmopolitan values (from opposition to cultural diversity, to the denial of human-made climate change) (Norris and Inglehart 2019). These views make it difficult for youth to get involved and make people second guess themselves. The policing of peaceful youth-led environmental protests is also a growing issue (Sloam et al., 2022). The policing provides a real danger to protesters as youth may feel fear, anxiety and aggression towards police over persecution. Pro-environmental collective actions are also often judged negatively by public opinion, diminishing their effectiveness and potentially impacting youth participation (Romano et al., 2023). This means that youth may not participate due to judgement. ==Conclusion== In conclusion, as climate change has worsened and its effects have become more prominent and well known so have the youth of the world with their climate strikes and activism. These movements are motivated by many reasons including social media, collective action, education, self identity, culture and the effects of climate change being more known. In fighting for environmental action it is important to motivate young people by spreading the message of climate change. There are however limits to youth activism and disadvantages for youth to get involved including cultural backlash from other generations, policing of peaceful protests and being judged negative by the public. ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Climate_movement|Climate Movement]] * [[Climate change|Climate Change]] * [[w:Seed Mob|Seed Mob]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Social identity theory|Social identity theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Akiva, T., Carey, R. L., Cross, A. B., Delale-O'Connor, L., & Brown, M. R. (2017). Reasons youth engage in activism programs: Social justice or sanctuary? Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 53, 20-30. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2017.08.005 Bandura, A. (2000). Exercise of human agency through collective efficacy. ''Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9''(3), 75–78. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00064 Brügger, A., Gubler, M., Steentjes, K., & Capstick, S. B. (2020). Social identity and risk perception explain participation in the Swiss youth climate strikes. Sustainability, 12(24), 10605. Elliott, L. (2026, May 11). environmentalism. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/environmentalism Feldman, H. R.. (2020). A rhetorical perspective on youth environmental activism. ''Journal of Science Communication'', ''19''(06), C07. https://doi.org/10.22323/2.19060307 Fritsche, I., Barth, M., Jugert, P., Masson, T., & Reese, G. (2018). A social identity model of pro-environmental action (SIMPEA). ''Psychological Review, 125''(2), 245–269. https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000090 Fung, C. Y., & Adams, E. A. (2017). What motivates student environmental activists on college campuses? An in-depth qualitative study. Social Sciences, 6(4), 134. Goldman, D., Pe’er, S., & Yavetz, B. (2015). Environmental literacy of youth movement members – is environmentalism a component of their social activism? ''Environmental Education Research'', ''23''(4), 486–514. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2015.1108390 Gousse-Lessard, A.-S., Vallerand, R. J., Carbonneau, N., & Lafrenière, M.-A. K. (2013). The role of passion in mainstream and radical behaviors: A look at environmental activism. ''Journal of Environmental Psychology'', ''35'', 18–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2013.03.003 Gonzalez, A. M., Reynolds-Tylus, T., & Skurka, C. (2022). Young adults’ willingness to engage in climate change activism: an application of the theory of normative social behavior. Environmental Communication, 16(3), 388-407. Grønhøj, A., & Thøgersen, J. (2017). Why young people do things for the environment: The role of parenting for adolescents’ motivation to engage in pro-environmental behaviour. Journal of environmental psychology, 54, 11-19. Hocking, R. (2020, December 1). 'First Nations are rising': Seed Mob goes independent. ''NITV''. https://www.sbs.com.au/nitv Hohenhaus, M., Boddy, J., Rutherford, S., Roiko, A., & Hennessey, N. (2023). Engaging young people in climate change action: A scoping review of sustainability programs. Sustainability, 15(5), 4259. Hohenhaus, M., Rutherford, S., Boddy, J., & Borkoles, E. (2023). Climate warriors down under: Contextualising Australia's youth climate justice movement. ''npj Climate Action, 2'', Article 45. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44168-023-00085-y Kowasch, M., Cruz, J. P., Reis, P., Gericke, N., & Kicker, K. (2021). Climate youth activism initiatives: Motivations and aims, and the potential to integrate climate activism into ESD and transformative learning. Sustainability, 13(21), 11581. Kramer, A. W., Wetering, J. V. D., Groep, S. V. D., Brinke, L. W. T., Toenders, Y. J., Green, K. H., & Crone, E. A. (2026). Youth Perspectives on the Climate Crisis: Motivation and Action Pathways. Developmental Science, 29(4), e70217. Luttrell, R. (2023). Historical Roots and Modern Movements: A Framework for Activism. In Strategic Social Media as Activism (pp. 5-39). Routledge. News, G. S. W. (2024). The origins of the activism movement: A historical and global perspective. https://www.globalsociety.earth/post/the-origins-of-the-activism-movement-a-historical-and-global-perspective Pickard, S. (2022). Young environmental activists and Do-It-Ourselves (DIO) politics: Collective engagement, generational agency, efficacy, belonging and hope. Journal of Youth Studies, 25(6), 730-750. Ritchie, J. (2021). Movement from the margins to global recognition: Climate change activism by young people and in particular Indigenous youth. ''International Studies in Sociology of Education, 30''(1–2), 53–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/09620214.2020.1854830 Romano, L., Russo, C., Gladwin, T. E., & Panno, A. (2024). Adolescents and young adults’ participation in pro-environmental movements: A systematic review. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 185(5), 373-398. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. ''American Psychologist, 55''(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 Scherman, A., Valenzuela, S., & Rivera, S.. (2022). Youth environmental activism in the age of social media: the case of Chile (2009-2019). ''Journal of Youth Studies'', ''25''(6), 751–770. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2021.2010691 Sloam, J., Pickard, S., & Henn, M.. (2022). ‘Young People and Environmental Activism: The Transformation of Democratic Politics’. ''Journal of Youth Studies'', ''25''(6), 683–691. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2022.2056678 The Feed. (2020, November 11). The young Indigenous woman fighting fracking in remote NT. ''SBS''. https://www.sbs.com.au/news/the-feed/the-young-indigenous-woman-fighting-fracking-in-remote-nt Urkidi, L. (2010). A glocal environmental movement against gold mining: Pascua–Lama in Chile. Ecological Economics, 70(2), 219-227. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2010.05.004 van Zomeren, M., Postmes, T., & Spears, R. (2008). Toward an integrative social identity model of collective action: A quantitative research synthesis of three socio-psychological perspectives. ''Psychological Bulletin, 134''(4), 504–535. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.4.504 Wallis, H., & Loy, L. S. (2021). What drives pro-environmental activism of young people? A survey study on the Fridays For Future movement. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 74, 101581. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2021.101581 Wallis, H., & Loy, L. S. (2021). What drives pro-environmental activism of young people? A survey study on the Fridays For Future movement. Journal of environmental psychology, 74, 101581. }} ==External links== * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) * [https://www.seedmob.org.au/ Seed Indigenous Youth Climate Network] (Seed Mob) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Activism]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Environment]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Youth]] 1fgb4oiqnqr4t1lee5cww59qgni66mk 2841826 2841825 2026-10-21T08:17:48Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 Attempting to solve lints 2841826 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Youth environmental activism motivation:<br>What motivates young people to engage in environmental activism?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Case Study 1: 2010 Study on Chile Environmental Activism''' Recently there have been growing concerns about mining and its risks for individuals as well as the environment. The mining of gold, has a high environmental impact. This impact has increased over time as new and riskier technologies have been developed (Mudd, 2007). One of the biggest environmental impacts of open pit mining is high water consumption and acid mine drainage (Urkidi, 2010) . Socially studies have shown that mining areas tend to have comparatively higher levels of economic inequity, AIDS, alcoholism, prostitution and child labour, accentuating poverty and social conflict (Pegg, 2006). [[File:Chilean people protesting for climate action.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Chilian's protesting against mine's in Chile]] In Chile from 2009 to 2019, Scherman and colleagues (2022) wrote about a fluctuation of environmental activism in Chili due to the above conditions. During this period they saw a drastic rise in younger generations dominating among environmental activists (Scherman et al., 2022). This correlated with social media and different ways to protest through instant messaging and sharing ideas. Scherman and colleagues (2022) found social media use was positively associated with participation in environmental issues. Because of the large scale of protesters, they were able to block mining and energy work from being continued. What other motivators do youth have for environmental activism? {{grammar}}{{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' *Why are more youth participating in activism? same question as below have another *What is motivating youth to engage in activism? *What role does nature, nurture and culture play on youth activism? *What is the relationship between education and environmental activism? *How can we motivate young people to engage in environmental activism? {{RoundBoxBottom}} What is [https://www.liberties.eu/en/stories/activism/44871 activism]? What is [https://www.liberties.eu/en/stories/activism/44871 environmental activism]? What is [[motivation]]? Who are considered [https://www.un.org/esa/socdev/documents/youth/fact-sheets/youth-definition.pdf youth?] Climate change is one of the largest threats to the planet and humankind and can no longer be ignored, therefore urgent climate action is required to transition to more sustainable societies. Combating climate change and its impact is now one of the main goals of the UN Agenda 2030 (Romano et al., 2023). One way climate action can be achieved is with environmental activism. Activism is often described as an effort by individuals or a group of people to stand up to injustice or stand for a cause whether it be social, political, or environmental (environmental activism) with an ultimate aim to achieve societal change (Sherrod, 2006). Everyday activism can be understood as changing, adapting or disrupting one’s own and others’ everyday practices in individual and/or collective ways (Walker, 2017). Environmental issues have risen to the top of young people’s priorities (Sloam et al., 2022). This may be due to young people having to in the future experience stronger consequences of climate change than older people are facing today (Wallis & Loy, 2021). This means that youth and young adults play an important role in creating a much needed major cultural shift toward sustainability and environmental justice. More and more young people are joining collective pro-environmental movements, raising their voices against the current inadequate sustainable policies and being the main actors of change. The climate strikes that took place across the world in 2018 and 2019 showed that young people are at the leading force of action on climate change (Sloam et al., 2022).Young people have expressed their concern about their futures and their voices are now at the forefront of climate activism, leading them to become official stakeholders at COP27 (Hohenhaus et al., 2023). Existing literature tells us about how young people engage in environmental politics (Wahlström et al. 2019; Pickard, Bowman, and Arya 2022), but we know relatively little about why they do (or do not) become engaged, who these young people are, or the extent to which engagement in environmental issues varies across different countries (Sloam et al., 2022). Thoughout this chapter I will try to explain some of the motivations we can see. Young people are shown to be motivated to engage in environmental activism for multiple reasons. These include rise in the threat climate change, future security, social media, culture, education, school environment, emotions, psychological reasons, self efficacy, Identity, role models, family history, culture, school environment, and exposure to mass media (Ménard 2010; Andolina et al. 2003; Hohenhaus et al., 2023). These motivations will be discussed more throughly in the following chapter. Those participating in climate activism assist in slowing climate change and encouraging others to act. '''Problem statement''': Although Climate change awareness is increasing in all people including youth, the earth is still heating rapidly. How can individuals especially youth help combat this? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Key Points''' *Worsening climate change *Rise of youth in protesting. *Motivators behind youth protesting {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Overview Quiz === <quiz display="simple"> Why were there protests in Chili: |type="()"} + Risks associated with mining - Climate change -Bushfires -Political corruption &lt;/quiz> <quiz> {The protests in Chili got young people involved due to social media: |type="()"} +True - False &lt;/quiz> <quiz> {What motivates young people to participate in environmental activism: |type="()"} - Social media - Education - Rise in the climate change threat + All of the above &lt;/quiz> </quiz> == History of Activism & Youth Environmental Activism == History has a long record of activism and environmental activism that we will brush over to get an idea of why people protest, how long this has being going on and when environmental and youth activism came in. === Early history of activism === The roots of activism can be traced back to the Enlightenment era during the 17th and 18th centuries (Global Society World News., 2024) when individual's started thinking for themselves and protesting for better conditions. From there the first form of environmental activism can be traced back to ancient civilizations, where practices like soil conservation were established as early as 2,000 years ago in China, India, and Peru. Then the modern environmental movement began to take shape in the late 19th century, primarily in response to pollution and industrialization, leading to significant legislative changes and public awareness (Elliot, Britannica., 2026). === Environmental activism in the 21st century === After the start of environmental activism in the 19th century in 2018 youth around the world united to demand greater action on climate change (Brugger et al., 2020). A key characteristic of the climate strike movement is that it has been founded and sustained by young people (Brugger et al., 2020).These movements have played a significant role in shaping history and pushing for social and political change (Luttrell., 2023). This is partly due to more in depth knowledge about our environment and climate change being spread rapidly through social media and television that earlier movements did not have. Climate activism has been around for much longer than 2010-2019. However, there was a clear shift in the amount of people listening these years, and the way it was portrayed in the media. Throughout these years it was clear that it climate change was happening. It wasn't a concern, it wasn't something oncoming, it was here. There was an emergence of not only regular climate protest (See Figure 1), but they began to emerge on a global scale (Scherman et al., 2022). Rather than them staying entirely within individual groups, social media forced it to be within the public conscious. Now we know how activism and environmental activism began but how did these youth become motivated for change? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Key points''' *Activism has been happening for thousands of years *Environmental activism is relatively new starting in the 19th century *Activism always occurs to help fight some sort of perceived injustice *Due to more visible effects of climate change *Young people have not always been interested in activism{{RoundBoxBottom}} === Quiz on history of activism === <quiz display="simple"> When was the first form of activism: |type="()"} - Started in 2018 + 2000 years ago - During the Enlightenment era &lt;/quiz> <quiz> {Youth founded the Climate strike movement: |type="()"} +True - False &lt;/quiz> </quiz> == The landscape == The current landscape that requires and encourages environmental action is one of rapid climate change, empowered youth, social change and publicized climate action. There has been growing acceptance of the climate emergency and empowered young political representatives such as United States Congresswoman Alexandra Ocasio-Cortez, whose advocacy for a green deal directly influenced the environmental turn of the Biden administration (Sloam et al., 2022). Youth strikes on climate change have grown rapidly, calling for change and increasing public awareness and concern which have achieved much in a short time such as extensive media attention, support from almost 27,000 scientists, and the foundation of numerous like-minded regional, national, and international groups such as “parents for future” and “artists for future.” (Brugger et al., 2020). The current landscape sees public figures calling for change such as Greta Thunberg and movements such as Fridays for Future (FFF). === Fridays for Future === Against this background, large demonstrations and school strikes for climate protection started all over the globe, called the Fridays For Future (FFF) movement (Wallis & Loy, 2021). The movement protested against climate change inaction and was organized by [[wikipedia:Greta_Thunberg|Greta Thunberg]]. The young activists of Fridays For Future (FFF) received attention because of their consistent protests every week in many different locations. At the strikes on 20 and 27 September 2019, more than 3 million people were reported to have participated in the strikes, which took place in more than 150 countries. This shows how serious, united and widespread the young people are doing something themselves not waiting for politicians to catch up. These young activists also received attention because of their age and their speeches, which embarrassed political and economic leaders (Kowasch et al., 2021). [[File:Thunberg.webp|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Swedish environmental activist Greta Thunberg|150x150px]] === Greta Thunberg === Greta Thunberg (Figure 2) has being instrumental in youth environmental activism due to her outspoken views and coverage. Greta is someone a lot of young activists look up to and who has encouraged climate movements throughout the world. She has told world leaders at Davos Economic Forum in 2019: “I don’t want you to be hopeful, I want you to panic.” . The young Swedish activist has initiated a students’ movement and Fridays for Future, arguing that climate emergency does not allow for further delays: political leaders should take radical social-ecological transformation measures (Kowasch et al., 2021). <quiz display="simple"> Who is Greta Thunberg: |type="()"} - The activist behind Fridays For Future -A congresswoman for Bidens administration -A Swedish activist who initiated a students movement and who stated a climate emergency does not allow for delays +Both A & C are correct &lt;/quiz> <quiz> {What did FFF protest against: |type="()"} -For climate change +Against climate change inaction &lt;/quiz> </quiz> {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Key Points''' *Youth groups formed to encourage activism *Spread worldwide *Role model of Greta Thunberg *Landscape that encourages and needs environmental action *Shift in activism due to social media {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Psychological Motivations behind Youth Environmental Activism == Psychological motivations refer to the motivations a person has that are not always logical but are about how they are feeling and individuals behaviours. Two psychological motivations behind youth environmental activism include the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) and emotional motivation. === Theory of Planned Behaviour === The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) is a psychological model developed by Ajzen that links individual belief to human action It states that the best predictor of human behavior is behavioral intention. The theory of planned behavior (TPB) and its extensions are the most widely used models in the study of behavioral intentions (Chai et al., 2020; Varah et al., 2021) and in recent years, TPB has emerged as one of the most popular and reliable theoretical frameworks for forecasting and comprehending behavioral patterns (Varah et al., 2021).For example, TPB can be used to explain why an individual has planned to participate in a climate strike. However, it focuses more on individual rational choices and lacks predictive power for perceptual choices such as habits and emotions that are formed over time (Russell et al., 2017; Fu et al., 2021; Yeow and Loo, 2022). Therefore its cannot always be reliable to explain spur of the moment actions. Previous research has demonstrated that TPB offers unique advantages as a rational choice model for assessing an individual's pro-environmental conduct (Ajzen, 1991; Yeow and Loo, 2022). Hence TPB can be used for explaining an individuals motivations behind youth environmental activism. === Emotional motivation === Emotions are important for motivating an individual as without emotions we would not care enough to do anything let alone activism. Research showed that emotions have the most significant effect on the willingness of individuals to engage in social good behaviours, followed by attitudes toward environmental protection and pro-natural emotion (Fu et al., 2023). Gousse-Lessard (2013) proposed that passion is a strong motivator behind radical environmental activism. This shows that individuals emotions can motivate them towards pro-environmental behaviour. For example if an individual is told that climate change affects their future adding a personal stake may make them more likely to act. Youth may also participate in climate change protests so they feel they are in control as they are not included in decision making processing regarding sustainability (Romano et al., 2023). Emotions and feelings such as frustration, powerless, but also hope and trust, offer some insights into the affective reasons to mobilize, and the role of affective bonds in motivating participation (Kowasch et al., 2021). Therefore both TPB and Emotions can help motivate and explain the motivations behind youth climate activism. <quiz display="simple"> What is the Theory of Planned Behaviour: |type="()"} - The theory that states why individuals spontaneously act + The theory that links individual belief to human action &lt;/quiz> </quiz> {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Key Points''' *Theory of Planned behaviour helps explain behvaiour and intention *Emotions motivating behaviour {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Influence of Social Identity, Culture and Community on Youth Activism == Social identity, culture and community all have a role in motivating youth activism. This is explained below. === Social Identity as a motivator === Social identity is shaped at young age by family views, norms and beliefs meaning familys influence young peoples environmental behaviours from a young age. This is supported by Gifford & Nilsson (2014) who state pro-environmental concern and behaviour are influenced by a complex interplay between personal, social, economic and contextual antecedents. Social identity plays a key role in driving and motivating climate movements, both online and on the street, as argued by Doolen. Participation is therefore about taking part in a social process and it shapes the identity of the protestors. Identity is “central to participation in meaningful patterns of social and political action” (p. 84). Thus, social identity can be used as a predictor of pro-environmental behaviour. Social identities are shaped and participants became familiar with climate demonstrations, and the need to feel comfortable decreased once the strikes became known as normal and inclusive. Meaning some individuals only keep participating as that is a space where they feel safe and that they belong. Research in developmental and environmental psychology demonstrates that moral values and identities motivate people’s involvement in environmental commitments, including environmental activism behavior (Jia et al. 2017). Incentives and self-satisfaction are also a motivator for youth activism, motivations related to incentives and self-improvement/self-interest (Fung and Adams, 2017). Therefore social identity can be used to motivate pro-environmental behaviour as individuals views are shaped from a young age and participating in climate activism can help individuals feel included. === Self determination and self as a motivator === Self-determination theory behaviour that is experienced as personally important and consistent with one's values (SDT, Deci & Ryan, 1985) can be applied to predicting intentions to engage in pro-environmental behaviour (e.g., De Groot & Steg, 2010). The theory posits that motivation is a multifaceted antecedent of behaviour that can be based on different levels of self-determination. People are more inclined to engage in societally desired behaviours, such as (Gronhoj & Thogersen, 2017). As shown SDT can predict pro-environmental behaviour by examining individuals determinations. Kramer et al. (2026) tested whether associations between climate-related worry, pro-environmental behaviour and affective wellbeing depend on the quality of youths motivation to engage in pro-environmental behaviour. They found that climate-related worry was associated with increased pro-environmental behaviour for youth who acted out of interest and enjoyment (Intrinsic motivation) or internal pressure (introjected motivation) (Kramer et al., 2026). Therefore climate worry influences an individuals motivation. Youth who had internalized pro-environmental behaviour as personally important (identified motivation) showed high levels of pro-environmental behaviour regardless of worry. Climate-related worry was robustly associated with reduced affective wellbeing irrespective of motivation type (Kramer et al., 2026). Young people’s activist motivations are not stand-alone phenomena; they work in tandem with other processes and factors in a dynamic way and are influenced by an individual’s history, previous experiences and passion, a sense of community, existing incentives, and self-satisfaction derived from activist behaviour (Fung & Adams, 2017). Self determination and self are important motivations and predictors as self determination can explain how an individual is determined towards climate action and self shows how intrinsic motivation can predict behaviour. Self determination will be discussed more below. === Culture === Cultural factors also play an important role in environmental activism behavior, as does surrounding oneself with like-minded people such as joining activism groups. Similarly, exposure to such groups may build upon environmental knowledge and concern (Fung & Adams, 2017). Culture shapes the values young people grow up with, the groups they identify with, and what they see as their responsibilities to other people and to the natural world. For many young people, environmental activism is less an individual lifestyle choice and more an expression of [[w:Cultural identity|cultural identity]] and obligation to family, community and future generations. This is particularly clear for [[w:Indigenous peoples|Indigenous]] young people, whose climate activism is often grounded in relationships with land, water and Country, and in long histories of resistance to dispossession (Ritchie, 2021). Sense of Community is shown to be a strong motivator for pro-environmental behaviour (Fung & Adams, 2017) this ties into culture. The following case study shows how culture, identity and collective action can combine to motivate youth climate activism. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Case study 2: Seed Mob – identity, Country and climate justice''' <!-- Figure 3: find a freely licensed Seed Mob / First Nations climate rally image on Wikimedia Commons. Do not upload images from Seed's website or social media (copyright). Then uncomment and update the line below. [[File:FILENAME.jpg|thumb|right|250px|'''Figure 3.''' First Nations young people at a climate justice rally. Collective cultural identity can turn concern into action.]] --> [[w:Seed Mob|Seed]] is Australia's first [[w:Indigenous Australians|Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander]] youth-led climate network. It was co-founded in 2014 by Amelia Telford, a Bundjalung and South Sea Islander woman, and Larissa Baldwin-Roberts, and began as part of the [[w:Australian Youth Climate Coalition|Australian Youth Climate Coalition]] (AYCC) before becoming an independent, First Nations-governed organisation in 2020 (Hocking, 2020). Seed aims to build the leadership of young Indigenous people through Caring for Country, and has been described as having around 250 young First Nations volunteers and 35,000 supporters (Hohenhaus et al., 2023). Seed's campaigns connect climate change to land, water, health and culture. Members have worked with Traditional Owners to oppose gas fracking in the Beetaloo Basin (Northern Territory) and the Narrabri gas project in the Pilliga forest on Gomeroi Country (New South Wales). Its 2018 documentary ''Water is Life'' featured community leaders from Borroloola talking about the effects of climate change and fracking on water and bush foods (The Feed, 2020). Hohenhaus et al. (2023) argue that Seed frames climate justice through land rights, self-determination and recognition of the unequal harms that fossil fuel projects place on First Nations communities. '''Why this matters for motivation:''' For Seed members, climate action is not only an environmental choice. It is an expression of who they are and of their responsibilities to Country, community and future generations. {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Seed case study demonstrates how social identity, cultural values and collective strength motivate youth environmental activism. The social identity model of collective action suggests that people are more likely to act together when they identify with another group, perceive injustice and believe they can create change (van Zomeren et al., 2008). Seed combines all three factors through shared First Nations identity, a clear injustice (fossil fuel projects on Country approved without adequate consent), and evidence of collective wins. Fritsche et al. (2018). Additionally, [[w:Self-determination theory|self-determination theory]], is more persistent than behaviour driven by external pressure (Ryan & Deci, 2000). When protecting Country is part of who a young person is, climate action becomes an expression of identity rather than a chore. This is consistent with Kramer et al.'s (2026) finding that youth with identified motivation engaged in high levels of pro-environmental behaviour regardless of their level of climate worry Seed also demonstrates [[w:Collective efficacy|collective efficacy]], the shared belief that a group can achieve its goals (Bandura, 2000). Kramer et al. (2026) found that young people felt individual action was "useless" alone and preferred collective, systemic action. Through peer leadership, training and visible campaigns, Seed gives young people evidence that acting together can make a difference, which may protect against the hopelessness linked to climate worry. Role models such as Telford, who received the NAIDOC Youth of the Year award in 2014, may further strengthen young people's belief that people like them can lead change. Western motivation theories may also not fully capture Indigenous concepts such as relational responsibility to Country, which Ritchie (2021) suggests is central to Indigenous youth climate activism. Future research should be led by, or co-designed with, First Nations young people. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Reflection:''' Think of a cultural or community group you strongly identify with. How might that identity shape the causes you care about, and whether you take action? {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Community === Community and Communities help motivate youth climate action. This is demonstrated by the theory of normative social behaviour (TNSB), showing youth had a greater intention to engage in climate change activism if they viewed it to be common and accepted among their peers, if they perceived positive benefits of activism, and if they identified as a climate activist (Gonzalez et al., 2021). Environmental activism also requires a collective environment with other people of shared ideologies about environmental protection (Lee et al. 2014). Individuals are often more empowered to protest when they are with others “together to achieve a common goal” and which may include diverse actions such as signing a petition, street protests, or striking (Brugger et al., 2020). Community motivates environmental actions by the rising trend of young groups being formed with the intent on educating peers and elders on the social and elders on the social and political implications of climate change (Goldman et al., 2014; Feldmann, 2020). Participants of environmental activism can be motivated by helping others in their collective and their relationships (Akiva et al., 2017). In conclusion having a community encourages climate activism as youth are motivated by collective because of benefits for motivation ("alone it feels useless"), affective well-being ("doing something together gives me hope") and sustainability ("cheaper public transport would make my choices matter") (Kramer et al., 2026) * {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Key Points''' *Culture, community and social identity impacting young peoples beliefs *How people were raised impacting their activism *Different cultures valuing volunteering and activism more *Cultural identity and connection to Country can motivate climate action (e.g., Seed) *Group identification, perceived injustice and collective efficacy predict collective action {{RoundBoxBottom}} * ;<quiz display="simple"> Climate related worry reduces pro-environmental behaviour: |type="()"} - True +False &lt;/quiz> <quiz> {According to the theory of normative social behaviour, what can increase young people's intention to participate in climate activism: |type="()"} -Avoiding contact with like minded people -Believing all peers oppose climate activism -Believing collective action cannot create change +Believing activism is common and accepted by peers &lt;/quiz> </quiz> == The Role of Education, Social media and Political engagement == Education, social media and political engagement are so important for youth motivation as these factors are where most youth receive their information and knowledge. === Education === Education is shown to motivate youth into pro-environmental behaviour. This is supported by suggestions that learning rather than maturation is responsible for the higher environmental commitment seen in older generations (Otto & Kaiser, 2014). This confirms the importance of formal sustainability education, but it also suggests a need for increasing young people's exposure to credible information about the state of the natural environment through more informal sources including social media used by the youth (Larsson, Andersson, & Osbeck, 2010). School environments are also supported as important spaces where interest in civic engagement develops (Flanagan and Levine 2010). The undergraduate college experience can be an ideal time and space for individuals to cultivate and foster pro-environmental behavior. Many argue that university students may end up becoming leaders and policy makers of the future, and therefore should be an important focus of activities aimed at sustainable environmental development (Vicente-Molina et al. 2013). Furthermore evidence suggests previous experiences and education are related to awareness (Fung & Adams, 2017). Once a youth are aware of growing environmental threats they have been shown to significantly increase the tendency to engage in environmental activism (Lubell 2002). Risk perceptions may be higher among younger people for at least two reasons. First, young people are more likely to have learnt about climate change through formal education and to be aware of its negative effects. Second, contemporary young people may see climate change as more relevant because they are more at risk to personally experience serious impacts of climate change in the future; indeed, Fisher argues that young people become active on climate change because they recognize their obligations as current and future citizens to address the issue (Brugger et al., 2020). Therefore as youth learn about climate change they become more motivated to protest and are less likely to sit by idly. === Social media === Social media influences youths environmental action as this is where youth receive their news, information and share movement links. There has been a clear rise in global awareness due to the broad scope of [[wikipedia:Social_media|social media]]. (Scherman et al., 2022). This is due to information being quickly passed around in comparison to previous generation and youth able to see the effects at a rapid pace, rather than articles and TV programs. Young people are also constantly aware of how climate change with effect their futures. Social media plays a crucial role in the sharing of campaigns, movements and platforms as individuals can share information at the click of a button. The current youth have a clear understanding of environmental issues, and have a clear level of self efficacy towards them (Goldman, D. et al). They believe that the engaging with social media, having the conversations and living sustainable lives will make a difference. Therefore social media has a huge role on motivating youth into participating in activism they see videos of protests, injustices and can share this information rapidly. === Politics === Politics are important for motivating youth environmental activism. Environmental movements involving young people of all ages have reshaped the political landscape (della Porta and Diani 2020), bringing the subject to the fore in the media and impacting upon Government policy, such as through commitments to ambitious targets for the reduction of carbon emissions and the creation of citizens’ assemblies on climate and environmental justice. We are seeing a more politically active generation (Scherman et al., 2022). With youth awareness on how policies affect environment (Sloam et al., 2022). Youth engagement with environmental politics in these countries is underpinned by value change the increasing prevalence of post materialist and ‘left-cosmopolitan’ attitudes amongst younger generations, reflected in a prioritisations of environmental, social justice and redistributive policies, with a vision for more connected, humane and equitable societies. In doing so, the authors draw attention to divisions based on gender and educational attainment between those young people who share these values (and who engage with environmental politics) and those who do not (Sloam et al., 2022). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Key Points''' *Education motivating action *Social media sharing information in seconds *Youth more involved in politics now {{RoundBoxBottom}}<quiz display="simple"> What can happen when young people become aware of environmental threats? |type="()"} - They are less likely to participate + They may become more likely to engage in activism -They stop being concerned about the future -They avoid environmental information &lt;/quiz> <quiz> {What is one major way social media supports youth climate activism? |type="()"} - It limits the spread of campaigns - It prevents young people sharing information - It replaces all formal education + It allows campaigns and information to spread rapidly &lt;/quiz> <quiz> {Which factors may influence whether young people engage with environmental politics? |type="()"} + Gender and educational attainment - Favourite social media platform only - Age alone - Access to television only &lt;/quiz> </quiz> == Barriers to Youth Activism and Encouraging Lasting Engagement == There is also a ‘cultural backlash’, driven by older generations, against cosmopolitan values (from opposition to cultural diversity, to the denial of human-made climate change) (Norris and Inglehart 2019). These views make it difficult for youth to get involved and make people second guess themselves. The policing of peaceful youth-led environmental protests is also a growing issue (Sloam et al., 2022). The policing provides a real danger to protesters as youth may feel fear, anxiety and aggression towards police over persecution. Pro-environmental collective actions are also often judged negatively by public opinion, diminishing their effectiveness and potentially impacting youth participation (Romano et al., 2023). This means that youth may not participate due to judgement. ==Conclusion== In conclusion, as climate change has worsened and its effects have become more prominent and well known so have the youth of the world with their climate strikes and activism. These movements are motivated by many reasons including social media, collective action, education, self identity, culture and the effects of climate change being more known. In fighting for environmental action it is important to motivate young people by spreading the message of climate change. There are however limits to youth activism and disadvantages for youth to get involved including cultural backlash from other generations, policing of peaceful protests and being judged negative by the public. ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Climate_movement|Climate Movement]] * [[Climate change|Climate Change]] * [[w:Seed Mob|Seed Mob]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Social identity theory|Social identity theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Akiva, T., Carey, R. L., Cross, A. B., Delale-O'Connor, L., & Brown, M. R. (2017). Reasons youth engage in activism programs: Social justice or sanctuary? Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 53, 20-30. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2017.08.005 Bandura, A. (2000). Exercise of human agency through collective efficacy. 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Developmental Science, 29(4), e70217. Luttrell, R. (2023). Historical Roots and Modern Movements: A Framework for Activism. In Strategic Social Media as Activism (pp. 5-39). Routledge. News, G. S. W. (2024). The origins of the activism movement: A historical and global perspective. https://www.globalsociety.earth/post/the-origins-of-the-activism-movement-a-historical-and-global-perspective Pickard, S. (2022). Young environmental activists and Do-It-Ourselves (DIO) politics: Collective engagement, generational agency, efficacy, belonging and hope. Journal of Youth Studies, 25(6), 730-750. Ritchie, J. (2021). Movement from the margins to global recognition: Climate change activism by young people and in particular Indigenous youth. ''International Studies in Sociology of Education, 30''(1–2), 53–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/09620214.2020.1854830 Romano, L., Russo, C., Gladwin, T. E., & Panno, A. (2024). Adolescents and young adults’ participation in pro-environmental movements: A systematic review. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 185(5), 373-398. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. ''American Psychologist, 55''(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 Scherman, A., Valenzuela, S., & Rivera, S.. (2022). Youth environmental activism in the age of social media: the case of Chile (2009-2019). ''Journal of Youth Studies'', ''25''(6), 751–770. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2021.2010691 Sloam, J., Pickard, S., & Henn, M.. (2022). ‘Young People and Environmental Activism: The Transformation of Democratic Politics’. ''Journal of Youth Studies'', ''25''(6), 683–691. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2022.2056678 The Feed. (2020, November 11). The young Indigenous woman fighting fracking in remote NT. ''SBS''. https://www.sbs.com.au/news/the-feed/the-young-indigenous-woman-fighting-fracking-in-remote-nt Urkidi, L. (2010). A glocal environmental movement against gold mining: Pascua–Lama in Chile. Ecological Economics, 70(2), 219-227. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2010.05.004 van Zomeren, M., Postmes, T., & Spears, R. (2008). Toward an integrative social identity model of collective action: A quantitative research synthesis of three socio-psychological perspectives. ''Psychological Bulletin, 134''(4), 504–535. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.4.504 Wallis, H., & Loy, L. S. (2021). What drives pro-environmental activism of young people? A survey study on the Fridays For Future movement. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 74, 101581. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2021.101581 Wallis, H., & Loy, L. S. (2021). What drives pro-environmental activism of young people? A survey study on the Fridays For Future movement. Journal of environmental psychology, 74, 101581. }} ==External links== * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) * [https://www.seedmob.org.au/ Seed Indigenous Youth Climate Network] (Seed Mob) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Activism]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Environment]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Youth]] sku87z51mvpxd10tmger3g6yy758w0a 0 307416 2841756 2648342 2026-10-20T20:49:27Z ~2026-56227-34 3113016 2841756 wikitext text/x-wiki If you have ever made homemade ice cream the old-fashioned way using a hand-crank machine, you probably know how to make the cream mixture cold enough to freeze. Similarly, if you live in a cold climate, you have seen the trucks that sugar and sand the streets after a snowfall to prevent ice from building up on the roads. In both of these instances, salt is acting to lower the freezing point of water, and changing what phase of matter the water is in right now. For the ice cream maker, because the rock salt lowers the freezing point of the ice, the temperature of the ice/rock salt mixture can go below the normal freezing point of water. This makes it possible to freeze the ice cream mixture in the inner container of the ice cream machine. For the salt spread on streets in wintertime, the lowered freezing point means that snow and ice can melt even when the weather is below the normal freezing point of water. Both the ice cream maker and road salt are examples of freezing point depression. Table salt (technically sodium chloride, or NaCl) when mixed with water is an example of a chemical solution. In a solution, there is a solvent (the water in this example), and a solute (the salt in this example). A molecule of the solute dissolves (goes into solution) because the force of attraction between the solute molecule and the solvent molecules is greater than the force of attraction between the molecules of the solute. Water (H2O) is a good solvent because it is partially ''polarized''. (This polarization is caused by the distribution of ''electrons'' in the water molecule; specifically, its hydrogen ends have a partial ''positive charge'', and the oxygen end has a partial ''negative charge''.) Because water molecules are partially polarized, it is possible for them to arrange themselves around ''ions'' (which are molecules or ''atoms'' that have a charge), like the sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl-) ions that make up table salt. This is why there is a greater attraction between the water molecules and the molecules of salt than there is between the molecules of salt by themselves, and why the water can dissolve the salt to create a salty solution. Other substances when mixed with water can also lower its freezing point. The amount by which the freezing point is lowered depends only on the number of molecules dissolved, not on their chemical nature. This is an example of a colligative property. In this science project, you will investigate different substances to see how they affect the rate at which ice cubes melt. You will test substances that dissolve in water (i.e., soluble substances), like salt and sugar, as well as a substance that does not dissolve in water (i.e., an insoluble substance), specifically sand. Which substances will speed up the melting of the ice? === Terms and Concepts === * Freezing point * Phases of matter * Freezing point depression * Solution * Solute * Solvent * Molecules * Colligative properties == Materials and Equipment == * Identical bowls or saucers (4) * Ice cubes (4). They should all be the same size and shape. * Salt (6/7 tsp.) * Sugar (6/7 tsp.) * Sand (6/7 tsp.) * 1/7 teaspoon measuring spoon * Timer or clock * Refrigerator. You will want an empty shelf that can hold all four bowls, unstacked, at the same time. * 50 mL graduated cylinder, or smaller size. * Large cup with a spout, such as some measuring cups. Alternatively you could use a funnel that fits in the graduated cylinder. * Optional: Masking tape and a permanent marker for labeling the bowls * Lab notebook. === '''Experimental Procedure''' === # Get the salt, sugar, sand, and measuring teaspoon ready to use nearby. # Into each of the four bowls, quickly place three ice cubes. Arrange the ice cubes so that only the corners are touching, forming a triangular shape # Carefully sprinkle ½ teaspoon (tsp.) of salt over the ice cubes in one bowl, as shown in Figure 3, below. Then sprinkle ½ tsp. of sugar over the ice cubes in another bowl, and ½ tsp. of sand over the ice cubes in the third bowl. Do not sprinkle anything over the ice cubes in the fourth bowl — it will be your ''control'' # Move each bowl to an empty shelf in the refrigerator. If any of the ice cubes no longer form a triangular shape in their bowl, gently nudge the ice cubes to make a triangle again # Note the starting time in your lab notebook. Tell other people who may use the refrigerator that you are doing a science project and to not leave the refrigerator door open long as this could change the temperature of the refrigerator. # Check on the ice cubes every hour. When the ice cubes in one of the bowls have become ''at least'' half melted, take out all four bowls from the refrigerator and move on to step 7. (Be sure to take the bowls out before the ice cubes in two or more bowls have completely melted.) # Carefully pour the liquid water from one of the bowls into a cup with a spout, such as a large measuring cup. Make sure the ice cubes stay in the bowl, but get as much liquid into the cup as possible. Then carefully pour the liquid from the cup into the graduated cylinder. Record how much liquid was in the bowl (the amount of ice melted) in the data table in your lab notebook. After recording your results, clean out and dry the cup and graduated cylinder. # Repeat step 7 with the three other bowls # Now let the ice cubes completely melt in their bowls (you can leave them at room temperature). Once all of the ice cubes are melted, repeat steps 7–8 (but this time you will not need to worry about keeping the ice cubes in the bowls). Record the amount of liquid remaining in each bowl in your data table. # Calculate the total amount of water (originally in ice cube form) that was in each bowl. To do this, add the "amount melted" to the "amount remaining" for each bowl. Record the total amount for each bowl in your data table. # Calculate the percentage of ice that was melted (when you first took the bowls out of the refrigerator) for each bowl. Do this by dividing the amount melted by the total amount. # Clean out and dry the bowls. Then repeat steps 1–11 at least two more times so that you have done at least three trials total. # Did any of the substances you tested consistently speed up the melting of the ice (compared to the melting rate of plain ice cubes with nothing added)? If so, can you explain your results? # Now you are ready to create your science fair display board! If you need help making your display board, a downloadable display board template for this project is available for purchase below. The template provides step-by-step guidance for creating all the usual sections of a display board: title, abstract, background information, question, hypothesis, variables, results, conclusions, and acknowledgements. o27hes5zhflnuz7tr7jfonmbug7ftho 0 322580 2841827 2839403 2026-10-21T08:19:57Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 2841827 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Wisdom, motivation, and emotion:<br>How do motivational and emotional processes contribute to wisdom?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Student with a diploma.jpg|thumb|225x225px|'''Figure 1'''. Student with high intelligence.]] ;Scenario Now picture a university undergraduate ready for a big test while having to deal with weekly tests, work and relationships and their expectations of the future. The student has high intelligence and is a hard-working individual who is very motivated. However, under increased pressure, making decisions on priority becomes difficult. If the student is still working even though he or she feels tired, allow him or her to rest, seek assistance or rethink purpose(s) for working? It is important that this demonstrates a human problem of knowledge and motivation leading to wise behavior. Individuals must realize the uncertainty that exists, consider the alternative point of view, understand their emotional response, and evaluate the consequences before making the right decision.{{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} ;What makes a decision wise? A wise decision is not necessarily the easiest, most successful or most emotionally comfortable decision. Psychological wisdom approaches focus on being reflective of one's own viewpoint, the ability to embrace uncertainty, the ability to see multiple perspectives and the ability to balance the competing personal and social interests. {{RoundBoxBottom}} In recent times, wisdom is described by psychological studies as a situational and multifaceted mental process rather than a characteristic of the old and more knowledgeable individuals. Correlations between wisdom and age, intelligence, personality, well-being among others hinge on how wisdom is defined and measured (Dong et al., 2023). Wisdom becomes necessary particularly in situations where there is no obvious ideal solution to a problem. Motivation can be defined as the influence that dictates the aims that individuals want to achieve. Emotions affect the way situations are perceived and how they are acted upon. Reflective thinking facilitates the assessment of the appropriate intentions and emotions in different situations. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Focus questions:''' * What psychological processes characterize wise thinking and behavior? * How does one's motivation impact the formation and manifestation of wisdom? * How does emotion regulation help or hinder wise decision making? * How can motivational and emotional processes be used to cultivate more sage responses to life's day to day demands? {{RoundBoxBottom}} There are some important traditions that are part of the psychological study of wisdom. According to the Berlin wisdom paradigm, wisdom is an expert knowledge system concerning the basic pragmatics of life, which involves contextual knowledge, value relativism and uncertainty management (Baltes & Staudinger, 2000). In contrast, Sternberg's (1998) balance theory focuses on a balance of personal, interpersonal and general knowledge interests. Ardelt (2003) defined wisdom as cognitive, reflective and affective. Though there are differences in focus, they all stress that wisdom goes beyond an accumulation of factual information. == 1. Understanding wisdom == One of the common attributes of wisdom is experience, maturity and knowledge. But psychology studies indicate that none of these qualities is enough to give rise to wise actions. Learning can take place through experience but so too can inaccurate assumptions about learning. Knowledge may help to understand a problem, but once a person knows more information, does not mean that they apply it in a suitable way. The same goes for age; it can be a time of growth but it does not necessarily make one wise. Modern methods rather focus on good sense. Wise reasoning is knowing what is not known, hearing other points of view, dealing in the unknown and weighing in multiple interests. Some studies have shown that there are variations in how wisdom is manifested in typical contexts, which raises the question of whether wisdom is always manifested in the same way (Grossmann et al., 2016). This situational perspective is important because it changes the question from “Is this person wise?” to “What psychological processes allow this person to respond wisely in this situation?” This is consistent with evidence that practical wisdom varies across social and environmental contexts rather than existing only as a fixed personal characteristic (Grossmann et al., 2020). ==== The interactive model of wise behaviour ==== A particularly useful framework is the integrative model proposed by Glück and Weststrate (2022), which synthesises cognitive and non-cognitive components of wise behaviour. The model brings together knowledge, metacognition and self-reflection with exploratory orientation, concern for others and emotion regulation. Cognitive components include knowledge, metacognitive capacities and self-reflection. Non-cognitive components include an exploratory orientation, concern for others and emotion regulation. The importance of this model is that it does not treat wisdom as purely intellectual. A person may possess extensive knowledge and still fail to behave wisely if emotional reactions, narrow goals or concern for personal interests prevent consideration of alternative perspectives. This directly connects wisdom with motivation and emotion. ==== Critical perspective ==== Wisdom research nevertheless faces an important measurement problem. Different researchers have used different definitions and measures of wisdom, making findings difficult to compare directly. Dong et al. (2023) identified considerable variation in relationships between wisdom and proposed correlates across different conceptualisations and measurement approaches. More recent research has also questioned whether wisdom-related characteristics should always be treated as one stable underlying trait. Smith et al. (2025), using a year-long multiwave study and dynamic network analysis, reported findings that support a more context-sensitive account in which wisdom-related features are interrelated but distinct and vary across situations. Therefore, wisdom is better understood as a set of psychological processes that can be expressed to different degrees depending on the person and situation. Glück (2024) likewise notes that aging and the acquisition of experience are not enough by themselves to foster wisdom. The figure below shows the hypothesized relation between the two. Direction is given by motivation via goals and values; information and energy are supplied by emotions; while reflection and perspective-taking facilitate integration. [[File:Final_figure_1.jpg|center|thumb|650x650px|Figure 1. An integrated model of how motivation and emotion contribute to wise behaviour.]] As shown in Figure 1, wise behavior is not produced by motivation or emotion alone. Instead, contextual influences shape these processes, while reflection and perspective-taking help individuals evaluate competing goals, emotional responses and consequences before acting. == 2. How are motivation and wisdom related? == Motivation is the psychological mechanisms that determines the direction, initiation and persistence of behavior. Therefore, it is at the heart of wisdom, as wisdom cannot be of any benefit, unless the person is inspired to seek it. A person might be aware that there should be another perspective to be considered, but decides not to consider it because it would run the risk of interfering with an important goal. Another person may see that a choice will have long-term effects yet go for the short-term gains. ==== Self-motivation theory ==== There is a framework for exploring these differences and that is the theory of self-determination theory (SDT). According to SDT, there are fundamental psychological needs that people have in respect to autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Autonomy is felt as meaningful self-endorsement, competence is the sense of being able to meet challenges effectively, and relatedness is the sense of meaningful relationships with others (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Need satisfaction is also focused on in contemporary SDT, as is need frustration (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). In other words, motivation could influence how people react in trying situations, therefore, how good the motivation is determining how well the task is performed. Two students have the same goal of getting top grades in their examination. Student 1 studies because of the value of it to his/her future life goals. While student 2 will most probably study in order to avoid being criticised if he/she fails. Demonstration of good effort can occur in both students. Their behaviour is due to different psychological processes, however when the external pressure is gone, autonomous motivation can be more effective in re-evaluating goals as situations change because the individual can identify meaningful values with personal significance as opposed to external pressure. Setting up controlled motivation can make it more difficult to rethink a goal because it can be perceived as a failure, rejection or loss of status to reconsider. ==== Motivation and growth of wisdom ==== Arvanitis (2024) specifically adopts SDT towards wisdom and proposes a motivation process to account for the expression and development of wisdom. The method links self-determined motivation and some components of wisdom as moral aspirations and perspectival metacognition. Note that models of wisdom sometimes explain the behaviour of wise thinking without necessarily providing an explanation of why people engage in this kind of thinking. But SDT doesn't offer a comprehensive theory of wisdom. One can make an autonomous choice of a goal which is narrow, poorly informed and/or harmful to others. Likewise, it is possible that good intrinsic motivation leads to persistence but not necessarily to good judgment. Motivation therefore provides direction and energy, but wisdom requires additional processes for evaluating whether the direction is appropriate. Being highly motivated is not the same as being wisely motivated. A wise motivational process therefore involves asking: * What is the goal? * Why does it matter? * Who benefits from achieving it? * Who might be affected? * What assumptions support the goal? * Could circumstances change the appropriateness of the goal? * Is immediate success being prioritised over important long-term consequences? ==== Research and critical interpretation ==== Research on wisdom supports this cautious interpretation. Dong et al. (2023) reported that there were several psychological characteristics that were associated with wisdom, but the nature and strength of the relationship between these psychological characteristics and wisdom varied according to the way in which wisdom was measured. Motivation should not then be seen as a direct cause of wisdom—it can foster conditions which promote or hinder wisdom. Curiosity, learning, values and concerns for others could give a person more reason to look at alternative points of view. On the other hand, fear-based motivation or status/security concerns can focus one's attention on a specific goal. The complementary view by Stichter (2024) is that of the importance of wisdom in combination with metacognitive and self-regulatory processes in setting and revising goals. It means that wisdom can help in not only in the way of achieving goals, but also in the determination of whether to pursue the goal or not. == 3. How does emotion help to make wisdom? == Although in many cases, emotions are thought of as a hindrance to logic among people, this does not happen in the field of psychology. Emotions affect attention, perception, memory, decision-making and social interactions. They can destroy judgment, but may be helpful as well! Anxiety can represent an uncertainty or a perceived threat, for instance. Anger can mean that it feels unfair. Disappointment can be a sign that an expectation that is important has not been met. So, the presence of an emotion, does not necessarily mean bad judgment. It is the interpretation and response of the emotion that poses the question. === What is the research evidence? === Kim et al. (2024) have carried out a review and meta-analysis of 37 studies. Their findings indicate that beliefs about emotions being malleable led to more use of certain helpful regulation methods (cognitive reappraisal) and less use of certain unhelpful regulation methods (avoidance). The results indicate that the emotional controllability beliefs might influence how people react to their emotional experiences. There is some tentative evidence of effectiveness for interventions. Lee et al. (2020) systematically reviewed and meta analysed 57 RCTs with 7,096 participants. Pooled effects for interventions for emotional regulation and prosocial behaviour were found in the review, but there was a high level of heterogeneity among the studies and publication-bias issues. In this light, the evidence is just as consistent with emotion regulation as being relevant to wisdom as it is with emotion regulation as being a cause of it. ===Under what circumstances can emotion and motivation be helpful to and/or hindering of wisdom?=== Motivation and emotion don't work alone! For example, suppose a student receives a bad score in an examination. The result provokes a response which triggers an emotion. As students are working to maintain the image of a high achieving student, their motivation to maintain the image further increases. Their interaction can result in some very different things. * Potentially constructive pathway * Disappointment * Recognition of the emotional response * Reflection on what went wrong * Motivation to improve learning * Consideration of alternative strategies * Adaptive action * Potentially unhelpful pathway * Disappointment * Fear of failure * Threat to identity * Rigid focus on avoiding failure * Reduced perspective-taking * Poorly considered decision The same event can therefore produce different outcomes depending on motivation, interpretation and regulation; emotions are not simply irrational. ===Perspective-taking=== Perspective taking refers to the way they think about a situation from another individual's perspective. But studies warn that using perspective-taking isn't always beneficial. Sassenrath et al. (2022) found that the links between perspective-taking and prosocial behavior are not as straightforward as they are commonly thought of. Moderating effects by relational context, methodological limitations can enhance the apparent relationship. It is possible to try to understand someone else's point of view without making the wrong guesses about what they think or feel. Epistemic humility is thus an important virtue for a wise perspective-taking, namely: Perspective-taking, then, demands epistemic humility, that is: “This is how I currently understand the situation, but my interpretation may be incomplete.” ==5. Integrating wisdom, motivation and emotion== The evidence supports an integrated model. Figure 1. Integrated psychological model of motivational and emotional contributions to wise behaviour. Note. This conceptual model synthesises psychological approaches to wisdom, motivation and emotion, drawing particularly on contemporary integrative models of wise behaviour. * Goals can influence emotional reactions. * Emotions can influence motivation. * Motivation can influence whether people seek alternative perspectives. * Reflection can change how emotions are interpreted. ===Critical synthesis=== Self-report measures may also overestimate reflection or regulation because reported tendencies do not always match behaviour. Laboratory measures may also simplify complex everyday decisions. Emotion-regulation strategies are also context-dependent; no strategy is universally adaptive. Smith et al. (2025) provide particularly relevant evidence for this contextual interpretation. In a year-long, multiwave study of North American adults, their dynamic network analysis challenged assumptions that wisdom-related features form a single stable latent trait. Instead, the findings supported a more dynamic and context-sensitive account. Therefore, the strongest conclusion is not that one psychological process causes wisdom. Rather, wisdom appears more likely when motivational, emotional, cognitive and social processes work together appropriately within a particular situation. ==6. Applying the psychological science: Emma's case.== {{robelbox|theme=11|title=Case study: The burned-out high achiever |iconwidth=55px|icon=Think Outside the Box Flat Icon GIF Animation.gif}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> Emma is 24-year-old university student with a high-grade point average. Her parents and teachers have commended her achievements. Her first selection of degree was because she was interested in the subject and wanted to make a good living. As the years go on, however, Emma grows more worried about let-downing her parents and finding herself growing jealous of the other successful students. She is becoming more and more pressurized during exams, and is having trouble switching off from studying. She doesn't feel good about taking breaks and even when she does well will think about what she could have done better. Following a poor exam performance, Emma starts to wonder about dropping out of University. A mentor helps her think about what she cares about and what sort of life she wants to live in addition to studying. </div> {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Motivational perspective=== Emma is highly motivated, but her motivation has become increasingly influenced by external expectations and fear of failure. From an SDT perspective, she could benefit from distinguishing between goals that she personally endorses and goals that are primarily maintained because of external or internal pressure. ===Emotional perspective=== Emma's anxiety and guilt are important information. They may indicate that her current approach to achievement has become difficult to sustain. But to regard these emotions as evidence that she should leave university straight away would not be sensible either. A more effective method is to recognize the emotion and interpret its meaning before taking stock of the whole situation. ===Wisdom perspective=== Emma can ask: * Is one disappointing result evidence that she is incapable? * What assumptions are influencing her interpretation? * What would she advise a friend in the same situation? * What does she value beyond academic performance? * What are the long-term consequences of continuing her current approach? * What alternatives exist between “work harder” and “drop out”? These questions help to foster perspectival metacognition and the chance that a big decision will not be made on a first impulse. ===Outcome=== Emma may go on as she is, adjust her approach, reach out for help, set boundaries and even rethink her path. Wisdom is not a single right answer, it enhances the journey one goes on to get to the answer. ==Getting smarter in everyday living== While not guaranteed to make wise choices, psychological science can provide guidelines on how to process that can lead to reflection. ===Clarify the goal=== Before making a decision, determine the purpose for the decision. Ask: What is the goal of my project or product? ===Examine the motivation=== Discuss if it is a personally meaningful objective or just because of fear, pressure, comparison or desire to please others. External expectations are not necessarily harmful; the important issue is whether the person has reflected on and appropriately internalised the goal. ===Identify the emotional response=== Name the emotion before acting on it. Instead of “I am angry, so I need to respond immediately”, consider “I am angry. What produced this response, and what information might it contain?” ===Create psychological distance=== When an issue is highly personal, stepping back mentally can support more reflective reasoning. One useful question is: What would I advise someone else facing exactly this situation? ===Consider alternative perspectives=== Ask what another reasonable person might notice. This should be approached with humility rather than assuming that another person's thoughts are already known. ===Consider consequences=== Compare immediate consequences, longer-term consequences, consequences for oneself, and consequences for other people. ===Accept uncertainty=== A wise decision does not require perfect certainty. Sometimes the wisest response is: “There is not enough information to know exactly what will happen.” ===Reflect afterwards=== Once a big decision has been made, consider what went well, what assumptions were correct and what have they learned. The eight steps above bring together the motivational, emotional and reflective processes discussed in this chapter. Figure 2 summarizes this process as an integrated approach to applying wisdom to everyday decision-making. [[File:Everyday_decision_making.jpg|thumb|Figure 2. A practical process for applying wisdom to everyday decision-making. |center|750x750px]] This process is cyclical and not linear. Reflecting on the result of a decision can lead to new information which is used for setting future goals and motivations. {{robelbox|theme=9|title=Test your knowledge|iconwidth=55px|icon=Search-icon-white-background.png}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> ==Check your understanding== ====Question 1==== Which of the following is the best definition for the relationship between motivation and wisdom? A. Good impulse invariably issues forth from a good behaviour. B. There is no need for motivation for wisdom. C. Motivation affects the goals and values that drive behaviour but by itself is not a guarantee for wise judgment. D. Wise people should be low on motivation. '''Correct answer: C.''' ====Question 2==== Which of these is the best example of the connection between emotions and wisdom? A. People with wisdom have to suppress their emotions. B. What happens is that emotions always come in the way of rational judgement. C. Emotions can be helpful, but can also be harmful if the emotions are not managed appropriately. D. Wisdom to tamp down those emotions. '''Correct answer: C.''' </div> {{Robelbox/close}} ===Reflection activity=== Consider a challenge you had to make regarding study, work, relationships or another important goal. * What was the initial aim? * What was the point of the goal? * What was the predominant feeling? * Was the emotion helpful? * What other point of view might have been taken? * What would have been the impact of these events over time? * If the decision were made one month or year from now, would it be the same? These questions ask for thinking about. ==Conclusion== Wisdom is more than knowledge, intelligence, age or experience. In the modern psychological literature, the concept of wisdom is more and more being defined as a multifaceted, context-dependent pattern of reflection, perspective taking, intellectual modesty, caring and responding to uncertainty. Motivation is a factor that facilitates wisdom, because it affects one's goals and motivating factors behind one's goals. Particularly useful properties of SCT are that it identifies the various types of motivation and focuses on autonomy, competence and relatedness. However, being motivated is not sufficient to be wise as there are motivated people who have poor goals. Just like the word "wisdom," the word "emotion" is not an enemy and is not a promise of wisdom. Emotions can be useful signals of what's important and they can also distract attention and can elicit quick reactions. Emotion regulation can provide more opportunity for reflection, but research suggests that none of the emotion regulation strategies is true for everyone. Thus, the inter-contact of motivational, emotional, cognitive and social process leads to wisdom. This integration is very useful in practice as shown by Emma's situation. Wisdom does not mean that one must give up on ambition and negative emotions. Rather, it is about the ability to employ goals and feelings as information and to have reflective judgement. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Key take-home message''' Wise behaviour is not simply knowing the right answer. It is the ability to reflect on goals, understand emotionally significant experiences, recognise the limits of one's perspective and choose a response that is appropriate to the complexity of the situation {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/basics/wisdom Wisdom] * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/basics/motivation Motivation] * [https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/emo Emotion] * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/basics/emotion-regulation Emotion regulation] * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ Self-Determination Theory] * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/the-moment-youth/202010/what-is-metacognition-how-does-it-help-us-think Metacognition] * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/social-empathy/202112/how-perspective-taking-helps-us-understand-others-and-ourselves Perspective-taking] * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/intersections/202409/critical-thinking-what-it-is-and-why-it-matters Critical thinking] * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/click-here-for-happiness/201901/what-is-well-being-definition-types-and-well-being-skills Well-being] == External links == {{expand}} * [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ PubMed] — Database for locating peer-reviewed biomedical and psychological research. * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ Self-Determination Theory] — Academic resources on autonomy, competence and relatedness. * [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/submission-campaign?utm_source=gose&utm_medium=cpc&utm_campaign=joma_jp-jort_jort_txon_lead_fpsyg_conv_acsa_suco_rtg_fios_en_reg13_09-26&utm_content=Tier3&gad_source=1 Frontiers in Psychology] — Peer-reviewed research on emotion regulation and related psychological processes ==Generative AI acknowledgement== Generative AI was used as a drafting and editing aid during the development of this chapter. The author is responsible for verifying the accuracy of claims and references, the final interpretation of the research, and compliance with the unit's academic-integrity requirements == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Ardelt, M. (2003). Empirical assessment of a three-dimensional wisdom scale. Research on Aging, 25(3), 275–324. https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027503025003004 Arvanitis, A. (2024). Expressing and developing wisdom: A Self-Determination Theory approach. Motivation Science, 10(2), 89–99. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000325 Baltes, P. B., & Staudinger, U. M. (2000). Wisdom: A metaheuristic (pragmatic) to orchestrate mind and virtue toward excellence. American Psychologist, 55(1), 122–136. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.122 Dong, M., Weststrate, N. M., & Fournier, M. A. (2023). Thirty years of psychological wisdom research: What we know about the correlates of an ancient concept. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 18(4), 778–811. https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916221114096 Glück, J. (2024). Wisdom and aging. Current Opinion in Psychology, 55, 101742. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2023.101742 Glück, J., & Weststrate, N. M. (2022). The wisdom researchers and the elephant: An integrative model of wise behaviour. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 26(4), 342–374. https://doi.org/10.1177/10888683221094650 Grossmann, I., Dorfman, A., & Oakes, H. (2020). Wisdom is a social-ecological rather than person-centric phenomenon. Current Opinion in Psychology, 32, 66–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2019.07.010 Grossmann, I., Gerlach, T. M., & Denissen, J. J. A. (2016). Wise reasoning in the face of everyday life challenges. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 7(7), 611–622. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550616652206 Kim, Y., Kim, S., & Yoon, S. (2024). Emotion malleability beliefs matter in emotion regulation: A comprehensive review and meta-analysis. Cognition and Emotion, 38(6), 841–856. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2024.2334833 Lee, E. E., Bangen, K. J., Avanzino, J. A., Hou, B.-C., Ramsey, M., Eglit, G., Liu, J., Tu, X. M., Paulus, M., & Jeste, D. V. (2020). Outcomes of randomised clinical trials of interventions to enhance social, emotional, and spiritual components of wisdom: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry, 77(9), 925–935. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.0821 Martínez-Priego, C., Poveda García-Noblejas, B., & Roca, P. (2024). Strategies and goals in emotion regulation models: A systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1425465. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1425465 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 Sassenrath, C., Vorauer, J. D., & Hodges, S. D. (2022). The link between perspective-taking and prosociality—Not as universal as you might think. Current Opinion in Psychology, 44, 94–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.08.036 Smith, J. A., Dorfman, A., Wegenschimmel, N., & Grossmann, I. (2025). Wisdom reconsidered: A dynamic network account of metacognition and complex thought. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 154(11), 3114–3128. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0001821 Sternberg, R. J. (1998). A balance theory of wisdom. Review of General Psychology, 2(4), 347–365. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.4.347 Stichter, M. (2024). Flourishing goals, metacognitive skills, and the virtue of wisdom. Topoi, 43(3), 963–981. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11245-024-10013-2 Vansteenkiste, M., Ryan, R. M., & Soenens, B. (2020). Basic psychological need theory: Advancements, critical themes, and future directions. Motivation and Emotion, 44, 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-019-09818-1 }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Wisdom]] 8wpip7wj9rtby8z6gsi3npppn50jnrd 0 322586 2841834 2841393 2026-10-21T08:30:24Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 2841834 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Power motivation in leadership:<br>How does power motivation influence leadership styles and effectiveness?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Donald Trump takes the oath of office (2025).jpg|thumb|President-elect Donald Trump takes the oath of office |'''Figure 1'''. Donald Trump's 2025 Inauguration surrounded by some of the world's wealthiest and most powerful individuals]] Imagine a leader standing at their inauguration, surrounded by a concentration of wealthy and influential individuals. At first glance, this may reflect a preference for resources and influence. However, a closer look raises a psychological question: what motivates a leader to seek and exercise power, and how does this shape the way they lead? This scenario reflects the leadership of United States President Donald Trump, whose 2025 administration included a notable concentration of wealthy and influential individuals (Roeloffs, 2025). This concentration of political and economic power can be illustrated in Figure 1. This scenario can play as a contemporary example for examining the relationship between power motivation and leadership.{{ic|[[w:Donald Trump|Second inauguration of Donald Trump]]}}Power is reflected not only in who a leader surrounds themselves with, but also in how they exercise their influence. For example, Trump uses social media as a political megaphone, bypassing traditional bureaucratic communication channels (Gambino, 2021). His public leadership style places considerable emphasis on personal image and the need of personal control with the disregard of external influences of power (Adubato, 2019; Mobaseri & Nosrat Kharazmi, Zohreh, 2025). This raises the question: does the desire for power necessarily make someone an effective leader? Individuals seek leadership for various reasons, and how they use their influence shapes their interactions with followers, decision-making, and pursuit of goals. Psychology helps explain these differences by examining power motivation and how individual motives influence leadership behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} This chapter will explore [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10355387/ power motivation] (Friederichs et al., 2023), the desire to [[wikipedia:Influence|influence]], [[wikipedia:Control|control]], and have the ability to impact others, affecting [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Leadership motivation|leadership]] styles, behaviour and effectiveness (McClelland, 1970). How power is expressed i.e., socialised or personalised power, determines a leader's behaviour and their effectiveness, (Reeve, 2018; McClelland, 1970; Carvalho & Conde, 2024). Understanding power motivation provides the groundwork that can explain why leaders exercise authority in certain ways and the how followers respond. Psychological science provides a means to clarify why some power-motivated leaders use influence to control, while others use it to empower (Reeve, 2018). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:P psychology.png|right]] '''Focus questions:''' *What psychological theories explain power motivation in leaders? *How does a leader's orientation towards power influence their specific leadership style? *What is implicit motivation, and how does it differ from explicit power motivation in leaders? *How does power motivation influence leadership effectiveness? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Understanding power motivation through psychological theories== '''Focus question:''' ''What psychological theories explain power motivation in leaders?'' The definition of motivation and power, one describes the push to act while the other if often associated with [[wikipedia:Aggression|aggression]], influence, [[wikipedia:Authority|authority]] and control, together they hold a heavy meaning. In psychology, [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Introduction|motivation]] is the driving force that guides human behaviour; it is the use of will-power and self-discipline, channelling efforts to achieve a [[wikipedia:Goal|goal]]. Certain individuals have predominant motive of power, being motivated by the internal urge to dominate, influence, or control (Kurt, 2021). Power motivation is the broad construct that refers to the desire for leadership, authority or status, it is built up of three characteristics: strong action, emotional impact, and concern for status, frame, and reputation. All characteristics are heavily influenced by cultural values and socialised experiences (McClelland,1970). Power seekers can be effective, well-adjusted, and highly motivated. Power is a source of human control; only the mentally healthy can wield it successfully. Those with the need of power, [[wikipedia:Need_for_power|nPower]], struggle to feel satisfied unless they are in a position that fulfils their power-hungry needs, such as making decisions, influencing an audience, or obtaining information to become influential. Such occupations are teachers, journalists, clergy, psychologists, diplomats, business executives, political leaders and advisors (Reeve, 2018). [[wikipedia:David_McClelland|David McClelland's]] is popular within the psychology community for his thoughts on power motivation, with the most well-known theories, the [[wikipedia:Need_theory|Three Need Theory]] and the [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24356663.pdf Two Faces of Power] theory. Other theories of motivation include the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierachy of need,]] and [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Two-factor motivation theory|Herzberg's two-factor theory]]. These theories offer broader perspectives on the factors that drive human behaviour and motivation. === Three need theory === [[File:DavidMcClelland.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' David McClelland]]McClelland, a Harvard psychologist who conducted extensive research into human motivation (seen in Figure 2.), proposed the three need Theory. The theory identifies three acquired motivational needs: the need for [[wikipedia:Need_for_achievement|achievement]], the need for [[wikipedia:Need_for_affiliation|affiliation]], and the need for power (McClelland, 1970). Although individuals can experiences all three needs, the strength of each varies between individuals and can influence their behaviour. Table 1 summarises these needs and their defining characteristics being examined from high to low behaviour (Kurt, 2021). nPower in leadership involves the desire to influence others and have an impact on their behaviour. A strong need for achievement may motivate individuals to pursue challenging goals, a strong need for affliction may encourage them to maintain positive interpersonal relationships, and a strong need for power can motivate individuals to seek positions of authority. However the nPower alone does not determine whether someone will be an effective leader; its expression and the way an individual exercises their influence matters. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1: Three need theory !Need !Definition !High behaviour !Low behaviour |- |Need for Achievement |Situations that challenge individuals with explicit standards. |Individual exhibits a need to win and receive recognition. |Constant fear of failure, typically avoids responsibilities. |- |Need for Affiliation |Situations that afford warm relationship opportunities. |A desire within for control, typically exaggerates own position. |A heavily dependent individual, tries to minimise own position and importance. |- |Need for Power |Situations that enable others to exert influence over others. |Individual demands and expects loyalty and harmony. |Individual remains 'aloof' and keeps social distance from influence over others. |} ==== Two faces of power ==== McClelland's Two Faces of Power framework distinguishes between two ways the nPower can be expressed, personalised power or socialised power, also referred to as ''pP''ower, and ''s''Power (McClelland, 1970). ''pP''ower centres on personal control, it is seen as an socially unacceptable way of expression, closely linked dominance and status. Those influenced by ''p''Power may tend to seek to strengthen their own position and influence (McClelland, 1970). While McClelland was doing his research of these mannerisms of power, he though that if those who obtained ''pP''ower were in the environment of international relations the consequences would be ''ominous''. While, ''s''Power, is the more socially acceptable form of expression, with leaders being motivated through the benefit of others; it incorporates feelings of personal strength, and the known knowledge of being careful (Bargh & Lee-Chai, 2002; Friederichs et al., 2023; Magee & Langner, 2008; McClellad, 1970). These forms of expression are not necessarily mutually exclusive. Leaders may display elements of both; McClelland believes that a true leader can balance personal dominance and socialised leadership (Bargh & Lee-Chai, 2002). ''p''Power can become problematic when leaders become too absorbed by the maintenance of their position and influence, the ability to dominate, manipulate, and disagree. However, the issue isn't high-power motivation; it's how it is expressed (McClelland, 1970). === The leadership motive pattern === McClelland and David Burnham (1975) proposed the idea that effective leadership is associated with a certain specific combination of motives known as the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Leadership motivation#Leadership Motive Pattern|Leadership Motive Pattern]] (LMP) (Spangler et al., 2014). This consists of three primary elements, high need for power (nPow), a low need for affiliation (nAff) and a high activity inhibition (AI). This model demonstrated how motivation can work together to shape leadership behaviour (Reeve, 2018). Each component serves as a different purpose, building characterises of the most effective leaders within bureaucratic organisation (Spangler et al., 2014). High nPow, is the force to influence, direct and impact others, this has been well-established by now. Low nAff, is a reduced desire for friendly interpersonal relationships, which prevent the leaders from producing biased decision-making. High AI is based on [[wikipedia:Self-control|self-control]], maturity, and the ability to channel power socially rather an impulsively (McClelland & Boyatzis, 1982). Research by McClelland and Burnhamd (1982) found that the LMP may only hold value for specific roles in demonstrating leadership effectiveness. When relevant, it demonstrated that managers of this pattern typically generate higher morale in their subordinates; leadership styles such as those of nations that spend relatively more on military forces than private consumption, which McClelland described as a system's capacity to mobilise resources in the interest of the nation (McClelland & Boyatzis, 1982; Spangler et al., 2014). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} == Recap == <quiz display=simple> {&nbsp; |type="{}"} What is the driving force that guides human behaviour? { Motivation } {What is the key difference between personalised power and socialised power?} - Personalised power focuses on achievement, and socialised power focuses on affiliation + Personalised power focuses on personal dominance and control, and socialised power focuses on benefiting others - Personalised power is consistently associated with an effective leadership style, whereas socialised power is associated with an ineffective leadership style. {Which combination of motives is associated with McClelland’s Leadership Motive Pattern in effective managers?} - High need for achievement, high need for affiliation and low activity inhibition + High need for power, low need for affiliation and high activity inhibition - Low need for power, high need for affiliation and high activity inhibition {Which behaviour best fits an individual with a high need for power?} - Avoiding situations where they might influence others + Seek opportunities to influence, control, or have an impact on others - Avoid challenging tasks for fear of failure </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Power motivation and leadership style == '''Focus question:''' ''How does a leader's orientation towards power influence their specific leadership style?'' An individual’s desire for power does not automatically determine their leadership style. How an individual in a position of authority understands and exercises power over others can shape their interactions, decision-making approaches, and the goals they prioritise. Examining power orientation alongside psychological characteristics provides a deeper understanding of why leaders may use their influence in various ways and how those differences are reflected in their leadership style (Carbalho and Conde, 2024) === Power orientation and leadership behaviour === Power motivation is the drive to influence others, while power orientation is the how; it is the framework for how a leader becomes influential. A negative stereotype surrounds high power motivation, with the speculation that it automatically relates to undesirable behaviour, unlike prosocial power motivation, which is often associated with generosity. However, those with high power motivation can have different power orientations. Carbalho and Conde (2024) distinguish ego-power orientation and social-power orientations, highlighting that individuals can combine said orientations in different ways. Ego-power is associated with pursuing goals to satisfy the self and achieve a sense of self-fulfilment; this doesn't automatically result in harmful leadership, as it partly depends on the individual's position of influence and work. Social-power orientation links directing power to collective outcomes (Carbalho and Conde, 2024). === Leadership trait analysis === [https://wsps.ut.ac.ir/article_101018.html Leadership Trait Analysis] (LTA), developed by Margaret Hermann (2003) (Mobaseri & Nosrat Kharazmi, Zohreh, 2025), is a framework for analysing political leaders' psychological characteristics using interviews and public speeches. It examines seven traits across three dimensions: responsiveness to constraints, openness to information and motivation. The seven traits include the need for power, the belief that one can control what happens next, self-confidence, trust in others, conceptual complexity, the intensity of in-group bias or nationalism, and the need for affiliation. Together, these traits help researchers examine how leaders process information, respond to constraints and approach decision-making. Trump illustrates how psychological frameworks such as the LTA apply to political leadership. Mobaseri and Nosrat Kharazmi (2025) examined Trump's leadership characteristics and political beliefs before his presidency and during his first term. The research explored how much his core beliefs influenced his responses to political events and the COVID-19 crisis. The study highlights the value of examining leaders' beliefs and characteristics over time to understand their responses to the political climate. The analysis found Trump low in need for power, perceived control, self-confidence, in-group bias, and trust in others, but high in conceptual complexity. These traits informed Mobaseri and Nosrat Kharazmi's (2025) account of his leadership: resistance to adaptation, disregard for policymaking, charisma, and sensitivity to context in decisions. The findings show how leadership reflects the interaction between a leader's psychology and their situation. LTA offers a way to analyse individual differences that shape leadership style. === Leadership styles and effectiveness === Power orientation can be reflected in different leadership styles, which describe how leaders direct, influence and interact with followers. For example, a leader who prioritises complete personal control may favour a more autocratic approach, while a leader who values engagement may be more inclined towards a democratic leadership. However, while leadership styles reflect theoretical models, they can also be shaped by individual characteristics and techniques (Khajeh et al., 2018; "What Are the Different Leadership Styles?", 2024). Different styles place varying emphasis on factors seen in Table 2 (Deakin University, 2024; Bwalya, 2023). Effective leadership involves more than holding a position of authority; there are five essential characteristics of leadership: self-image, self-control, socialised power, sustained dialogue, and strategic intent, providing a practical framework for a successful leader (Power, 2026). Power, motivation, and leadership matter across contexts, from political leaders to supervisors, who need to build relationships with employees and an environment of trust if they want to do so. The characteristics emphasise the importance of authority, responsibility, communication, and directing efforts towards organisational goals (Power, 2026; Friederichs et al., 2023) Research suggests that transformational leadership can produce positive outcomes by motivating and inspiring followers and benefiting the group rather than serving personal interests (Peyton et al., 2019). This shows how power can support group goals rather than simply reinforcing leadership status. Nevertheless, no single leadership style guarantees effectiveness; outcomes depend on how the leader behaves and responds to the situation at hand. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 2. Leadership styles (Bwalya, 2023) ! colspan="3" |Leadership styles |- |Style |Description |Example Leaders |- |Autocratic |Leader holds complete control over decision-making with no input from followers. Consistently exercises control over the decision-making process. Expects strict compliance with policies and procedures, and does not take input from followers. They micromanage and control subordinate work. They make quick decisions because they do not have to consult. There is a lack of creative innovation (Bwalya, 2023). |Adolf Hitler and Kim Jong-un |- |Democratic |Leader is involved in team members' decision-making process, continuously encourages communication, and seeks feedback on matters, valuing input and ideas, wanting followers to participate in shaping strategies and goals (Bwalya, 2023). |Former President of South Africa, Nelson Mandela and Former Prime Minister of New Zealand Jacinda Ardern |- |Laissex-faire | The leader is distant and has minimal involvement in decisions, unlike autocratic leadership, as laissez-faire lets followers make decisions with little guidance or supervision, trusting their ability to manage responsibilities. They are comfortable with mistakes and take accountability for followers' mistakes. This empowers employees and enables faster decision-making. However, the lack of guidance can cause confusion and lack of coordination (Bwalya, 2023). |Former President Herbert Hoover and Mahatma Ghandi |- |Servant |Leader is prosocial and motivated by power, focusing on the needs and well-being of others. Aiming to support and empower followers, in hopes they reach their full potential (Bwalya, 2023). |Pope Francis |- |Transformational |Based on inspiration and motivation to achieve performance, with high expectations and focus on challenging others to exceed self-interest. Focuses on transforming followers through inspiration, motivation, and effective communication. They rely on the leader's influence; if the leader fails to provide proper guidance, it can impact followers (Bwalya, 2023). |Former President of South Africa Nelson Mandela and Former President of the United States Barack Obama |- |Transactional |Focuses on the exchange relationship between the leader and their followers. The leader maintains stability and achieves goals by providing rewards and punishments based on performance. Very goal-oriented, with clear expectations, and quick decision-making (Bwalya, 2023). |Bill Gates and Former Chancellor of Germany Angela Merkel |} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] ==Quiz== <quiz display=simple> Which statement best explains the relationship between a leader’s power motivation and their leadership style? |type="()"} - Leaders with high power motivation are more likely to adopt an autocratic style, regardless of their values or circumstances + A leader’s power motivation determines their leadership style, while their psychological characteristics have very little influence - Power motivation can influence a leader’s behaviour, but their power orientation, psychological characteristics and circumstances also shape how they exercise influence </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Implicit and explicit power motivation == '''Focus question:''' ''What is implicit motivation, and how does it differ from explicit power motivation in leaders?'' Human motivation can operate through two systems: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Implicit motives|implicit and explicit motivation]]. Both influencing behaviour, but very different in the extent to which the individuals are consciously aware of their motives behind their behaviour. When looking at leadership, it is helpful to dissect the distinctions to understand why a leader's states goals may not fully reflect their underlying needs which influence their behaviour. Implicit motive (nPow) is [[wikipedia:Unconscious_mind|unconscious]] motivation outside an individual’s awareness, mind map below in Figure 3 illustrates it. McClelland identified three implicit motives that shape thoughts, feelings, and actions: achievement, affiliation, and power. Developed through early preverbal experiences, they remain dormant until activated by incentives. Their influence appears in recurring patterns of thought, [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotion]], and behaviour, even when people cannot identify their motives (Reeve, 2018). Unlike explicit motives, implicit motives are difficult to measure directly. Researchers use the Picture-Story Exercise (PSE), asking participants to create stories from images and analysing them for themes related to the three motives. [[File:Implicit_Motives_associations.png|thumb| '''Figure 3.''' Mind map of implicit motives]]Explicit motives are conscious, self-attributed motives people can describe through their goals, values, and preferences (Slabbinck & Van Witteloostuijn, 2020). Often assessed with self-report questionnaires, explicit power motives reflect desires for influence, status, and leadership. Their dimensions, dominance, prestige, and leadership, can help explain how power motives relate to dark personality traits. Dominance involves controlling others and is associated with [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Machiavellianism and power motivation|Machiavellianism]] and counterproductive work behaviour. Prestige involves gaining influence by displaying knowledge or status and is linked to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Narcissism|narcissism]]. Leadership involves guiding groups toward shared goals and may predict organisational citizenship behaviour and align with transformational leadership. A strong explicit power motive does not automatically lead to destructive leadership. It can support productive leadership, but may also overlap with dark traits such as narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. When implicit and explicit motives align, congruence, individuals are more likely to experience greater well-being and engagement, whereas misalignment can contribute to stress and reduced well-being (Ran et al., 2021; Thrash et al., 2012). Applying this to leadership styles highlights how a leader's effectiveness and well-being depend on whether their chosen leadership style aligns with their implicit motive. When a leader's leadership style conflicts with their implicit motive, they experience ''motive incongruence,'' which can lead to chronic stress, burnout, and friction, whereas alignment predicts greater flow, high energy, and effortless leadership (Ran et al., 2021; Thrash et al., 2012). == Power motivation and leadership effectiveness == '''Focus question:''' ''How does power motivation influence leadership effectiveness?'' Power motivation influences leadership effectiveness through how it is expressed and regulated. Social incentives arise from others’ rewards, expectations, and norms, whereas activity incentives come from the activity itself. Individuals with high nPower may seek positions of authority and careers offering influence and advancement. Although power motivation can be associated with aggression, social norms, laws, and consequences can constrain its expression (Reeve, 2018). === Destructive power dynamics and power abuse === There is a ''fickle'' relationship between aggression and the need or desire for power are closely linked. Studies have linked aggressive tendencies to dominance and the need for power (Verona et al., 2023). Verona et al. (2023) define human aggression as behaving with the intent to cause harm to another individual, and the target of the behaviour is driven to avoid it. Aggression can also take direct vs indirect and overt vs covert forms. That said, no concrete evidence links any level of ''feeling'' power to aggression. An individual with a high need for power may desire impact, control, or influence over another person or group, or even the world at large; aggression can be a means of satisfying those power needs. However, social norms, laws, and consequences can constrain this expression, causing that aggression to manifest in a more covert form. Individuals, both men and women, report more impulses to act aggressively than others; this behaviour would include yelling, throwing or destroying items and insulting others. Other factors of aggression and its link with high power-seeking individuals include finding a release through drinking, using this as a way to inflate their sense of control. Furthermore, men respond to stress and other setbacks with the behaviour of inflicting abuse on their partners, as well as an increased level of sexual misconduct (Reeve, 2018; Spanler et al., 2014). This indicates that a sense of power comes not only from leadership and reputation but can also be built through strategies of drinking, risk-taking, and posturing (Reeve, 2018). Those who harbour inclinations that are both benevolent and malevolent towards others strive to improve the world while also influencing everyone else (Reeve, 2018). The ''dark side'' of implicit motive is the combination of opportunity to use power for personal benefit, which is the 'abuse of power.' Unrestrained affiliation can lead to favouritism and corruption in political and bureaucratic organisations. Achievement ignores political/interpersonal issues. High need for achievement: find it difficult working in groups, making decisions, and enforcing authority, ignoring interpersonal relationships (Spanier et al., 2014).[[File:The_Dark_Triad_Traits.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 4.''' The dark triad, and its associated personality traits]] === The dark triad traits === First proposed by Paulhus and Williams (2002), the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Dark triad personality and motivation|"Dark Triad"]] traits- narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy, seen in Figure 4, are three overlapping personality traits that can strongly motivate individuals to seek and wield power. When an individual has these traits, it often means they restrain and fuel their ruthlessness and self-serving behaviour. Research has found that scoring high on these traits increases an individual’s likelihood of committing crimes, causing distress, and creating severe issues for organisations when in authoritative leadership positions (LeBreton et al., 2018). Findings on the dark triad suggest that leadership outcomes depend not only on a leader's desire for influence, but also on their personality and how they exercise authority. However, the dark triad should not be associated with high implicit power motivation, as a strong unconscious drive to influence or impact others is not the same as the dark triad traits. An individual can have a strong implicit need for power without dark personality traits. Dark triad traits are associated with excessive admiration-seeking behaviour, manipulation, and callousness; these traits can interfere with relationships and judgement calls. Specific characteristics of the traits are listed in Table 3. (LeBreton et al., 2018). {| class="wikitable" |+Table 3. Dark triad characteristic defined (LeBreton et al., 2018). !Dark triad traits !Characteristics |- |Machiavellianism |Cynical, strategic, and manipulative |- |Psychopathy |Erratic behaviour, interpersonal manipulation, callous affect and criminal tendencies |- |Narcissism |Pride, aggression, envy, grandiosity, constant need for admiration, poor self-esteem |} === '''Key predictors of effective leadership''' === Power motivation can support effective leadership when regulated and directed toward collective rather than personal benefit. McClelland's research suggests effective leaders combine a strong need for power with high self-discipline, or “power under control,” which is linked to charismatic leadership and group morale (Reeve, 2018). However, a desire for influence alone does not ensure effectiveness. Self-regulation is especially important for leaders with potentially destructive personality tendencies. Stress, exhaustion, hunger, and cognitive overload can weaken willpower, making defensive reactions harder to control and potentially harming others. Strong motivation and self-awareness help leaders manage counterproductive tendencies and limit their disruptive effects. Other motives also shape leadership. A strong need for affiliation can promote communication, respect, appreciation, and support, strengthening leader–follower relationships. Achievement motivation can encourage goal pursuit, but excessive striving may undermine effectiveness: highly active, achievement-oriented leaders can become frustrated when results fall short of expectations. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness|Moral identity]] also influences how leaders use power. Those with weaker moral identities may prioritise [[wikipedia:Self-interest|self-interest,]] while a prosocial approach uses influence to benefit others. This approach is associated with less power-related anxiety and greater well-being, suggesting that leaders’ purposes for exercising power affect their effectiveness. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[File:John F. Kennedy speaks at Rice University.jpg|thumb|alt=President John F. Kennedy speaking at Rice University |'''Figure 5.''' John F. Kennedy speaking at Rice University]] == Case study: John F. Kennedy == John F. Kennedy (JFK) is often recognised as an example of charismatic political leadership because of his optimistic public image, ambitious presidency, and compelling communication. Despite his relatively short time in office, Kennedy established a distinctive presidential identity by blending political leadership with popular culture and staying engaged with government and the public, which can be seen in Figure 5 (Reeve, 2018; McCann & Mollan, 2023). Kennedy's leadership aligns with McClelland's theory of motivational needs, with his profile characterised by a high need for power and a low need for affiliation (McCann & Mollan, 2023). His charismatic communication also reflects transformational leadership, which emphasises inspiring followers to work towards shared goals. McClelland (1970) found that students who listened to Kennedy's inaugural address reported stronger feelings of inspiration and uplift, illustrating how a leader's communication can influence their audience. Kennedy therefore shows how power motivation can support leadership by enabling individuals to influence, inspire, and mobilise others. However, effective leadership also depends on how that influence is exercised, particularly when responding to challenging political situations. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} == Quiz yourself == <quiz display=simple> {Which combination of implicit motives is associated with effective leadership according to McClelland's leadership motive pattern? |type="()"} - High power, high affiliation, and low inhibition + High power, low affiliation, and high inhibition - Low power, high affiliation, and high inhibition - High power, low affiliation, and low inhibition {Does a high need for power necessarily result in aggressive behaviour? |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Conclusion == Psychological theory and research suggest that power motivation shapes how individuals seek, maintain, and regulate influence. McClelland's Three Need Theory explains differences in needs for power, achievement, and affiliation. The Two Faces of Power distinguishes personalised power, focused on personal control and self-interest, from socialised power, which uses influence to benefit others. This distinction explains why power motivation can produce very different leadership outcomes (McClelland, 1970; Carvalho & Conde, 2024). The LMP further suggests that a high need for power, low need for affiliation, and high activity inhibition can support effective leadership by balancing influence with self-control (Reeve, 2018). Power motivation is neither inherently positive nor negative; its effects depend on how leaders exercise authority, regulate behaviour, and balance personal ambitions with others’ needs. Effective leadership depends not on how much power a person wants, but on how they use it. Leaders who regulate their power motivation and direct influence toward collective goals, development, and positive outcomes are more likely to be well received by the public and subordinates (Peyton et al., 2019; Friederichs et al., 2023). Understanding power motivation helps explain both effective leadership and the risks of abuse, underscoring the importance of self-regulation and ethical influence. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}}[[Image:Nuvola_apps_filetypes.png|right|102px]] ;Reflection activity Think of a time you influenced a group decision at university, work, or in a team sport. Reflect on: * What was the situation, and how did you respond? * How did you influence others or make decisions? * What motivated your behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Donald_Trump|Donald Trump]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness|Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Leadership motivation#Leadership Motive Pattern|Leadership motivation]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Two-factor motivation theory|Two-factor motivation theory]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[wikipedia:David_McClelland|David Clelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Need_for_power|Need for power]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Need_theory|Need theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bargh, J. A., & Lee-Chai, A. Y. (2002). The use and abuse of power : Multiple perspectives in the causes of corruption. Psychology. Bwalya, A. (2023). Leadership styles. Article in Journal of Entrepreneurship, Management and Innovation, 11(8), 181–193. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.23932113 Carvalho, J. M. S., & Conde, A. (2024). Individual power in human motivation – review and theoretical perspective. Acta Psychologica, 249, 104452–104452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104452 Deakin University. (2024, December 5). What are the different leadership styles? Deakin.Edu.Au. https://leadership.deakin.edu.au/blog/different-leadership-styles Friederichs, K. M., Waldenmeier, K., & Baumann, N. (2023). The benefits of prosocial power motivation in leadership: Action orientation fosters a win-win. Plos One, 18(7), e0287394–e0287394. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0287394 Gambino, L. (2021, January 9). Trump has lost Twitter, his biggest political megaphone. Now what? The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2021/jan/08/trump-has-lost-twitter-his-biggest-political-megaphone-now-what Khajeh, A., Abu, M., & Asaari, H. (2018). Impact of leadership styles on organizational performance. Journal of Human Resources Management Research, 2018(2166–0018), 2166–2184. https://ibimapublishing.com/articles/JHRMR/2018/687849/687849-1.pdf Kurt, D. S. (2021, May 23). McClelland’s Three Needs Theory: Power, Achievement, and Affiliation. Education Library. https://educationlibrary.org/mcclellands-three-needs-theory-power-achievement-and-affiliation/#1 LeBreton, J. M., Shiverdecker, L. K., & Grimaldi, E. M. (2018). The dark triad and workplace behavior. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 5(1), 387–414. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032117-104451 Magee, J. C., & Langner, C. A. (2008). How personalized and socialized power motivation facilitate antisocial and prosocial decision-making. Journal of Research in Personality, 42(6), 1547–1559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2008.07.009 McCann, L., & Mollan, S. (2023, November 20). JFK 60 years on: His leadership style and the reality behind the myths. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/jfk-60-years-on-his-leadership-style-and-the-reality-behind-the-myths-216477 McClelland, D. C. (1970). The two faces of power. Journal of International Affairs, 24(1), 29–47. JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24356663 Mobaseri, Y., & Nosrat Kharazmi, Zohreh. (2025). Cognitive characteristic and crisis behaviour: An analysis of Donald Trump’s leadership style and operational code in the time of crisis. Journal of World Sociopolitical Studies, 9(1), 87–115. https://doi.org/10.22059/wsps.2025.384855.1468 Peyton, T., Zigarmi, D., & Fowler, S. N. (2019). Examining the relationship between leaders’ power use, followers’ motivational outlooks, and followers’ work intentions. Frontiers in Psychology, 9(2620). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02620 Power , D. P. G. (2026). The five essentials of leadership {{!}} APS. Psychology.Org.Au. https://psychology.org.au/inpsych/2017/august/power Ran, Y., Liu, Q., Cheng, Q., & Zhang, Y. (2021). Implicit-explicit power motives congruence and forgiveness in the workplace conflict: The mediating role of empathy. International Journal of Conflict Management, 32(3), 445–468. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijcma-06-2020-0116 Reeve, J. (2018). Understanding motivation and emotion (7th edn, pp. 152–176). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Roeloffs, M. W. (2025, January 20). Billionaires worth a combined $1.2 trillion attended Trump’s inauguration: Here’s who was there—From musk to Bezos. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/maryroeloffs/2025/01/20/billionaires-worth-a-combined-12-trillion-attended-trumps-inauguration-heres-who-was-there-from-musk-to-bezos/ Slabbinck, H., & Van Witteloostuijn, A. (2020). Explicit and implicit basic human motives, and public service motivation. Frontiers in Psychology, 11(1542). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01542 Spangler, W. D., Tikhomirov, A., Sotak, K. L., & Palrecha, R. (2014). Leader motive profiles in eight types of organizations. The Leadership Quarterly, 25(6), 1080–1094. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2014.10.001 Spanler, W. D., Tikhomirov, A., Lee Sotak, K., & Palrecha, R. (2014). Leader motive profiles in eight types of organizations. ScienceDirect, 25(6). https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/science/article/pii/S1048984314001040 Thrash, T. M., Maruskin, L. A., & Martin, C. C. (2012). Implicit–explicit motive congruence. In R. M. Ryan (Ed.), The oxford handbook of human motivation (pp. 141–156). Oxford University Press. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2012-03687-009 Verona, E., McKinley, S. J., Hoffmann, A., Murphy, B. A., & Watts, A. L. (2023). Psychopathy facets, perceived power, and forms of aggression. Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment, 14(3), 259–273. https://doi.org/10.1037/per0000562 }} ==External links== * [https://www.forbes.com/sites/maryroeloffs/2025/01/20/billionaires-worth-a-combined-12-trillion-attended-trumps-inauguration-heres-who-was-there-from-musk-to-bezos/ Billionaires Worth A Combined $1.35 Trillion Attended Trump’s Inauguration: Here’s Who Was There—From Musk To Bezos] (Roeloffs, 2025) * [https://www.stand-deliver.com/columns/leadership/1319-donald-trump-s-leadership-style-is-it-all-about-me.html Donald Trump’s Leadership Style: Is it all about “me”?] (Steve Adubato , 2019) * [https://educationlibrary.org/mcclellands-three-needs-theory-power-achievement-and-affiliation/#1 McClelland’s Three Needs Theory: Power, Achievement, and Affiliation] (Kurt, 2021) * [https://psychology.org.au/inpsych/2017/august/power The five essentials of leadership] (Power , 2026) * [https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2021/jan/08/trump-has-lost-twitter-his-biggest-political-megaphone-now-what Trump has lost Twitter, his biggest political megaphone. Now what?] (Gambino, 2021) * [https://theconversation.com/jfk-60-years-on-his-leadership-style-and-the-reality-behind-the-myths-216477 JFK 60 years on: his leadership style and the reality behind the myths] (McCann & Mollan, 2023) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Power motivation and leadership|Power motivation and leadership]] (Book chapter, 2024) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Leadership]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Power motivation]] j44drhbyxqrx8endzm4zlode2w6iwkk 2841835 2841834 2026-10-21T08:31:06Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 Attempting to solve lints 2841835 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Power motivation in leadership:<br>How does power motivation influence leadership styles and effectiveness?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Donald Trump takes the oath of office (2025).jpg|thumb|alt=President-elect Donald Trump takes the oath of office |'''Figure 1'''. Donald Trump's 2025 Inauguration surrounded by some of the world's wealthiest and most powerful individuals]] Imagine a leader standing at their inauguration, surrounded by a concentration of wealthy and influential individuals. At first glance, this may reflect a preference for resources and influence. However, a closer look raises a psychological question: what motivates a leader to seek and exercise power, and how does this shape the way they lead? This scenario reflects the leadership of United States President Donald Trump, whose 2025 administration included a notable concentration of wealthy and influential individuals (Roeloffs, 2025). This concentration of political and economic power can be illustrated in Figure 1. This scenario can play as a contemporary example for examining the relationship between power motivation and leadership.{{ic|[[w:Donald Trump|Second inauguration of Donald Trump]]}}Power is reflected not only in who a leader surrounds themselves with, but also in how they exercise their influence. For example, Trump uses social media as a political megaphone, bypassing traditional bureaucratic communication channels (Gambino, 2021). His public leadership style places considerable emphasis on personal image and the need of personal control with the disregard of external influences of power (Adubato, 2019; Mobaseri & Nosrat Kharazmi, Zohreh, 2025). This raises the question: does the desire for power necessarily make someone an effective leader? Individuals seek leadership for various reasons, and how they use their influence shapes their interactions with followers, decision-making, and pursuit of goals. Psychology helps explain these differences by examining power motivation and how individual motives influence leadership behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} This chapter will explore [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10355387/ power motivation] (Friederichs et al., 2023), the desire to [[wikipedia:Influence|influence]], [[wikipedia:Control|control]], and have the ability to impact others, affecting [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Leadership motivation|leadership]] styles, behaviour and effectiveness (McClelland, 1970). How power is expressed i.e., socialised or personalised power, determines a leader's behaviour and their effectiveness, (Reeve, 2018; McClelland, 1970; Carvalho & Conde, 2024). Understanding power motivation provides the groundwork that can explain why leaders exercise authority in certain ways and the how followers respond. Psychological science provides a means to clarify why some power-motivated leaders use influence to control, while others use it to empower (Reeve, 2018). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:P psychology.png|right]] '''Focus questions:''' *What psychological theories explain power motivation in leaders? *How does a leader's orientation towards power influence their specific leadership style? *What is implicit motivation, and how does it differ from explicit power motivation in leaders? *How does power motivation influence leadership effectiveness? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Understanding power motivation through psychological theories== '''Focus question:''' ''What psychological theories explain power motivation in leaders?'' The definition of motivation and power, one describes the push to act while the other if often associated with [[wikipedia:Aggression|aggression]], influence, [[wikipedia:Authority|authority]] and control, together they hold a heavy meaning. In psychology, [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Introduction|motivation]] is the driving force that guides human behaviour; it is the use of will-power and self-discipline, channelling efforts to achieve a [[wikipedia:Goal|goal]]. Certain individuals have predominant motive of power, being motivated by the internal urge to dominate, influence, or control (Kurt, 2021). Power motivation is the broad construct that refers to the desire for leadership, authority or status, it is built up of three characteristics: strong action, emotional impact, and concern for status, frame, and reputation. All characteristics are heavily influenced by cultural values and socialised experiences (McClelland,1970). Power seekers can be effective, well-adjusted, and highly motivated. Power is a source of human control; only the mentally healthy can wield it successfully. Those with the need of power, [[wikipedia:Need_for_power|nPower]], struggle to feel satisfied unless they are in a position that fulfils their power-hungry needs, such as making decisions, influencing an audience, or obtaining information to become influential. Such occupations are teachers, journalists, clergy, psychologists, diplomats, business executives, political leaders and advisors (Reeve, 2018). [[wikipedia:David_McClelland|David McClelland's]] is popular within the psychology community for his thoughts on power motivation, with the most well-known theories, the [[wikipedia:Need_theory|Three Need Theory]] and the [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24356663.pdf Two Faces of Power] theory. Other theories of motivation include the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierachy of need,]] and [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Two-factor motivation theory|Herzberg's two-factor theory]]. These theories offer broader perspectives on the factors that drive human behaviour and motivation. === Three need theory === [[File:DavidMcClelland.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' David McClelland]]McClelland, a Harvard psychologist who conducted extensive research into human motivation (seen in Figure 2.), proposed the three need Theory. The theory identifies three acquired motivational needs: the need for [[wikipedia:Need_for_achievement|achievement]], the need for [[wikipedia:Need_for_affiliation|affiliation]], and the need for power (McClelland, 1970). Although individuals can experiences all three needs, the strength of each varies between individuals and can influence their behaviour. Table 1 summarises these needs and their defining characteristics being examined from high to low behaviour (Kurt, 2021). nPower in leadership involves the desire to influence others and have an impact on their behaviour. A strong need for achievement may motivate individuals to pursue challenging goals, a strong need for affliction may encourage them to maintain positive interpersonal relationships, and a strong need for power can motivate individuals to seek positions of authority. However the nPower alone does not determine whether someone will be an effective leader; its expression and the way an individual exercises their influence matters. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1: Three need theory !Need !Definition !High behaviour !Low behaviour |- |Need for Achievement |Situations that challenge individuals with explicit standards. |Individual exhibits a need to win and receive recognition. |Constant fear of failure, typically avoids responsibilities. |- |Need for Affiliation |Situations that afford warm relationship opportunities. |A desire within for control, typically exaggerates own position. |A heavily dependent individual, tries to minimise own position and importance. |- |Need for Power |Situations that enable others to exert influence over others. |Individual demands and expects loyalty and harmony. |Individual remains 'aloof' and keeps social distance from influence over others. |} ==== Two faces of power ==== McClelland's Two Faces of Power framework distinguishes between two ways the nPower can be expressed, personalised power or socialised power, also referred to as ''pP''ower, and ''s''Power (McClelland, 1970). ''pP''ower centres on personal control, it is seen as an socially unacceptable way of expression, closely linked dominance and status. Those influenced by ''p''Power may tend to seek to strengthen their own position and influence (McClelland, 1970). While McClelland was doing his research of these mannerisms of power, he though that if those who obtained ''pP''ower were in the environment of international relations the consequences would be ''ominous''. While, ''s''Power, is the more socially acceptable form of expression, with leaders being motivated through the benefit of others; it incorporates feelings of personal strength, and the known knowledge of being careful (Bargh & Lee-Chai, 2002; Friederichs et al., 2023; Magee & Langner, 2008; McClellad, 1970). These forms of expression are not necessarily mutually exclusive. Leaders may display elements of both; McClelland believes that a true leader can balance personal dominance and socialised leadership (Bargh & Lee-Chai, 2002). ''p''Power can become problematic when leaders become too absorbed by the maintenance of their position and influence, the ability to dominate, manipulate, and disagree. However, the issue isn't high-power motivation; it's how it is expressed (McClelland, 1970). === The leadership motive pattern === McClelland and David Burnham (1975) proposed the idea that effective leadership is associated with a certain specific combination of motives known as the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Leadership motivation#Leadership Motive Pattern|Leadership Motive Pattern]] (LMP) (Spangler et al., 2014). This consists of three primary elements, high need for power (nPow), a low need for affiliation (nAff) and a high activity inhibition (AI). This model demonstrated how motivation can work together to shape leadership behaviour (Reeve, 2018). Each component serves as a different purpose, building characterises of the most effective leaders within bureaucratic organisation (Spangler et al., 2014). High nPow, is the force to influence, direct and impact others, this has been well-established by now. Low nAff, is a reduced desire for friendly interpersonal relationships, which prevent the leaders from producing biased decision-making. High AI is based on [[wikipedia:Self-control|self-control]], maturity, and the ability to channel power socially rather an impulsively (McClelland & Boyatzis, 1982). Research by McClelland and Burnhamd (1982) found that the LMP may only hold value for specific roles in demonstrating leadership effectiveness. When relevant, it demonstrated that managers of this pattern typically generate higher morale in their subordinates; leadership styles such as those of nations that spend relatively more on military forces than private consumption, which McClelland described as a system's capacity to mobilise resources in the interest of the nation (McClelland & Boyatzis, 1982; Spangler et al., 2014). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} == Recap == <quiz display=simple> {&nbsp; |type="{}"} What is the driving force that guides human behaviour? { Motivation } {What is the key difference between personalised power and socialised power?} - Personalised power focuses on achievement, and socialised power focuses on affiliation + Personalised power focuses on personal dominance and control, and socialised power focuses on benefiting others - Personalised power is consistently associated with an effective leadership style, whereas socialised power is associated with an ineffective leadership style. {Which combination of motives is associated with McClelland’s Leadership Motive Pattern in effective managers?} - High need for achievement, high need for affiliation and low activity inhibition + High need for power, low need for affiliation and high activity inhibition - Low need for power, high need for affiliation and high activity inhibition {Which behaviour best fits an individual with a high need for power?} - Avoiding situations where they might influence others + Seek opportunities to influence, control, or have an impact on others - Avoid challenging tasks for fear of failure </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Power motivation and leadership style == '''Focus question:''' ''How does a leader's orientation towards power influence their specific leadership style?'' An individual’s desire for power does not automatically determine their leadership style. How an individual in a position of authority understands and exercises power over others can shape their interactions, decision-making approaches, and the goals they prioritise. Examining power orientation alongside psychological characteristics provides a deeper understanding of why leaders may use their influence in various ways and how those differences are reflected in their leadership style (Carbalho and Conde, 2024) === Power orientation and leadership behaviour === Power motivation is the drive to influence others, while power orientation is the how; it is the framework for how a leader becomes influential. A negative stereotype surrounds high power motivation, with the speculation that it automatically relates to undesirable behaviour, unlike prosocial power motivation, which is often associated with generosity. However, those with high power motivation can have different power orientations. Carbalho and Conde (2024) distinguish ego-power orientation and social-power orientations, highlighting that individuals can combine said orientations in different ways. Ego-power is associated with pursuing goals to satisfy the self and achieve a sense of self-fulfilment; this doesn't automatically result in harmful leadership, as it partly depends on the individual's position of influence and work. Social-power orientation links directing power to collective outcomes (Carbalho and Conde, 2024). === Leadership trait analysis === [https://wsps.ut.ac.ir/article_101018.html Leadership Trait Analysis] (LTA), developed by Margaret Hermann (2003) (Mobaseri & Nosrat Kharazmi, Zohreh, 2025), is a framework for analysing political leaders' psychological characteristics using interviews and public speeches. It examines seven traits across three dimensions: responsiveness to constraints, openness to information and motivation. The seven traits include the need for power, the belief that one can control what happens next, self-confidence, trust in others, conceptual complexity, the intensity of in-group bias or nationalism, and the need for affiliation. Together, these traits help researchers examine how leaders process information, respond to constraints and approach decision-making. Trump illustrates how psychological frameworks such as the LTA apply to political leadership. Mobaseri and Nosrat Kharazmi (2025) examined Trump's leadership characteristics and political beliefs before his presidency and during his first term. The research explored how much his core beliefs influenced his responses to political events and the COVID-19 crisis. The study highlights the value of examining leaders' beliefs and characteristics over time to understand their responses to the political climate. The analysis found Trump low in need for power, perceived control, self-confidence, in-group bias, and trust in others, but high in conceptual complexity. These traits informed Mobaseri and Nosrat Kharazmi's (2025) account of his leadership: resistance to adaptation, disregard for policymaking, charisma, and sensitivity to context in decisions. The findings show how leadership reflects the interaction between a leader's psychology and their situation. LTA offers a way to analyse individual differences that shape leadership style. === Leadership styles and effectiveness === Power orientation can be reflected in different leadership styles, which describe how leaders direct, influence and interact with followers. For example, a leader who prioritises complete personal control may favour a more autocratic approach, while a leader who values engagement may be more inclined towards a democratic leadership. However, while leadership styles reflect theoretical models, they can also be shaped by individual characteristics and techniques (Khajeh et al., 2018; "What Are the Different Leadership Styles?", 2024). Different styles place varying emphasis on factors seen in Table 2 (Deakin University, 2024; Bwalya, 2023). Effective leadership involves more than holding a position of authority; there are five essential characteristics of leadership: self-image, self-control, socialised power, sustained dialogue, and strategic intent, providing a practical framework for a successful leader (Power, 2026). Power, motivation, and leadership matter across contexts, from political leaders to supervisors, who need to build relationships with employees and an environment of trust if they want to do so. The characteristics emphasise the importance of authority, responsibility, communication, and directing efforts towards organisational goals (Power, 2026; Friederichs et al., 2023) Research suggests that transformational leadership can produce positive outcomes by motivating and inspiring followers and benefiting the group rather than serving personal interests (Peyton et al., 2019). This shows how power can support group goals rather than simply reinforcing leadership status. Nevertheless, no single leadership style guarantees effectiveness; outcomes depend on how the leader behaves and responds to the situation at hand. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 2. Leadership styles (Bwalya, 2023) ! colspan="3" |Leadership styles |- |Style |Description |Example Leaders |- |Autocratic |Leader holds complete control over decision-making with no input from followers. Consistently exercises control over the decision-making process. Expects strict compliance with policies and procedures, and does not take input from followers. They micromanage and control subordinate work. They make quick decisions because they do not have to consult. There is a lack of creative innovation (Bwalya, 2023). |Adolf Hitler and Kim Jong-un |- |Democratic |Leader is involved in team members' decision-making process, continuously encourages communication, and seeks feedback on matters, valuing input and ideas, wanting followers to participate in shaping strategies and goals (Bwalya, 2023). |Former President of South Africa, Nelson Mandela and Former Prime Minister of New Zealand Jacinda Ardern |- |Laissex-faire | The leader is distant and has minimal involvement in decisions, unlike autocratic leadership, as laissez-faire lets followers make decisions with little guidance or supervision, trusting their ability to manage responsibilities. They are comfortable with mistakes and take accountability for followers' mistakes. This empowers employees and enables faster decision-making. However, the lack of guidance can cause confusion and lack of coordination (Bwalya, 2023). |Former President Herbert Hoover and Mahatma Ghandi |- |Servant |Leader is prosocial and motivated by power, focusing on the needs and well-being of others. Aiming to support and empower followers, in hopes they reach their full potential (Bwalya, 2023). |Pope Francis |- |Transformational |Based on inspiration and motivation to achieve performance, with high expectations and focus on challenging others to exceed self-interest. Focuses on transforming followers through inspiration, motivation, and effective communication. They rely on the leader's influence; if the leader fails to provide proper guidance, it can impact followers (Bwalya, 2023). |Former President of South Africa Nelson Mandela and Former President of the United States Barack Obama |- |Transactional |Focuses on the exchange relationship between the leader and their followers. The leader maintains stability and achieves goals by providing rewards and punishments based on performance. Very goal-oriented, with clear expectations, and quick decision-making (Bwalya, 2023). |Bill Gates and Former Chancellor of Germany Angela Merkel |} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] ==Quiz== <quiz display=simple> Which statement best explains the relationship between a leader’s power motivation and their leadership style? |type="()"} - Leaders with high power motivation are more likely to adopt an autocratic style, regardless of their values or circumstances + A leader’s power motivation determines their leadership style, while their psychological characteristics have very little influence - Power motivation can influence a leader’s behaviour, but their power orientation, psychological characteristics and circumstances also shape how they exercise influence </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Implicit and explicit power motivation == '''Focus question:''' ''What is implicit motivation, and how does it differ from explicit power motivation in leaders?'' Human motivation can operate through two systems: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Implicit motives|implicit and explicit motivation]]. Both influencing behaviour, but very different in the extent to which the individuals are consciously aware of their motives behind their behaviour. When looking at leadership, it is helpful to dissect the distinctions to understand why a leader's states goals may not fully reflect their underlying needs which influence their behaviour. Implicit motive (nPow) is [[wikipedia:Unconscious_mind|unconscious]] motivation outside an individual’s awareness, mind map below in Figure 3 illustrates it. McClelland identified three implicit motives that shape thoughts, feelings, and actions: achievement, affiliation, and power. Developed through early preverbal experiences, they remain dormant until activated by incentives. Their influence appears in recurring patterns of thought, [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotion]], and behaviour, even when people cannot identify their motives (Reeve, 2018). Unlike explicit motives, implicit motives are difficult to measure directly. Researchers use the Picture-Story Exercise (PSE), asking participants to create stories from images and analysing them for themes related to the three motives. [[File:Implicit_Motives_associations.png|thumb| '''Figure 3.''' Mind map of implicit motives]]Explicit motives are conscious, self-attributed motives people can describe through their goals, values, and preferences (Slabbinck & Van Witteloostuijn, 2020). Often assessed with self-report questionnaires, explicit power motives reflect desires for influence, status, and leadership. Their dimensions, dominance, prestige, and leadership, can help explain how power motives relate to dark personality traits. Dominance involves controlling others and is associated with [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Machiavellianism and power motivation|Machiavellianism]] and counterproductive work behaviour. Prestige involves gaining influence by displaying knowledge or status and is linked to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Narcissism|narcissism]]. Leadership involves guiding groups toward shared goals and may predict organisational citizenship behaviour and align with transformational leadership. A strong explicit power motive does not automatically lead to destructive leadership. It can support productive leadership, but may also overlap with dark traits such as narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. When implicit and explicit motives align, congruence, individuals are more likely to experience greater well-being and engagement, whereas misalignment can contribute to stress and reduced well-being (Ran et al., 2021; Thrash et al., 2012). Applying this to leadership styles highlights how a leader's effectiveness and well-being depend on whether their chosen leadership style aligns with their implicit motive. When a leader's leadership style conflicts with their implicit motive, they experience ''motive incongruence,'' which can lead to chronic stress, burnout, and friction, whereas alignment predicts greater flow, high energy, and effortless leadership (Ran et al., 2021; Thrash et al., 2012). == Power motivation and leadership effectiveness == '''Focus question:''' ''How does power motivation influence leadership effectiveness?'' Power motivation influences leadership effectiveness through how it is expressed and regulated. Social incentives arise from others’ rewards, expectations, and norms, whereas activity incentives come from the activity itself. Individuals with high nPower may seek positions of authority and careers offering influence and advancement. Although power motivation can be associated with aggression, social norms, laws, and consequences can constrain its expression (Reeve, 2018). === Destructive power dynamics and power abuse === There is a ''fickle'' relationship between aggression and the need or desire for power are closely linked. Studies have linked aggressive tendencies to dominance and the need for power (Verona et al., 2023). Verona et al. (2023) define human aggression as behaving with the intent to cause harm to another individual, and the target of the behaviour is driven to avoid it. Aggression can also take direct vs indirect and overt vs covert forms. That said, no concrete evidence links any level of ''feeling'' power to aggression. An individual with a high need for power may desire impact, control, or influence over another person or group, or even the world at large; aggression can be a means of satisfying those power needs. However, social norms, laws, and consequences can constrain this expression, causing that aggression to manifest in a more covert form. Individuals, both men and women, report more impulses to act aggressively than others; this behaviour would include yelling, throwing or destroying items and insulting others. Other factors of aggression and its link with high power-seeking individuals include finding a release through drinking, using this as a way to inflate their sense of control. Furthermore, men respond to stress and other setbacks with the behaviour of inflicting abuse on their partners, as well as an increased level of sexual misconduct (Reeve, 2018; Spanler et al., 2014). This indicates that a sense of power comes not only from leadership and reputation but can also be built through strategies of drinking, risk-taking, and posturing (Reeve, 2018). Those who harbour inclinations that are both benevolent and malevolent towards others strive to improve the world while also influencing everyone else (Reeve, 2018). The ''dark side'' of implicit motive is the combination of opportunity to use power for personal benefit, which is the 'abuse of power.' Unrestrained affiliation can lead to favouritism and corruption in political and bureaucratic organisations. Achievement ignores political/interpersonal issues. High need for achievement: find it difficult working in groups, making decisions, and enforcing authority, ignoring interpersonal relationships (Spanier et al., 2014).[[File:The_Dark_Triad_Traits.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 4.''' The dark triad, and its associated personality traits]] === The dark triad traits === First proposed by Paulhus and Williams (2002), the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Dark triad personality and motivation|"Dark Triad"]] traits- narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy, seen in Figure 4, are three overlapping personality traits that can strongly motivate individuals to seek and wield power. When an individual has these traits, it often means they restrain and fuel their ruthlessness and self-serving behaviour. Research has found that scoring high on these traits increases an individual’s likelihood of committing crimes, causing distress, and creating severe issues for organisations when in authoritative leadership positions (LeBreton et al., 2018). Findings on the dark triad suggest that leadership outcomes depend not only on a leader's desire for influence, but also on their personality and how they exercise authority. However, the dark triad should not be associated with high implicit power motivation, as a strong unconscious drive to influence or impact others is not the same as the dark triad traits. An individual can have a strong implicit need for power without dark personality traits. Dark triad traits are associated with excessive admiration-seeking behaviour, manipulation, and callousness; these traits can interfere with relationships and judgement calls. Specific characteristics of the traits are listed in Table 3. (LeBreton et al., 2018). {| class="wikitable" |+Table 3. Dark triad characteristic defined (LeBreton et al., 2018). !Dark triad traits !Characteristics |- |Machiavellianism |Cynical, strategic, and manipulative |- |Psychopathy |Erratic behaviour, interpersonal manipulation, callous affect and criminal tendencies |- |Narcissism |Pride, aggression, envy, grandiosity, constant need for admiration, poor self-esteem |} === Key predictors of effective leadership === Power motivation can support effective leadership when regulated and directed toward collective rather than personal benefit. McClelland's research suggests effective leaders combine a strong need for power with high self-discipline, or “power under control,” which is linked to charismatic leadership and group morale (Reeve, 2018). However, a desire for influence alone does not ensure effectiveness. Self-regulation is especially important for leaders with potentially destructive personality tendencies. Stress, exhaustion, hunger, and cognitive overload can weaken willpower, making defensive reactions harder to control and potentially harming others. Strong motivation and self-awareness help leaders manage counterproductive tendencies and limit their disruptive effects. Other motives also shape leadership. A strong need for affiliation can promote communication, respect, appreciation, and support, strengthening leader–follower relationships. Achievement motivation can encourage goal pursuit, but excessive striving may undermine effectiveness: highly active, achievement-oriented leaders can become frustrated when results fall short of expectations. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness|Moral identity]] also influences how leaders use power. Those with weaker moral identities may prioritise [[wikipedia:Self-interest|self-interest,]] while a prosocial approach uses influence to benefit others. This approach is associated with less power-related anxiety and greater well-being, suggesting that leaders’ purposes for exercising power affect their effectiveness. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[File:John F. Kennedy speaks at Rice University.jpg|thumb|alt=President John F. Kennedy speaking at Rice University |'''Figure 5.''' John F. Kennedy speaking at Rice University]] == Case study: John F. Kennedy == John F. Kennedy (JFK) is often recognised as an example of charismatic political leadership because of his optimistic public image, ambitious presidency, and compelling communication. Despite his relatively short time in office, Kennedy established a distinctive presidential identity by blending political leadership with popular culture and staying engaged with government and the public, which can be seen in Figure 5 (Reeve, 2018; McCann & Mollan, 2023). Kennedy's leadership aligns with McClelland's theory of motivational needs, with his profile characterised by a high need for power and a low need for affiliation (McCann & Mollan, 2023). His charismatic communication also reflects transformational leadership, which emphasises inspiring followers to work towards shared goals. McClelland (1970) found that students who listened to Kennedy's inaugural address reported stronger feelings of inspiration and uplift, illustrating how a leader's communication can influence their audience. Kennedy therefore shows how power motivation can support leadership by enabling individuals to influence, inspire, and mobilise others. However, effective leadership also depends on how that influence is exercised, particularly when responding to challenging political situations. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} == Quiz yourself == <quiz display=simple> {Which combination of implicit motives is associated with effective leadership according to McClelland's leadership motive pattern? |type="()"} - High power, high affiliation, and low inhibition + High power, low affiliation, and high inhibition - Low power, high affiliation, and high inhibition - High power, low affiliation, and low inhibition {Does a high need for power necessarily result in aggressive behaviour? |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Conclusion == Psychological theory and research suggest that power motivation shapes how individuals seek, maintain, and regulate influence. McClelland's Three Need Theory explains differences in needs for power, achievement, and affiliation. The Two Faces of Power distinguishes personalised power, focused on personal control and self-interest, from socialised power, which uses influence to benefit others. This distinction explains why power motivation can produce very different leadership outcomes (McClelland, 1970; Carvalho & Conde, 2024). The LMP further suggests that a high need for power, low need for affiliation, and high activity inhibition can support effective leadership by balancing influence with self-control (Reeve, 2018). Power motivation is neither inherently positive nor negative; its effects depend on how leaders exercise authority, regulate behaviour, and balance personal ambitions with others’ needs. Effective leadership depends not on how much power a person wants, but on how they use it. Leaders who regulate their power motivation and direct influence toward collective goals, development, and positive outcomes are more likely to be well received by the public and subordinates (Peyton et al., 2019; Friederichs et al., 2023). Understanding power motivation helps explain both effective leadership and the risks of abuse, underscoring the importance of self-regulation and ethical influence. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}}[[Image:Nuvola_apps_filetypes.png|right|102px]] ;Reflection activity Think of a time you influenced a group decision at university, work, or in a team sport. Reflect on: * What was the situation, and how did you respond? * How did you influence others or make decisions? * What motivated your behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Donald_Trump|Donald Trump]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness|Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Leadership motivation#Leadership Motive Pattern|Leadership motivation]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Two-factor motivation theory|Two-factor motivation theory]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[wikipedia:David_McClelland|David Clelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Need_for_power|Need for power]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Need_theory|Need theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bargh, J. A., & Lee-Chai, A. Y. (2002). The use and abuse of power : Multiple perspectives in the causes of corruption. Psychology. Bwalya, A. (2023). Leadership styles. Article in Journal of Entrepreneurship, Management and Innovation, 11(8), 181–193. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.23932113 Carvalho, J. M. S., & Conde, A. (2024). Individual power in human motivation – review and theoretical perspective. Acta Psychologica, 249, 104452–104452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104452 Deakin University. (2024, December 5). What are the different leadership styles? Deakin.Edu.Au. https://leadership.deakin.edu.au/blog/different-leadership-styles Friederichs, K. M., Waldenmeier, K., & Baumann, N. (2023). The benefits of prosocial power motivation in leadership: Action orientation fosters a win-win. Plos One, 18(7), e0287394–e0287394. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0287394 Gambino, L. (2021, January 9). Trump has lost Twitter, his biggest political megaphone. Now what? The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2021/jan/08/trump-has-lost-twitter-his-biggest-political-megaphone-now-what Khajeh, A., Abu, M., & Asaari, H. (2018). Impact of leadership styles on organizational performance. Journal of Human Resources Management Research, 2018(2166–0018), 2166–2184. https://ibimapublishing.com/articles/JHRMR/2018/687849/687849-1.pdf Kurt, D. S. (2021, May 23). McClelland’s Three Needs Theory: Power, Achievement, and Affiliation. Education Library. https://educationlibrary.org/mcclellands-three-needs-theory-power-achievement-and-affiliation/#1 LeBreton, J. M., Shiverdecker, L. K., & Grimaldi, E. M. (2018). The dark triad and workplace behavior. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 5(1), 387–414. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032117-104451 Magee, J. C., & Langner, C. A. (2008). How personalized and socialized power motivation facilitate antisocial and prosocial decision-making. Journal of Research in Personality, 42(6), 1547–1559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2008.07.009 McCann, L., & Mollan, S. (2023, November 20). JFK 60 years on: His leadership style and the reality behind the myths. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/jfk-60-years-on-his-leadership-style-and-the-reality-behind-the-myths-216477 McClelland, D. C. (1970). The two faces of power. Journal of International Affairs, 24(1), 29–47. JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24356663 Mobaseri, Y., & Nosrat Kharazmi, Zohreh. (2025). Cognitive characteristic and crisis behaviour: An analysis of Donald Trump’s leadership style and operational code in the time of crisis. Journal of World Sociopolitical Studies, 9(1), 87–115. https://doi.org/10.22059/wsps.2025.384855.1468 Peyton, T., Zigarmi, D., & Fowler, S. N. (2019). Examining the relationship between leaders’ power use, followers’ motivational outlooks, and followers’ work intentions. Frontiers in Psychology, 9(2620). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02620 Power , D. P. G. (2026). The five essentials of leadership {{!}} APS. Psychology.Org.Au. https://psychology.org.au/inpsych/2017/august/power Ran, Y., Liu, Q., Cheng, Q., & Zhang, Y. (2021). Implicit-explicit power motives congruence and forgiveness in the workplace conflict: The mediating role of empathy. International Journal of Conflict Management, 32(3), 445–468. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijcma-06-2020-0116 Reeve, J. (2018). Understanding motivation and emotion (7th edn, pp. 152–176). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Roeloffs, M. W. (2025, January 20). Billionaires worth a combined $1.2 trillion attended Trump’s inauguration: Here’s who was there—From musk to Bezos. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/maryroeloffs/2025/01/20/billionaires-worth-a-combined-12-trillion-attended-trumps-inauguration-heres-who-was-there-from-musk-to-bezos/ Slabbinck, H., & Van Witteloostuijn, A. (2020). Explicit and implicit basic human motives, and public service motivation. Frontiers in Psychology, 11(1542). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01542 Spangler, W. D., Tikhomirov, A., Sotak, K. L., & Palrecha, R. (2014). Leader motive profiles in eight types of organizations. The Leadership Quarterly, 25(6), 1080–1094. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2014.10.001 Spanler, W. D., Tikhomirov, A., Lee Sotak, K., & Palrecha, R. (2014). Leader motive profiles in eight types of organizations. ScienceDirect, 25(6). https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/science/article/pii/S1048984314001040 Thrash, T. M., Maruskin, L. A., & Martin, C. C. (2012). Implicit–explicit motive congruence. In R. M. Ryan (Ed.), The oxford handbook of human motivation (pp. 141–156). Oxford University Press. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2012-03687-009 Verona, E., McKinley, S. J., Hoffmann, A., Murphy, B. A., & Watts, A. L. (2023). Psychopathy facets, perceived power, and forms of aggression. Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment, 14(3), 259–273. https://doi.org/10.1037/per0000562 }} ==External links== * [https://www.forbes.com/sites/maryroeloffs/2025/01/20/billionaires-worth-a-combined-12-trillion-attended-trumps-inauguration-heres-who-was-there-from-musk-to-bezos/ Billionaires Worth A Combined $1.35 Trillion Attended Trump’s Inauguration: Here’s Who Was There—From Musk To Bezos] (Roeloffs, 2025) * [https://www.stand-deliver.com/columns/leadership/1319-donald-trump-s-leadership-style-is-it-all-about-me.html Donald Trump’s Leadership Style: Is it all about “me”?] (Steve Adubato , 2019) * [https://educationlibrary.org/mcclellands-three-needs-theory-power-achievement-and-affiliation/#1 McClelland’s Three Needs Theory: Power, Achievement, and Affiliation] (Kurt, 2021) * [https://psychology.org.au/inpsych/2017/august/power The five essentials of leadership] (Power , 2026) * [https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2021/jan/08/trump-has-lost-twitter-his-biggest-political-megaphone-now-what Trump has lost Twitter, his biggest political megaphone. Now what?] (Gambino, 2021) * [https://theconversation.com/jfk-60-years-on-his-leadership-style-and-the-reality-behind-the-myths-216477 JFK 60 years on: his leadership style and the reality behind the myths] (McCann & Mollan, 2023) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Power motivation and leadership|Power motivation and leadership]] (Book chapter, 2024) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Leadership]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Power motivation]] 0do2kiq5e49qul7yjd2dkooa13j0ede 0 328723 2841836 2804037 2026-10-21T08:32:27Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 2841836 wikitext text/x-wiki {{DISPLAYTITLE:The Mezger Engine}} =The Mezger Engine: Porsche’s Racing DNA in Road Cars = === Introduction === [[https://news.dupontregistry.com/blogs/buying-guides/last-productionporsche-mezger-flat-six-engine-997-gt3rs-40?utm_source=]] [[File:Hans-Mezger-PFF-2.jpg|thumb|Hans-Mezger-PFF-2]] The Mezger engine is widely considered one of the most important and respected engines in the history of Porsche. Named after engineer Hans Mezger, this engine stands out because it directly connects Porsche’s racing technology to its road cars. Unlike standard production engines, the Mezger engine was built with motorsport in mind, which is why it became a key component in high-performance models like the GT3, Turbo, and GT2.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mezger|first=Hans|date=1978|title=Turbocharging Engines for Racing and Passenger Cars|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44632583|journal=SAE Transactions|volume=87|pages=2779–2797|issn=0096-736X}}</ref> == Background and Origins == The Mezger engine did not start as a typical road car engine. Instead, it evolved from Porsche’s racing programs, particularly endurance racing and Le Mans 24hr racing prototypes. The design traces back to engines used in race cars like the GT1, which influenced its structure and performance capabilities. Because of this, the Mezger engine carried over many racing features, making it far more durable and performance-focused than standard engines. This is one of the main reasons why enthusiasts respect it so much today. == Technical Design and Features == [[https://www.hemmings.com/stories/inside-the-porsche-mezger-engine-in-the-911-turbo-gt3-and-gt2/]] Flat-Six Configuration The Mezger engine uses a [[wikipedia:Porsche_flat-six_engine|flat-six (boxer) layout]], meaning the cylinders are horizontally opposed. This design improves balance, reduces vibration, and lowers the center of gravity, which helps with handling. Dry-Sump Lubrication One of the most important features is its true dry-sump oil system. Unlike standard engines, this system prevents oil starvation during high-speed cornering, which is critical for track driving. The engine is known for “durability” and its ability to handle extreme conditions due to this design. Racing-Based Crankcase Another major difference is the crankcase design, which is derived from racing engines. This allows the engine to handle higher stress and higher RPMs compared to normal production engines == What Makes the Mezger Engine Special == [[https://www.magnetomagazine.com/articles/whats-so-special-about-the-mezger-flat-six/]] According to Magneto Magazine, the Mezger engine developed over decades into a high-performance machine that could produce up to 500 horsepower in its final form while maintaining extremely high engine speeds. [[File:Porsche 911 997 GT3 RS (68893).jpg|thumb]] What really makes it special is not just the power, but the way it delivers it. The engine is known for its sharp throttle response, high-revving nature, and unique sound. It represents a time when engineering was focused more on performance than cost or emissions. This allows the the 911 997 GT3 RS 4.0 to have a top speed of 194 mph and a 0-60 in 3.8 seconds. =Differences from Standard Porsche Engines= The Mezger engine is very different from engines like the M96 and M97, which were used in regular Porsche models.They were not designed to be massproduced. Mezger engines use a true dry-sump system, while others use simpler designs. Mezger engines are derived from racing, while others are built for cost efficiency. Mezger engines are known for higher reliability, especially compared to issues like IMS bearing failures in other engines [[File:Porsche 992 Turbo S 1X7A0413.jpg|thumb]] These differences can explain why Mezger-powered cars are more desirable among collectors. == References == 1: Mezger, H. (1978). Turbocharging engines for racing and passenger cars. SAE Transactions, 87, 2779–2797. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44632583 2: Frankel, A., et al. (2020, June 16). The Mezger engine: Porsche legend created by a genius. Motor Sport Magazine. https://www.motorsportmagazine.com/articles/road-cars/the-mezger-engine-porsche-legend-created-by-a-genius 3: Hinsdale, P. (1972). The fabulous Porsche 917. https://www.amazon.com/Fabulous-Porsche-917-Peter-Hinsdale/dp/0877990522 4: Hughes, E. (2023, March 27). What’s so special about the Porsche Mezger flat-six engine? Magneto Magazine. https://www.magnetomagazine.com/articles/whats-so-special-about-the-mezger-flat-six/ 5: Hemmings. (n.d.). Inside the Porsche “Mezger” engine in the 911 Turbo, GT3, and GT2. Hemmings. https://www.hemmings.com/stories/inside-the-porsche-mezger-engine-in-the-911-turbo-gt3-and-gt2/ {{DEFAULTSORT:}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Mezger Porsche Turbo Engine}} [[Category:Engineering]] [[Category:Engineering and Technology]] [[Category:Automotive Technology]] {{BookCat}} ==Citations== ouki73kc04kl0jcm7uzmxb1i3ryj4u3 0 329548 2841739 2841694 2026-10-20T19:44:23Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 2841739 wikitext text/x-wiki {{mathematics}} '''Athena problem''' is an [[:w:List of unsolved problems in mathematics|unsolved problem]] in [[:w:Number theory|number theory]] and [[:w:Formal language theory|formal language theory]] and [[:w:Order theory|order theory]], this problem is named after the ancient Greek goddess [[:w:Athena|Athena]] (which is associated with [[:w:Wisdom|wisdom]]). Athena problem is: Give a [[:w:Natural number|natural number]] ''b'' > 1, find the [[:w:Set (mathematics)|set]] of the [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s of the set of the "[[:w:Prime number|prime number]] [[:w:Greater than|>]] ''b''" [[:w:Numerical digit|digit]] [[:w:String (computer science)|string]]s in the [[:w:Positional numeral system|positional numeral system]] with [[:w:Radix|base]] ''b'' for the [[:w:Subsequence|subsequence]] [[:w:Partially ordered set|ordering]]. (A string ''x'' is a subsequence of another string ''y'', if ''x'' can be obtained from ''y'' by deleting zero or more of the [[:w:Character (computing)|character]]s in ''y''. For example, 514 is a subsequence of 352148, "string" is a subsequence of "meistersinger". In contrast, 758 is not a subsequence of 378259, "abc" is not a subsequence of "cbacacba", since the characters must be in the same order) (Unlike [[:w:Substring|substring]], subsequence is not required to occupy consecutive positions within the original sequences, e.g. the [[:w:Longest common subsequence|longest common subsequence problem]] is different from the [[:w:Longest common substring|longest common substring problem]]) Using [[:w:Formal language theory|formal language theory]] terminology, Athena problem is finding the [[:w:Set (mathematics)|set]] of the [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s of the [[:w:Formal language|language]] of base-''b'' [[:w:Representation (mathematics)|representation]]s of the [[:w:Prime number|prime number]]s [[:w:Greater than|>]] ''b'' (which is a set of [[:w:String (computer science)|string]]s of [[:w:Symbol|symbol]]s over the [[:w:Alphabet (formal languages)|alphabet]] ''Σ''_''b'' := {0, 1, ..., ''b''−1}), under the subsequence ordering (i.e. the [[:w:Binary relation|binary relation]] "is a subsequence of", which is a [[:w:Partially ordered set|partial ordering]]), for a given natural number ''b'' > 1 (You can draw this partial ordering as a [[:w:Hasse diagram|Hasse diagram]] to find all [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s), this set is called '''Athena set''', and the prime numbers in this set are called '''Athena primes'''. The set of all strings ordered by [[:w:Subsequence|subsequence]] (i.e. under the [[:w:Binary relation|binary relation]] "is a subsequence of") is a [[:w:Partially ordered set|partially ordered set]] (i.e. the binary relation "is a subsequence of" is a [[:w:Partially ordered set|partial order]] relation, since this binary relation is [[:w:Reflexive relation|reflexive]], [[:w:Antisymmetric relation|antisymmetric]], and [[:w:Transitive relation|transitive]]), hence, any given ([[:w:Finite set|finite]] or [[:w:Infinite set|infinite]]) set (e.g. the set of the "[[:w:Prime number|prime number]]s [[:w:Greater than|>]] ''b''" strings in [[:w:Radix|base]] ''b'', for 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36), which is exactly the Athena problem) of strings ordered by subsequence is also a partially ordered set, and thus we can draw its [[:w:Hasse diagram|Hasse diagram]] and find its [[:w:Greatest element|greatest element]], [[:w:Least element|least element]], [[:w:Maximal element|maximal element]]s, and [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s, however, the greatest element and least element may not exist, and for an infinite set, the maximal elements also may not exist, thus we are only interested on finding the minimal elements of such sets, and we define minimal set of a set as the set of the minimal elements of this set, under a given partially ordered binary relation (this binary relation is "is a subsequence of" in the Athena problem), and we use ''M''(''S'') to denote the minimal set of the set ''S''. A [[:w:Partially ordered set|partially ordered set]] is a [[:w:Totally ordered set|totally ordered set]] if the elements in this set are pairwise [[:w:Comparability|comparable]], two elements ''x'' and ''y'' are comparable with respect to a binary relation "≤" if at least one of ''x'' ≤ ''y'' or ''y'' ≤ ''x'' is true, thus, under the binary relation "is a subsequence of", two strings ''x'' and ''y'' are comparable if either ''x'' is a subsequence of ''y'', or ''y'' is a subsequence of ''x''. A surprising result from [[:w:Formal language theory|formal language theory]] is that every set of pairwise incomparable (i.e. not comparable) strings is [[:w:Finite set|finite]] (note that this is not true for general partially ordered binary relations, e.g. the set of the positive integers, under the binary relation "is a [[:w:Divisor|divisor]] of", the infinite set of the [[:w:Prime number|prime number]]s (by [[:w:Euclid theorem|Euclid theorem]], this set is infinite) is pairwise incomparable, in fact, this set is exactly the minimal set of the set of the positive integers > 1 under this binary relation). At first sight this theorem is hard to believe, since we may make a set of pairwise incomparable strings as large as we want, e.g. all the strings with length 20 are pairwise incomparable, and if our [[:w:Alphabet (formal languages)|alphabet]] has ''n'' elements, then there are ''n''²⁰ such strings. Even if our alphabet are ''Σ''_''b'' = {0, 1, ..., ''b'' − 1} (the set of the [[:w:Radix|base]]-''b'' digits), which has ''b'' elements and we do not count the strings with [[Leading zero|leading zero]]s, there are still ''b''²⁰−''b''¹⁹ such strings (i.e. there are ''b''²⁰−''b''¹⁹ 20-digit numbers in base ''b''), e.g. for the case of decimal (base ''b'' = 10), there are as many as 9×10¹⁹ such strings (i.e. there are 9×10¹⁹ 20-digit numbers in base ''b'' = 10). And nothing prevents us from 20 with 50 or 100 or 10¹⁰⁰. Nevertheless, the result is true, and in fact the proof is not that hard (the proof is like Bolzano–Weierstrass theorem in real analysis, i.e. all bounded sequence has a convergent subsequence). This means that from any set of strings we can find its minimal elements. A string ''x'' in a set of strings ''S'' is a minimal string (minimal element of a set of strings ordered by subsequence) if whenever ''y'' (an element of ''S'') is a subsequence of ''x'', we have ''y'' = ''x''. By [[:w:Higman's lemma|Higman's lemma]], there are no [[:w:Infinite set|infinite]] [[:w:Antichain|antichain]]s for the subsequence ordering (i.e. the subsequence ordering is always a [[:w:Well-quasi-ordering|well quasi order]]) (i.e. under the subsequence ordering (i.e. the [[:w:Binary relation|binary relation]] "is a subsequence of", which is a [[:w:Partially ordered set|partial ordering]]), every set of pairwise incomparable (i.e. not [[:w:Comparability|comparable]]) strings is finite), thus there must be only finitely many such minimal elements. In other words, the Athena set in every base ''b'' must be a [[:w:Finite set|finite set]], and every base ''b'' ≥ 2 has only finitely many Athena primes, e.g. in [[:w:Decimal|decimal]] (base ''b'' = 10), the Athena set has exactly 77 [[:w:Element of a set|element]]s (they are exactly the Athena primes in decimal (base ''b'' = 10)): {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027}. Determining the set of the minimal elements of a arbitrary set of strings under the subsequence ordering is in general [[:w:List of unsolved problems in mathematics|unsolvable]], and can be difficult even when this set is relatively simple (such as the base ''b'' representations of the prime numbers > ''b'', whose set is exactly the Athena set in base ''b''). Although the set ''M''(''S'') of minimal strings is necessarily [[:w:Finite set|finite]], determining it explicitly for a given ''S'' can be a difficult computational problem. We use some [[:w:Number theory|numbertheoretic]] [[:w:Heuristic argument|heuristic]]s to [[:w:Computing|compute]] ''M''(''L''_''b'') (i.e. to compute the Athena set in base ''b''), where ''L''_''b'' is the [[:w:Formal language|language]] of [[:w:Radix|base]]-''b'' representations of the [[:w:Prime number|prime number]]s which are [[:w:Greater than|>]] ''b'', for 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36. For bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36, Athena problem is fully solved in bases ''b'' = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 18, 20, 24, and also solved in bases ''b'' = 11, 13, 16, 22, 30 if [[:w:Probable prime|probable prime]]s are allowed. For the unsolved bases ''b'' = 17, 19, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, Athena problem is solved (if probable primes are allowed) except 771 [[:w:Indexed family|families]] of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be [[:w:Empty string|empty]]) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') = sequence {''xz'', ''xyz'', ''xyyz'', ''xyyyz'', ''xyyyyz'', ''xyyyyyz'', ...} (i.e. "''xy''⁺''z''" in [[:w:Regular expression|regular expression]]), all of these 771 families contain no primes > ''b'' or probable primes > ''b'' with length ≤ 100000. (The chance that an unproven probable prime in these sets is in fact composite is less than 10⁻²⁰⁰⁰, see https://t5k.org/notes/prp_prob.html) Below, family ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be [[:w:Empty string|empty]]) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') means sequence {''xz'', ''xyz'', ''xyyz'', ''xyyyz'', ''xyyyyz'', ''xyyyyyz'', ...} (i.e. "''xy''⁺''z''" in [[:w:Regular expression|regular expression]]), where the members are expressed as base ''b'' strings, like the numbers in https://stdkmd.net/nrr/aaaab.htm, https://stdkmd.net/nrr/abbbb.htm, https://stdkmd.net/nrr/aaaba.htm, https://stdkmd.net/nrr/abaaa.htm, https://stdkmd.net/nrr/abbba.htm, https://stdkmd.net/nrr/abbbc.htm, e.g. 1{3} (in decimal) is the numbers in https://stdkmd.net/nrr/1/13333.htm#about_first, and {1}3 (in decimal) is the numbers in https://stdkmd.net/nrr/1/11113.htm#about_first, and 31{3} (in decimal) is the numbers in https://stdkmd.net/nrr/3/31333.htm#about_first, and {1}31 (in decimal) is the numbers in https://stdkmd.net/nrr/1/11131.htm#about_first, and 1{2}3 (in decimal) is the numbers in https://stdkmd.net/nrr/1/12223.htm#about_first, also, superscripts always means exponents, subscripts are always used to indicate repetitions of digits, e.g. 123₄567 = 123333567, all subscripts are written in decimal. == Solve the problem == To solve the Athena problem for a given base ''b'', we must [[:w:Computing|compute]] the elements up to families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''), and find the smallest prime > ''b'' in all such families. We call families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') "linear" families, and we reduce these families by removing all trailing digits ''y'' from ''x'', and removing all leading digits ''y'' from ''z'', to make the families be easier, e.g. family 12333{3}33345 in base ''b'' is reduced to family 12{3}45 in base ''b'', since they are in fact the same family. Our [[:w:Algorithm|algorithm]] then proceeds as follows: * 1. ''M'' := {minimal primes in base ''b'' of length 2 or 3}, ''L'' := union of all ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'') such that ''x'' ≠ 0 and ''gcd''(''z'', ''b'') = 1 and ''Y'' is the set of digits ''y'' in base ''b'' such that ''xyz'' has no subsequence in ''M''. * 2. While ''L'' contains nonlinear families (families which are not linear families): Explore each family of ''L'', and update ''L''. Examine each family of ''L'' by: * 2.1. Let ''w'' be the shortest string in the family. If ''w'' has a subsequence in ''M'', then remove the family from ''L''. If ''w'' represents a prime, then add ''w'' to ''M'' and remove the family from ''L''. * 2.2. If possible, simplify the family. * 2.3. Using the techniques below (covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), check if the family can be proven to only contain composites (only count the numbers > ''b''), and if so then remove the family from ''L''. * 3. Update ''L'', after each split examine the new families as in step 2. e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10): ''M'' := {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991} ''L'' := {2{0,2}1, 2{0,8}7, 3{0,3,6,9}3, 3{0,3,6,9}9, 4{6}9, 5{0,5,8}1, 5{0,2}7, 6{0,3,6,9}3, 6{0,3,4,6,9}9, 7{0,7}7, 8{0,5}1, 8{0}7, 9{0,2,5,8}1, 9{0,3,6,9}3, 9{0,3,4,6,9}9} and since 2221 is prime, it follows that the family 2{0,2}1 splits into the families 2{0}1 and 2{0}2{0}1 and since the family 2{0}1 can be proven to contain no primes > base (since all numbers in this family are divisible by 3), it can be removed and since 20201 is prime, it follows that the family 2{0}2{0}1 splits into the families 2{0}21 and 22{0}1 221 and 2021 are composites, but 20021 is prime, thus add 20021 to ''L'' none of 221, 2201, 22001, 220001, 2200001 are primes, but 22000001 is prime, thus add 22000001 to ''L'' and since the family 3{0,3,6,9}3 can be proven to contain no primes > base (since all numbers in this family are divisible by 3), it can be removed etc. Since the number of possible (first digit,last digit) (also called (initial digit,final digit)) combos ([[:w:Ordered pair|ordered pair]]s) of a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' is (''b''−1)×''[[:w:Euler's totient function|eulerphi]]''(''b'') (all digits except 0 can be the first digit of a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' (thus ''b''−1 possible digits), but only the digits coprime to ''b'' can be the last digit of a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' (thus ''eulerphi''(''b'') possible digits), and by the [[:w:Rule of product|rule of product]], there are (''b''−1)×''eulerphi''(''b'') choices of the (first digit,last digit) combo, also, both "numbers of Athena primes in base ''b''" and "length of the largest Athena prime in base ''b''" are [[:w:Asymptotic analysis|roughly]] ''[[:w:E (mathematical_constant)|e]]''^{''[[:w:Euler's constant|γ]]''×(''b''−1)×''[[:w:Euler's totient function|eulerphi]]''(*b*)}. Shrinking the family ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''Y'' is a set of digits in base ''b'') * If ''y'' ∈ ''Y'' and the string ''xyyz'' represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or has a subsequence which represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''z'' ∪ ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''y''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''z''. * If ''y''₁ ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''₂ ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''₁ ≠ ''y''₂ and the string ''xy''₁''y''₂''z'' represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or has a subsequence which represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''₁}{''Y'' \ ''y''₂}''z''. * If ''y''₁ ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''₂ ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''₁ ≠ ''y''₂ and both the strings ''xy''₁''y''₂''z'' and ''xy''₂''y''₁''z'' represent a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or have a subsequence which represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''₁}''z'' ∪ ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''₂}''z''. e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10): * 2221 is a prime > 10, thus the family 2{0,2}1 splits into the two families 2{0}1 and 2{0}2{0}1. * 227 is a prime > 10, and it is a subsequence of 5227, thus the family 5{0,2}7 splits into the two families 5{0}7 and 5{0}2{0}7. * 449 is a prime > 10, and it is a subsequence of 6449, thus the family 6{0,3,4,6,9}9 splits into the two families 6{0,3,6,9}9 and 6{0,3,6,9}4{0,3,6,9}9. * Both 5051 and 5501 are primes > 10, thus the family 5{0,5}1 splits into the two families 5{0}1 and 5{5}1 = {5}1. * 8501 is a prime > 10, thus the family 8{0,5}1 splits into the family 8{0}{5}1. * 887 is a prime > 10, and it is a subsequence of 2887, also 2087 is a prime > 10, thus the family 2{0,8}7 splits into the two families 2{0}7 and 28{0}7. * 349 and 449 are primes > 10, and they are subsequences of 9349 and 9449, respectively, also 9049, 9649, 9949 are primes > 10, thus the family 9{0,3,4,6,9}9 splits into the two families 9{0,3,6,9}9 and 94{0,3,6,9}9. * 251, 281, 521, 821, 881 are primes > 10, and they are subsequences of 9251, 9281, 9521, 9821, 9881, respectively, also 9001, 9221, 9551, 9851 are primes > 10, thus the family 9{0,2,5,8}1 splits into the numbers {91, 901, 921, 951, 981, 9021, 9051, 9081, 9201, 9501, 9581, 9801, 90581, 95081, 95801}. If the methods we have discussed cannot be used to rule out or shrink ''x''{''Y''}''z'' where ''Y'' = {''y''₁, ''y''₂, ..., ''y''_''n''}, then we can replace ''x''{''Y''}''z'' by ''xy''₁{''Y''}''z'' ∪ ''xy''₂{''Y''}''z'' ∪ ... ∪ ''xy''_''n''{''Y''}''z'' and re-run the methods on this new [[:w:Formal language|language]]. If all remain families are linear families (i.e. of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'', where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''), then we search the smallest (probable) primes in these families and add these primes to the list. e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10): * The smallest prime in the family 5{0}27 is 5000000000000000000000000000027. * The smallest prime in the family {5}1 is 555555555551. * The smallest prime in the family 8{5}1 is 8555555555555555555551, but 8555555555555555555551 is not a minimal element since 555555555551 is a subsequence of 8555555555555555555551. There is no guarantee that the techniques discussed will ever terminate, but in practice they often do. They are able to determine the Athena set in base ''b'' for 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 16 and ''b'' = 18, 20, 22, 24, 30. The bases ''b'' = 17, 19, 21, 23, 25 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 29, 31 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 are solved with the exception of 771 families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''). The following is a "[[:w:Semi-algorithm|semi-algorithm]]" that is guaranteed to solve the Athena problem for a given base ''b'', but it is not so easy to implement: # ''M'' = ''[[:w:Empty string|∅]]'' # while (''L'' ≠ ''∅'') do # choose ''x'', a shortest string in ''L'' # ''M'' := ''M'' ∪ {''x''} # ''L'' := ''L'' − ''sup''({''x''}) In practice, for arbitrary ''L'', we cannot feasibly carry out step 5. Instead, we work with ''L''&#39;, some regular overapproximation to ''L'', until we can show ''L''&#39; = ''∅'' (which implies ''L'' = ''∅''). In practice, ''L''&#39; is usually chosen to be a finite [[:w:Union (set theory)|union]] of sets of the form ''L''₁{''L''₂}''L''₃, where each of ''L''₁, ''L''₂, ''L''₃ is finite. In the case we consider in this project, we then have to determine whether such a family contains a prime or not. Thus, the [[:w:Time complexity|time complexity]] of the Athena problem in base ''b'' may be ''[[:w:Big O notation|O]]''(''[[:w:E (mathematical_constant)|e]]''^{''[[:w:Euler's constant|γ]]''×(''b''−1)×''[[:w:Euler's totient function|eulerphi]]''(*b*)}), and the [[:w:CPU time|CPU time]] of the Athena problem in base ''b'' may be longer than [[:w:Age of the universe|the age of the universe]] for bases ''b'' = 19, 23, 25, 27, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, also, Athena problem in bases ''b'' around 500 may be [[:w:NP-complete|NP-complete]] or [[:w:NP-hard|NP-hard]], or an [[:w:Undecidable problem|undecidable problem]], or an example of [[:w:Gödel's incompleteness theorems|Gödel's incompleteness theorems]] (like the [[:w:Continuum hypothesis|continuum hypothesis]] and the [[:w:Halting problem|halting problem]]). To solve the Athena problem (i.e. to compute the Athena set), we need to determine whether a given family contains a prime. In practice, if family ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''Y'' is a set of digits in base ''b'') could not be ruled out as only containing composites and ''Y'' contains two or more digits, then a relatively small prime > ''b'' could always be found in this family. Intuitively, this is because there are a large number of small strings in such a family, and at least one is likely to be prime (e.g. there are 2^''n''−2 strings of length ''n'' in the family 1{3,7}9, and there are over a thousand strings of length 12 in the family 1{3,7}9, thus it is very impossible that these numbers are all composite). In the case ''Y'' contains only one digit, this family is of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'', and there is only a single string of each length > (the length of ''x'' + the length of ''z''), and it is not known if the following [[:w:Decision problem|decision problem]] is recursively solvable (just like [[:w:Sierpiński number|Sierpiński problem]] and [[:w:Riesel number|Riesel problem]], Sierpiński problem and Riesel problem can be generalized to other bases ''b'' (references: http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Sierp-conjectures.htm, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Riesel-conjectures.htm, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Sierp-conjectures-powers2.htm, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Riesel-conjectures-powers2.htm, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Sierp-conjecture-reserves.htm, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Riesel-conjecture-reserves.htm), in fact, Athena problem base ''b'' covers the Sierpiński problem base ''b'' and the Riesel problem base ''b'' with ''k'' < ''b'', i.e. finding the smallest prime of the form ''k''×''b''^''n''+1 and ''k''×''b''^''n''−1 (or prove such prime does not exist) with ''k'' < ''b'' (specially, for bases ''b'' such that the conjectured smallest Sierpiński number or the conjectured smallest Riesel number is < ''b'', Athena problem base ''b'' covers the Sierpiński problem base ''b'' or the Riesel problem base ''b'', respectively), since the smallest prime of the form ''k''×''b''^''n''+1 and ''k''×''b''^''n''−1 (if exists) must be a minimal element in base ''b'', also, Athena problem base ''b'' covers finding the smallest prime of these forms in base ''b'' (or proving that such prime does not exist) (in fact, it is known that exactly what bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 1024 have the families listed in the table below as unsolved families, all of these families in all bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 1024 have been searched to length ≥ 10000 (for the family (''sqrt''(''b'')×''b''^''n''+1)/(''sqrt''(''b'')+1), bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 1048576, searched to length ≥ 5000)): (''b''^''n''−1)/(''b''−1) (for this form, ''n'' must be prime, and we want ''n'' ≥ 2) (references of this form: http://www.fermatquotient.com/PrimSerien/GenRepu.txt, https://web.archive.org/web/20021111141203/http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~aads/primes.html, http://www.primenumbers.net/Henri/us/MersFermus.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/379, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableRepunitGen.php, https://oeis.org/A084740, https://oeis.org/A084738, https://oeis.org/A128164, https://oeis.org/A285642; or for prime bases ''b'': https://oeis.org/A065854, https://oeis.org/A279068), ''b''^''n''+1 (for this form, ''n'' must be power of 2, and we want ''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: http://jeppesn.dk/generalized-fermat.html, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/GFN-primes.htm, https://web.archive.org/web/20231002190634/http://yves.gallot.pagesperso-orange.fr/primes/index.html, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableFermatGFBB.php, https://oeis.org/A079706, https://oeis.org/A084712, https://oeis.org/A228101), (''b''^''n''+1)/2 (for odd ''b'') (for this form, ''n'' must be power of 2, and we want ''n'' ≥ 2) (reference of this form: http://www.fermatquotient.com/PrimSerien/GenFermOdd.txt), (''sqrt''(''b'')×''b''^''n''+1)/(''sqrt''(''b'')+1) (for square ''b'') (for this form, 2×''n''+1 must be prime, and we want ''n'' ≥ 2) (references of this form: http://www.fermatquotient.com/PrimSerien/GenRepuP.txt, http://www.primenumbers.net/Henri/us/MersFermus.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/488, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableWagstaffGen.php, https://oeis.org/A084742, https://oeis.org/A084741; or for bases ''b'' with ''sqrt''(''b'') prime: https://oeis.org/A065507), ((''b''−2)×''b''^''n''+1)/(''b''−1) (''n'' ≥ 2) (reference of this form: https://oeis.org/A243404), 2×''b''^''n''+1 (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: https://www.mersenneforum.org/showthread.php?t=6918, https://www.mersenneforum.org/showthread.php?t=19725, https://oeis.org/A119624), 2×''b''^''n''−1 (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: https://www.mersenneforum.org/showthread.php?t=24576, https://www.mersenneforum.org/attachment.php?attachmentid=20976&d=1567314217, https://oeis.org/A119591), ''b''^''n''+2 (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: https://oeis.org/A138066, https://oeis.org/A084713, https://oeis.org/A138067), ''b''^''n''−2 (''n'' ≥ 2) (references of this form: https://www.primepuzzles.net/puzzles/puzz_887.htm, https://oeis.org/A250200, https://oeis.org/A255707, https://oeis.org/A084714; or for prime bases ''b'': https://oeis.org/A292201), (''b''−1)×''b''^''n''+1 (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/Williams-primes-MP.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/477, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableWilliams2.php, https://oeis.org/A305531; or for prime bases ''b'': https://oeis.org/A087139), (''b''−1)×''b''^''n''−1 (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: https://harvey563.tripod.com/wills.txt, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/Williams-primes-MM.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/484, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableWilliams1.php; or for prime bases ''b'': https://oeis.org/A122396), ''b''^''n''+(''b''−1) (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: http://www.bitman.name/math/table/795, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableWilliams6.php, https://oeis.org/A076845, https://oeis.org/A076846, https://oeis.org/A078178, https://oeis.org/A078179), ''b''^''n''−(''b''−1) (''n'' ≥ 2) (references of this form: http://www.bitman.name/math/table/792, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableWilliams5.php, https://oeis.org/A113516, https://oeis.org/A343589; or for prime bases ''b'': https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/journals/JIS/VOL3/mccranie.html, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/435)): '''Problem: Given strings ''x'', ''z'' (may be empty), a digit ''y'', and a base ''b'' (''x'' does not [[:w:Leading zero|start with the digit 0]], ''z'' ends with a digit which [[:w:Coprime integers|coprime]] to ''b'', ''y'' is not 0 if ''x'' is empty, ''y'' is coprime to ''b'' if ''z'' is empty), does there exist a prime number whose base-''b'' expansion is of the form ''xy''_''n''''z'' for some ''n'' ≥ 0?''' An [[:w:Algorithm|algorithm]] to solve this problem, for example, would allow us to decide if there are any additional [[:w:Fermat prime|Fermat prime]]s other than the known ones (corresponding to ''n'' = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4). To see this, take ''b'' = 2, ''x'' = 1, ''y'' = 0, and ''z'' = 0₁₆1. Since if 2^''n''+1 is prime then ''n'' must be a [[:w:Power of 2|power of two]], a prime of the form ''xy''_''n''''z'' in base ''b'' must be a new Fermat prime. Besides, it would allow us to decide if there are infinitely many [[:w:Mersenne prime|Mersenne prime]]s (of the form 2^''p''−1 with prime ''p''). To see this, take ''b'' = 2, ''x'' = ''𝜆'' (the [[:w:Empty string|empty string]]), ''y'' = 1, and ''z'' = 1_''n''+1, where ''n'' is the exponent of the Mersenne prime which we want to know whether it is the largest Mersenne prime or not. Since if 2^''n''−1 is prime then ''n'' must be a [[:w:Prime number|prime]], a prime of the form ''xy''_''n''''z'' in base ''b'' must be a new Mersenne prime. Also, it would allow us to decide whether 78557 is the smallest [[:w:Sierpinski number|Sierpinski number]] (i.e. odd numbers ''k'' such that ''k''×2^''n''+1 is composite for all ''n'' ≥ 1) and whether 509203 is the smallest [[:w:Riesel number|Riesel number]] (i.e. odd numbers ''k'' such that ''k''×2^*n*−1 is composite for all ''n'' ≥ 1), etc. '''Conjecture (this conjecture is very important for the Athena problem): If family ''xy''_''n''''z'' (with fixed strings ''x'', ''z'' (may be empty), fixed digit ''y'', and variable ''n'') in base ''b'' (with fixed ''b'' ≥ 2) (''x'' does not start with the digit 0, ''z'' ends with a digit which coprime to ''b'', ''y'' is not 0 if ''x'' is empty, ''y'' is coprime to ''b'' if ''z'' is empty) cannot be proven to only contain composites or only contain finitely many primes (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), then family ''xy''_''n''''z'' in base ''b'' contains infinitely many primes (this is equivalent to: If form (''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'')/''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1) (with fixed integers ''a'' ≥ 1, ''b'' ≥ 2, ''c'' ≠ 0 (with ''gcd''(''a'',''c'') = 1 and ''gcd''(''b'',''c'') = 1), and variable ''n'') cannot be proven to only contain composites or only contain finitely many primes (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), then form (''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'')/''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1) contains infinitely many primes).''' (in fact, this conjecture is equivalent to the conjecture (to prove this, by change the base (''b'') to a power of ''b'' which is larger than the largest prime in a given family (in base ''b'') which only contains finitely many primes): If family ''xy''_''n''''z'' (with fixed strings ''x'', ''z'' (may be empty), fixed digit ''y'', and variable ''n'') in base ''b'' (with fixed ''b'' ≥ 2) (''x'' does not start with the digit 0, ''z'' ends with a digit which coprime to ''b'', ''y'' is not 0 if ''x'' is empty, ''y'' is coprime to ''b'' if ''z'' is empty) cannot be proven to only contain composites (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), then family ''xy''_''n''''z'' in base ''b'' contains at least one prime (this is equivalent to: If form (''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'')/''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1) (with fixed integers ''a'' ≥ 1, ''b'' ≥ 2, ''c'' ≠ 0 (with ''gcd''(''a'',''c'') = 1 and ''gcd''(''b'',''c'') = 1), and variable ''n'') cannot be proven to only contain composites (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), then form (''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'')/''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1) contains at least one prime), like the [[:w:Bunyakovsky conjecture|Bunyakovsky conjecture]] and the [[:w:Dickson's conjecture|Dickson's conjecture]] and the [[:w:Schinzel's hypothesis H|Schinzel's hypothesis ''H'']], if such ''n'' always exists, then there must be always infinitely many such ''n'', to prove this, add another polynomial for the cases of the Dickson's conjecture and the Schinzel's hypothesis ''H'', also, change the polynomial (e.g. change ''n'' to ''r''×''n'' or ''n''^''r'' for all integers ''r'' > 1) for the cases of the Bunyakovsky conjecture and the Schinzel's hypothesis ''H'') Some families can be ruled out to contain no prime > ''b'' by [[:w:Covering set|covering congruence]], [[:w:Factorization of polynomials|algebraic factorization]] (e.g. [[:w:Difference of two squares|difference of two squares]], [[:w:Sum of two cubes|sum of two cubes]], [[:w:Sophie Germain's identity|Sophie Germain's identity of ''x''⁴+4×''y''⁴]]), or combine of them, e.g. * The base 9 family 2{7}: Always divisible by 2 or 5 * The base 11 family 2{5}: Always divisible by 2 or 3 * The base 14 family B{0}1: Always divisible by 3 or 5 * The base 13 family 95{0}3: Always divisible by 5, 7, or 17 * The base 16 family {4}D: Always divisible by 3, 7, or 13 * The base 16 family {8}F: Always divisible by 3, 7, or 13 * The base 21 family {7}D: Always divisible by 2, 13, or 17 * The base 23 family {D}GA: Always divisible by 2, 5, 7, 37, or 79 * The base 9 family {1}: Can be written as (9^''n''−1)/8 and can be factored as (3^''n''−1) × (3^''n''+1) / 8 * The base 8 family 1{0}1: Can be written as 8^''n''+1 and can be factored as (2^''n''+1) × (4^''n''−2^''n''+1) * The base 9 family 3{8}: Can be written as 4×9^''n''−1 and can be factored as (2×3^''n''−1) × (2×3^''n''+1) * The base 16 family 1{5}: Can be written as (4×16^''n''−1)/3 and can be factored as (2×3^''n''−1) × (2×3^''n''+1) / 3 * The base 16 family {4}1: Can be written as (4×16^''n''−49)/15 and can be factored as (2×3^''n''−7) × (2×3^''n''+7) / 15 * The base 27 family 7{Q}: Can be written as 8×27^''n''−1 and can be factored as (2×3^''n''−1) × (4×9^''n''+2×3^''n''+1) * The base 27 family 9{G}: Can be written as (125×27^''n''−8)/13 and can be factored as (5×3^''n''−2) × (25×9^''n''+10×3^''n''+4) * The base 16 family {C}D: Can be written as (4×16^''n''+1)/5 and can be factored as (2×4^''n''−2×2^''n''+1) × (2×4^''n''+2×2^''n''+1) / 5 * The base 14 family 8{D}: Can be written as 9×14^''n''−1, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (3×14^''n''/2−1) × (3×14^''n''/2+1) if ''n'' is even * The base 12 family {B}9B: Can be written as 12^''n''−25, it is divisible by 13 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (12^''n''/2−5) × (12^''n''/2+5) if ''n'' is even * The base 14 family {D}5: Can be written as 14^''n''−9, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (14^''n''/2−3) × (14^''n''/2+3) if ''n'' is even * The base 17 family 1{9}: Can be written as (25×17^''n''−9)/16, it is divisible by 2 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (5×17^''n''/2−3) × (5×17^''n''/2+3) / 16 if ''n'' is even * The base 17 family 7{9}: Can be written as (121×17^''n''−9)/16, it is divisible by 2 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (11×17^''n''/2−3) × (11×17^''n''/2+3) / 16 if ''n'' is even * The base 24 family 3{N}: Can be written as 4×24^''n''−1, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (2×24^''n''/2−1) × (2×24^''n''/2+1) if ''n'' is even * The base 24 family 5{N}: Can be written as 6×24^''n''−1, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is even and can be factored as (12×24^{(''n''−1)/2}−1) × (12×24^{(''n''−1)/2}+1) if ''n'' is odd * The base 33 family F{W}: Can be written as 16×33^''n''−1, it is divisible by 17 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (4×33^''n''/2−1) × (4×33^''n''/2+1) if ''n'' is even If the conjecture above is true, then the [[:w:Sierpiński number|Sierpiński conjecture]] and [[:w:Riesel number|Riesel conjecture]] are also true, and the [https://www.mersenneforum.org/showthread.php?t=10761 dual Sierpiński conjecture] and the [https://www.mersenneforum.org/showthread.php?t=6545 dual Riesel conjecture] are also true, and the [http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Sierp-conjectures.htm Sierpiński conjectures] and the [http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Riesel-conjectures.htm Riesel conjectures] in all bases ''b'' are also true, and the [http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/SNOB-Sierp-conjectures.htm real Sierpiński conjectures] and the [http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Real-Riesel-conjectures.htm real Riesel conjectures] are also true, also, if the Athena conjecture is true, then there are infinitely many primes of these forms for fixed bases ''b'' ≥ 2 and variable exponents ''n'': * (''b''^''n''−1)/(''b''−1) for all bases ''b'' which are not [[:w:Perfect power|perfect power]]s (for this form, ''n'' must be prime) (references of this form: http://www.fermatquotient.com/PrimSerien/GenRepu.txt, https://web.archive.org/web/20021111141203/http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~aads/primes.html, http://www.primenumbers.net/Henri/us/MersFermus.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/379, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableRepunitGen.php, https://oeis.org/A084740, https://oeis.org/A084738, https://oeis.org/A128164, https://oeis.org/A285642; or for prime bases ''b'': https://oeis.org/A065854, https://oeis.org/A279068) * ''b''^''n''+1 for all even bases ''b'' which are not of the form ''m''^''r'' with odd ''r'' > 1 (for this form, ''n'' must be power of 2) (references of this form: http://jeppesn.dk/generalized-fermat.html, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/GFN-primes.htm, https://web.archive.org/web/20231002190634/http://yves.gallot.pagesperso-orange.fr/primes/index.html, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableFermatGFBB.php, https://oeis.org/A079706, https://oeis.org/A084712, https://oeis.org/A228101) * (''b''^''n''+1)/2 for all odd bases ''b'' which are not of the form ''m''^''r'' with odd ''r'' > 1 (for this form, ''n'' must be power of 2) (reference of this form: http://www.fermatquotient.com/PrimSerien/GenFermOdd.txt) * (''b''^''n''+1)/(''b''+1) for all bases ''b'' which are neither of the form ''m''^''r'' with odd ''r'' > 1 nor of the form 4×''m''⁴ (for this form, ''n'' must be prime) (references of this form: http://www.fermatquotient.com/PrimSerien/GenRepuP.txt, http://www.primenumbers.net/Henri/us/MersFermus.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/488, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableWagstaffGen.php, https://oeis.org/A084742, https://oeis.org/A084741; or for prime bases ''b'': https://oeis.org/A065507) * ((''b''−2)×''b''^''n''+1)/(''b''−1) for all bases ''b'' > 2 (reference of this form: https://oeis.org/A243404) * 2×''b''^''n''+1 for all bases ''b'' < 201446503145165177, not == 1 mod 3 (references of this form: https://www.mersenneforum.org/showthread.php?t=6918, https://www.mersenneforum.org/showthread.php?t=19725, https://oeis.org/A119624) * 2×''b''^''n''−1 for all bases ''b'' (references of this form: https://www.mersenneforum.org/showthread.php?t=24576, https://www.mersenneforum.org/attachment.php?attachmentid=20976&d=1567314217, https://oeis.org/A119591) * 3×''b''^''n''+1 for all even bases ''b'' * 3×''b''^''n''−1 for all even bases ''b'' * 4×''b''^''n''+1 for all bases ''b'' not == 1 mod 5, not == 14 mod 15, not [[:w:Fourth power|fourth power]]s * 4×''b''^''n''−1 for all bases ''b'' not == 1 mod 3, not == 4 mod 5, not [[:w:Square number|square]]s * 5×''b''^''n''+1 for all even bases ''b'' < 140324348, not == 1 mod 3 * 5×''b''^''n''−1 for all even bases ''b'' * 6×''b''^''n''+1 for all bases ''b'' not == 1 mod 7, not == 34 mod 35 * 6×''b''^''n''−1 for all bases ''b'' not == 1 mod 5, not == 34 mod 35, not of the form 6×''m''² with ''m'' == 2, 3 mod 5 * 7×''b''^''n''+1 for all even bases ''b'' * 7×''b''^''n''−1 for all even bases ''b'' < 9162668342, not == 1 mod 3 * 8×''b''^''n''+1 for all bases ''b'' not == 1 mod 3, not == 20 mod 21, not == 47, 83 mod 195, not == 467, 4343, 9887, 25448, 35978, 41522, 42647, 57083 mod 73815, not == 722, 83813, 206672, 239432, 322523, 1283843, 1519577, 1522553 mod 1551615, ..., not [[:w:Cube (algebra)|cube]]s * 8×''b''^''n''−1 for all bases ''b'' not == 1 mod 7, not == 20 mod 21, not == 83, 307 mod 455, not == 1266, 13593, 27292, 46353 mod 63973, ..., not [[:w:Cube (algebra)|cube]]s * 9×''b''^''n''+1 for all even bases ''b'' < 177744, not == 1 mod 5 * 9×''b''^''n''−1 for all even bases ''b'' not == 4 mod 5, not [[:w:Square number|square]]s * 10×''b''^''n''+1 for all bases ''b'' not == 1 mod 11, not == 32 mod 33 (references of this form: https://oeis.org/A088782) * 10×''b''^''n''−1 for all bases ''b'' not == 1 mod 3, not == 32 mod 33 * 11×''b''^''n''+1 for all even bases ''b'' not == 1 mod 3, not == 14 mod 15 * 11×''b''^''n''−1 for all even bases ''b'' not == 1 mod 5, not == 14 mod 15, not of the form 11×''m''² with ''m'' == 2, 3 mod 5 * 12×''b''^''n''+1 for all bases ''b'' not == 1 mod 13, not == 142 mod 143, not == 562, 828, 900, 1166 mod 1729, not == 597, 1143 mod 1885, not == 296, 901, 1759, 3090, 4553, 5521, 5807, 6016, 6984, 7094, 7270, 7380, 7479, 8447, 8557, 8733, 8843, 9910, 10020, 10196, 10306, 11483, 11769, 12737, 14200, 15531, 16994, 18457 mod 19019, not == 563, 1433, 13212, 15097, 19848, 20718, 32497, 34382, 39133, 51782, 53667, 58418, 58452, 60337, 60883, 71067, 72952, 77737, 79622, 80168, 94267, 97022, 98583, 98907, 113552, 116307, 117868, 118192, 131967, 132513, 132837, 134398, 151252, 151798, 152122, 153683, 170537, 171083, 172968, 177753, 179638, 189822, 190368, 192253, 192287, 197038, 198923, 211572, 213568, 216323, 218208, 229987, 232853, 235608, 237493, 249272 mod 250705, ... * 12×''b''^''n''−1 for all bases ''b'' not == 1 mod 11, not == 142 mod 143, not == 307, 1143 mod 1595, not == 901, 6016, 7479, 18457 mod 19019, ... * ''b''^''n''+2 for all odd bases ''b'' < 201446503145165177, not == 1 mod 3 (references of this form: https://oeis.org/A138066, https://oeis.org/A084713, https://oeis.org/A138067) * ''b''^''n''−2 for all odd bases ''b'' (references of this form: https://www.primepuzzles.net/puzzles/puzz_887.htm, https://oeis.org/A250200, https://oeis.org/A255707, https://oeis.org/A084714; or for prime bases ''b'': https://oeis.org/A292201) * ''b''^''n''+3 for all even bases ''b'' not divisible by 3 * ''b''^''n''−3 for all even bases ''b'' not divisible by 3 * ''b''^''n''+4 for all odd bases ''b'' not == 1 mod 5, not == 14 mod 15, not [[:w:Fourth power|fourth power]]s * ''b''^''n''−4 for all odd bases ''b'' not == 1 mod 3, not == 4 mod 5, not [[:w:Square number|square]]s * (''b''−1)×''b''^''n''+1 for all bases ''b'' (references of this form: http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/Williams-primes-MP.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/477, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableWilliams2.php, https://oeis.org/A305531; or for prime bases ''b'': https://oeis.org/A087139) * (''b''−1)×''b''^''n''−1 for all bases ''b'' (references of this form: https://harvey563.tripod.com/wills.txt, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/Williams-primes-MM.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/484, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableWilliams1.php; or for prime bases ''b'': https://oeis.org/A122396) * (''b''+1)×''b''^''n''+1 for all bases ''b'' not == 1 mod 3 (references of this form: http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/Williams-primes-PP.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/474, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableWilliams4.php) * (''b''+1)×''b''^''n''−1 for all bases ''b'' (references of this form: http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/Williams-primes-PM.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/471, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableWilliams3.php) * ''b''^''n''+(''b''−1) for all bases ''b'' (references of this form: http://www.bitman.name/math/table/795, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableWilliams6.php, https://oeis.org/A076845, https://oeis.org/A076846, https://oeis.org/A078178, https://oeis.org/A078179) * ''b''^''n''−(''b''−1) for all bases ''b'' (references of this form: http://www.bitman.name/math/table/792, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableWilliams5.php, https://oeis.org/A113516, https://oeis.org/A343589; or for prime bases ''b'': https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/journals/JIS/VOL3/mccranie.html, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/435) * ''b''^''n''+(''b''+1) for all bases ''b'' not == 1 mod 3 (references of this form: http://www.bitman.name/math/table/801, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableWilliams8.php, https://oeis.org/A346149, https://oeis.org/A346154) * ''b''^''n''−(''b''+1) for all bases ''b'' (references of this form: http://www.bitman.name/math/table/798, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableWilliams7.php, https://oeis.org/A178250) By the [[:w:Prime number theorem|prime number theorem]], the [[:w:Probability|chance]] that a [[:w:Random number|random]] ''n''-digit base ''b'' number is prime is [[:w:Asymptotic analysis|approximately]] 1/''n'' (more accurately, the chance is approximately 1/(''n''×''ln''(''b'')), where ''ln'' is the [[:w:Natural logarithm|natural logarithm]]). If one conjectures the numbers ''x''{''y''}''z'' behave similarly (i.e. the numbers ''x''{''y''}''z'' is a [[:w:Pseudorandomness|pseudorandom sequence]]) you would expect [[:w:Harmonic_series (mathematics)|1/1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/4 + ... = ∞]] primes of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (of course, this does not always happen, since some ''x''{''y''}''z'' families can be ruled out to contain no prime > ''b'' (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), but it is at least a reasonable conjecture in the absence of evidence to the contrary. Hence, the [[:w:Heuristic argument|heuristic argument]] suggests there are always infinitely many primes in family ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') if it cannot be ruled out to contain no prime or only contain finitely many primes, by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them. However, some families ''x''{''y''}''z'' could not be proven to contain no primes > ''b'' (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them) but no primes > ''b'' could be found in the family, even after searching through numbers with over 100000 digits. In such a case, the only way to proceed is to [[:w:Primality test|test the primality]] of larger and larger numbers of such form and hope a prime is eventually discovered. e.g. the smallest (probable) prime in the family A{3}A in base ''b'' = 13 is A3₅₉₂₁₉₇A, its algebraic form is (41×13⁵⁹²¹⁹⁸+27)/4, when written in decimal contains 659677 digits (it is only probable prime, i.e. not definitely prime, since technically, probable primality tests were used to show this (which have a ''very'' small chance of making an error, see https://t5k.org/notes/prp_prob.html) because all known primality tests run far too slowly to run on numbers of this size unless either [https://t5k.org/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1] or [https://t5k.org/prove/prove3_2.html ''N''+1] (or both) can be ≥ 1/3 factored). The numbers in family ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') are of the form (''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'')/''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1) for some fixed ''a'', ''b'', ''c'' such that ''a'' ≥ 1, ''b'' ≥ 2 (''b'' is the base), ''c'' ≠ 0, ''gcd''(''a'',''c'') = 1, ''gcd''(''b'',''c'') = 1. Except in the [[:w:Special case|special case]] ''c'' = ±1 and ''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1) = 1 (the only case which [https://t5k.org/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1] or [https://t5k.org/prove/prove3_2.html ''N''+1] is [[:w:Triviality (mathematics)|trivially]] fully factored), when ''n'' is large the known [[:w:Primality test|primality test]]s for such a number are too inefficient to run (since they are [https://t5k.org/glossary/xpage/OrdinaryPrime.html ordinary primes]). In this case one must resort to a [[:w:Probabilistic algorithm|probable]] primality test such as a [[:w:Miller–Rabin primality test|Miller–Rabin primality test]] or a [[:w:Baillie–PSW primality test|Baillie–PSW primality test]], unless a divisor of the number can be found. Since we are testing many numbers in an [[:w:Exponential growth|exponential sequence]], it is possible to use a sieving process to find divisors rather than using [[:w:Trial division|trial division]]. To do this, we made use of Geoffrey Reynolds' ''srsieve'' software (download: https://pzktupel.de/Software/srsieve_1.1.4.7z). This program uses the [[:w:Baby-step giant-step|baby-step giant-step]] [[:w:Algorithm|algorithm]] to find all primes ''p'' which divide ''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'' where ''p'' and ''n'' lie in a [[:w:Interval_(mathematics)|specified range]]. Since this program cannot handle the general case (''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'')/''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1) when ''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1) > 1 we only used it to sieve the sequence ''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'' for primes ''p'' not dividing ''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1), and initialized the list of candidates to not include ''n'' for which there is some prime ''p'' dividing ''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1) for which ''p'' dividing (''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'')/''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1). The program had to be modified slightly to remove a check which would prevent it from running in the case when ''a'', ''b'', and ''c'' were all odd (since then 2 divides ''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'', but 2 may not divide (''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'')/''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1)). Once the numbers with small divisors had been removed, it remained to test the remaining numbers using a probable primality test. For this we used the software ''LLR'' by Jean Penné. (download: http://jpenne.free.fr/index2.html). Although undocumented, it is possible to run this program on numbers of the form (''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'')/''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1) when ''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1) > 1, so this program required no modifications. A script was also written which allowed one to run ''srsieve'' while ''LLR'' was testing the remaining candidates, so that when a divisor was found by srsieve on a number which had not yet been tested by ''LLR'' it would be removed from the list of candidates. For the primes < 10²⁵⁰⁰⁰ for the "easy" bases (bases ''b'' with ≤ 150 primes > 10²⁹⁹ (base ''b'' = 26 has 83 known primes > 10²⁹⁹ and 3 unsolved families, base ''b'' = 36 has 75 known primes > 10²⁹⁹ and 4 unsolved families, base ''b'' = 17 has 99 known primes > 10²⁹⁹ and 18 unsolved families, base ''b'' = 21 has 80 known primes > 10²⁹⁹ and 12 unsolved families, base ''b'' = 19 has 201 known primes > 10²⁹⁹ and 23 unsolved families), i.e. bases *b* = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 36), we employed ''CM'' by Andreas Enge (download: https://www.multiprecision.org/cm/download.html), an elliptic curve primality proving implementation. Currently, the final goal of the Athena problem project is finding the Athena set (i.e. finding all Athena primes) and proving that this set is exactly the Athena set (i.e. proving that these are all Athena primes (including the primality proving for the probable primes)) in all bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36, i.e. solving all families in all bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36. Solving all (unsolved) families in all bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 (and proving the primality of all probable primes in the sets of all bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36) is not possible but we aim to solve many of them (and proving the primality of many of them), at least find a ''probable'' prime for many of them (since the smallest prime in a family may be too large (> 10²⁵⁰⁰⁰) to be proved primality, unless its ''N''−1 or/and ''N''+1 can be ≥ 25% factored). == Data == These are the results of the Athena problem in bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 (we stop at base 36 since this base is the maximum base for which it is possible to write the numbers with the [[:w:Symbol|symbol]]s 0, 1, 2, ..., 9 and A, B, C, ..., Z (i.e. the 10 [[:w:Arabic numerals|Arabic numerals]] and the 26 [[:w:Latin script|Latin letters]]): (some large Athena primes are only probable primes, i.e. not definitely primes, since they are too large to be [[:w:Elliptic curve primality|ECPP proved]] and [[:w:Pocklington primality test#Extensions and variants|neither ''N''−1 nor ''N''+1 can be ≥ 1/3 factored]] (Brillhart-Lehmer-Selfridge primality test), all of them pass the [[:w:Baillie–PSW primality test|Baillie–PSW primality test]] and the [[:w:Strong pseudoprime|strong primality test]] (i.e. the [[:w:Miller–Rabin primality test|Miller–Rabin primality test]]) with all prime bases ''p'' ≤ 61, however, all Athena primes < 10²⁵⁰⁰⁰ for bases ''b'' = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 36 are definitely primes, most of them > 10²⁹⁹ are proven primes with [[:w:Elliptic curve primality|ECPP proving]], others > 10²⁹⁹ are proven primes with [[:w:Pocklington primality test#Extensions and variants|''N''−1 or ''N''+1 proving]]) The Athena primes > 10²⁹⁹ in bases ''b'' = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 36 which are proven primes with ''N''−1 or ''N''+1 proving includes the Athena primes whose ''N''−1 or ''N''+1 is trivially fully factored: * the 3176th Athena prime in base 13, 81010₄₁₅1, which equals 17746×13⁴¹⁶+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000003590431555, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590431556&open=ecm * the 3177th Athena prime in base 13, 8110₄₃₅1, which equals 1366×13⁴³⁶+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000002373259109, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002373259124&open=ecm * the 3188th Athena prime in base 13, 930₁₅₅₁1, which equals 120×13¹⁵⁵²+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000765961452, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000765961453&open=ecm * the 3191st Athena prime in base 13, 390₆₂₆₆1, which equals 48×13⁶²⁶⁷+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000765961441, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000765961451&open=ecm * the 649th Athena prime in base 14, 34D₇₀₈, which equals 47×14⁷⁰⁸−1, ''N''+1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000001540144903, for the factorization of ''N''+1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000001540144907&open=ecm * the 650th Athena prime in base 14, 4D₁₉₆₉₈, which equals 5×14¹⁹⁶⁹⁸−1, ''N''+1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000884560233, for the factorization of ''N''+1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000884560625&open=ecm * the 2335th Athena prime in base 16, 88F₅₄₅, which equals 137×16⁵⁴⁵−1, ''N''+1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000413679658, for the factorization of ''N''+1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000413877337&open=ecm * the 10317th Athena prime in base 17, 5A70₂₇₄1, which equals 1622×17²⁷⁵+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000003782940709, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003782941930&open=ecm * the 10359th Athena prime in base 17, 9D0₁₀₆₇1, which equals 166×17¹⁰⁶⁸+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000765961369, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000765961370&open=ecm * the 10370th Athena prime in base 17, A0₁₃₅₅1, which equals 10×17¹³⁵⁶+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000034167087, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000271866825&open=ecm * the 10386th Athena prime in base 17, 530₄₈₆₇1, which equals 88×17⁴⁸⁶⁸+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000762660735, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000762660737&open=ecm * the 10408th Athena prime in base 17, 570₅₁₃₁₀1, which equals 92×17⁵¹³¹¹+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000765961389, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000785469616&open=ecm * the 10412th Athena prime in base 17, 970₁₆₆₀₄₇1, which equals 160×17¹⁶⁶⁰⁴⁸+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, but it has no helper file in ''factordb'' since it is too large (>10¹⁹⁹⁹⁹⁹) to be PRP-tested in ''factordb'', for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000890817312&open=ecm * the 10413th Athena prime in base 17, F70₁₈₆₇₆₇1, which equals 262×17¹⁸⁶⁷⁶⁸+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, but it has no helper file in ''factordb'' since it is too large (>10¹⁹⁹⁹⁹⁹) to be PRP-tested in ''factordb'', for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000890817317&open=ecm * the 3310th Athena prime in base 20, JCJ₆₂₉, which equals 393×20⁶²⁹−1, ''N''+1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000001559454258, for the factorization of ''N''+1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000001559454271&open=ecm * the 13373rd Athena prime in base 21, 5D0₁₉₈₄₈1, which equals 118×21¹⁹⁸⁴⁹+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000777265872, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000785469310&open=ecm * the 3408th Athena prime in base 24, 88N₅₉₅₁, which equals 201×24⁵⁹⁵¹−1, ''N''+1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000003593275880, for the factorization of ''N''+1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593373246&open=ecm * the 25509th Athena prime in base 28, EB0₄₀₅1, which equals 403×28⁴⁰⁶+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000001534442374, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000001534442380&open=ecm * the 2616th Athena prime in base 30, C0₁₀₂₂1, which equals 12×30¹⁰²³+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000785448736, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000785448737&open=ecm * the 2619th Athena prime in base 30, OT₃₄₂₀₅, which equals 25×30³⁴²⁰⁵−1, ''N''+1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000800812865, for the factorization of ''N''+1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000819405041&open=ecm * the 35237th Athena prime in base 36, P8Z₃₉₀, which equals 909×36³⁹⁰−1, ''N''+1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000764100228, for the factorization of ''N''+1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000764100231&open=ecm and the Athena primes > 10²⁹⁹ in bases ''b'' = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 36 whose ''N''−1 or ''N''+1 is ≥ 1/3 factored: (''R''_''n''(''b'') means the [[:w:Repunit|repunit]] in base ''b'' with length ''n''), i.e. ''R''_''n''(''b'') = (''b''^''n''−1)/(''b''−1), "''S''_''n''(''b'')" means ''b''^''n''+1) * the 3168th Athena prime in base 13, 9₃₀₈1, ''N''−1 is 117×''R''₃₀₈(13), thus factor ''N''−1 is equivalent to factor the Cunningham number 13³⁰⁸−1, and for the algebraic factors of 13³⁰⁸−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showExplorer?Base=13&Exp=308&LBIDPMList=A&LBIDLODList=D, and for the prime factorization of 13³⁰⁸−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showSingleEntry?Base=13&Exp=308&c0=-&EN=&LM= * the 3179th Athena prime in base 13, B₅₆₃C, ''N''−1 is 11×''R''₅₆₄(13), thus factor ''N''−1 is equivalent to factor the Cunningham number 13⁵⁶⁴−1, and for the algebraic factors of 13⁵⁶⁴−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showExplorer?Base=13&Exp=564&LBIDPMList=A&LBIDLODList=D, and for the prime factorization of 13⁵⁶⁴−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showSingleEntry?Base=13&Exp=564&c0=-&EN=&LM= * the 3180th Athena prime in base 13, 1B₅₇₆, ''N''−1 is 23×''R''₅₇₆(13), thus factor ''N''−1 is equivalent to factor the Cunningham number 13⁵⁷⁶−1, and for the algebraic factors of 13⁵⁷⁶−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showExplorer?Base=13&Exp=576&LBIDPMList=A&LBIDLODList=D, and for the prime factorization of 13⁵⁷⁶−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showSingleEntry?Base=13&Exp=576&c0=-&EN=&LM= * the 10320th Athena prime in base 17, 9₂₉₂1, ''N''−1 is 153×''R''₂₉₂(17), thus factor ''N''−1 is equivalent to factor the Cunningham number 17²⁹²−1, and for the algebraic factors of 17²⁹²−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showExplorer?Base=17&Exp=292&LBIDPMList=A&LBIDLODList=D, and for the prime factorization of 17²⁹²−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showSingleEntry?Base=17&Exp=292&c0=-&EN=&LM= * the 13304th Athena prime in base 21, 7₂₃₀1, ''N''−1 is 147×''R''₂₃₀(21), thus factor ''N''−1 is equivalent to factor the Cunningham number 21²³⁰−1, and for the algebraic factors of 21²³⁰−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showExplorer?Base=21&Exp=230&LBIDPMList=A&LBIDLODList=D, and for the prime factorization of 21²³⁰−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showSingleEntry?Base=21&Exp=230&c0=-&EN=&LM= * the 13355th Athena prime in base 21, 3₁₀₆₃2, ''N''+1 is 3×''R''₁₀₆₄(21), thus factor ''N''−1 is equivalent to factor the Cunningham number 21¹⁰⁶⁴−1, and for the algebraic factors of 21¹⁰⁶⁴−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showExplorer?Base=21&Exp=1064&LBIDPMList=A&LBIDLODList=D, and for the prime factorization of 21¹⁰⁶⁴−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showSingleEntry?Base=21&Exp=1064&c0=-&EN=&LM= * the 25199th Athena prime in base 26, 9K₃₄₃AP, ''N''+1 is 6370×''R''₃₄₄(26), thus factor ''N''+1 is equivalent to factor the Cunningham number 26³⁴⁴−1, and for the algebraic factors of 26³⁴⁴−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showExplorer?Base=26&Exp=344&LBIDPMList=A&LBIDLODList=D, and for the prime factorization of 26³⁴⁴−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showSingleEntry?Base=26&Exp=344&c0=-&EN=&LM= * the 25200th Athena prime in base 26, 8₃₅₄1, ''N''−1 is 208×''R''₃₅₄(26), thus factor ''N''−1 is equivalent to factor the Cunningham number 26³⁵⁴−1, and for the algebraic factors of 26³⁵⁴−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showExplorer?Base=26&Exp=354&LBIDPMList=A&LBIDLODList=D, and for the prime factorization of 26³⁵⁴−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showSingleEntry?Base=26&Exp=354&c0=-&EN=&LM= All numbers are written in base ''b'', [[:w:Senary#Base 36 as senary compression|using A to Z to represent digit values 10 to 35]], "{}" means repeating, e.g. family 12{3}45 means the sequence {1245, 12345, 123345, 1233345, 12333345, 123333345, ...} (where the members are expressed as base ''b'' strings), subscripts are used to indicate repetitions of digits, e.g. 123₄567 means 123333567 (all subscripts are written in decimal). Base 2: 1 Athena prime (the largest of which has 2 digits (it is 11, and its value is 3 in decimal)): {11} Base 3: 3 Athena primes (the largest of which has 3 digits (it is 111, and its value is 13 in decimal)): {12, 21, 111} Base 4: 5 Athena primes (the largest of which has 3 digits (it is 221, and its value is 41 in decimal)): {11, 13, 23, 31, 221} Base 5: 22 Athena primes (the largest of which has 96 digits (it is 10₉₃13, and its algebraic form is 5⁹⁵+8)): {12, 21, 23, 32, 34, 43, 104, 111, 131, 133, 313, 401, 414, 3101, 10103, 14444, 30301, 33001, 33331, 44441, 300031, 100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000013} Base 6: 11 Athena primes (the largest of which has 5 digits (it is 40041, and its value is 5209 in decimal)): {11, 15, 21, 25, 31, 35, 45, 51, 4401, 4441, 40041} Base 7: 71 Athena primes (the largest of which has 17 digits (it is 3₁₆1, and its algebraic form is (7¹⁷−5)/2)): {14, 16, 23, 25, 32, 41, 43, 52, 56, 61, 65, 113, 115, 131, 133, 155, 212, 221, 304, 313, 335, 344, 346, 364, 445, 515, 533, 535, 544, 551, 553, 1022, 1051, 1112, 1202, 1211, 1222, 2111, 3031, 3055, 3334, 3503, 3505, 3545, 4504, 4555, 5011, 5455, 5545, 5554, 6034, 6634, 11111, 11201, 30011, 30101, 31001, 31111, 33001, 33311, 35555, 40054, 100121, 150001, 300053, 351101, 531101, 1100021, 33333301, 5100000001, 33333333333333331} Base 8: 75 Athena primes (the largest of which has 221 digits (it is 4₂₂₀7, and its algebraic form is (4×8²²¹+17)/7)): {13, 15, 21, 23, 27, 35, 37, 45, 51, 53, 57, 65, 73, 75, 107, 111, 117, 141, 147, 161, 177, 225, 255, 301, 343, 361, 401, 407, 417, 431, 433, 463, 467, 471, 631, 643, 661, 667, 701, 711, 717, 747, 767, 3331, 3411, 4043, 4443, 4611, 5205, 6007, 6101, 6441, 6477, 6707, 6777, 7461, 7641, 47777, 60171, 60411, 60741, 444641, 500025, 505525, 3344441, 4444477, 5500525, 5550525, 55555025, 444444441, 744444441, 77774444441, 7777777777771, 555555555555525, 44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444447} Base 9: 151 Athena primes (the largest of which has 1161 digits (it is 30₁₁₅₈11, and its algebraic form is 3×9¹¹⁶⁰+10)): {12, 14, 18, 21, 25, 32, 34, 41, 45, 47, 52, 58, 65, 67, 74, 78, 81, 87, 117, 131, 135, 151, 155, 175, 177, 238, 272, 308, 315, 331, 337, 355, 371, 375, 377, 438, 504, 515, 517, 531, 537, 557, 564, 601, 638, 661, 702, 711, 722, 735, 737, 751, 755, 757, 771, 805, 838, 1011, 1015, 1101, 1701, 2027, 2207, 3017, 3057, 3101, 3501, 3561, 3611, 3688, 3868, 5035, 5051, 5071, 5101, 5501, 5554, 5705, 5707, 7017, 7075, 7105, 7301, 8535, 8544, 8555, 8854, 20777, 22227, 22777, 30161, 33388, 50161, 50611, 53335, 55111, 55535, 55551, 57061, 57775, 70631, 71007, 77207, 100037, 100071, 100761, 105007, 270707, 301111, 305111, 333035, 333385, 333835, 338885, 350007, 500075, 530005, 555611, 631111, 720707, 2770007, 3030335, 7776662, 30300005, 30333335, 38333335, 51116111, 70000361, 300030005, 300033305, 351111111, 1300000007, 5161111111, 8333333335, 300000000035, 311111111161, 544444444444, 2000000000007, 5700000000001, 7270000000007, 88888888833335, 100000000000507, 5111111111111161, 7277777777777777707, 8888888888888888888335, 30000000000000000000051, 1000000000000000000000000057, 56111111111111111111111111111111111111, 7666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666662, 27777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777707, 300000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000011} Base 10: 77 Athena primes (the largest of which has 31 digits (it is 50₂₈27, and its algebraic form is 5×10³⁰+27)): {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027} Base 11: 1068 Athena (probable) primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: 57₆₂₆₆₈), the largest of which has 62669 digits (it is 57₆₂₆₆₈, and its algebraic form is (57×11⁶²⁶⁶⁸−7)/10), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel11 Data of Athena (probable) primes base 11] Base 12: 106 Athena primes (the largest of which has 42 digits (it is 40₃₉77, and its algebraic form is 4×12⁴¹+91)): {11, 15, 17, 1B, 25, 27, 31, 35, 37, 3B, 45, 4B, 51, 57, 5B, 61, 67, 6B, 75, 81, 85, 87, 8B, 91, 95, A7, AB, B5, B7, 221, 241, 2A1, 2B1, 2BB, 401, 421, 447, 471, 497, 565, 655, 665, 701, 70B, 721, 747, 771, 77B, 797, 7A1, 7BB, 907, 90B, 9BB, A41, B21, B2B, 2001, 200B, 202B, 222B, 229B, 292B, 299B, 4441, 4707, 4777, 6A05, 6AA5, 729B, 7441, 7B41, 929B, 9777, 992B, 9947, 997B, 9997, A0A1, A201, A605, A6A5, AA65, B001, B0B1, BB01, BB41, 600A5, 7999B, 9999B, AAAA1, B04A1, B0B9B, BAA01, BAAA1, BB09B, BBBB1, 44AAA1, A00065, BBBAA1, AAA0001, B00099B, AA000001, BBBBBB99B, B0000000000000000000000000009B, 400000000000000000000000000000000000000077} Base 13: 3197 Athena (probable) primes (including 4 unproven probable primes: C5₂₃₇₅₅C, 80₃₂₀₁₇111, 95₁₉₇₄₂₀, A3₅₉₂₁₉₇A), the largest of which has 592199 digits (it is A3₅₉₂₁₉₇A, and its algebraic form is (41×13⁵⁹²¹⁹⁸+27)/4), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel13 Data of Athena (probable) primes base 13] Base 14: 650 Athena primes, the largest of which has 19699 digits (it is 4D₁₉₆₉₈, and its algebraic form is 5×14¹⁹⁶⁹⁸−1), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel14 Data of Athena primes base 14] Base 15: 1284 Athena primes, the largest of which has 157 digits (it is 7₁₅₅97, and its algebraic form is (15¹⁵⁷+59)/2), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel15 Data of Athena primes base 15] Base 16: 2347 Athena (probable) primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: DB₃₂₂₃₄, 4₇₂₇₈₅DD, 3₁₁₆₁₃₇AF), the largest of which has 116139 digits (it is 3₁₁₆₁₃₇AF, and its algebraic form is (16¹¹⁶¹³⁹+619)/5), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel16 Data of Athena (probable) primes base 16] Base 17: 10415 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 12 unsolved families (1{7}, 1F{0}7, 4{7}A, 70F{0}D, 8{B}9, 9{5}9, A{D}F, B{0}B3, {B}E9, {B}EE, F1{9}, FD0{D}, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel17 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 17] Base 18: 549 Athena primes, the largest of which has 6271 digits (it is C0₆₂₆₈C5, and its algebraic form is 12×18⁶²⁷⁰+221), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel18 Data of Athena primes base 18] Base 19: 31417 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 17 unsolved families (4B5{0}H, {5}3, 5{H}05, 5{H}0H, 5{H}5, 66{B}, 71{0}177, 7AF{0}H, 97{0}3, C{H}C, EE1{6}, F{7}5, F{B}G, F{D}F, H0F{0}7A, HB{0}5B5, II{D}, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel19 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 19] Base 20: 3314 Athena primes, the largest of which has 6271 digits (it is G0₆₂₆₉D, and its algebraic form is 16×20⁶²⁷⁰+13), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel20 Data of Athena primes base 20] Base 21: 13386 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 8 unsolved families (5{0}DJ, {9}D, B3{0}EB, B{H}6H, C{F}0K, {F}35, G{0}FK, H{0}7771, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel21 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 21] Base 22: 8003 Athena (probable) primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: BK₂₂₀₀₁5), the largest of which has 22003 digits (it is BK₂₂₀₀₁5, and its algebraic form is (251×22²²⁰⁰²−335)/21), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel22 Data of Athena (probable) primes base 22] Base 23: 65178 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 87 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel23 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 23] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left23 Data of unsolved families for Athena problem base 23] Base 24: 3409 Athena primes, the largest of which has 8134 digits (it is N00N₈₁₂₉LN, and its algebraic form is 13249×24⁸¹³¹−49), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel24 Data of Athena primes base 24] Base 25: 133639 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 85 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel25 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 25] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left25 Data of unsolved families for Athena problem base 25] Base 26: 25256 known Athena (probable) primes (including 7 unproven probable primes: 5₁₉₃₉₁6F, 7₂₀₂₇₉OL, LD0₂₀₉₇₅7, 6K₂₃₃₀₀5, J0₄₄₃₀₃KCB, M0₆₁₁₈₆2BB, 85M₁₉₇₀₆₀B) and 3 unsolved families ({A}6F, {H}MH, {I}GL, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel26 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 26] Base 27: 102852 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 44 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel27 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 27] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left27 Data of unsolved families for Athena problem base 27] Base 28: 25528 known Athena (probable) primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: N6₂₄₀₅₁LR, 5OA₃₁₂₃₈F, O4O₉₄₅₃₅9) and 1 unsolved family (O{A}F, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 900000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel28 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 28] Base 29: 355242 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 125 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel29 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 29] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left29 Data of unsolved families for Athena problem base 29] Base 30: 2619 Athena (probable) primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: I0₂₄₆₀₈D), the largest of which has 34206 digits (it is OT₃₄₂₀₅, and its algebraic form is 25×30³⁴²⁰⁵−1), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel30 Data of Athena (probable) primes base 30] Base 31: 569323 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 77 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel31 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 31] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left31 Data of unsolved families for Athena problem base 31] Base 32: 168882 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 120 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel32 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 32] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left32 Data of unsolved families for Athena problem base 32] Base 33: 280012 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 81 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel33 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 33] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left33 Data of unsolved families for Athena problem base 33] Base 34: 184785 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 47 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel34 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 34] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left34 Data of unsolved families for Athena problem base 34] Base 35: 720002 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 60 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel35 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 35] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left35 Data of unsolved families for Athena problem base 35] Base 36: 35286 known Athena (probable) primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: 7K₂₆₅₆₇Z, S0₇₅₀₀₇8H, P₈₁₉₉₃SZ) and 4 unsolved families (B{0}EUV, HM{0}N, N{0}YYN, O{L}Z, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel36 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 36] == Condensed table for bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 == {|class="wikitable" ||''b''||number of Athena primes (or probable primes, which are Athena primes assuming their primality) in base ''b''||base-''b'' form of the top 10 known Athena primes (or probable primes, which are Athena primes assuming their primality) in base ''b'' (write "''d''_''n''" if there are 5 or more (''n'') consecutive same digits ''d'')||length of the top 10 known Athena primes (or probable primes, which are Athena primes assuming their primality) in base ''b''||length of the top 10 known Athena primes (or probable primes, which are Athena primes assuming their primality) in base ''b'' in decimal||algebraic ((''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'')/''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1)) form of the top 10 known Athena primes (or probable primes, which are Athena primes assuming their primality) in base ''b''||''factordb'' entry of the top 10 known Athena primes (or probable primes, which are Athena primes assuming their primality) in base ''b''||the top 10 known Athena primes (or probable primes, which are Athena primes assuming their primality) in base ''b'' written in base ''b'' (use lower case letters instead of upper case letters)||number of unsolved families in the Athena problem in base ''b'' (all of these left families are linear families)||searching limit of length for the unsolved families in the Athena problem in base ''b'' (if there are different searching limits for the unsolved families in the Athena problem in base ''b'', choose the lowest searching limit)|| |- ||2||1||11||2||1||3||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=3&open=ecm||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=3&base=2||0||–|| |- ||3||3||111<br>21<br>12||3<br>2<br>2||2<br>1<br>1||13<br>7<br>5||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=13&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=7&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=5&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=13&base=3<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=7&base=3<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=5&base=3<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||4||5||221<br>31<br>23<br>13<br>11||3<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2||2<br>2<br>2<br>1<br>1||41<br>13<br>11<br>7<br>5||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=41&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=13&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=11&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=7&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=5&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=41&base=4<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=13&base=4<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=11&base=4<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=7&base=4<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=5&base=4<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||5||22||10₉₃13<br>300031<br>44441<br>33331<br>33001<br>30301<br>14444<br>10103<br>3101<br>414||96<br>6<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>4<br>3||67<br>4<br>4<br>4<br>4<br>4<br>4<br>3<br>3<br>3||5⁹⁵+8<br>9391<br>3121<br>2341<br>2251<br>1951<br>1249<br>653<br>401<br>109||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000034686071&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=9391&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=3121&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=2341&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=2251&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1951&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1249&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=653&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=401&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=109&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000034686071&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=9391&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=3121&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=2341&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=2251&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1951&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1249&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=653&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=401&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=109&base=5<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||6||11||40041<br>4441<br>4401<br>51<br>45<br>35<br>31<br>25<br>21<br>15||5<br>4<br>4<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2||4<br>4<br>4<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2||5209<br>1033<br>1009<br>31<br>29<br>23<br>19<br>17<br>13<br>11||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=5209&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1033&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1009&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=31&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=29&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=23&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=19&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=17&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=13&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=11&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=5209&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1033&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1009&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=31&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=29&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=23&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=19&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=17&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=13&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=11&base=6<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- 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|- 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|- 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|- 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||15||1284||7₁₅₅97<br>E₁₄₅397<br>96₁₀₄08<br>7₇₃CE<br>7₅₉CCE<br>50₃₃17<br>EB₃₁<br>6330₂₆1<br>7050₂₄B<br>B70₂₄1||157<br>148<br>107<br>75<br>62<br>36<br>32<br>30<br>28<br>27||185<br>175<br>126<br>88<br>73<br>42<br>38<br>35<br>33<br>32||(15¹⁵⁷+59)/2<br>15¹⁴⁸−2558<br>(66×15¹⁰⁶−619)/7<br>(15⁷⁵+163)/2<br>(15⁶²+2413)/2<br>5×15³⁵+22<br>(207×15³¹−11)/14<br>1398×15²⁷+1<br>1580×15²⁵+11<br>172×15²⁵+1||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002454891840&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002454900849&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000823937997&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588407143&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588407386&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002632398579&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002321033312&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002391199877&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588407806&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000851967288&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002454891840&base=15<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002454900849&base=15<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000823937997&base=15<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003588407143&base=15<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003588407386&base=15<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002632398579&base=15<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002321033312&base=15<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002391199877&base=15<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003588407806&base=15<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000851967288&base=15<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||16||2347||3₁₁₆₁₃₇AF<br>4₇₂₇₈₅DD<br>DB₃₂₂₃₄<br>D0B₁₇₈₀₄<br>5BC₃₇₀₀D<br>90₃₅₄₂91<br>300F₁₉₆₀AF<br>20₁₇₁₃321<br>F8₁₅₁₇F<br>FAF₁₀₆₂45||116139<br>72787<br>32235<br>17806<br>3703<br>3545<br>1965<br>1717<br>1519<br>1066||139845<br>87644<br>38815<br>21441<br>4459<br>4269<br>2366<br>2067<br>1830<br>1284||(16¹¹⁶¹³⁹+619)/5<br>(4×16⁷²⁷⁸⁷+2291)/15<br>(206×16³²²³⁴−11)/15<br>(3131×16¹⁷⁸⁰⁴−11)/15<br>(459×16³⁷⁰¹+1)/5<br>9×16³⁵⁴⁴+145<br>769×16¹⁹⁶²−81<br>2×16¹⁷¹⁶+801<br>(233×16¹⁵¹⁸+97)/15<br>251×16¹⁰⁶⁴−187||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003851731988&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003615909841&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002383583629&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003589278511&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000993764322&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000633424191&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588368750&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588386735&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000633744824&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588387610&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003851731988&base=16<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003615909841&base=16<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002383583629&base=16<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003589278511&base=16<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000993764322&base=16<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000633424191&base=16<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003588368750&base=16<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003588386735&base=16<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000633744824&base=16<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003588387610&base=16<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||17||10415~10427||95F₁₉₈₈₅₅<br>B0₁₈₉₀₈₃DB<br>F70₁₈₆₇₆₇1<br>970₁₆₆₀₄₇1<br>510₁₂₄₀₇₄D<br>49₁₁₁₃₃₃<br>B₆₇₁₀₃2E<br>570₅₁₃₁₀1<br>E9B₄₄₇₃₂<br>D0GD₃₇₀₉₆||198857<br>189086<br>186770<br>166050<br>124077<br>111334<br>67105<br>51313<br>44734<br>37099||244684<br>232661<br>229811<br>204316<br>152670<br>136991<br>82570<br>63138<br>55043<br>45649||(2543×17¹⁹⁸⁸⁵⁵−15)/16<br>11×17¹⁸⁹⁰⁸⁵+232<br>262×17¹⁸⁶⁷⁶⁸+1<br>160×17¹⁶⁶⁰⁴⁸+1<br>86×17¹²⁴⁰⁷⁵+13<br>(73×17¹¹¹³³³−9)/16<br>(11×17⁶⁷¹⁰⁵−2411)/16<br>92×17⁵¹³¹¹+1<br>(3963×17⁴⁴⁷³²−11)/16<br>(60381×17³⁷⁰⁹⁶−13)/16||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008610514108&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008610515753&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000765961429&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000765961411&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008610516879&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118219&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003993647842&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000765961389&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003883765450&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003848346668&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008610514108&base=17<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008610515753&base=17<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000765961429&base=17<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000765961411&base=17<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008610516879&base=17<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118219&base=17<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003993647842&base=17<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000765961389&base=17<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003883765450&base=17<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003848346668&base=17<nowiki/>||12||200000|| |- ||18||549||C0₆₂₆₈C5<br>H₇₆₆FH<br>80₂₉₈B<br>C0₁₁₆F5<br>HD₉₃<br>GG0₃₀1<br>CF₃₀5<br>B₁₉6B<br>CCF₁₄5<br>7₁₄G7||6271<br>768<br>300<br>119<br>94<br>33<br>32<br>21<br>17<br>16||7872<br>965<br>377<br>150<br>118<br>42<br>41<br>27<br>22<br>20||12×18⁶²⁷⁰+221<br>18⁷⁶⁸−37<br>8×18²⁹⁹+11<br>12×18¹¹⁸+275<br>(302×18⁹³−13)/17<br>304×18³¹+1<br>(219×18³¹−185)/17<br>(11×18²¹−1541)/17<br>(3891×18¹⁵−185)/17<br>(7×18¹⁶+2747)/17||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590442437&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590430490&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002355574745&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002632837015&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002321052894&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000819230161&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002631240657&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590430474&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590430470&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590430465&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590442437&base=18<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590430490&base=18<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002355574745&base=18<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002632837015&base=18<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002321052894&base=18<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000819230161&base=18<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002631240657&base=18<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590430474&base=18<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590430470&base=18<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590430465&base=18<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||19||31417~31434||1E70₁₂₂₈₉₆1<br>40₁₂₁₈₄₆HB5<br>35₁₂₀₅₆₂<br>FH0H₁₁₂₆₅₉<br>FG6₁₁₀₉₈₄<br>H₈₆₂₉₁6<br>D90₇₃₀₄₆9<br>4F0₄₉₈₄₇6<br>2₄₈₂₂₄7<br>2₄₅₈₈₆7A||122900<br>121850<br>120563<br>112662<br>110986<br>86292<br>73049<br>49850<br>48225<br>45888||157158<br>155816<br>154170<br>144067<br>110347<br>141924<br>93412<br>63746<br>61667<br>58679||634×19¹²²⁸⁹⁷+1<br>4×19¹²¹⁸⁴⁹+6351<br>(59×19¹²⁰⁵⁶²−5)/18<br>(103301×19¹¹²⁶⁵⁹−17)/18<br>(904×19¹¹⁰⁹⁸⁴−1)/3<br>(17×19⁸⁶²⁹²−215)/18<br>256×19⁷³⁰⁴⁷+9<br>91×19⁴⁹⁸⁴⁸+6<br>(19⁴⁸²²⁵+44)/9<br>(19⁴⁵⁸⁸⁸+926)/9||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000001582289581&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008755307222&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005513825027&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008755311453&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118212&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004163040839&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003998413751&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118332&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003949188041&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003949189035&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000001582289581&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008755307222&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005513825027&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008755311453&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118212&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004163040839&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003998413751&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118332&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003949188041&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003949189035&base=19<nowiki/>||17||200000|| |- ||20||3314||G0₆₂₆₉D<br>CD₂₄₄₉<br>50₁₁₆₃AJ<br>J₆₅₅05J<br>JCJ₆₂₉<br>E₅₆₆C7<br>3A₅₂₇3<br>G₄₄₇99<br>EC0₄₂₉7<br>40₃₈₇404B||6271<br>2450<br>1166<br>658<br>631<br>568<br>529<br>449<br>432<br>392||8159<br>3188<br>1517<br>857<br>821<br>739<br>688<br>585<br>562<br>510||16×20⁶²⁷⁰+13<br>(241×20²⁴⁴⁹−13)/19<br>5×20¹¹⁶⁵+219<br>20⁶⁵⁸−7881<br>393×20⁶²⁹−1<br>(14×20⁵⁶⁸−907)/19<br>(67×20⁵²⁸−143)/19<br>(16×20⁴⁴⁹−2809)/19<br>292×20⁴³⁰+7<br>4×20³⁹¹+32091||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590539457&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002325393915&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502412&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502490&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000001559454258&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502516&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502531&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840126753&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002633348702&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502563&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590539457&base=20<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002325393915&base=20<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590502412&base=20<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590502490&base=20<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000001559454258&base=20<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590502516&base=20<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590502531&base=20<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000840126753&base=20<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002633348702&base=20<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590502563&base=20<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||21||13386~13394||27₁₈₄₄₉₉9D<br>F9₁₇₈₇₇₁D<br>2FC₁₁₂₀₂₂A<br>7₁₀₈₄₅₀ID<br>40₄₇₃₃₃9G<br>B90₄₅₀₁₉E5<br>HD₃₇₄₁₄<br>BD₃₅₀₂₇B<br>990₃₃₂₃₉99H<br>5₃₀₆₀₆FEK||184502<br>178773<br>112025<br>108452<br>47336<br>45023<br>37415<br>35029<br>33244<br>30609||243952<br>236377<br>148121<br>143397<br>62588<br>59531<br>49471<br>46316<br>43956<br>40472||(47×21¹⁸⁴⁵⁰¹+953)/20<br>(309×21¹⁷⁸⁷⁷²+71)/20<br>(288×21¹¹²⁰²³−13)/5<br>(7×21¹⁰⁸⁴⁵²+4733)/20<br>4×21⁴⁷³³⁵+205<br>240×21⁴⁵⁰²¹+299<br>(353×21³⁷⁴¹⁴−13)/20<br>(233×21³⁵⁰²⁸−53)/20<br>198×21³³²⁴²+4175<br>(21³⁰⁶⁰⁹+18455)/4||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008700600990&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008700596669&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008700593358&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008700586183&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118331&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003996110311&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003996110479&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003996110718&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003996110944&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003996111130&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008700600990&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008700596669&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008700593358&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008700586183&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118331&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003996110311&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003996110479&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003996110718&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003996110944&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003996111130&base=21<nowiki/>||8||200000|| |- ||22||8003||BK₂₂₀₀₁5<br>7₃₈₁₅2L<br>L₂₃₈₅KE7<br>7₉₅₉K7<br>J0₇₆₇IGGJ<br>K0₇₆₀EC1<br>I₆₂₆AF<br>E60₄₉₆L<br>L₄₈₃G3<br>L0₄₅₄B63||22003<br>3817<br>2388<br>961<br>772<br>764<br>628<br>499<br>485<br>458||29538<br>5124<br>3206<br>1290<br>1037<br>1026<br>843<br>670<br>652<br>615||(251×22²²⁰⁰²−335)/21<br>(22³⁸¹⁷−289)/3<br>22²³⁸⁸−653<br>(22⁹⁶¹+857)/3<br>19×22⁷⁷¹+199779<br>20×22⁷⁶³+7041<br>(6×22⁶²⁸−1259)/7<br>314×22⁴⁹⁷+21<br>22⁴⁸⁵−129<br>21×22⁴⁵⁷+5459||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003594696838&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591359839&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591360774&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591361817&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591362567&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000632724415&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000632724334&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000632703239&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591364730&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591365331&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003594696838&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003591359839&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003591360774&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003591361817&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003591362567&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000632724415&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000632724334&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000632703239&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003591364730&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003591365331&base=22<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||23||65178~65265||B0₉₃₀₄₆FB<br>L₈₆₄₄₄D<br>AJ₈₁₀₆₅4<br>20₇₃₅₆₀98<br>J₆₈₂₁₇G4<br>D70₆₆₇₇₀B<br>5F₆₂₃₄₀6<br>A7M7₆₁₅₃₂<br>B30₆₁₁₃₆5<br>EJ₅₂₁₆₉||93049<br>86445<br>81067<br>73563<br>68219<br>66773<br>62342<br>61535<br>61139<br>52170||126708<br>117715<br>110391<br>100172<br>92896<br>90927<br>84893<br>83794<br>83255<br>71042||11×23⁹³⁰⁴⁸+356<br>(21×23⁸⁶⁴⁴⁵−197)/22<br>(239×23⁸¹⁰⁶⁶−349)/22<br>2×23⁷³⁵⁶²+215<br>(19×23⁶⁸²¹⁹−1867)/22<br>306×23⁶⁶⁷⁷¹+11<br>(125×23⁶²³⁴¹−213)/22<br>(120413×23⁶¹⁵³²−7)/22<br>256×23⁶¹¹³⁷+5<br>(327×23⁵²¹⁶⁹−19)/22||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691540361&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691546739&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691548070&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691548569&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691549462&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691549803&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691551005&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691556967&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691557254&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691557548&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691540361&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691546739&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691548070&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691548569&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691549462&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691549803&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691551005&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691556967&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691557254&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691557548&base=23<nowiki/>||87||100000|| |- ||24||3409||N00N₈₁₂₉LN<br>88N₅₉₅₁<br>A0₂₉₅₁8ID<br>D₂₆₉₈LD<br>N₂₆₄₄LLN<br>BC0₃₃₁B<br>20₃₁₃7<br>C7₂₉₈<br>D0₂₅₉KKD<br>I0₂₄₁I5||8134<br>5953<br>2955<br>2700<br>2647<br>334<br>315<br>299<br>263<br>244||11227<br>8216<br>4079<br>3727<br>3654<br>461<br>434<br>413<br>363<br>337||13249×24⁸¹³¹−49<br>201×24⁵⁹⁵¹−1<br>10×24²⁹⁵⁴+5053<br>(13×24²⁷⁰⁰+4403)/23<br>24²⁶⁴⁷−1201<br>276×24³³²+11<br>2×24³¹⁴+7<br>(283×24²⁹⁸−7)/23<br>13×24²⁶²+12013<br>18×24²⁴³+437||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593391606&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593275880&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593269654&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593269876&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593270089&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002633359842&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002355610241&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002326181235&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593270725&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002633360037&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593391606&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593275880&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593269654&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593269876&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593270089&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002633359842&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002355610241&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002326181235&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593270725&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002633360037&base=24<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||25||133639~133724||E₉₈₃₉₆FOO<br>1J710₉₆₂₇₂1<br>NB0₈₅₅₉₈5NH<br>D70₈₁₅₈₁JJ7<br>F0₈₀₀₅₄HL<br>J010₇₅₉₄₃E7<br>K₆₇₇₇₁5I<br>LO₆₆₃₇₇KC<br>KJD0₆₃₃₉₉1<br>70₆₀₈₉₂D711||98399<br>96277<br>85603<br>81586<br>80057<br>75948<br>67773<br>66380<br>63403<br>60897||137556<br>134589<br>119668<br>114053<br>111915<br>106171<br>94743<br>92796<br>88634<br>85130||(7×25⁹⁸³⁹⁹+10613)/12<br>27676×25⁹⁶²⁷³+1<br>586×25⁸⁵⁶⁰¹+3717<br>332×25⁸¹⁵⁸⁴+12357<br>15×25⁸⁰⁰⁵⁶+446<br>11876×25⁷⁵⁹⁴⁵+357<br>(5×25⁶⁷⁷⁷³−2267)/6<br>22×25⁶⁶³⁷⁹−113<br>12988×25⁶³⁴⁰⁰+1<br>7×25⁶⁰⁸⁹⁶+207526||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118215&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003983674902&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004909706420&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004909733266&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004909750102&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004909770736&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004586986394&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118270&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004586986664&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004586986798&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118215&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003983674902&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004909706420&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004909733266&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004909750102&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004909770736&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004586986394&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118270&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004586986664&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004586986798&base=25<nowiki/>||85||100000|| |- ||26||25256~25259||85M₁₉₇₀₆₀B<br>M0₆₁₁₈₆2BB<br>J0₄₄₃₀₃KCB<br>6K₂₃₃₀₀5<br>LD0₂₀₉₇₅7<br>7₂₀₂₇₉OL<br>5₁₉₃₉₁6F<br>9GDK₁₅₉₂₀P<br>M₈₇₇₂P<br>K0₄₃₆₄I5||197063<br>61190<br>44307<br>23302<br>20978<br>20281<br>19393<br>15924<br>8773<br>4367||278839<br>86583<br>62694<br>32972<br>29684<br>28697<br>27440<br>22532<br>12414<br>6180||(5347×26¹⁹⁷⁰⁶¹−297)/25<br>22×26⁶¹¹⁸⁹+1649<br>19×26⁴⁴³⁰⁶+13843<br>(34×26²³³⁰¹−79)/5<br>559×26²⁰⁹⁷⁶+7<br>(7×26²⁰²⁸¹+11393)/25<br>(26¹⁹³⁹³+179)/5<br>(32569×26¹⁵⁹²¹+21)/5<br>(22×26⁸⁷⁷³+53)/25<br>20×26⁴³⁶⁶+473||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008573990023&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003968169875&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003968156595&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003892628745&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003892628658&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003892628605&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850151202&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850155316&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000758011195&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002634136508&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008573990023&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003968169875&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003968156595&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003892628745&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003892628658&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003892628605&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850151202&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850155316&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000758011195&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002634136508&base=26<nowiki/>||3||200000|| |- ||27||102852~102896||CA0F₈₈₈₈₃A<br>GNN0₇₈₇₉₅N<br>O44L₆₆₀₁₆7<br>NJ0₆₄₃₆₉H<br>ME₄₉₆₄₀9G<br>PH0₄₇₈₉₀1<br>QF₄₇₁₆₅AF5<br>J0₄₀₇₉₁PD<br>510₃₉₁₆₄I07<br>NGN0₃₆₃₂₉N||88887<br>78799<br>66020<br>64372<br>49643<br>47893<br>47169<br>40794<br>39169<br>36333||127230<br>112790<br>94499<br>92140<br>71058<br>68553<br>67516<br>58391<br>56065<br>52006||(234483×27⁸⁸⁸⁸⁴−145)/26<br>12308×27⁷⁸⁷⁹⁶+23<br>(457829×27⁶⁶⁰¹⁷−385)/26<br>640×27⁶⁴³⁷⁰+17<br>(293×27⁴⁹⁶⁴²−1736)/13<br>692×27⁴⁷⁸⁹¹+1<br>(691×27⁴⁷¹⁶⁸−95045)/26<br>19×27⁴⁰⁷⁹³+688<br>136×27³⁹¹⁶⁷+13129<br>17222×27³⁶³³⁰+23||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118233&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004681348398&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004374140861&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004374138999&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000819229859&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004102754118&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004102755880&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004102758254&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004102875088&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004103372866&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118233&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004681348398&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004374140861&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004374138999&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000819229859&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004102754118&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004102755880&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004102758254&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004102875088&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004103372866&base=27<nowiki/>||44||100000|| |- ||28||25528~25529||O4O₉₄₅₃₅9<br>5OA₃₁₂₃₈F<br>N6₂₄₀₅₁LR<br>D0₅₂₆₇77D<br>QO₄₂₃₉69<br>5₃₇₄₆8P<br>G0₁₈₉₉AN<br>A₁₄₂₃6F<br>5I₁₃₇₀F<br>5₁₃₃₂P8P||94538<br>31241<br>24054<br>5271<br>4242<br>3748<br>1902<br>1425<br>1372<br>1335||136812<br>45210<br>34810<br>7628<br>6139<br>5424<br>2753<br>2062<br>1985<br>1932||(6092×28⁹⁴⁵³⁶−143)/9<br>(4438×28³¹²³⁹+125)/27<br>(209×28²⁴⁰⁵³+3967)/9<br>13×28⁵²⁷⁰+5697<br>(242×28⁴²⁴¹−4679)/9<br>(5×28³⁷⁴⁸+2803)/27<br>16×28¹⁹⁰¹+303<br>(10×28¹⁴²⁵−2899)/27<br>(17×28¹³⁷¹−11)/3<br>(5×28¹³³⁵+426163)/27||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118231&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003880455200&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003879667576&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850151420&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840839934&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161974&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161973&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840839947&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161972&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161965&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118231&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003880455200&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003879667576&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850151420&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000840839934&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850161974&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850161973&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000840839947&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850161972&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850161965&base=28<nowiki/>||1||900000|| |- ||29||355242~355367||830₉₉₃₇₇4<br>GP5J₉₄₉₃₅<br>P05J₉₀₂₈₉<br>BBD0₈₈₈₈₈PB<br>8B₈₅₃₃₃G<br>L0₈₁₅₇₁5955<br>E0₇₇₃₇₂L7B<br>LPC₇₅₁₅₁9<br>JR0₇₄₆₂₂7<br>B₇₄₅₀₁0RP||99380<br>94938<br>90292<br>88893<br>85335<br>81576<br>77376<br>75154<br>74625<br>74504||145333<br>138837<br>132043<br>129997<br>124794<br>119297<br>113155<br>109905<br>109132<br>108955||235×29⁹⁹³⁷⁸+4<br>(397227×29⁹⁴⁹³⁵−19)/28<br>(588859×29⁹⁰²⁸⁹−19)/28<br>9583×29⁸⁸⁸⁹⁰+736<br>(235×29⁸⁵³³⁴+129)/14<br>21×29⁸¹⁵⁷⁵+129664<br>14×29⁷⁷³⁷⁵+17875<br>(4441×29⁷⁵¹⁵²−24)/7<br>578×29⁷⁴⁶²³+7<br>(11×29⁷⁴⁵⁰⁴−245655)/28||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253882372&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253893542&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253899083&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253909183&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253921388&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253925955&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253931446&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118236&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253934219&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253936120&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253882372&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253893542&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253899083&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253909183&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253921388&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253925955&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253931446&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118236&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253934219&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253936120&base=29<nowiki/>||125||100000|| |- ||30||2619||OT₃₄₂₀₅<br>I0₂₄₆₀₈D<br>5₄₈₈₂J<br>C0₁₀₂₂1<br>M0₅₄₇SS7<br>M₂₄₁QB<br>AN₂₀₆<br>50₁₆₄B<br>J₁₅₃QJ<br>J₉₄QQJ||34206<br>24610<br>4883<br>1024<br>551<br>243<br>207<br>166<br>155<br>97||50527<br>36352<br>7213<br>1513<br>814<br>359<br>306<br>245<br>229<br>144||25×30³⁴²⁰⁵−1<br>18×30²⁴⁶⁰⁹+13<br>(5×30⁴⁸⁸³+401)/29<br>12×30¹⁰²³+1<br>22×30⁵⁵⁰+26047<br>(22×30²⁴³+3139)/29<br>(313×30²⁰⁶−23)/29<br>5×30¹⁶⁵+11<br>(19×30¹⁵⁵+6071)/29<br>(19×30⁹⁷+188771)/29||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000800812865&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593967511&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002327649423&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000785448736&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593407988&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593408295&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002327651073&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002356282476&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593409109&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593409165&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000800812865&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593967511&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002327649423&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000785448736&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593407988&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593408295&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002327651073&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002356282476&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593409109&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593409165&base=30<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||31||569323~569400||2IIF₉₁₈₀₅<br>B0₈₈₃₀₉APO9<br>J0T₇₇₅₁₆<br>J090₇₇₁₂₈NNN<br>D₆₉₈₆₁QO<br>9MH0₆₈₆₃₇D<br>J₆₇₁₆₂D<br>N0₆₆₉₇₁32P<br>DDDQ0₆₄₀₈₈TD<br>U₆₃₈₆₁CM3||91808<br>88314<br>77518<br>77134<br>69863<br>68641<br>67163<br>66975<br>64094<br>63864||136918<br>131708<br>115608<br>115035<br>104191<br>102369<br>100165<br>99884<br>95587<br>95245||(4997×31⁹¹⁸⁰⁵−1)/2<br>11×31⁸⁸³¹³+322688<br>(17699×31⁷⁷⁵¹⁶−29)/30<br>18268×31⁷⁷¹³¹+22839<br>(13×31⁶⁹⁸⁶³+12407)/30<br>9348×31⁶⁸⁶³⁸+13<br>(19×31⁶⁷¹⁶³−199)/30<br>23×31⁶⁶⁹⁷⁴+2970<br>400205×31⁶⁴⁰⁹⁰+912<br>31⁶³⁸⁶⁴−17574||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000007050395732&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000007050397309&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000007050398940&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000007050400178&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000006965878559&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000006965875678&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000006965873668&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000006965870538&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000006965868103&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000006965865343&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000007050395732&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000007050397309&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000007050398940&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000007050400178&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000006965878559&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000006965875678&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000006965873668&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000006965870538&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000006965868103&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000006965865343&base=31<nowiki/>||77||100000|| |- ||32||168882~169002||V₉₉₅₈₃63<br>6₈₉₀₇₄AF<br>8₇₇₇₀₀H<br>Q₇₇₄₀₁EQQQ3<br>8₇₇₂₄₉3<br>JM₇₆₀₂₈L<br>E₇₂₉₁₉IL<br>B0₆₇₆₈₀CB<br>GK₆₆₀₇₆F<br>KN₆₅₀₂₂||99585<br>89076<br>77701<br>77406<br>77250<br>76030<br>72921<br>67683<br>66078<br>65023||149891<br>134073<br>116952<br>116508<br>116273<br>114437<br>109757<br>101873<br>99458<br>97870||32⁹⁹⁵⁸⁵−829<br>(6×32⁸⁹⁰⁷⁶+4241)/31<br>(8×32⁷⁷⁷⁰¹+271)/31<br>(26×32⁷⁷⁴⁰⁶−390071011)/31<br>(8×32⁷⁷²⁵⁰−163)/31<br>(611×32⁷⁶⁰²⁹−53)/31<br>(14×32⁷²⁹²¹+4171)/31<br>11×32⁶⁷⁶⁸²+395<br>(516×32⁶⁶⁰⁷⁷−175)/31<br>(643×32⁶⁵⁰²²−23)/31||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005514892191&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005514897129&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005514901700&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005514915338&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005514918574&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005514922523&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004591654373&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004591654467&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004591654632&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004591654952&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005514892191&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005514897129&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005514901700&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005514915338&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005514918574&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005514922523&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004591654373&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004591654467&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004591654632&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004591654952&base=32<nowiki/>||120||100000|| |- ||33||280012~280093||DP₉₅₀₉₃M5<br>HJ0₉₄₂₉₅J<br>90₉₃₅₉₇Q<br>9F0₉₃₁₅₇N<br>7₈₉₄₄₉333H<br>K3₈₀₇₅₁6K<br>D₈₀₁₀₇9UD<br>VFU₇₂₂₀₄FK<br>J₆₈₇₁₅2BJ<br>DF0₆₈₃₆₇J||95096<br>94298<br>93599<br>93160<br>89453<br>80754<br>80110<br>72208<br>68718<br>68370||144405<br>143193<br>142131<br>141465<br>135835<br>122626<br>121648<br>109649<br>104350<br>103821||(441×33⁹⁵⁰⁹⁵−3833)/32<br>580×33⁹⁴²⁹⁶+19<br>9×33⁹³⁵⁹⁸+26<br>312×33⁹³¹⁵⁸+23<br>(7×33⁸⁹⁴⁵³−4743239)/32<br>(643×33⁸⁰⁷⁵³+3709)/32<br>(13×33⁸⁰¹¹⁰−121453)/32<br>(16623×33⁷²²⁰⁶−8095)/16<br>(19×33⁶⁸⁷¹⁸−600883)/32<br>444×33⁶⁸³⁶⁸+19||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652348775&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652362811&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652375073&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652389776&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652430746&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652446200&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652461592&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004614764298&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004614770536&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004614784274&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652348775&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652362811&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652375073&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652389776&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652430746&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652446200&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652461592&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004614764298&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004614770536&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004614784274&base=33<nowiki/>||81||100000|| |- ||34||184785~184832||GFGC₉₉₉₉₆5<br>90₉₇₉₅₀FJ<br>NM0₈₅₂₁₈KX<br>F₈₃₁₈₉H2HP<br>P₇₉₄₄₁444P<br>6₇₇₀₂₇8X<br>XQIQ₇₂₂₄₁D<br>T₆₆₅₃₀IF<br>4₆₆₁₅₂B<br>2EEC₆₆₀₃₉7||100000<br>97953<br>85222<br>83193<br>79445<br>77029<br>72245<br>66532<br>66153<br>66043||153148<br>150013<br>130516<br>127408<br>121669<br>117968<br>110642<br>101893<br>101312<br>101143||(209246×34⁹⁹⁹⁹⁷−81)/11<br>9×34⁹⁷⁹⁵²+529<br>804×34⁸⁵²²⁰+713<br>(5×34⁸³¹⁹³+700233)/11<br>(25×34⁷⁹⁴⁴⁵−28062367)/33<br>(2×34⁷⁷⁰²⁹+1043)/11<br>(1288676×34⁷²²⁴²−455)/33<br>(29×34⁶⁶⁵³²−12833)/33<br>(4×34⁶⁶¹⁵³+227)/33<br>(30826×34⁶⁶⁰⁴⁰−59)/11||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004702891268&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004702894713&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004702900996&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004702910376&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004702913746&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004702918600&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004399656529&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004399657696&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004399658651&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004399659716&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004702891268&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004702894713&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004702900996&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004702910376&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004702913746&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004702918600&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004399656529&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004399657696&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004399658651&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004399659716&base=34<nowiki/>||47||100000|| |- ||35||720002~720062||N0N₉₉₉₇₁9<br>V0₈₃₆₆₉E73<br>N₈₁₅₆₃K7N<br>BJ0₈₁₂₇₉N<br>J0₈₀₀₆₂FUH<br>43V₇₉₇₅₄<br>9₇₆₆₀₀K3<br>LB₇₁₃₆₆PB<br>Q₆₄₁₅₀H<br>50₆₃₃₉₇5R||99974<br>83673<br>81566<br>81282<br>80066<br>79756<br>76602<br>71369<br>64151<br>63400||154367<br>129197<br>125944<br>125505<br>123628<br>123148<br>118279<br>110199<br>99054<br>97894||(27393×35⁹⁹⁹⁷²−499)/34<br>31×35⁸³⁶⁷²+17398<br>(23×35⁸¹⁵⁶⁶−144013)/34<br>404×35⁸¹²⁸⁰+23<br>19×35⁸⁰⁰⁶⁵+19442<br>(4893×35⁷⁹⁷⁵⁴−31)/34<br>(9×35⁷⁶⁶⁰²+12877)/34<br>(725×35⁷¹³⁶⁸+16649)/34<br>(13×35⁶⁴¹⁵¹−166)/17<br>5×35⁶³³⁹⁹+202||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248342445&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248353306&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248375642&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248397018&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248412468&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248418540&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248423670&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008192119974&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008192126630&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008192129294&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248342445&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248353306&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248375642&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248397018&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248412468&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248418540&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248423670&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008192119974&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008192126630&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008192129294&base=35<nowiki/>||60||100000|| |- ||36||35286~35290||P₈₁₉₉₃SZ<br>S0₇₅₀₀₇8H<br>7K₂₆₅₆₇Z<br>J₁₀₁₁₇LJ<br>VL0₇₂₅₈J<br>EO0₆₁₇₇V<br>FZ₅₇₇₇3P<br>T09₄₆₁₈1<br>RY₄₅₆₂H<br>OZ₃₉₃₂AZ||81995<br>75010<br>26569<br>10119<br>7261<br>6180<br>5780<br>4621<br>4564<br>3935||127609<br>116739<br>41349<br>15748<br>11301<br>9618<br>8996<br>7192<br>7103<br>6124||(5×36⁸¹⁹⁹⁵+821)/7<br>28×36⁷⁵⁰⁰⁹+305<br>(53×36²⁶⁵⁶⁸+101)/7<br>(19×36¹⁰¹¹⁹+2501)/35<br>1137×36⁷²⁵⁹+19<br>528×36⁶¹⁷⁸+31<br>16×36⁵⁷⁷⁹−1163<br>(36549×36⁴⁶¹⁹−289)/35<br>(979×36⁴⁵⁶³−629)/35<br>25×36³⁹³⁴−901||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002394962083&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004020085177&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003896952461&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362491&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362489&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362488&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362487&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362486&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362485&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840634476&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002394962083&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004020085177&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003896952461&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362491&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362489&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362488&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362487&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362486&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362485&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000840634476&base=36<nowiki/>||4||200000|| |} == The fully proof of Athena problem in decimal (base ''b'' = 10) == '''Bold''' for the Athena primes, ''x'' ◁ ''y'' means ''x'' is a subsequence of ''y''. Assume ''p'' is a prime > 10, and the last digit of ''p'' must lie in {1,3,7,9}. Case 1: ''p'' ends with 1. In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''1. If ''x'' contains 1, 3, 4, 6, or 7, then (respectively) '''11''' ◁ ''p'', '''31''' ◁ ''p'', '''41''' ◁ ''p'', '''61''' ◁ ''p'', or '''71''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 2, 5, 8, or 9. Case 1.1: ''p'' begins with 2. In this case we can write ''p'' = 2''y''1. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''251''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''281''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 29 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 2. If 22 ◁ ''y'', then '''2221''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains zero or one 2's. If ''y'' contains no 2's, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If ''y'' contains exactly one 2, then we can write ''p'' = 2''z''2''w''1, where ''z'',''w'' ∈ {0}. If 0 ◁ ''z'' and 0 ◁ ''w'', then '''20201''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume either ''z'' or ''w'' is empty. If ''z'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 22{0}1, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 22{0}1 is '''22000001'''. If ''w'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}21, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 2{0}21 is '''20021'''. Case 1.2: ''p'' begins with 5. In this case we can write ''p'' = 5''y''1. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''521''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 59 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0, 5, or 8. If 05 ◁ ''y'', then '''5051''' ◁ ''p''. If 08 ◁ ''y'', then '''5081''' ◁ ''p''. If 50 ◁ ''y'', then '''5501''' ◁ ''p''. If 58 ◁ ''y'', then '''5581''' ◁ ''p''. If 80 ◁ ''y'', then '''5801''' ◁ ''p''. If 85 ◁ ''y'', then '''5851''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0} ∪ {5} ∪ {8}. If ''y'' ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 6, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If ''y'' ∈ {5}, then ''p'' ∈ 5{5}1, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 5{5}1 is '''555555555551'''. If ''y'' ∈ {8}, since if 88 ◁ ''y'', then 881 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'',8}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {51,581}, but 51 and 581 are both composite. Case 1.3: ''p'' begins with 8. In this case we can write p = 8''y''1. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''821''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''881''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 89 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 5. If 50 ◁ ''y'', then '''8501''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume y ∈ {0}{5}. If 005 ◁ ''y'', then '''80051''' ◁ p. Hence we may assume y ∈ {0} ∪ {5} ∪ 0{5}. If y ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 8{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 9, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If y ∈ {5}, since if 55555555555 ◁ ''y'', then 555555555551 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'', 5, 55, 555, 5555, 55555, 555555, 5555555, 55555555, 555555555, 5555555555}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {81, 851, 8551, 85551, 855551, 8555551, 85555551, 855555551, 8555555551, 85555555551, 855555555551}, but all of these numbers are composite. If y ∈ 0{5}, since if 55555555555 ◁ ''y'', then 555555555551 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0, 05, 055, 0555, 05555, 055555, 0555555, 05555555, 055555555, 0555555555, 05555555555}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {801, 8051, 80551, 805551, 8055551, 80555551, 805555551, 8055555551, 80555555551, 805555555551, 8055555555551}, and of these numbers only 80555551 and 8055555551 are primes, but 80555551 ◁ 8055555551, thus only '''80555551''' is a minimal element. Case 1.4: ''p'' begins with 9. In this case we can write p = 9''y''1. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''991''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0, 2, 5, or 8. If 00 ◁ ''y'', then '''9001''' ◁ ''p''. If 22 ◁ ''y'', then '''9221''' ◁ ''p''. If 55 ◁ ''y'', then '''9551''' ◁ ''p''. If 88 ◁ ''y'', then 881 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains at most one 0, at most one 2, at most one 5, and at most one 8. If ''y'' only contains at most one 0 and does not contain any of {2,5,8}, then ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'',0}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {91,901}, but 91 and 901 are both composite. If ''y'' only contains at most one 0 and only one of {2,5,8}, then the sum of the digits of ''p'' is divisible by 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains at least two of {2,5,8}. If 25 ◁ ''y'', then 251 ◁ ''p''. If 28 ◁ ''y'', then 281 ◁ ''p''. If 52 ◁ ''y'', then 521 ◁ ''p''. If 82 ◁ ''y'', then 821 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains no 2's (since if ''y'' contains 2, then ''y'' cannot contain either 5's or 8's, which is a contradiction). If 85 ◁ ''y'', then '''9851''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {58,580,508,058}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {9581,95801,95081,90581}, and of these numbers only 95801 is prime, but 95801 is not a minimal element since 5801 ◁ 95801. Case 2: ''p'' ends with 3. In this case we can write p = ''x''3. If ''x'' contains 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, or 8, then (respectively) '''13''' ◁ ''p'', '''23''' ◁ ''p'', '''43''' ◁ ''p'', '''53''' ◁ ''p'', '''73''' ◁ ''p'', or '''83''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Case 3: ''p'' ends with 7. In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''7. If ''x'' contains 1, 3, 4, 6, or 9, then (respectively) '''17''' ◁ ''p'', '''37''' ◁ ''p'', '''47''' ◁ ''p'', '''67''' ◁ ''p'', or '''97''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 2, 5, 7, or 8. Case 3.1: ''p'' begins with 2. In this case we can write ''p'' = 2''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''227''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''257''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''277''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 8. If 08 ◁ ''y'', then '''2087''' ◁ ''p''. If 88 ◁ ''y'', then 887 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0} ∪ 8{0}. If ''y'' ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 9, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If y ∈ 8{0}, then ''p'' ∈ 28{0}7. But then ''p'' is divisible by 7, since for ''n'' ≥ 0 we have 7 × 40_''n''1 = 280_''n''7. Case 3.2: ''p'' begins with 5. In this case we can write ''p'' = 5''y''7. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''557''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''577''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''587''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 2. If 22 ◁ ''y'', then 227 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains zero or one 2's. If ''y'' contains no 2's, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 12, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If ''y'' contains exactly one 2, then we can write ''p'' = 5''z''2''w''7, where ''z'',''w'' ∈ {0}. If 0 ◁ ''z'' and 0 ◁ ''w'', then '''50207''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume either ''z'' or ''w'' is empty. If ''z'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 52{0}7, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 52{0}7 is '''5200007'''. If ''w'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}27, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 5{0}27 is '''5000000000000000000000000000027'''. Case 3.3: ''p'' begins with 7. In this case we can write ''p'' = 7''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''727''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''757''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''787''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 7, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0 or 7. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 7, ''p'' is divisible by 7, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Case 3.4: ''p'' begins with 8. In this case we can write ''p'' = 8''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''827''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''857''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''877''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''887''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 8{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 15, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Case 4: ''p'' ends with 9. In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''9. If ''x'' contains 1, 2, 5, 7, or 8, then (respectively) '''19''' ◁ ''p'', '''29''' ◁ ''p'', '''59''' ◁ ''p'', '''79''' ◁ ''p'', or '''89''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 4, 6, or 9. If 44 ◁ ''x'', then '''449''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''x'' contains zero or one 4's. If x contains no 4's, then all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Hence we may assume that ''x'' contains exactly one 4. Case 4.1: ''p'' begins with 3. In this case we can write ''p'' = 3''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. We must have '''349''' ◁ ''p''. Case 4.2: ''p'' begins with 4. In this case we can write ''p'' = 4''y''9, where all digits of ''y'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''y'', then '''409''' ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''499''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {6}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 4{6}9. But then ''p'' is divisible by 7, since for ''n'' ≥ 0 we have 7 × 6_''n''7 = 46_''n''9. Case 4.3: ''p'' begins with 6. In this case we can write p = 6''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''z'', then 409 ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''z'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 6 ◁ ''z'', then '''6469''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''z'', then 499 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''z'' is empty. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 349 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''6949''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 6. If 06 ◁ ''y'', then '''60649''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {6}{0}. If 666 ◁ ''y'', then '''666649''' ◁ ''p''. If 00000 ◁ ''y'', then '''60000049''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'', 0, 00, 000, 0000, 6, 60, 600, 6000, 60000, 66, 660, 6600, 66000, 660000}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {649, 6049, 60049, 600049, 6000049, 6649, 66049, 660049, 6600049, 66000049, 66649, 666049, 6660049, 66600049, 666000049}, and of these numbers only '''66000049''' and '''66600049''' are primes. Case 4.4: ''p'' begins with 9. In this case we can write p = 9''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''y'', then '''9049''' ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 349 ◁ ''p''. If 6 ◁ ''y'', then '''9649''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''9949''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' is empty. If 0 ◁ ''z'', then 409 ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''z'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''z'', then 499 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''z'' ∈ {6}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 94{6}9, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 94{6}9 is 946669. [[Category:Number theory]] 3ki1em19xoy9x5wvd9hhvyxnj43xwcp 2841837 2841739 2026-10-21T08:37:58Z Athene241 3100061 2841837 wikitext text/x-wiki {{mathematics}} '''Athena problem''' is an [[:w:List of unsolved problems in mathematics|unsolved problem]] in [[:w:Number theory|number theory]] and [[:w:Formal language theory|formal language theory]] and [[:w:Order theory|order theory]], this problem is named after the ancient Greek goddess [[:w:Athena|Athena]] (which is associated with [[:w:Wisdom|wisdom]]). Athena problem is: Give a [[:w:Natural number|natural number]] ''b'' > 1, find the [[:w:Set (mathematics)|set]] of the [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s of the set of the "[[:w:Prime number|prime number]] [[:w:Greater than|>]] ''b''" [[:w:Numerical digit|digit]] [[:w:String (computer science)|string]]s in the [[:w:Positional numeral system|positional numeral system]] with [[:w:Radix|base]] ''b'' for the [[:w:Subsequence|subsequence]] [[:w:Partially ordered set|ordering]]. (A string ''x'' is a subsequence of another string ''y'', if ''x'' can be obtained from ''y'' by deleting zero or more of the [[:w:Character (computing)|character]]s in ''y''. For example, 514 is a subsequence of 352148, "string" is a subsequence of "meistersinger". In contrast, 758 is not a subsequence of 378259, "abc" is not a subsequence of "cbacacba", since the characters must be in the same order) (Unlike [[:w:Substring|substring]], subsequence is not required to occupy consecutive positions within the original sequences, e.g. the [[:w:Longest common subsequence|longest common subsequence problem]] is different from the [[:w:Longest common substring|longest common substring problem]]) Using [[:w:Formal language theory|formal language theory]] terminology, Athena problem is finding the [[:w:Set (mathematics)|set]] of the [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s of the [[:w:Formal language|language]] of base-''b'' [[:w:Representation (mathematics)|representation]]s of the [[:w:Prime number|prime number]]s [[:w:Greater than|>]] ''b'' (which is a set of [[:w:String (computer science)|string]]s of [[:w:Symbol|symbol]]s over the [[:w:Alphabet (formal languages)|alphabet]] ''Σ''_''b'' := {0, 1, ..., ''b''−1}), under the subsequence ordering (i.e. the [[:w:Binary relation|binary relation]] "is a subsequence of", which is a [[:w:Partially ordered set|partial ordering]]), for a given natural number ''b'' > 1 (You can draw this partial ordering as a [[:w:Hasse diagram|Hasse diagram]] to find all [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s), this set is called '''Athena set''', and the prime numbers in this set are called '''Athena primes'''. The [[:w:Set (mathematics)|set]] of all [[:w:String (computer science)|string]]s ordered by [[:w:Subsequence|subsequence]] (i.e. under the [[:w:Binary relation|binary relation]] "is a subsequence of") is a [[:w:Partially ordered set|partially ordered set]] (i.e. the binary relation "is a subsequence of" is a [[:w:Partial order|partial order relation]], since this binary relation is [[:w:Reflexive relation|reflexive]], [[:w:Antisymmetric relation|antisymmetric]], and [[:w:Transitive relation|transitive]]), hence, any given ([[:w:Finite set|finite]] or [[:w:Infinite set|infinite]]) set (e.g. the set of the "[[:w:Prime number|prime number]]s [[:w:Greater than|>]] ''b''" [[:w:String (computer science)|string]]s in [[:w:Radix|base]] ''b'', for 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36), which is exactly the Athena problem) of strings ordered by subsequence is also a partially ordered set, and thus we can draw its [[:w:Hasse diagram|Hasse diagram]] and find its [[:w:Greatest element|greatest element]], [[:w:Least element|least element]], [[:w:Maximal element|maximal element]]s, and [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s, however, the greatest element and least element may not exist, and for an infinite set, the maximal elements also may not exist, thus we are only interested on finding the [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s of such sets, and we define minimal set of a set as the set of the minimal elements of this set, under a given [[:w:Partially ordered set|partially ordered]] [[:w:Binary relation|binary relation]] (this binary relation is "is a subsequence of" in the Athena problem), and we use ''M''(''S'') to denote the minimal set of the set ''S''. A partially ordered set is a [[:w:Totally ordered set|totally ordered set]] if the elements in this set are pairwise [[:w:Comparability|comparable]], two elements ''x'' and ''y'' are [[:w:Comparability|comparable]] with respect to a binary relation "≤" if at least one of ''x'' ≤ ''y'' or ''y'' ≤ ''x'' is true, thus, under the binary relation "is a subsequence of", two strings ''x'' and ''y'' are [[:w:Comparability|comparable]] if either ''x'' is a subsequence of ''y'', or ''y'' is a subsequence of ''x''. A surprising result from [[:w:Formal language theory|formal language theory]] is that every set of pairwise incomparable (i.e. not comparable) strings is finite (note that this is not true for general [[:w:Partially ordered set|partially ordered]] [[:w:Binary relation|binary relation]]s, e.g. the set of the [[:w:Positive integer|positive integer]]s, under the binary relation "is a [[:w:Divisor|divisor]] of", the [[:w:Infinite set|infinite set]] of the [[:w:Prime number|prime number]]s (by [[Euclid's theorem]], this set is infinite) is pairwise incomparable, in fact, this set is exactly the minimal set of the set of the [[:w:Positive integer|positive integer]]s > 1 under this binary relation). At first sight this theorem is hard to believe, since we may make a set of pairwise incomparable strings as large as we want, e.g. all the strings with length 20 are pairwise incomparable, and if our [[:w:Alphabet (formal languages)|alphabet]] has ''n'' elements, then there are ''n''²⁰ such strings. Even if our [[:w:Alphabet (formal_languages)|alphabet]] is ''Σ''_''b'' = {0, 1, ..., ''b'' − 1} (the set of the base-''b'' [[:w:Numerical digit|digit]]s), which has ''b'' elements and we do not count the strings with [[:w:Leading zero|leading zero]]s, there are still ''b''²⁰−''b''¹⁹ such strings (i.e. there are ''b''²⁰−''b''¹⁹ 20-digit numbers in base ''b''), e.g. for the case of decimal (base ''b'' = 10), there are as many as 9×10¹⁹ such strings (i.e. there are 9×10¹⁹ 20-digit numbers in base ''b'' = 10). And nothing prevents us from 20 with 50 or 100 or [[:w:Googol|10¹⁰⁰]]. Nevertheless, the result is true, and in fact the proof is not that hard (the proof is like [[:w:Bolzano%25E2%2580%2593Weierstrass_theorem|Bolzano–Weierstrass theorem]] in [[:w:Real analysis|real analysis]], i.e. all [[:w:Bounded sequence|bounded sequence]] has a [[:w:Limit of a sequence|convergent]] [[:w:Subsequence|subsequence]]). This means that from any set of strings we can find its [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s. A string ''x'' in a set of strings ''S'' is a ''minimal string'' (minimal element of a set of strings ordered by subsequence) if whenever ''y'' (an element of ''S'') is a subsequence of ''x'', we have ''y'' = ''x''. By [[:w:Higman's lemma|Higman's lemma]], there are no [[:w:Infinite set|infinite]] [[:w:Antichain|antichain]]s for the subsequence ordering (i.e. the subsequence ordering is always a [[:w:Well-quasi-ordering|well quasi order]]) (i.e. under the subsequence ordering (i.e. the [[:w:Binary relation|binary relation]] "is a subsequence of", which is a [[:w:Partially ordered set|partial ordering]]), every set of pairwise incomparable (i.e. not [[:w:Comparability|comparable]]) strings is finite), thus there must be only finitely many such minimal elements. In other words, the Athena set in every base ''b'' must be a [[:w:Finite set|finite set]], and every base ''b'' ≥ 2 has only finitely many Athena primes, e.g. in [[:w:Decimal|decimal]] (base ''b'' = 10), the Athena set has exactly 77 [[:w:Element of a set|element]]s (they are exactly the Athena primes in decimal (base ''b'' = 10)): {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027}. Determining the set of the minimal elements of a arbitrary set of strings under the subsequence ordering is in general [[:w:List of unsolved problems in mathematics|unsolvable]], and can be difficult even when this set is relatively simple (such as the base ''b'' representations of the prime numbers > ''b'', whose set is exactly the Athena set in base ''b''). Although the set ''M''(''S'') of minimal strings is necessarily [[:w:Finite set|finite]], determining it explicitly for a given ''S'' can be a difficult computational problem. We use some [[:w:Number theory|numbertheoretic]] [[:w:Heuristic argument|heuristic]]s to [[:w:Computing|compute]] ''M''(''L''_''b'') (i.e. to compute the Athena set in base ''b''), where ''L''_''b'' is the [[:w:Formal language|language]] of [[:w:Radix|base]]-''b'' representations of the [[:w:Prime number|prime number]]s which are [[:w:Greater than|>]] ''b'', for 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36. For bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36, Athena problem is fully solved in bases ''b'' = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 18, 20, 24, and also solved in bases ''b'' = 11, 13, 16, 22, 30 if [[:w:Probable prime|probable prime]]s are allowed. For the unsolved bases ''b'' = 17, 19, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, Athena problem is solved (if probable primes are allowed) except 771 [[:w:Indexed family|families]] of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be [[:w:Empty string|empty]]) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') = sequence {''xz'', ''xyz'', ''xyyz'', ''xyyyz'', ''xyyyyz'', ''xyyyyyz'', ...} (i.e. "''xy''⁺''z''" in [[:w:Regular expression|regular expression]]), all of these 771 families contain no primes > ''b'' or probable primes > ''b'' with length ≤ 100000. (The chance that an unproven probable prime in these sets is in fact composite is less than 10⁻²⁰⁰⁰, see https://t5k.org/notes/prp_prob.html) Below, family ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be [[:w:Empty string|empty]]) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') means sequence {''xz'', ''xyz'', ''xyyz'', ''xyyyz'', ''xyyyyz'', ''xyyyyyz'', ...} (i.e. "''xy''⁺''z''" in [[:w:Regular expression|regular expression]]), where the members are expressed as base ''b'' strings, like the numbers in https://stdkmd.net/nrr/aaaab.htm, https://stdkmd.net/nrr/abbbb.htm, https://stdkmd.net/nrr/aaaba.htm, https://stdkmd.net/nrr/abaaa.htm, https://stdkmd.net/nrr/abbba.htm, https://stdkmd.net/nrr/abbbc.htm, e.g. 1{3} (in decimal) is the numbers in https://stdkmd.net/nrr/1/13333.htm#about_first, and {1}3 (in decimal) is the numbers in https://stdkmd.net/nrr/1/11113.htm#about_first, and 31{3} (in decimal) is the numbers in https://stdkmd.net/nrr/3/31333.htm#about_first, and {1}31 (in decimal) is the numbers in https://stdkmd.net/nrr/1/11131.htm#about_first, and 1{2}3 (in decimal) is the numbers in https://stdkmd.net/nrr/1/12223.htm#about_first, also, superscripts always means exponents, subscripts are always used to indicate repetitions of digits, e.g. 123₄567 = 123333567, all subscripts are written in decimal. == Solve the problem == To solve the Athena problem for a given base ''b'', we must [[:w:Computing|compute]] the elements up to families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''), and find the smallest prime > ''b'' in all such families. We call families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') "linear" families, and we reduce these families by removing all trailing digits ''y'' from ''x'', and removing all leading digits ''y'' from ''z'', to make the families be easier, e.g. family 12333{3}33345 in base ''b'' is reduced to family 12{3}45 in base ''b'', since they are in fact the same family. Our [[:w:Algorithm|algorithm]] then proceeds as follows: * 1. ''M'' := {minimal primes in base ''b'' of length 2 or 3}, ''L'' := union of all ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'') such that ''x'' ≠ 0 and ''gcd''(''z'', ''b'') = 1 and ''Y'' is the set of digits ''y'' in base ''b'' such that ''xyz'' has no subsequence in ''M''. * 2. While ''L'' contains nonlinear families (families which are not linear families): Explore each family of ''L'', and update ''L''. Examine each family of ''L'' by: * 2.1. Let ''w'' be the shortest string in the family. If ''w'' has a subsequence in ''M'', then remove the family from ''L''. If ''w'' represents a prime, then add ''w'' to ''M'' and remove the family from ''L''. * 2.2. If possible, simplify the family. * 2.3. Using the techniques below (covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), check if the family can be proven to only contain composites (only count the numbers > ''b''), and if so then remove the family from ''L''. * 3. Update ''L'', after each split examine the new families as in step 2. e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10): ''M'' := {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991} ''L'' := {2{0,2}1, 2{0,8}7, 3{0,3,6,9}3, 3{0,3,6,9}9, 4{6}9, 5{0,5,8}1, 5{0,2}7, 6{0,3,6,9}3, 6{0,3,4,6,9}9, 7{0,7}7, 8{0,5}1, 8{0}7, 9{0,2,5,8}1, 9{0,3,6,9}3, 9{0,3,4,6,9}9} and since 2221 is prime, it follows that the family 2{0,2}1 splits into the families 2{0}1 and 2{0}2{0}1 and since the family 2{0}1 can be proven to contain no primes > base (since all numbers in this family are divisible by 3), it can be removed and since 20201 is prime, it follows that the family 2{0}2{0}1 splits into the families 2{0}21 and 22{0}1 221 and 2021 are composites, but 20021 is prime, thus add 20021 to ''L'' none of 221, 2201, 22001, 220001, 2200001 are primes, but 22000001 is prime, thus add 22000001 to ''L'' and since the family 3{0,3,6,9}3 can be proven to contain no primes > base (since all numbers in this family are divisible by 3), it can be removed etc. Since the number of possible (first digit,last digit) (also called (initial digit,final digit)) combos ([[:w:Ordered pair|ordered pair]]s) of a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' is (''b''−1)×''[[:w:Euler's totient function|eulerphi]]''(''b'') (all digits except 0 can be the first digit of a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' (thus ''b''−1 possible digits), but only the digits coprime to ''b'' can be the last digit of a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' (thus ''eulerphi''(''b'') possible digits), and by the [[:w:Rule of product|rule of product]], there are (''b''−1)×''eulerphi''(''b'') choices of the (first digit,last digit) combo, also, both "numbers of Athena primes in base ''b''" and "length of the largest Athena prime in base ''b''" are [[:w:Asymptotic analysis|roughly]] ''[[:w:E (mathematical_constant)|e]]''^{''[[:w:Euler's constant|γ]]''×(''b''−1)×''[[:w:Euler's totient function|eulerphi]]''(*b*)}. Shrinking the family ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''Y'' is a set of digits in base ''b'') * If ''y'' ∈ ''Y'' and the string ''xyyz'' represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or has a subsequence which represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''z'' ∪ ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''y''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''z''. * If ''y''₁ ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''₂ ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''₁ ≠ ''y''₂ and the string ''xy''₁''y''₂''z'' represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or has a subsequence which represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''₁}{''Y'' \ ''y''₂}''z''. * If ''y''₁ ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''₂ ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''₁ ≠ ''y''₂ and both the strings ''xy''₁''y''₂''z'' and ''xy''₂''y''₁''z'' represent a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or have a subsequence which represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''₁}''z'' ∪ ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''₂}''z''. e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10): * 2221 is a prime > 10, thus the family 2{0,2}1 splits into the two families 2{0}1 and 2{0}2{0}1. * 227 is a prime > 10, and it is a subsequence of 5227, thus the family 5{0,2}7 splits into the two families 5{0}7 and 5{0}2{0}7. * 449 is a prime > 10, and it is a subsequence of 6449, thus the family 6{0,3,4,6,9}9 splits into the two families 6{0,3,6,9}9 and 6{0,3,6,9}4{0,3,6,9}9. * Both 5051 and 5501 are primes > 10, thus the family 5{0,5}1 splits into the two families 5{0}1 and 5{5}1 = {5}1. * 8501 is a prime > 10, thus the family 8{0,5}1 splits into the family 8{0}{5}1. * 887 is a prime > 10, and it is a subsequence of 2887, also 2087 is a prime > 10, thus the family 2{0,8}7 splits into the two families 2{0}7 and 28{0}7. * 349 and 449 are primes > 10, and they are subsequences of 9349 and 9449, respectively, also 9049, 9649, 9949 are primes > 10, thus the family 9{0,3,4,6,9}9 splits into the two families 9{0,3,6,9}9 and 94{0,3,6,9}9. * 251, 281, 521, 821, 881 are primes > 10, and they are subsequences of 9251, 9281, 9521, 9821, 9881, respectively, also 9001, 9221, 9551, 9851 are primes > 10, thus the family 9{0,2,5,8}1 splits into the numbers {91, 901, 921, 951, 981, 9021, 9051, 9081, 9201, 9501, 9581, 9801, 90581, 95081, 95801}. If the methods we have discussed cannot be used to rule out or shrink ''x''{''Y''}''z'' where ''Y'' = {''y''₁, ''y''₂, ..., ''y''_''n''}, then we can replace ''x''{''Y''}''z'' by ''xy''₁{''Y''}''z'' ∪ ''xy''₂{''Y''}''z'' ∪ ... ∪ ''xy''_''n''{''Y''}''z'' and re-run the methods on this new [[:w:Formal language|language]]. If all remain families are linear families (i.e. of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'', where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''), then we search the smallest (probable) primes in these families and add these primes to the list. e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10): * The smallest prime in the family 5{0}27 is 5000000000000000000000000000027. * The smallest prime in the family {5}1 is 555555555551. * The smallest prime in the family 8{5}1 is 8555555555555555555551, but 8555555555555555555551 is not a minimal element since 555555555551 is a subsequence of 8555555555555555555551. There is no guarantee that the techniques discussed will ever terminate, but in practice they often do. They are able to determine the Athena set in base ''b'' for 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 16 and ''b'' = 18, 20, 22, 24, 30. The bases ''b'' = 17, 19, 21, 23, 25 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 29, 31 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 are solved with the exception of 771 families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''). The following is a "[[:w:Semi-algorithm|semi-algorithm]]" that is guaranteed to solve the Athena problem for a given base ''b'', but it is not so easy to implement: # ''M'' = ''[[:w:Empty string|∅]]'' # while (''L'' ≠ ''∅'') do # choose ''x'', a shortest string in ''L'' # ''M'' := ''M'' ∪ {''x''} # ''L'' := ''L'' − ''sup''({''x''}) In practice, for arbitrary ''L'', we cannot feasibly carry out step 5. Instead, we work with ''L''&#39;, some regular overapproximation to ''L'', until we can show ''L''&#39; = ''∅'' (which implies ''L'' = ''∅''). In practice, ''L''&#39; is usually chosen to be a finite [[:w:Union (set theory)|union]] of sets of the form ''L''₁{''L''₂}''L''₃, where each of ''L''₁, ''L''₂, ''L''₃ is finite. In the case we consider in this project, we then have to determine whether such a family contains a prime or not. Thus, the [[:w:Time complexity|time complexity]] of the Athena problem in base ''b'' may be ''[[:w:Big O notation|O]]''(''[[:w:E (mathematical_constant)|e]]''^{''[[:w:Euler's constant|γ]]''×(''b''−1)×''[[:w:Euler's totient function|eulerphi]]''(*b*)}), and the [[:w:CPU time|CPU time]] of the Athena problem in base ''b'' may be longer than [[:w:Age of the universe|the age of the universe]] for bases ''b'' = 19, 23, 25, 27, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, also, Athena problem in bases ''b'' around 500 may be [[:w:NP-complete|NP-complete]] or [[:w:NP-hard|NP-hard]], or an [[:w:Undecidable problem|undecidable problem]], or an example of [[:w:Gödel's incompleteness theorems|Gödel's incompleteness theorems]] (like the [[:w:Continuum hypothesis|continuum hypothesis]] and the [[:w:Halting problem|halting problem]]). To solve the Athena problem (i.e. to compute the Athena set), we need to determine whether a given family contains a prime. In practice, if family ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''Y'' is a set of digits in base ''b'') could not be ruled out as only containing composites and ''Y'' contains two or more digits, then a relatively small prime > ''b'' could always be found in this family. Intuitively, this is because there are a large number of small strings in such a family, and at least one is likely to be prime (e.g. there are 2^''n''−2 strings of length ''n'' in the family 1{3,7}9, and there are over a thousand strings of length 12 in the family 1{3,7}9, thus it is very impossible that these numbers are all composite). In the case ''Y'' contains only one digit, this family is of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'', and there is only a single string of each length > (the length of ''x'' + the length of ''z''), and it is not known if the following [[:w:Decision problem|decision problem]] is recursively solvable (just like [[:w:Sierpiński number|Sierpiński problem]] and [[:w:Riesel number|Riesel problem]], Sierpiński problem and Riesel problem can be generalized to other bases ''b'' (references: http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Sierp-conjectures.htm, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Riesel-conjectures.htm, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Sierp-conjectures-powers2.htm, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Riesel-conjectures-powers2.htm, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Sierp-conjecture-reserves.htm, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Riesel-conjecture-reserves.htm), in fact, Athena problem base ''b'' covers the Sierpiński problem base ''b'' and the Riesel problem base ''b'' with ''k'' < ''b'', i.e. finding the smallest prime of the form ''k''×''b''^''n''+1 and ''k''×''b''^''n''−1 (or prove such prime does not exist) with ''k'' < ''b'' (specially, for bases ''b'' such that the conjectured smallest Sierpiński number or the conjectured smallest Riesel number is < ''b'', Athena problem base ''b'' covers the Sierpiński problem base ''b'' or the Riesel problem base ''b'', respectively), since the smallest prime of the form ''k''×''b''^''n''+1 and ''k''×''b''^''n''−1 (if exists) must be a minimal element in base ''b'', also, Athena problem base ''b'' covers finding the smallest prime of these forms in base ''b'' (or proving that such prime does not exist) (in fact, it is known that exactly what bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 1024 have the families listed in the table below as unsolved families, all of these families in all bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 1024 have been searched to length ≥ 10000 (for the family (''sqrt''(''b'')×''b''^''n''+1)/(''sqrt''(''b'')+1), bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 1048576, searched to length ≥ 5000)): (''b''^''n''−1)/(''b''−1) (for this form, ''n'' must be prime, and we want ''n'' ≥ 2) (references of this form: http://www.fermatquotient.com/PrimSerien/GenRepu.txt, https://web.archive.org/web/20021111141203/http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~aads/primes.html, http://www.primenumbers.net/Henri/us/MersFermus.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/379, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableRepunitGen.php, https://oeis.org/A084740, https://oeis.org/A084738, https://oeis.org/A128164, https://oeis.org/A285642; or for prime bases ''b'': https://oeis.org/A065854, https://oeis.org/A279068), ''b''^''n''+1 (for this form, ''n'' must be power of 2, and we want ''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: http://jeppesn.dk/generalized-fermat.html, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/GFN-primes.htm, https://web.archive.org/web/20231002190634/http://yves.gallot.pagesperso-orange.fr/primes/index.html, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableFermatGFBB.php, https://oeis.org/A079706, https://oeis.org/A084712, https://oeis.org/A228101), (''b''^''n''+1)/2 (for odd ''b'') (for this form, ''n'' must be power of 2, and we want ''n'' ≥ 2) (reference of this form: http://www.fermatquotient.com/PrimSerien/GenFermOdd.txt), (''sqrt''(''b'')×''b''^''n''+1)/(''sqrt''(''b'')+1) (for square ''b'') (for this form, 2×''n''+1 must be prime, and we want ''n'' ≥ 2) (references of this form: http://www.fermatquotient.com/PrimSerien/GenRepuP.txt, http://www.primenumbers.net/Henri/us/MersFermus.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/488, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableWagstaffGen.php, https://oeis.org/A084742, https://oeis.org/A084741; or for bases ''b'' with ''sqrt''(''b'') prime: https://oeis.org/A065507), ((''b''−2)×''b''^''n''+1)/(''b''−1) (''n'' ≥ 2) (reference of this form: https://oeis.org/A243404), 2×''b''^''n''+1 (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: https://www.mersenneforum.org/showthread.php?t=6918, https://www.mersenneforum.org/showthread.php?t=19725, https://oeis.org/A119624), 2×''b''^''n''−1 (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: https://www.mersenneforum.org/showthread.php?t=24576, https://www.mersenneforum.org/attachment.php?attachmentid=20976&d=1567314217, https://oeis.org/A119591), ''b''^''n''+2 (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: https://oeis.org/A138066, https://oeis.org/A084713, https://oeis.org/A138067), ''b''^''n''−2 (''n'' ≥ 2) (references of this form: https://www.primepuzzles.net/puzzles/puzz_887.htm, https://oeis.org/A250200, https://oeis.org/A255707, https://oeis.org/A084714; or for prime bases ''b'': https://oeis.org/A292201), (''b''−1)×''b''^''n''+1 (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/Williams-primes-MP.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/477, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableWilliams2.php, https://oeis.org/A305531; or for prime bases ''b'': https://oeis.org/A087139), (''b''−1)×''b''^''n''−1 (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: https://harvey563.tripod.com/wills.txt, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/Williams-primes-MM.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/484, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableWilliams1.php; or for prime bases ''b'': https://oeis.org/A122396), ''b''^''n''+(''b''−1) (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: http://www.bitman.name/math/table/795, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableWilliams6.php, https://oeis.org/A076845, https://oeis.org/A076846, https://oeis.org/A078178, https://oeis.org/A078179), ''b''^''n''−(''b''−1) (''n'' ≥ 2) (references of this form: http://www.bitman.name/math/table/792, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableWilliams5.php, https://oeis.org/A113516, https://oeis.org/A343589; or for prime bases ''b'': https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/journals/JIS/VOL3/mccranie.html, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/435)): '''Problem: Given strings ''x'', ''z'' (may be empty), a digit ''y'', and a base ''b'' (''x'' does not [[:w:Leading zero|start with the digit 0]], ''z'' ends with a digit which [[:w:Coprime integers|coprime]] to ''b'', ''y'' is not 0 if ''x'' is empty, ''y'' is coprime to ''b'' if ''z'' is empty), does there exist a prime number whose base-''b'' expansion is of the form ''xy''_''n''''z'' for some ''n'' ≥ 0?''' An [[:w:Algorithm|algorithm]] to solve this problem, for example, would allow us to decide if there are any additional [[:w:Fermat prime|Fermat prime]]s other than the known ones (corresponding to ''n'' = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4). To see this, take ''b'' = 2, ''x'' = 1, ''y'' = 0, and ''z'' = 0₁₆1. Since if 2^''n''+1 is prime then ''n'' must be a [[:w:Power of 2|power of two]], a prime of the form ''xy''_''n''''z'' in base ''b'' must be a new Fermat prime. Besides, it would allow us to decide if there are infinitely many [[:w:Mersenne prime|Mersenne prime]]s (of the form 2^''p''−1 with prime ''p''). To see this, take ''b'' = 2, ''x'' = ''𝜆'' (the [[:w:Empty string|empty string]]), ''y'' = 1, and ''z'' = 1_''n''+1, where ''n'' is the exponent of the Mersenne prime which we want to know whether it is the largest Mersenne prime or not. Since if 2^''n''−1 is prime then ''n'' must be a [[:w:Prime number|prime]], a prime of the form ''xy''_''n''''z'' in base ''b'' must be a new Mersenne prime. Also, it would allow us to decide whether 78557 is the smallest [[:w:Sierpinski number|Sierpinski number]] (i.e. odd numbers ''k'' such that ''k''×2^''n''+1 is composite for all ''n'' ≥ 1) and whether 509203 is the smallest [[:w:Riesel number|Riesel number]] (i.e. odd numbers ''k'' such that ''k''×2^*n*−1 is composite for all ''n'' ≥ 1), etc. '''Conjecture (this conjecture is very important for the Athena problem): If family ''xy''_''n''''z'' (with fixed strings ''x'', ''z'' (may be empty), fixed digit ''y'', and variable ''n'') in base ''b'' (with fixed ''b'' ≥ 2) (''x'' does not start with the digit 0, ''z'' ends with a digit which coprime to ''b'', ''y'' is not 0 if ''x'' is empty, ''y'' is coprime to ''b'' if ''z'' is empty) cannot be proven to only contain composites or only contain finitely many primes (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), then family ''xy''_''n''''z'' in base ''b'' contains infinitely many primes (this is equivalent to: If form (''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'')/''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1) (with fixed integers ''a'' ≥ 1, ''b'' ≥ 2, ''c'' ≠ 0 (with ''gcd''(''a'',''c'') = 1 and ''gcd''(''b'',''c'') = 1), and variable ''n'') cannot be proven to only contain composites or only contain finitely many primes (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), then form (''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'')/''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1) contains infinitely many primes).''' (in fact, this conjecture is equivalent to the conjecture (to prove this, by change the base (''b'') to a power of ''b'' which is larger than the largest prime in a given family (in base ''b'') which only contains finitely many primes): If family ''xy''_''n''''z'' (with fixed strings ''x'', ''z'' (may be empty), fixed digit ''y'', and variable ''n'') in base ''b'' (with fixed ''b'' ≥ 2) (''x'' does not start with the digit 0, ''z'' ends with a digit which coprime to ''b'', ''y'' is not 0 if ''x'' is empty, ''y'' is coprime to ''b'' if ''z'' is empty) cannot be proven to only contain composites (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), then family ''xy''_''n''''z'' in base ''b'' contains at least one prime (this is equivalent to: If form (''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'')/''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1) (with fixed integers ''a'' ≥ 1, ''b'' ≥ 2, ''c'' ≠ 0 (with ''gcd''(''a'',''c'') = 1 and ''gcd''(''b'',''c'') = 1), and variable ''n'') cannot be proven to only contain composites (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), then form (''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'')/''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1) contains at least one prime), like the [[:w:Bunyakovsky conjecture|Bunyakovsky conjecture]] and the [[:w:Dickson's conjecture|Dickson's conjecture]] and the [[:w:Schinzel's hypothesis H|Schinzel's hypothesis ''H'']], if such ''n'' always exists, then there must be always infinitely many such ''n'', to prove this, add another polynomial for the cases of the Dickson's conjecture and the Schinzel's hypothesis ''H'', also, change the polynomial (e.g. change ''n'' to ''r''×''n'' or ''n''^''r'' for all integers ''r'' > 1) for the cases of the Bunyakovsky conjecture and the Schinzel's hypothesis ''H'') Some families can be ruled out to contain no prime > ''b'' by [[:w:Covering set|covering congruence]], [[:w:Factorization of polynomials|algebraic factorization]] (e.g. [[:w:Difference of two squares|difference of two squares]], [[:w:Sum of two cubes|sum of two cubes]], [[:w:Sophie Germain's identity|Sophie Germain's identity of ''x''⁴+4×''y''⁴]]), or combine of them, e.g. * The base 9 family 2{7}: Always divisible by 2 or 5 * The base 11 family 2{5}: Always divisible by 2 or 3 * The base 14 family B{0}1: Always divisible by 3 or 5 * The base 13 family 95{0}3: Always divisible by 5, 7, or 17 * The base 16 family {4}D: Always divisible by 3, 7, or 13 * The base 16 family {8}F: Always divisible by 3, 7, or 13 * The base 21 family {7}D: Always divisible by 2, 13, or 17 * The base 23 family {D}GA: Always divisible by 2, 5, 7, 37, or 79 * The base 9 family {1}: Can be written as (9^''n''−1)/8 and can be factored as (3^''n''−1) × (3^''n''+1) / 8 * The base 8 family 1{0}1: Can be written as 8^''n''+1 and can be factored as (2^''n''+1) × (4^''n''−2^''n''+1) * The base 9 family 3{8}: Can be written as 4×9^''n''−1 and can be factored as (2×3^''n''−1) × (2×3^''n''+1) * The base 16 family 1{5}: Can be written as (4×16^''n''−1)/3 and can be factored as (2×3^''n''−1) × (2×3^''n''+1) / 3 * The base 16 family {4}1: Can be written as (4×16^''n''−49)/15 and can be factored as (2×3^''n''−7) × (2×3^''n''+7) / 15 * The base 27 family 7{Q}: Can be written as 8×27^''n''−1 and can be factored as (2×3^''n''−1) × (4×9^''n''+2×3^''n''+1) * The base 27 family 9{G}: Can be written as (125×27^''n''−8)/13 and can be factored as (5×3^''n''−2) × (25×9^''n''+10×3^''n''+4) * The base 16 family {C}D: Can be written as (4×16^''n''+1)/5 and can be factored as (2×4^''n''−2×2^''n''+1) × (2×4^''n''+2×2^''n''+1) / 5 * The base 14 family 8{D}: Can be written as 9×14^''n''−1, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (3×14^''n''/2−1) × (3×14^''n''/2+1) if ''n'' is even * The base 12 family {B}9B: Can be written as 12^''n''−25, it is divisible by 13 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (12^''n''/2−5) × (12^''n''/2+5) if ''n'' is even * The base 14 family {D}5: Can be written as 14^''n''−9, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (14^''n''/2−3) × (14^''n''/2+3) if ''n'' is even * The base 17 family 1{9}: Can be written as (25×17^''n''−9)/16, it is divisible by 2 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (5×17^''n''/2−3) × (5×17^''n''/2+3) / 16 if ''n'' is even * The base 17 family 7{9}: Can be written as (121×17^''n''−9)/16, it is divisible by 2 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (11×17^''n''/2−3) × (11×17^''n''/2+3) / 16 if ''n'' is even * The base 24 family 3{N}: Can be written as 4×24^''n''−1, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (2×24^''n''/2−1) × (2×24^''n''/2+1) if ''n'' is even * The base 24 family 5{N}: Can be written as 6×24^''n''−1, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is even and can be factored as (12×24^{(''n''−1)/2}−1) × (12×24^{(''n''−1)/2}+1) if ''n'' is odd * The base 33 family F{W}: Can be written as 16×33^''n''−1, it is divisible by 17 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (4×33^''n''/2−1) × (4×33^''n''/2+1) if ''n'' is even If the conjecture above is true, then the [[:w:Sierpiński number|Sierpiński conjecture]] and [[:w:Riesel number|Riesel conjecture]] are also true, and the [https://www.mersenneforum.org/showthread.php?t=10761 dual Sierpiński conjecture] and the [https://www.mersenneforum.org/showthread.php?t=6545 dual Riesel conjecture] are also true, and the [http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Sierp-conjectures.htm Sierpiński conjectures] and the [http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Riesel-conjectures.htm Riesel conjectures] in all bases ''b'' are also true, and the [http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/SNOB-Sierp-conjectures.htm real Sierpiński conjectures] and the [http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Real-Riesel-conjectures.htm real Riesel conjectures] are also true, also, if the Athena conjecture is true, then there are infinitely many primes of these forms for fixed bases ''b'' ≥ 2 and variable exponents ''n'': * (''b''^''n''−1)/(''b''−1) for all bases ''b'' which are not [[:w:Perfect power|perfect power]]s (for this form, ''n'' must be prime) (references of this form: http://www.fermatquotient.com/PrimSerien/GenRepu.txt, https://web.archive.org/web/20021111141203/http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~aads/primes.html, http://www.primenumbers.net/Henri/us/MersFermus.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/379, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableRepunitGen.php, https://oeis.org/A084740, https://oeis.org/A084738, https://oeis.org/A128164, https://oeis.org/A285642; or for prime bases ''b'': https://oeis.org/A065854, https://oeis.org/A279068) * ''b''^''n''+1 for all even bases ''b'' which are not of the form ''m''^''r'' with odd ''r'' > 1 (for this form, ''n'' must be power of 2) (references of this form: http://jeppesn.dk/generalized-fermat.html, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/GFN-primes.htm, https://web.archive.org/web/20231002190634/http://yves.gallot.pagesperso-orange.fr/primes/index.html, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableFermatGFBB.php, https://oeis.org/A079706, https://oeis.org/A084712, https://oeis.org/A228101) * (''b''^''n''+1)/2 for all odd bases ''b'' which are not of the form ''m''^''r'' with odd ''r'' > 1 (for this form, ''n'' must be power of 2) (reference of this form: http://www.fermatquotient.com/PrimSerien/GenFermOdd.txt) * (''b''^''n''+1)/(''b''+1) for all bases ''b'' which are neither of the form ''m''^''r'' with odd ''r'' > 1 nor of the form 4×''m''⁴ (for this form, ''n'' must be prime) (references of this form: http://www.fermatquotient.com/PrimSerien/GenRepuP.txt, http://www.primenumbers.net/Henri/us/MersFermus.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/488, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableWagstaffGen.php, https://oeis.org/A084742, https://oeis.org/A084741; or for prime bases ''b'': https://oeis.org/A065507) * ((''b''−2)×''b''^''n''+1)/(''b''−1) for all bases ''b'' > 2 (reference of this form: https://oeis.org/A243404) * 2×''b''^''n''+1 for all bases ''b'' < 201446503145165177, not == 1 mod 3 (references of this form: https://www.mersenneforum.org/showthread.php?t=6918, https://www.mersenneforum.org/showthread.php?t=19725, https://oeis.org/A119624) * 2×''b''^''n''−1 for all bases ''b'' (references of this form: https://www.mersenneforum.org/showthread.php?t=24576, https://www.mersenneforum.org/attachment.php?attachmentid=20976&d=1567314217, https://oeis.org/A119591) * 3×''b''^''n''+1 for all even bases ''b'' * 3×''b''^''n''−1 for all even bases ''b'' * 4×''b''^''n''+1 for all bases ''b'' not == 1 mod 5, not == 14 mod 15, not [[:w:Fourth power|fourth power]]s * 4×''b''^''n''−1 for all bases ''b'' not == 1 mod 3, not == 4 mod 5, not [[:w:Square number|square]]s * 5×''b''^''n''+1 for all even bases ''b'' < 140324348, not == 1 mod 3 * 5×''b''^''n''−1 for all even bases ''b'' * 6×''b''^''n''+1 for all bases ''b'' not == 1 mod 7, not == 34 mod 35 * 6×''b''^''n''−1 for all bases ''b'' not == 1 mod 5, not == 34 mod 35, not of the form 6×''m''² with ''m'' == 2, 3 mod 5 * 7×''b''^''n''+1 for all even bases ''b'' * 7×''b''^''n''−1 for all even bases ''b'' < 9162668342, not == 1 mod 3 * 8×''b''^''n''+1 for all bases ''b'' not == 1 mod 3, not == 20 mod 21, not == 47, 83 mod 195, not == 467, 4343, 9887, 25448, 35978, 41522, 42647, 57083 mod 73815, not == 722, 83813, 206672, 239432, 322523, 1283843, 1519577, 1522553 mod 1551615, ..., not [[:w:Cube (algebra)|cube]]s * 8×''b''^''n''−1 for all bases ''b'' not == 1 mod 7, not == 20 mod 21, not == 83, 307 mod 455, not == 1266, 13593, 27292, 46353 mod 63973, ..., not [[:w:Cube (algebra)|cube]]s * 9×''b''^''n''+1 for all even bases ''b'' < 177744, not == 1 mod 5 * 9×''b''^''n''−1 for all even bases ''b'' not == 4 mod 5, not [[:w:Square number|square]]s * 10×''b''^''n''+1 for all bases ''b'' not == 1 mod 11, not == 32 mod 33 (references of this form: https://oeis.org/A088782) * 10×''b''^''n''−1 for all bases ''b'' not == 1 mod 3, not == 32 mod 33 * 11×''b''^''n''+1 for all even bases ''b'' not == 1 mod 3, not == 14 mod 15 * 11×''b''^''n''−1 for all even bases ''b'' not == 1 mod 5, not == 14 mod 15, not of the form 11×''m''² with ''m'' == 2, 3 mod 5 * 12×''b''^''n''+1 for all bases ''b'' not == 1 mod 13, not == 142 mod 143, not == 562, 828, 900, 1166 mod 1729, not == 597, 1143 mod 1885, not == 296, 901, 1759, 3090, 4553, 5521, 5807, 6016, 6984, 7094, 7270, 7380, 7479, 8447, 8557, 8733, 8843, 9910, 10020, 10196, 10306, 11483, 11769, 12737, 14200, 15531, 16994, 18457 mod 19019, not == 563, 1433, 13212, 15097, 19848, 20718, 32497, 34382, 39133, 51782, 53667, 58418, 58452, 60337, 60883, 71067, 72952, 77737, 79622, 80168, 94267, 97022, 98583, 98907, 113552, 116307, 117868, 118192, 131967, 132513, 132837, 134398, 151252, 151798, 152122, 153683, 170537, 171083, 172968, 177753, 179638, 189822, 190368, 192253, 192287, 197038, 198923, 211572, 213568, 216323, 218208, 229987, 232853, 235608, 237493, 249272 mod 250705, ... * 12×''b''^''n''−1 for all bases ''b'' not == 1 mod 11, not == 142 mod 143, not == 307, 1143 mod 1595, not == 901, 6016, 7479, 18457 mod 19019, ... * ''b''^''n''+2 for all odd bases ''b'' < 201446503145165177, not == 1 mod 3 (references of this form: https://oeis.org/A138066, https://oeis.org/A084713, https://oeis.org/A138067) * ''b''^''n''−2 for all odd bases ''b'' (references of this form: https://www.primepuzzles.net/puzzles/puzz_887.htm, https://oeis.org/A250200, https://oeis.org/A255707, https://oeis.org/A084714; or for prime bases ''b'': https://oeis.org/A292201) * ''b''^''n''+3 for all even bases ''b'' not divisible by 3 * ''b''^''n''−3 for all even bases ''b'' not divisible by 3 * ''b''^''n''+4 for all odd bases ''b'' not == 1 mod 5, not == 14 mod 15, not [[:w:Fourth power|fourth power]]s * ''b''^''n''−4 for all odd bases ''b'' not == 1 mod 3, not == 4 mod 5, not [[:w:Square number|square]]s * (''b''−1)×''b''^''n''+1 for all bases ''b'' (references of this form: http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/Williams-primes-MP.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/477, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableWilliams2.php, https://oeis.org/A305531; or for prime bases ''b'': https://oeis.org/A087139) * (''b''−1)×''b''^''n''−1 for all bases ''b'' (references of this form: https://harvey563.tripod.com/wills.txt, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/Williams-primes-MM.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/484, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableWilliams1.php; or for prime bases ''b'': https://oeis.org/A122396) * (''b''+1)×''b''^''n''+1 for all bases ''b'' not == 1 mod 3 (references of this form: http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/Williams-primes-PP.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/474, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableWilliams4.php) * (''b''+1)×''b''^''n''−1 for all bases ''b'' (references of this form: http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/Williams-primes-PM.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/471, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableWilliams3.php) * ''b''^''n''+(''b''−1) for all bases ''b'' (references of this form: http://www.bitman.name/math/table/795, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableWilliams6.php, https://oeis.org/A076845, https://oeis.org/A076846, https://oeis.org/A078178, https://oeis.org/A078179) * ''b''^''n''−(''b''−1) for all bases ''b'' (references of this form: http://www.bitman.name/math/table/792, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableWilliams5.php, https://oeis.org/A113516, https://oeis.org/A343589; or for prime bases ''b'': https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/journals/JIS/VOL3/mccranie.html, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/435) * ''b''^''n''+(''b''+1) for all bases ''b'' not == 1 mod 3 (references of this form: http://www.bitman.name/math/table/801, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableWilliams8.php, https://oeis.org/A346149, https://oeis.org/A346154) * ''b''^''n''−(''b''+1) for all bases ''b'' (references of this form: http://www.bitman.name/math/table/798, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableWilliams7.php, https://oeis.org/A178250) By the [[:w:Prime number theorem|prime number theorem]], the [[:w:Probability|chance]] that a [[:w:Random number|random]] ''n''-digit base ''b'' number is prime is [[:w:Asymptotic analysis|approximately]] 1/''n'' (more accurately, the chance is approximately 1/(''n''×''ln''(''b'')), where ''ln'' is the [[:w:Natural logarithm|natural logarithm]]). If one conjectures the numbers ''x''{''y''}''z'' behave similarly (i.e. the numbers ''x''{''y''}''z'' is a [[:w:Pseudorandomness|pseudorandom sequence]]) you would expect [[:w:Harmonic_series (mathematics)|1/1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/4 + ... = ∞]] primes of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (of course, this does not always happen, since some ''x''{''y''}''z'' families can be ruled out to contain no prime > ''b'' (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), but it is at least a reasonable conjecture in the absence of evidence to the contrary. Hence, the [[:w:Heuristic argument|heuristic argument]] suggests there are always infinitely many primes in family ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') if it cannot be ruled out to contain no prime or only contain finitely many primes, by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them. However, some families ''x''{''y''}''z'' could not be proven to contain no primes > ''b'' (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them) but no primes > ''b'' could be found in the family, even after searching through numbers with over 100000 digits. In such a case, the only way to proceed is to [[:w:Primality test|test the primality]] of larger and larger numbers of such form and hope a prime is eventually discovered. e.g. the smallest (probable) prime in the family A{3}A in base ''b'' = 13 is A3₅₉₂₁₉₇A, its algebraic form is (41×13⁵⁹²¹⁹⁸+27)/4, when written in decimal contains 659677 digits (it is only probable prime, i.e. not definitely prime, since technically, probable primality tests were used to show this (which have a ''very'' small chance of making an error, see https://t5k.org/notes/prp_prob.html) because all known primality tests run far too slowly to run on numbers of this size unless either [https://t5k.org/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1] or [https://t5k.org/prove/prove3_2.html ''N''+1] (or both) can be ≥ 1/3 factored). The numbers in family ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') are of the form (''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'')/''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1) for some fixed ''a'', ''b'', ''c'' such that ''a'' ≥ 1, ''b'' ≥ 2 (''b'' is the base), ''c'' ≠ 0, ''gcd''(''a'',''c'') = 1, ''gcd''(''b'',''c'') = 1. Except in the [[:w:Special case|special case]] ''c'' = ±1 and ''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1) = 1 (the only case which [https://t5k.org/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1] or [https://t5k.org/prove/prove3_2.html ''N''+1] is [[:w:Triviality (mathematics)|trivially]] fully factored), when ''n'' is large the known [[:w:Primality test|primality test]]s for such a number are too inefficient to run (since they are [https://t5k.org/glossary/xpage/OrdinaryPrime.html ordinary primes]). In this case one must resort to a [[:w:Probabilistic algorithm|probable]] primality test such as a [[:w:Miller–Rabin primality test|Miller–Rabin primality test]] or a [[:w:Baillie–PSW primality test|Baillie–PSW primality test]], unless a divisor of the number can be found. Since we are testing many numbers in an [[:w:Exponential growth|exponential sequence]], it is possible to use a sieving process to find divisors rather than using [[:w:Trial division|trial division]]. To do this, we made use of Geoffrey Reynolds' ''srsieve'' software (download: https://pzktupel.de/Software/srsieve_1.1.4.7z). This program uses the [[:w:Baby-step giant-step|baby-step giant-step]] [[:w:Algorithm|algorithm]] to find all primes ''p'' which divide ''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'' where ''p'' and ''n'' lie in a [[:w:Interval_(mathematics)|specified range]]. Since this program cannot handle the general case (''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'')/''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1) when ''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1) > 1 we only used it to sieve the sequence ''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'' for primes ''p'' not dividing ''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1), and initialized the list of candidates to not include ''n'' for which there is some prime ''p'' dividing ''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1) for which ''p'' dividing (''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'')/''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1). The program had to be modified slightly to remove a check which would prevent it from running in the case when ''a'', ''b'', and ''c'' were all odd (since then 2 divides ''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'', but 2 may not divide (''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'')/''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1)). Once the numbers with small divisors had been removed, it remained to test the remaining numbers using a probable primality test. For this we used the software ''LLR'' by Jean Penné. (download: http://jpenne.free.fr/index2.html). Although undocumented, it is possible to run this program on numbers of the form (''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'')/''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1) when ''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1) > 1, so this program required no modifications. A script was also written which allowed one to run ''srsieve'' while ''LLR'' was testing the remaining candidates, so that when a divisor was found by srsieve on a number which had not yet been tested by ''LLR'' it would be removed from the list of candidates. For the primes < 10²⁵⁰⁰⁰ for the "easy" bases (bases ''b'' with ≤ 150 primes > 10²⁹⁹ (base ''b'' = 26 has 83 known primes > 10²⁹⁹ and 3 unsolved families, base ''b'' = 36 has 75 known primes > 10²⁹⁹ and 4 unsolved families, base ''b'' = 17 has 99 known primes > 10²⁹⁹ and 18 unsolved families, base ''b'' = 21 has 80 known primes > 10²⁹⁹ and 12 unsolved families, base ''b'' = 19 has 201 known primes > 10²⁹⁹ and 23 unsolved families), i.e. bases *b* = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 36), we employed ''CM'' by Andreas Enge (download: https://www.multiprecision.org/cm/download.html), an elliptic curve primality proving implementation. Currently, the final goal of the Athena problem project is finding the Athena set (i.e. finding all Athena primes) and proving that this set is exactly the Athena set (i.e. proving that these are all Athena primes (including the primality proving for the probable primes)) in all bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36, i.e. solving all families in all bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36. Solving all (unsolved) families in all bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 (and proving the primality of all probable primes in the sets of all bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36) is not possible but we aim to solve many of them (and proving the primality of many of them), at least find a ''probable'' prime for many of them (since the smallest prime in a family may be too large (> 10²⁵⁰⁰⁰) to be proved primality, unless its ''N''−1 or/and ''N''+1 can be ≥ 25% factored). == Data == These are the results of the Athena problem in bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 (we stop at base 36 since this base is the maximum base for which it is possible to write the numbers with the [[:w:Symbol|symbol]]s 0, 1, 2, ..., 9 and A, B, C, ..., Z (i.e. the 10 [[:w:Arabic numerals|Arabic numerals]] and the 26 [[:w:Latin script|Latin letters]]): (some large Athena primes are only probable primes, i.e. not definitely primes, since they are too large to be [[:w:Elliptic curve primality|ECPP proved]] and [[:w:Pocklington primality test#Extensions and variants|neither ''N''−1 nor ''N''+1 can be ≥ 1/3 factored]] (Brillhart-Lehmer-Selfridge primality test), all of them pass the [[:w:Baillie–PSW primality test|Baillie–PSW primality test]] and the [[:w:Strong pseudoprime|strong primality test]] (i.e. the [[:w:Miller–Rabin primality test|Miller–Rabin primality test]]) with all prime bases ''p'' ≤ 61, however, all Athena primes < 10²⁵⁰⁰⁰ for bases ''b'' = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 36 are definitely primes, most of them > 10²⁹⁹ are proven primes with [[:w:Elliptic curve primality|ECPP proving]], others > 10²⁹⁹ are proven primes with [[:w:Pocklington primality test#Extensions and variants|''N''−1 or ''N''+1 proving]]) The Athena primes > 10²⁹⁹ in bases ''b'' = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 36 which are proven primes with ''N''−1 or ''N''+1 proving includes the Athena primes whose ''N''−1 or ''N''+1 is trivially fully factored: * the 3176th Athena prime in base 13, 81010₄₁₅1, which equals 17746×13⁴¹⁶+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000003590431555, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590431556&open=ecm * the 3177th Athena prime in base 13, 8110₄₃₅1, which equals 1366×13⁴³⁶+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000002373259109, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002373259124&open=ecm * the 3188th Athena prime in base 13, 930₁₅₅₁1, which equals 120×13¹⁵⁵²+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000765961452, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000765961453&open=ecm * the 3191st Athena prime in base 13, 390₆₂₆₆1, which equals 48×13⁶²⁶⁷+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000765961441, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000765961451&open=ecm * the 649th Athena prime in base 14, 34D₇₀₈, which equals 47×14⁷⁰⁸−1, ''N''+1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000001540144903, for the factorization of ''N''+1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000001540144907&open=ecm * the 650th Athena prime in base 14, 4D₁₉₆₉₈, which equals 5×14¹⁹⁶⁹⁸−1, ''N''+1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000884560233, for the factorization of ''N''+1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000884560625&open=ecm * the 2335th Athena prime in base 16, 88F₅₄₅, which equals 137×16⁵⁴⁵−1, ''N''+1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000413679658, for the factorization of ''N''+1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000413877337&open=ecm * the 10317th Athena prime in base 17, 5A70₂₇₄1, which equals 1622×17²⁷⁵+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000003782940709, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003782941930&open=ecm * the 10359th Athena prime in base 17, 9D0₁₀₆₇1, which equals 166×17¹⁰⁶⁸+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000765961369, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000765961370&open=ecm * the 10370th Athena prime in base 17, A0₁₃₅₅1, which equals 10×17¹³⁵⁶+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000034167087, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000271866825&open=ecm * the 10386th Athena prime in base 17, 530₄₈₆₇1, which equals 88×17⁴⁸⁶⁸+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000762660735, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000762660737&open=ecm * the 10408th Athena prime in base 17, 570₅₁₃₁₀1, which equals 92×17⁵¹³¹¹+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000765961389, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000785469616&open=ecm * the 10412th Athena prime in base 17, 970₁₆₆₀₄₇1, which equals 160×17¹⁶⁶⁰⁴⁸+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, but it has no helper file in ''factordb'' since it is too large (>10¹⁹⁹⁹⁹⁹) to be PRP-tested in ''factordb'', for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000890817312&open=ecm * the 10413th Athena prime in base 17, F70₁₈₆₇₆₇1, which equals 262×17¹⁸⁶⁷⁶⁸+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, but it has no helper file in ''factordb'' since it is too large (>10¹⁹⁹⁹⁹⁹) to be PRP-tested in ''factordb'', for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000890817317&open=ecm * the 3310th Athena prime in base 20, JCJ₆₂₉, which equals 393×20⁶²⁹−1, ''N''+1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000001559454258, for the factorization of ''N''+1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000001559454271&open=ecm * the 13373rd Athena prime in base 21, 5D0₁₉₈₄₈1, which equals 118×21¹⁹⁸⁴⁹+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000777265872, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000785469310&open=ecm * the 3408th Athena prime in base 24, 88N₅₉₅₁, which equals 201×24⁵⁹⁵¹−1, ''N''+1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000003593275880, for the factorization of ''N''+1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593373246&open=ecm * the 25509th Athena prime in base 28, EB0₄₀₅1, which equals 403×28⁴⁰⁶+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000001534442374, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000001534442380&open=ecm * the 2616th Athena prime in base 30, C0₁₀₂₂1, which equals 12×30¹⁰²³+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000785448736, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000785448737&open=ecm * the 2619th Athena prime in base 30, OT₃₄₂₀₅, which equals 25×30³⁴²⁰⁵−1, ''N''+1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000800812865, for the factorization of ''N''+1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000819405041&open=ecm * the 35237th Athena prime in base 36, P8Z₃₉₀, which equals 909×36³⁹⁰−1, ''N''+1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000764100228, for the factorization of ''N''+1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000764100231&open=ecm and the Athena primes > 10²⁹⁹ in bases ''b'' = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 36 whose ''N''−1 or ''N''+1 is ≥ 1/3 factored: (''R''_''n''(''b'') means the [[:w:Repunit|repunit]] in base ''b'' with length ''n''), i.e. ''R''_''n''(''b'') = (''b''^''n''−1)/(''b''−1), "''S''_''n''(''b'')" means ''b''^''n''+1) * the 3168th Athena prime in base 13, 9₃₀₈1, ''N''−1 is 117×''R''₃₀₈(13), thus factor ''N''−1 is equivalent to factor the Cunningham number 13³⁰⁸−1, and for the algebraic factors of 13³⁰⁸−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showExplorer?Base=13&Exp=308&LBIDPMList=A&LBIDLODList=D, and for the prime factorization of 13³⁰⁸−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showSingleEntry?Base=13&Exp=308&c0=-&EN=&LM= * the 3179th Athena prime in base 13, B₅₆₃C, ''N''−1 is 11×''R''₅₆₄(13), thus factor ''N''−1 is equivalent to factor the Cunningham number 13⁵⁶⁴−1, and for the algebraic factors of 13⁵⁶⁴−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showExplorer?Base=13&Exp=564&LBIDPMList=A&LBIDLODList=D, and for the prime factorization of 13⁵⁶⁴−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showSingleEntry?Base=13&Exp=564&c0=-&EN=&LM= * the 3180th Athena prime in base 13, 1B₅₇₆, ''N''−1 is 23×''R''₅₇₆(13), thus factor ''N''−1 is equivalent to factor the Cunningham number 13⁵⁷⁶−1, and for the algebraic factors of 13⁵⁷⁶−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showExplorer?Base=13&Exp=576&LBIDPMList=A&LBIDLODList=D, and for the prime factorization of 13⁵⁷⁶−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showSingleEntry?Base=13&Exp=576&c0=-&EN=&LM= * the 10320th Athena prime in base 17, 9₂₉₂1, ''N''−1 is 153×''R''₂₉₂(17), thus factor ''N''−1 is equivalent to factor the Cunningham number 17²⁹²−1, and for the algebraic factors of 17²⁹²−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showExplorer?Base=17&Exp=292&LBIDPMList=A&LBIDLODList=D, and for the prime factorization of 17²⁹²−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showSingleEntry?Base=17&Exp=292&c0=-&EN=&LM= * the 13304th Athena prime in base 21, 7₂₃₀1, ''N''−1 is 147×''R''₂₃₀(21), thus factor ''N''−1 is equivalent to factor the Cunningham number 21²³⁰−1, and for the algebraic factors of 21²³⁰−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showExplorer?Base=21&Exp=230&LBIDPMList=A&LBIDLODList=D, and for the prime factorization of 21²³⁰−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showSingleEntry?Base=21&Exp=230&c0=-&EN=&LM= * the 13355th Athena prime in base 21, 3₁₀₆₃2, ''N''+1 is 3×''R''₁₀₆₄(21), thus factor ''N''−1 is equivalent to factor the Cunningham number 21¹⁰⁶⁴−1, and for the algebraic factors of 21¹⁰⁶⁴−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showExplorer?Base=21&Exp=1064&LBIDPMList=A&LBIDLODList=D, and for the prime factorization of 21¹⁰⁶⁴−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showSingleEntry?Base=21&Exp=1064&c0=-&EN=&LM= * the 25199th Athena prime in base 26, 9K₃₄₃AP, ''N''+1 is 6370×''R''₃₄₄(26), thus factor ''N''+1 is equivalent to factor the Cunningham number 26³⁴⁴−1, and for the algebraic factors of 26³⁴⁴−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showExplorer?Base=26&Exp=344&LBIDPMList=A&LBIDLODList=D, and for the prime factorization of 26³⁴⁴−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showSingleEntry?Base=26&Exp=344&c0=-&EN=&LM= * the 25200th Athena prime in base 26, 8₃₅₄1, ''N''−1 is 208×''R''₃₅₄(26), thus factor ''N''−1 is equivalent to factor the Cunningham number 26³⁵⁴−1, and for the algebraic factors of 26³⁵⁴−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showExplorer?Base=26&Exp=354&LBIDPMList=A&LBIDLODList=D, and for the prime factorization of 26³⁵⁴−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showSingleEntry?Base=26&Exp=354&c0=-&EN=&LM= All numbers are written in base ''b'', [[:w:Senary#Base 36 as senary compression|using A to Z to represent digit values 10 to 35]], "{}" means repeating, e.g. family 12{3}45 means the sequence {1245, 12345, 123345, 1233345, 12333345, 123333345, ...} (where the members are expressed as base ''b'' strings), subscripts are used to indicate repetitions of digits, e.g. 123₄567 means 123333567 (all subscripts are written in decimal). Base 2: 1 Athena prime (the largest of which has 2 digits (it is 11, and its value is 3 in decimal)): {11} Base 3: 3 Athena primes (the largest of which has 3 digits (it is 111, and its value is 13 in decimal)): {12, 21, 111} Base 4: 5 Athena primes (the largest of which has 3 digits (it is 221, and its value is 41 in decimal)): {11, 13, 23, 31, 221} Base 5: 22 Athena primes (the largest of which has 96 digits (it is 10₉₃13, and its algebraic form is 5⁹⁵+8)): {12, 21, 23, 32, 34, 43, 104, 111, 131, 133, 313, 401, 414, 3101, 10103, 14444, 30301, 33001, 33331, 44441, 300031, 100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000013} Base 6: 11 Athena primes (the largest of which has 5 digits (it is 40041, and its value is 5209 in decimal)): {11, 15, 21, 25, 31, 35, 45, 51, 4401, 4441, 40041} Base 7: 71 Athena primes (the largest of which has 17 digits (it is 3₁₆1, and its algebraic form is (7¹⁷−5)/2)): {14, 16, 23, 25, 32, 41, 43, 52, 56, 61, 65, 113, 115, 131, 133, 155, 212, 221, 304, 313, 335, 344, 346, 364, 445, 515, 533, 535, 544, 551, 553, 1022, 1051, 1112, 1202, 1211, 1222, 2111, 3031, 3055, 3334, 3503, 3505, 3545, 4504, 4555, 5011, 5455, 5545, 5554, 6034, 6634, 11111, 11201, 30011, 30101, 31001, 31111, 33001, 33311, 35555, 40054, 100121, 150001, 300053, 351101, 531101, 1100021, 33333301, 5100000001, 33333333333333331} Base 8: 75 Athena primes (the largest of which has 221 digits (it is 4₂₂₀7, and its algebraic form is (4×8²²¹+17)/7)): {13, 15, 21, 23, 27, 35, 37, 45, 51, 53, 57, 65, 73, 75, 107, 111, 117, 141, 147, 161, 177, 225, 255, 301, 343, 361, 401, 407, 417, 431, 433, 463, 467, 471, 631, 643, 661, 667, 701, 711, 717, 747, 767, 3331, 3411, 4043, 4443, 4611, 5205, 6007, 6101, 6441, 6477, 6707, 6777, 7461, 7641, 47777, 60171, 60411, 60741, 444641, 500025, 505525, 3344441, 4444477, 5500525, 5550525, 55555025, 444444441, 744444441, 77774444441, 7777777777771, 555555555555525, 44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444447} Base 9: 151 Athena primes (the largest of which has 1161 digits (it is 30₁₁₅₈11, and its algebraic form is 3×9¹¹⁶⁰+10)): {12, 14, 18, 21, 25, 32, 34, 41, 45, 47, 52, 58, 65, 67, 74, 78, 81, 87, 117, 131, 135, 151, 155, 175, 177, 238, 272, 308, 315, 331, 337, 355, 371, 375, 377, 438, 504, 515, 517, 531, 537, 557, 564, 601, 638, 661, 702, 711, 722, 735, 737, 751, 755, 757, 771, 805, 838, 1011, 1015, 1101, 1701, 2027, 2207, 3017, 3057, 3101, 3501, 3561, 3611, 3688, 3868, 5035, 5051, 5071, 5101, 5501, 5554, 5705, 5707, 7017, 7075, 7105, 7301, 8535, 8544, 8555, 8854, 20777, 22227, 22777, 30161, 33388, 50161, 50611, 53335, 55111, 55535, 55551, 57061, 57775, 70631, 71007, 77207, 100037, 100071, 100761, 105007, 270707, 301111, 305111, 333035, 333385, 333835, 338885, 350007, 500075, 530005, 555611, 631111, 720707, 2770007, 3030335, 7776662, 30300005, 30333335, 38333335, 51116111, 70000361, 300030005, 300033305, 351111111, 1300000007, 5161111111, 8333333335, 300000000035, 311111111161, 544444444444, 2000000000007, 5700000000001, 7270000000007, 88888888833335, 100000000000507, 5111111111111161, 7277777777777777707, 8888888888888888888335, 30000000000000000000051, 1000000000000000000000000057, 56111111111111111111111111111111111111, 7666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666662, 27777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777707, 300000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000011} Base 10: 77 Athena primes (the largest of which has 31 digits (it is 50₂₈27, and its algebraic form is 5×10³⁰+27)): {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027} Base 11: 1068 Athena (probable) primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: 57₆₂₆₆₈), the largest of which has 62669 digits (it is 57₆₂₆₆₈, and its algebraic form is (57×11⁶²⁶⁶⁸−7)/10), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel11 Data of Athena (probable) primes base 11] Base 12: 106 Athena primes (the largest of which has 42 digits (it is 40₃₉77, and its algebraic form is 4×12⁴¹+91)): {11, 15, 17, 1B, 25, 27, 31, 35, 37, 3B, 45, 4B, 51, 57, 5B, 61, 67, 6B, 75, 81, 85, 87, 8B, 91, 95, A7, AB, B5, B7, 221, 241, 2A1, 2B1, 2BB, 401, 421, 447, 471, 497, 565, 655, 665, 701, 70B, 721, 747, 771, 77B, 797, 7A1, 7BB, 907, 90B, 9BB, A41, B21, B2B, 2001, 200B, 202B, 222B, 229B, 292B, 299B, 4441, 4707, 4777, 6A05, 6AA5, 729B, 7441, 7B41, 929B, 9777, 992B, 9947, 997B, 9997, A0A1, A201, A605, A6A5, AA65, B001, B0B1, BB01, BB41, 600A5, 7999B, 9999B, AAAA1, B04A1, B0B9B, BAA01, BAAA1, BB09B, BBBB1, 44AAA1, A00065, BBBAA1, AAA0001, B00099B, AA000001, BBBBBB99B, B0000000000000000000000000009B, 400000000000000000000000000000000000000077} Base 13: 3197 Athena (probable) primes (including 4 unproven probable primes: C5₂₃₇₅₅C, 80₃₂₀₁₇111, 95₁₉₇₄₂₀, A3₅₉₂₁₉₇A), the largest of which has 592199 digits (it is A3₅₉₂₁₉₇A, and its algebraic form is (41×13⁵⁹²¹⁹⁸+27)/4), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel13 Data of Athena (probable) primes base 13] Base 14: 650 Athena primes, the largest of which has 19699 digits (it is 4D₁₉₆₉₈, and its algebraic form is 5×14¹⁹⁶⁹⁸−1), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel14 Data of Athena primes base 14] Base 15: 1284 Athena primes, the largest of which has 157 digits (it is 7₁₅₅97, and its algebraic form is (15¹⁵⁷+59)/2), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel15 Data of Athena primes base 15] Base 16: 2347 Athena (probable) primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: DB₃₂₂₃₄, 4₇₂₇₈₅DD, 3₁₁₆₁₃₇AF), the largest of which has 116139 digits (it is 3₁₁₆₁₃₇AF, and its algebraic form is (16¹¹⁶¹³⁹+619)/5), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel16 Data of Athena (probable) primes base 16] Base 17: 10415 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 12 unsolved families (1{7}, 1F{0}7, 4{7}A, 70F{0}D, 8{B}9, 9{5}9, A{D}F, B{0}B3, {B}E9, {B}EE, F1{9}, FD0{D}, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel17 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 17] Base 18: 549 Athena primes, the largest of which has 6271 digits (it is C0₆₂₆₈C5, and its algebraic form is 12×18⁶²⁷⁰+221), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel18 Data of Athena primes base 18] Base 19: 31417 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 17 unsolved families (4B5{0}H, {5}3, 5{H}05, 5{H}0H, 5{H}5, 66{B}, 71{0}177, 7AF{0}H, 97{0}3, C{H}C, EE1{6}, F{7}5, F{B}G, F{D}F, H0F{0}7A, HB{0}5B5, II{D}, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel19 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 19] Base 20: 3314 Athena primes, the largest of which has 6271 digits (it is G0₆₂₆₉D, and its algebraic form is 16×20⁶²⁷⁰+13), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel20 Data of Athena primes base 20] Base 21: 13386 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 8 unsolved families (5{0}DJ, {9}D, B3{0}EB, B{H}6H, C{F}0K, {F}35, G{0}FK, H{0}7771, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel21 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 21] Base 22: 8003 Athena (probable) primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: BK₂₂₀₀₁5), the largest of which has 22003 digits (it is BK₂₂₀₀₁5, and its algebraic form is (251×22²²⁰⁰²−335)/21), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel22 Data of Athena (probable) primes base 22] Base 23: 65178 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 87 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel23 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 23] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left23 Data of unsolved families for Athena problem base 23] Base 24: 3409 Athena primes, the largest of which has 8134 digits (it is N00N₈₁₂₉LN, and its algebraic form is 13249×24⁸¹³¹−49), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel24 Data of Athena primes base 24] Base 25: 133639 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 85 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel25 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 25] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left25 Data of unsolved families for Athena problem base 25] Base 26: 25256 known Athena (probable) primes (including 7 unproven probable primes: 5₁₉₃₉₁6F, 7₂₀₂₇₉OL, LD0₂₀₉₇₅7, 6K₂₃₃₀₀5, J0₄₄₃₀₃KCB, M0₆₁₁₈₆2BB, 85M₁₉₇₀₆₀B) and 3 unsolved families ({A}6F, {H}MH, {I}GL, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel26 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 26] Base 27: 102852 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 44 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel27 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 27] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left27 Data of unsolved families for Athena problem base 27] Base 28: 25528 known Athena (probable) primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: N6₂₄₀₅₁LR, 5OA₃₁₂₃₈F, O4O₉₄₅₃₅9) and 1 unsolved family (O{A}F, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 900000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel28 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 28] Base 29: 355242 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 125 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel29 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 29] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left29 Data of unsolved families for Athena problem base 29] Base 30: 2619 Athena (probable) primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: I0₂₄₆₀₈D), the largest of which has 34206 digits (it is OT₃₄₂₀₅, and its algebraic form is 25×30³⁴²⁰⁵−1), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel30 Data of Athena (probable) primes base 30] Base 31: 569323 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 77 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel31 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 31] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left31 Data of unsolved families for Athena problem base 31] Base 32: 168882 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 120 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel32 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 32] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left32 Data of unsolved families for Athena problem base 32] Base 33: 280012 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 81 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel33 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 33] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left33 Data of unsolved families for Athena problem base 33] Base 34: 184785 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 47 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel34 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 34] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left34 Data of unsolved families for Athena problem base 34] Base 35: 720002 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 60 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel35 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 35] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left35 Data of unsolved families for Athena problem base 35] Base 36: 35286 known Athena (probable) primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: 7K₂₆₅₆₇Z, S0₇₅₀₀₇8H, P₈₁₉₉₃SZ) and 4 unsolved families (B{0}EUV, HM{0}N, N{0}YYN, O{L}Z, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel36 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 36] == Condensed table for bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 == {|class="wikitable" ||''b''||number of Athena primes (or probable primes, which are Athena primes assuming their primality) in base ''b''||base-''b'' form of the top 10 known Athena primes (or probable primes, which are Athena primes assuming their primality) in base ''b'' (write "''d''_''n''" if there are 5 or more (''n'') consecutive same digits ''d'')||length of the top 10 known Athena primes (or probable primes, which are Athena primes assuming their primality) in base ''b''||length of the top 10 known Athena primes (or probable primes, which are Athena primes assuming their primality) in base ''b'' in decimal||algebraic ((''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'')/''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1)) form of the top 10 known Athena primes (or probable primes, which are Athena primes assuming their primality) in base ''b''||''factordb'' entry of the top 10 known Athena primes (or probable primes, which are Athena primes assuming their primality) in base ''b''||the top 10 known Athena primes (or probable primes, which are Athena primes assuming their primality) in base ''b'' written in base ''b'' (use lower case letters instead of upper case letters)||number of unsolved families in the Athena problem in base ''b'' (all of these left families are linear families)||searching limit of length for the unsolved families in the Athena problem in base ''b'' (if there are different searching limits for the unsolved families in the Athena problem in base ''b'', choose the lowest searching limit)|| |- ||2||1||11||2||1||3||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=3&open=ecm||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=3&base=2||0||–|| |- ||3||3||111<br>21<br>12||3<br>2<br>2||2<br>1<br>1||13<br>7<br>5||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=13&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=7&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=5&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=13&base=3<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=7&base=3<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=5&base=3<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||4||5||221<br>31<br>23<br>13<br>11||3<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2||2<br>2<br>2<br>1<br>1||41<br>13<br>11<br>7<br>5||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=41&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=13&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=11&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=7&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=5&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=41&base=4<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=13&base=4<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=11&base=4<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=7&base=4<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=5&base=4<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||5||22||10₉₃13<br>300031<br>44441<br>33331<br>33001<br>30301<br>14444<br>10103<br>3101<br>414||96<br>6<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>4<br>3||67<br>4<br>4<br>4<br>4<br>4<br>4<br>3<br>3<br>3||5⁹⁵+8<br>9391<br>3121<br>2341<br>2251<br>1951<br>1249<br>653<br>401<br>109||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000034686071&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=9391&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=3121&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=2341&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=2251&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1951&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1249&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=653&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=401&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=109&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000034686071&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=9391&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=3121&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=2341&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=2251&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1951&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1249&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=653&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=401&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=109&base=5<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||6||11||40041<br>4441<br>4401<br>51<br>45<br>35<br>31<br>25<br>21<br>15||5<br>4<br>4<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2||4<br>4<br>4<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2||5209<br>1033<br>1009<br>31<br>29<br>23<br>19<br>17<br>13<br>11||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=5209&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1033&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1009&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=31&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=29&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=23&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=19&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=17&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=13&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=11&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=5209&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1033&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1009&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=31&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=29&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=23&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=19&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=17&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=13&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=11&base=6<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- 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|- 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|- 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|- 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||15||1284||7₁₅₅97<br>E₁₄₅397<br>96₁₀₄08<br>7₇₃CE<br>7₅₉CCE<br>50₃₃17<br>EB₃₁<br>6330₂₆1<br>7050₂₄B<br>B70₂₄1||157<br>148<br>107<br>75<br>62<br>36<br>32<br>30<br>28<br>27||185<br>175<br>126<br>88<br>73<br>42<br>38<br>35<br>33<br>32||(15¹⁵⁷+59)/2<br>15¹⁴⁸−2558<br>(66×15¹⁰⁶−619)/7<br>(15⁷⁵+163)/2<br>(15⁶²+2413)/2<br>5×15³⁵+22<br>(207×15³¹−11)/14<br>1398×15²⁷+1<br>1580×15²⁵+11<br>172×15²⁵+1||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002454891840&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002454900849&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000823937997&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588407143&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588407386&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002632398579&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002321033312&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002391199877&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588407806&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000851967288&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002454891840&base=15<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002454900849&base=15<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000823937997&base=15<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003588407143&base=15<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003588407386&base=15<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002632398579&base=15<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002321033312&base=15<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002391199877&base=15<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003588407806&base=15<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000851967288&base=15<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||16||2347||3₁₁₆₁₃₇AF<br>4₇₂₇₈₅DD<br>DB₃₂₂₃₄<br>D0B₁₇₈₀₄<br>5BC₃₇₀₀D<br>90₃₅₄₂91<br>300F₁₉₆₀AF<br>20₁₇₁₃321<br>F8₁₅₁₇F<br>FAF₁₀₆₂45||116139<br>72787<br>32235<br>17806<br>3703<br>3545<br>1965<br>1717<br>1519<br>1066||139845<br>87644<br>38815<br>21441<br>4459<br>4269<br>2366<br>2067<br>1830<br>1284||(16¹¹⁶¹³⁹+619)/5<br>(4×16⁷²⁷⁸⁷+2291)/15<br>(206×16³²²³⁴−11)/15<br>(3131×16¹⁷⁸⁰⁴−11)/15<br>(459×16³⁷⁰¹+1)/5<br>9×16³⁵⁴⁴+145<br>769×16¹⁹⁶²−81<br>2×16¹⁷¹⁶+801<br>(233×16¹⁵¹⁸+97)/15<br>251×16¹⁰⁶⁴−187||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003851731988&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003615909841&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002383583629&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003589278511&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000993764322&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000633424191&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588368750&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588386735&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000633744824&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588387610&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003851731988&base=16<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003615909841&base=16<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002383583629&base=16<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003589278511&base=16<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000993764322&base=16<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000633424191&base=16<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003588368750&base=16<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003588386735&base=16<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000633744824&base=16<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003588387610&base=16<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||17||10415~10427||95F₁₉₈₈₅₅<br>B0₁₈₉₀₈₃DB<br>F70₁₈₆₇₆₇1<br>970₁₆₆₀₄₇1<br>510₁₂₄₀₇₄D<br>49₁₁₁₃₃₃<br>B₆₇₁₀₃2E<br>570₅₁₃₁₀1<br>E9B₄₄₇₃₂<br>D0GD₃₇₀₉₆||198857<br>189086<br>186770<br>166050<br>124077<br>111334<br>67105<br>51313<br>44734<br>37099||244684<br>232661<br>229811<br>204316<br>152670<br>136991<br>82570<br>63138<br>55043<br>45649||(2543×17¹⁹⁸⁸⁵⁵−15)/16<br>11×17¹⁸⁹⁰⁸⁵+232<br>262×17¹⁸⁶⁷⁶⁸+1<br>160×17¹⁶⁶⁰⁴⁸+1<br>86×17¹²⁴⁰⁷⁵+13<br>(73×17¹¹¹³³³−9)/16<br>(11×17⁶⁷¹⁰⁵−2411)/16<br>92×17⁵¹³¹¹+1<br>(3963×17⁴⁴⁷³²−11)/16<br>(60381×17³⁷⁰⁹⁶−13)/16||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008610514108&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008610515753&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000765961429&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000765961411&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008610516879&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118219&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003993647842&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000765961389&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003883765450&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003848346668&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008610514108&base=17<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008610515753&base=17<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000765961429&base=17<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000765961411&base=17<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008610516879&base=17<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118219&base=17<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003993647842&base=17<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000765961389&base=17<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003883765450&base=17<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003848346668&base=17<nowiki/>||12||200000|| |- ||18||549||C0₆₂₆₈C5<br>H₇₆₆FH<br>80₂₉₈B<br>C0₁₁₆F5<br>HD₉₃<br>GG0₃₀1<br>CF₃₀5<br>B₁₉6B<br>CCF₁₄5<br>7₁₄G7||6271<br>768<br>300<br>119<br>94<br>33<br>32<br>21<br>17<br>16||7872<br>965<br>377<br>150<br>118<br>42<br>41<br>27<br>22<br>20||12×18⁶²⁷⁰+221<br>18⁷⁶⁸−37<br>8×18²⁹⁹+11<br>12×18¹¹⁸+275<br>(302×18⁹³−13)/17<br>304×18³¹+1<br>(219×18³¹−185)/17<br>(11×18²¹−1541)/17<br>(3891×18¹⁵−185)/17<br>(7×18¹⁶+2747)/17||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590442437&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590430490&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002355574745&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002632837015&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002321052894&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000819230161&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002631240657&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590430474&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590430470&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590430465&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590442437&base=18<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590430490&base=18<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002355574745&base=18<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002632837015&base=18<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002321052894&base=18<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000819230161&base=18<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002631240657&base=18<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590430474&base=18<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590430470&base=18<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590430465&base=18<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||19||31417~31434||1E70₁₂₂₈₉₆1<br>40₁₂₁₈₄₆HB5<br>35₁₂₀₅₆₂<br>FH0H₁₁₂₆₅₉<br>FG6₁₁₀₉₈₄<br>H₈₆₂₉₁6<br>D90₇₃₀₄₆9<br>4F0₄₉₈₄₇6<br>2₄₈₂₂₄7<br>2₄₅₈₈₆7A||122900<br>121850<br>120563<br>112662<br>110986<br>86292<br>73049<br>49850<br>48225<br>45888||157158<br>155816<br>154170<br>144067<br>110347<br>141924<br>93412<br>63746<br>61667<br>58679||634×19¹²²⁸⁹⁷+1<br>4×19¹²¹⁸⁴⁹+6351<br>(59×19¹²⁰⁵⁶²−5)/18<br>(103301×19¹¹²⁶⁵⁹−17)/18<br>(904×19¹¹⁰⁹⁸⁴−1)/3<br>(17×19⁸⁶²⁹²−215)/18<br>256×19⁷³⁰⁴⁷+9<br>91×19⁴⁹⁸⁴⁸+6<br>(19⁴⁸²²⁵+44)/9<br>(19⁴⁵⁸⁸⁸+926)/9||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000001582289581&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008755307222&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005513825027&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008755311453&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118212&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004163040839&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003998413751&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118332&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003949188041&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003949189035&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000001582289581&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008755307222&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005513825027&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008755311453&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118212&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004163040839&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003998413751&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118332&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003949188041&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003949189035&base=19<nowiki/>||17||200000|| |- ||20||3314||G0₆₂₆₉D<br>CD₂₄₄₉<br>50₁₁₆₃AJ<br>J₆₅₅05J<br>JCJ₆₂₉<br>E₅₆₆C7<br>3A₅₂₇3<br>G₄₄₇99<br>EC0₄₂₉7<br>40₃₈₇404B||6271<br>2450<br>1166<br>658<br>631<br>568<br>529<br>449<br>432<br>392||8159<br>3188<br>1517<br>857<br>821<br>739<br>688<br>585<br>562<br>510||16×20⁶²⁷⁰+13<br>(241×20²⁴⁴⁹−13)/19<br>5×20¹¹⁶⁵+219<br>20⁶⁵⁸−7881<br>393×20⁶²⁹−1<br>(14×20⁵⁶⁸−907)/19<br>(67×20⁵²⁸−143)/19<br>(16×20⁴⁴⁹−2809)/19<br>292×20⁴³⁰+7<br>4×20³⁹¹+32091||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590539457&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002325393915&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502412&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502490&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000001559454258&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502516&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502531&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840126753&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002633348702&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502563&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590539457&base=20<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002325393915&base=20<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590502412&base=20<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590502490&base=20<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000001559454258&base=20<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590502516&base=20<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590502531&base=20<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000840126753&base=20<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002633348702&base=20<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590502563&base=20<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||21||13386~13394||27₁₈₄₄₉₉9D<br>F9₁₇₈₇₇₁D<br>2FC₁₁₂₀₂₂A<br>7₁₀₈₄₅₀ID<br>40₄₇₃₃₃9G<br>B90₄₅₀₁₉E5<br>HD₃₇₄₁₄<br>BD₃₅₀₂₇B<br>990₃₃₂₃₉99H<br>5₃₀₆₀₆FEK||184502<br>178773<br>112025<br>108452<br>47336<br>45023<br>37415<br>35029<br>33244<br>30609||243952<br>236377<br>148121<br>143397<br>62588<br>59531<br>49471<br>46316<br>43956<br>40472||(47×21¹⁸⁴⁵⁰¹+953)/20<br>(309×21¹⁷⁸⁷⁷²+71)/20<br>(288×21¹¹²⁰²³−13)/5<br>(7×21¹⁰⁸⁴⁵²+4733)/20<br>4×21⁴⁷³³⁵+205<br>240×21⁴⁵⁰²¹+299<br>(353×21³⁷⁴¹⁴−13)/20<br>(233×21³⁵⁰²⁸−53)/20<br>198×21³³²⁴²+4175<br>(21³⁰⁶⁰⁹+18455)/4||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008700600990&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008700596669&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008700593358&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008700586183&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118331&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003996110311&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003996110479&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003996110718&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003996110944&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003996111130&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008700600990&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008700596669&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008700593358&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008700586183&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118331&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003996110311&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003996110479&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003996110718&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003996110944&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003996111130&base=21<nowiki/>||8||200000|| |- ||22||8003||BK₂₂₀₀₁5<br>7₃₈₁₅2L<br>L₂₃₈₅KE7<br>7₉₅₉K7<br>J0₇₆₇IGGJ<br>K0₇₆₀EC1<br>I₆₂₆AF<br>E60₄₉₆L<br>L₄₈₃G3<br>L0₄₅₄B63||22003<br>3817<br>2388<br>961<br>772<br>764<br>628<br>499<br>485<br>458||29538<br>5124<br>3206<br>1290<br>1037<br>1026<br>843<br>670<br>652<br>615||(251×22²²⁰⁰²−335)/21<br>(22³⁸¹⁷−289)/3<br>22²³⁸⁸−653<br>(22⁹⁶¹+857)/3<br>19×22⁷⁷¹+199779<br>20×22⁷⁶³+7041<br>(6×22⁶²⁸−1259)/7<br>314×22⁴⁹⁷+21<br>22⁴⁸⁵−129<br>21×22⁴⁵⁷+5459||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003594696838&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591359839&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591360774&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591361817&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591362567&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000632724415&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000632724334&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000632703239&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591364730&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591365331&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003594696838&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003591359839&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003591360774&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003591361817&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003591362567&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000632724415&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000632724334&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000632703239&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003591364730&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003591365331&base=22<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||23||65178~65265||B0₉₃₀₄₆FB<br>L₈₆₄₄₄D<br>AJ₈₁₀₆₅4<br>20₇₃₅₆₀98<br>J₆₈₂₁₇G4<br>D70₆₆₇₇₀B<br>5F₆₂₃₄₀6<br>A7M7₆₁₅₃₂<br>B30₆₁₁₃₆5<br>EJ₅₂₁₆₉||93049<br>86445<br>81067<br>73563<br>68219<br>66773<br>62342<br>61535<br>61139<br>52170||126708<br>117715<br>110391<br>100172<br>92896<br>90927<br>84893<br>83794<br>83255<br>71042||11×23⁹³⁰⁴⁸+356<br>(21×23⁸⁶⁴⁴⁵−197)/22<br>(239×23⁸¹⁰⁶⁶−349)/22<br>2×23⁷³⁵⁶²+215<br>(19×23⁶⁸²¹⁹−1867)/22<br>306×23⁶⁶⁷⁷¹+11<br>(125×23⁶²³⁴¹−213)/22<br>(120413×23⁶¹⁵³²−7)/22<br>256×23⁶¹¹³⁷+5<br>(327×23⁵²¹⁶⁹−19)/22||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691540361&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691546739&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691548070&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691548569&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691549462&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691549803&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691551005&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691556967&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691557254&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691557548&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691540361&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691546739&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691548070&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691548569&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691549462&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691549803&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691551005&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691556967&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691557254&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691557548&base=23<nowiki/>||87||100000|| |- ||24||3409||N00N₈₁₂₉LN<br>88N₅₉₅₁<br>A0₂₉₅₁8ID<br>D₂₆₉₈LD<br>N₂₆₄₄LLN<br>BC0₃₃₁B<br>20₃₁₃7<br>C7₂₉₈<br>D0₂₅₉KKD<br>I0₂₄₁I5||8134<br>5953<br>2955<br>2700<br>2647<br>334<br>315<br>299<br>263<br>244||11227<br>8216<br>4079<br>3727<br>3654<br>461<br>434<br>413<br>363<br>337||13249×24⁸¹³¹−49<br>201×24⁵⁹⁵¹−1<br>10×24²⁹⁵⁴+5053<br>(13×24²⁷⁰⁰+4403)/23<br>24²⁶⁴⁷−1201<br>276×24³³²+11<br>2×24³¹⁴+7<br>(283×24²⁹⁸−7)/23<br>13×24²⁶²+12013<br>18×24²⁴³+437||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593391606&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593275880&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593269654&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593269876&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593270089&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002633359842&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002355610241&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002326181235&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593270725&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002633360037&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593391606&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593275880&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593269654&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593269876&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593270089&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002633359842&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002355610241&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002326181235&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593270725&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002633360037&base=24<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||25||133639~133724||E₉₈₃₉₆FOO<br>1J710₉₆₂₇₂1<br>NB0₈₅₅₉₈5NH<br>D70₈₁₅₈₁JJ7<br>F0₈₀₀₅₄HL<br>J010₇₅₉₄₃E7<br>K₆₇₇₇₁5I<br>LO₆₆₃₇₇KC<br>KJD0₆₃₃₉₉1<br>70₆₀₈₉₂D711||98399<br>96277<br>85603<br>81586<br>80057<br>75948<br>67773<br>66380<br>63403<br>60897||137556<br>134589<br>119668<br>114053<br>111915<br>106171<br>94743<br>92796<br>88634<br>85130||(7×25⁹⁸³⁹⁹+10613)/12<br>27676×25⁹⁶²⁷³+1<br>586×25⁸⁵⁶⁰¹+3717<br>332×25⁸¹⁵⁸⁴+12357<br>15×25⁸⁰⁰⁵⁶+446<br>11876×25⁷⁵⁹⁴⁵+357<br>(5×25⁶⁷⁷⁷³−2267)/6<br>22×25⁶⁶³⁷⁹−113<br>12988×25⁶³⁴⁰⁰+1<br>7×25⁶⁰⁸⁹⁶+207526||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118215&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003983674902&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004909706420&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004909733266&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004909750102&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004909770736&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004586986394&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118270&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004586986664&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004586986798&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118215&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003983674902&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004909706420&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004909733266&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004909750102&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004909770736&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004586986394&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118270&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004586986664&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004586986798&base=25<nowiki/>||85||100000|| |- ||26||25256~25259||85M₁₉₇₀₆₀B<br>M0₆₁₁₈₆2BB<br>J0₄₄₃₀₃KCB<br>6K₂₃₃₀₀5<br>LD0₂₀₉₇₅7<br>7₂₀₂₇₉OL<br>5₁₉₃₉₁6F<br>9GDK₁₅₉₂₀P<br>M₈₇₇₂P<br>K0₄₃₆₄I5||197063<br>61190<br>44307<br>23302<br>20978<br>20281<br>19393<br>15924<br>8773<br>4367||278839<br>86583<br>62694<br>32972<br>29684<br>28697<br>27440<br>22532<br>12414<br>6180||(5347×26¹⁹⁷⁰⁶¹−297)/25<br>22×26⁶¹¹⁸⁹+1649<br>19×26⁴⁴³⁰⁶+13843<br>(34×26²³³⁰¹−79)/5<br>559×26²⁰⁹⁷⁶+7<br>(7×26²⁰²⁸¹+11393)/25<br>(26¹⁹³⁹³+179)/5<br>(32569×26¹⁵⁹²¹+21)/5<br>(22×26⁸⁷⁷³+53)/25<br>20×26⁴³⁶⁶+473||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008573990023&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003968169875&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003968156595&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003892628745&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003892628658&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003892628605&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850151202&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850155316&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000758011195&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002634136508&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008573990023&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003968169875&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003968156595&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003892628745&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003892628658&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003892628605&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850151202&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850155316&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000758011195&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002634136508&base=26<nowiki/>||3||200000|| |- ||27||102852~102896||CA0F₈₈₈₈₃A<br>GNN0₇₈₇₉₅N<br>O44L₆₆₀₁₆7<br>NJ0₆₄₃₆₉H<br>ME₄₉₆₄₀9G<br>PH0₄₇₈₉₀1<br>QF₄₇₁₆₅AF5<br>J0₄₀₇₉₁PD<br>510₃₉₁₆₄I07<br>NGN0₃₆₃₂₉N||88887<br>78799<br>66020<br>64372<br>49643<br>47893<br>47169<br>40794<br>39169<br>36333||127230<br>112790<br>94499<br>92140<br>71058<br>68553<br>67516<br>58391<br>56065<br>52006||(234483×27⁸⁸⁸⁸⁴−145)/26<br>12308×27⁷⁸⁷⁹⁶+23<br>(457829×27⁶⁶⁰¹⁷−385)/26<br>640×27⁶⁴³⁷⁰+17<br>(293×27⁴⁹⁶⁴²−1736)/13<br>692×27⁴⁷⁸⁹¹+1<br>(691×27⁴⁷¹⁶⁸−95045)/26<br>19×27⁴⁰⁷⁹³+688<br>136×27³⁹¹⁶⁷+13129<br>17222×27³⁶³³⁰+23||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118233&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004681348398&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004374140861&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004374138999&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000819229859&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004102754118&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004102755880&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004102758254&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004102875088&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004103372866&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118233&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004681348398&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004374140861&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004374138999&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000819229859&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004102754118&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004102755880&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004102758254&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004102875088&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004103372866&base=27<nowiki/>||44||100000|| |- ||28||25528~25529||O4O₉₄₅₃₅9<br>5OA₃₁₂₃₈F<br>N6₂₄₀₅₁LR<br>D0₅₂₆₇77D<br>QO₄₂₃₉69<br>5₃₇₄₆8P<br>G0₁₈₉₉AN<br>A₁₄₂₃6F<br>5I₁₃₇₀F<br>5₁₃₃₂P8P||94538<br>31241<br>24054<br>5271<br>4242<br>3748<br>1902<br>1425<br>1372<br>1335||136812<br>45210<br>34810<br>7628<br>6139<br>5424<br>2753<br>2062<br>1985<br>1932||(6092×28⁹⁴⁵³⁶−143)/9<br>(4438×28³¹²³⁹+125)/27<br>(209×28²⁴⁰⁵³+3967)/9<br>13×28⁵²⁷⁰+5697<br>(242×28⁴²⁴¹−4679)/9<br>(5×28³⁷⁴⁸+2803)/27<br>16×28¹⁹⁰¹+303<br>(10×28¹⁴²⁵−2899)/27<br>(17×28¹³⁷¹−11)/3<br>(5×28¹³³⁵+426163)/27||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118231&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003880455200&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003879667576&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850151420&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840839934&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161974&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161973&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840839947&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161972&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161965&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118231&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003880455200&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003879667576&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850151420&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000840839934&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850161974&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850161973&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000840839947&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850161972&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850161965&base=28<nowiki/>||1||900000|| |- ||29||355242~355367||830₉₉₃₇₇4<br>GP5J₉₄₉₃₅<br>P05J₉₀₂₈₉<br>BBD0₈₈₈₈₈PB<br>8B₈₅₃₃₃G<br>L0₈₁₅₇₁5955<br>E0₇₇₃₇₂L7B<br>LPC₇₅₁₅₁9<br>JR0₇₄₆₂₂7<br>B₇₄₅₀₁0RP||99380<br>94938<br>90292<br>88893<br>85335<br>81576<br>77376<br>75154<br>74625<br>74504||145333<br>138837<br>132043<br>129997<br>124794<br>119297<br>113155<br>109905<br>109132<br>108955||235×29⁹⁹³⁷⁸+4<br>(397227×29⁹⁴⁹³⁵−19)/28<br>(588859×29⁹⁰²⁸⁹−19)/28<br>9583×29⁸⁸⁸⁹⁰+736<br>(235×29⁸⁵³³⁴+129)/14<br>21×29⁸¹⁵⁷⁵+129664<br>14×29⁷⁷³⁷⁵+17875<br>(4441×29⁷⁵¹⁵²−24)/7<br>578×29⁷⁴⁶²³+7<br>(11×29⁷⁴⁵⁰⁴−245655)/28||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253882372&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253893542&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253899083&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253909183&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253921388&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253925955&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253931446&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118236&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253934219&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253936120&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253882372&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253893542&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253899083&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253909183&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253921388&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253925955&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253931446&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118236&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253934219&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253936120&base=29<nowiki/>||125||100000|| |- ||30||2619||OT₃₄₂₀₅<br>I0₂₄₆₀₈D<br>5₄₈₈₂J<br>C0₁₀₂₂1<br>M0₅₄₇SS7<br>M₂₄₁QB<br>AN₂₀₆<br>50₁₆₄B<br>J₁₅₃QJ<br>J₉₄QQJ||34206<br>24610<br>4883<br>1024<br>551<br>243<br>207<br>166<br>155<br>97||50527<br>36352<br>7213<br>1513<br>814<br>359<br>306<br>245<br>229<br>144||25×30³⁴²⁰⁵−1<br>18×30²⁴⁶⁰⁹+13<br>(5×30⁴⁸⁸³+401)/29<br>12×30¹⁰²³+1<br>22×30⁵⁵⁰+26047<br>(22×30²⁴³+3139)/29<br>(313×30²⁰⁶−23)/29<br>5×30¹⁶⁵+11<br>(19×30¹⁵⁵+6071)/29<br>(19×30⁹⁷+188771)/29||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000800812865&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593967511&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002327649423&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000785448736&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593407988&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593408295&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002327651073&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002356282476&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593409109&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593409165&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000800812865&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593967511&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002327649423&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000785448736&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593407988&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593408295&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002327651073&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002356282476&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593409109&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593409165&base=30<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||31||569323~569400||2IIF₉₁₈₀₅<br>B0₈₈₃₀₉APO9<br>J0T₇₇₅₁₆<br>J090₇₇₁₂₈NNN<br>D₆₉₈₆₁QO<br>9MH0₆₈₆₃₇D<br>J₆₇₁₆₂D<br>N0₆₆₉₇₁32P<br>DDDQ0₆₄₀₈₈TD<br>U₆₃₈₆₁CM3||91808<br>88314<br>77518<br>77134<br>69863<br>68641<br>67163<br>66975<br>64094<br>63864||136918<br>131708<br>115608<br>115035<br>104191<br>102369<br>100165<br>99884<br>95587<br>95245||(4997×31⁹¹⁸⁰⁵−1)/2<br>11×31⁸⁸³¹³+322688<br>(17699×31⁷⁷⁵¹⁶−29)/30<br>18268×31⁷⁷¹³¹+22839<br>(13×31⁶⁹⁸⁶³+12407)/30<br>9348×31⁶⁸⁶³⁸+13<br>(19×31⁶⁷¹⁶³−199)/30<br>23×31⁶⁶⁹⁷⁴+2970<br>400205×31⁶⁴⁰⁹⁰+912<br>31⁶³⁸⁶⁴−17574||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000007050395732&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000007050397309&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000007050398940&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000007050400178&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000006965878559&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000006965875678&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000006965873668&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000006965870538&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000006965868103&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000006965865343&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000007050395732&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000007050397309&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000007050398940&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000007050400178&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000006965878559&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000006965875678&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000006965873668&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000006965870538&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000006965868103&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000006965865343&base=31<nowiki/>||77||100000|| |- ||32||168882~169002||V₉₉₅₈₃63<br>6₈₉₀₇₄AF<br>8₇₇₇₀₀H<br>Q₇₇₄₀₁EQQQ3<br>8₇₇₂₄₉3<br>JM₇₆₀₂₈L<br>E₇₂₉₁₉IL<br>B0₆₇₆₈₀CB<br>GK₆₆₀₇₆F<br>KN₆₅₀₂₂||99585<br>89076<br>77701<br>77406<br>77250<br>76030<br>72921<br>67683<br>66078<br>65023||149891<br>134073<br>116952<br>116508<br>116273<br>114437<br>109757<br>101873<br>99458<br>97870||32⁹⁹⁵⁸⁵−829<br>(6×32⁸⁹⁰⁷⁶+4241)/31<br>(8×32⁷⁷⁷⁰¹+271)/31<br>(26×32⁷⁷⁴⁰⁶−390071011)/31<br>(8×32⁷⁷²⁵⁰−163)/31<br>(611×32⁷⁶⁰²⁹−53)/31<br>(14×32⁷²⁹²¹+4171)/31<br>11×32⁶⁷⁶⁸²+395<br>(516×32⁶⁶⁰⁷⁷−175)/31<br>(643×32⁶⁵⁰²²−23)/31||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005514892191&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005514897129&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005514901700&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005514915338&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005514918574&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005514922523&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004591654373&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004591654467&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004591654632&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004591654952&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005514892191&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005514897129&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005514901700&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005514915338&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005514918574&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005514922523&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004591654373&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004591654467&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004591654632&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004591654952&base=32<nowiki/>||120||100000|| |- ||33||280012~280093||DP₉₅₀₉₃M5<br>HJ0₉₄₂₉₅J<br>90₉₃₅₉₇Q<br>9F0₉₃₁₅₇N<br>7₈₉₄₄₉333H<br>K3₈₀₇₅₁6K<br>D₈₀₁₀₇9UD<br>VFU₇₂₂₀₄FK<br>J₆₈₇₁₅2BJ<br>DF0₆₈₃₆₇J||95096<br>94298<br>93599<br>93160<br>89453<br>80754<br>80110<br>72208<br>68718<br>68370||144405<br>143193<br>142131<br>141465<br>135835<br>122626<br>121648<br>109649<br>104350<br>103821||(441×33⁹⁵⁰⁹⁵−3833)/32<br>580×33⁹⁴²⁹⁶+19<br>9×33⁹³⁵⁹⁸+26<br>312×33⁹³¹⁵⁸+23<br>(7×33⁸⁹⁴⁵³−4743239)/32<br>(643×33⁸⁰⁷⁵³+3709)/32<br>(13×33⁸⁰¹¹⁰−121453)/32<br>(16623×33⁷²²⁰⁶−8095)/16<br>(19×33⁶⁸⁷¹⁸−600883)/32<br>444×33⁶⁸³⁶⁸+19||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652348775&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652362811&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652375073&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652389776&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652430746&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652446200&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652461592&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004614764298&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004614770536&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004614784274&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652348775&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652362811&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652375073&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652389776&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652430746&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652446200&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652461592&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004614764298&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004614770536&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004614784274&base=33<nowiki/>||81||100000|| |- ||34||184785~184832||GFGC₉₉₉₉₆5<br>90₉₇₉₅₀FJ<br>NM0₈₅₂₁₈KX<br>F₈₃₁₈₉H2HP<br>P₇₉₄₄₁444P<br>6₇₇₀₂₇8X<br>XQIQ₇₂₂₄₁D<br>T₆₆₅₃₀IF<br>4₆₆₁₅₂B<br>2EEC₆₆₀₃₉7||100000<br>97953<br>85222<br>83193<br>79445<br>77029<br>72245<br>66532<br>66153<br>66043||153148<br>150013<br>130516<br>127408<br>121669<br>117968<br>110642<br>101893<br>101312<br>101143||(209246×34⁹⁹⁹⁹⁷−81)/11<br>9×34⁹⁷⁹⁵²+529<br>804×34⁸⁵²²⁰+713<br>(5×34⁸³¹⁹³+700233)/11<br>(25×34⁷⁹⁴⁴⁵−28062367)/33<br>(2×34⁷⁷⁰²⁹+1043)/11<br>(1288676×34⁷²²⁴²−455)/33<br>(29×34⁶⁶⁵³²−12833)/33<br>(4×34⁶⁶¹⁵³+227)/33<br>(30826×34⁶⁶⁰⁴⁰−59)/11||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004702891268&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004702894713&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004702900996&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004702910376&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004702913746&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004702918600&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004399656529&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004399657696&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004399658651&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004399659716&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004702891268&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004702894713&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004702900996&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004702910376&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004702913746&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004702918600&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004399656529&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004399657696&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004399658651&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004399659716&base=34<nowiki/>||47||100000|| |- ||35||720002~720062||N0N₉₉₉₇₁9<br>V0₈₃₆₆₉E73<br>N₈₁₅₆₃K7N<br>BJ0₈₁₂₇₉N<br>J0₈₀₀₆₂FUH<br>43V₇₉₇₅₄<br>9₇₆₆₀₀K3<br>LB₇₁₃₆₆PB<br>Q₆₄₁₅₀H<br>50₆₃₃₉₇5R||99974<br>83673<br>81566<br>81282<br>80066<br>79756<br>76602<br>71369<br>64151<br>63400||154367<br>129197<br>125944<br>125505<br>123628<br>123148<br>118279<br>110199<br>99054<br>97894||(27393×35⁹⁹⁹⁷²−499)/34<br>31×35⁸³⁶⁷²+17398<br>(23×35⁸¹⁵⁶⁶−144013)/34<br>404×35⁸¹²⁸⁰+23<br>19×35⁸⁰⁰⁶⁵+19442<br>(4893×35⁷⁹⁷⁵⁴−31)/34<br>(9×35⁷⁶⁶⁰²+12877)/34<br>(725×35⁷¹³⁶⁸+16649)/34<br>(13×35⁶⁴¹⁵¹−166)/17<br>5×35⁶³³⁹⁹+202||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248342445&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248353306&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248375642&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248397018&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248412468&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248418540&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248423670&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008192119974&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008192126630&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008192129294&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248342445&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248353306&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248375642&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248397018&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248412468&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248418540&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248423670&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008192119974&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008192126630&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008192129294&base=35<nowiki/>||60||100000|| |- ||36||35286~35290||P₈₁₉₉₃SZ<br>S0₇₅₀₀₇8H<br>7K₂₆₅₆₇Z<br>J₁₀₁₁₇LJ<br>VL0₇₂₅₈J<br>EO0₆₁₇₇V<br>FZ₅₇₇₇3P<br>T09₄₆₁₈1<br>RY₄₅₆₂H<br>OZ₃₉₃₂AZ||81995<br>75010<br>26569<br>10119<br>7261<br>6180<br>5780<br>4621<br>4564<br>3935||127609<br>116739<br>41349<br>15748<br>11301<br>9618<br>8996<br>7192<br>7103<br>6124||(5×36⁸¹⁹⁹⁵+821)/7<br>28×36⁷⁵⁰⁰⁹+305<br>(53×36²⁶⁵⁶⁸+101)/7<br>(19×36¹⁰¹¹⁹+2501)/35<br>1137×36⁷²⁵⁹+19<br>528×36⁶¹⁷⁸+31<br>16×36⁵⁷⁷⁹−1163<br>(36549×36⁴⁶¹⁹−289)/35<br>(979×36⁴⁵⁶³−629)/35<br>25×36³⁹³⁴−901||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002394962083&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004020085177&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003896952461&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362491&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362489&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362488&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362487&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362486&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362485&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840634476&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002394962083&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004020085177&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003896952461&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362491&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362489&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362488&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362487&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362486&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362485&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000840634476&base=36<nowiki/>||4||200000|| |} == The fully proof of Athena problem in decimal (base ''b'' = 10) == '''Bold''' for the Athena primes, ''x'' ◁ ''y'' means ''x'' is a subsequence of ''y''. Assume ''p'' is a prime > 10, and the last digit of ''p'' must lie in {1,3,7,9}. Case 1: ''p'' ends with 1. In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''1. If ''x'' contains 1, 3, 4, 6, or 7, then (respectively) '''11''' ◁ ''p'', '''31''' ◁ ''p'', '''41''' ◁ ''p'', '''61''' ◁ ''p'', or '''71''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 2, 5, 8, or 9. Case 1.1: ''p'' begins with 2. In this case we can write ''p'' = 2''y''1. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''251''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''281''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 29 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 2. If 22 ◁ ''y'', then '''2221''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains zero or one 2's. If ''y'' contains no 2's, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If ''y'' contains exactly one 2, then we can write ''p'' = 2''z''2''w''1, where ''z'',''w'' ∈ {0}. If 0 ◁ ''z'' and 0 ◁ ''w'', then '''20201''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume either ''z'' or ''w'' is empty. If ''z'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 22{0}1, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 22{0}1 is '''22000001'''. If ''w'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}21, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 2{0}21 is '''20021'''. Case 1.2: ''p'' begins with 5. In this case we can write ''p'' = 5''y''1. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''521''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 59 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0, 5, or 8. If 05 ◁ ''y'', then '''5051''' ◁ ''p''. If 08 ◁ ''y'', then '''5081''' ◁ ''p''. If 50 ◁ ''y'', then '''5501''' ◁ ''p''. If 58 ◁ ''y'', then '''5581''' ◁ ''p''. If 80 ◁ ''y'', then '''5801''' ◁ ''p''. If 85 ◁ ''y'', then '''5851''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0} ∪ {5} ∪ {8}. If ''y'' ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 6, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If ''y'' ∈ {5}, then ''p'' ∈ 5{5}1, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 5{5}1 is '''555555555551'''. If ''y'' ∈ {8}, since if 88 ◁ ''y'', then 881 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'',8}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {51,581}, but 51 and 581 are both composite. Case 1.3: ''p'' begins with 8. In this case we can write p = 8''y''1. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''821''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''881''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 89 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 5. If 50 ◁ ''y'', then '''8501''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume y ∈ {0}{5}. If 005 ◁ ''y'', then '''80051''' ◁ p. Hence we may assume y ∈ {0} ∪ {5} ∪ 0{5}. If y ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 8{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 9, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If y ∈ {5}, since if 55555555555 ◁ ''y'', then 555555555551 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'', 5, 55, 555, 5555, 55555, 555555, 5555555, 55555555, 555555555, 5555555555}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {81, 851, 8551, 85551, 855551, 8555551, 85555551, 855555551, 8555555551, 85555555551, 855555555551}, but all of these numbers are composite. If y ∈ 0{5}, since if 55555555555 ◁ ''y'', then 555555555551 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0, 05, 055, 0555, 05555, 055555, 0555555, 05555555, 055555555, 0555555555, 05555555555}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {801, 8051, 80551, 805551, 8055551, 80555551, 805555551, 8055555551, 80555555551, 805555555551, 8055555555551}, and of these numbers only 80555551 and 8055555551 are primes, but 80555551 ◁ 8055555551, thus only '''80555551''' is a minimal element. Case 1.4: ''p'' begins with 9. In this case we can write p = 9''y''1. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''991''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0, 2, 5, or 8. If 00 ◁ ''y'', then '''9001''' ◁ ''p''. If 22 ◁ ''y'', then '''9221''' ◁ ''p''. If 55 ◁ ''y'', then '''9551''' ◁ ''p''. If 88 ◁ ''y'', then 881 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains at most one 0, at most one 2, at most one 5, and at most one 8. If ''y'' only contains at most one 0 and does not contain any of {2,5,8}, then ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'',0}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {91,901}, but 91 and 901 are both composite. If ''y'' only contains at most one 0 and only one of {2,5,8}, then the sum of the digits of ''p'' is divisible by 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains at least two of {2,5,8}. If 25 ◁ ''y'', then 251 ◁ ''p''. If 28 ◁ ''y'', then 281 ◁ ''p''. If 52 ◁ ''y'', then 521 ◁ ''p''. If 82 ◁ ''y'', then 821 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains no 2's (since if ''y'' contains 2, then ''y'' cannot contain either 5's or 8's, which is a contradiction). If 85 ◁ ''y'', then '''9851''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {58,580,508,058}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {9581,95801,95081,90581}, and of these numbers only 95801 is prime, but 95801 is not a minimal element since 5801 ◁ 95801. Case 2: ''p'' ends with 3. In this case we can write p = ''x''3. If ''x'' contains 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, or 8, then (respectively) '''13''' ◁ ''p'', '''23''' ◁ ''p'', '''43''' ◁ ''p'', '''53''' ◁ ''p'', '''73''' ◁ ''p'', or '''83''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Case 3: ''p'' ends with 7. In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''7. If ''x'' contains 1, 3, 4, 6, or 9, then (respectively) '''17''' ◁ ''p'', '''37''' ◁ ''p'', '''47''' ◁ ''p'', '''67''' ◁ ''p'', or '''97''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 2, 5, 7, or 8. Case 3.1: ''p'' begins with 2. In this case we can write ''p'' = 2''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''227''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''257''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''277''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 8. If 08 ◁ ''y'', then '''2087''' ◁ ''p''. If 88 ◁ ''y'', then 887 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0} ∪ 8{0}. If ''y'' ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 9, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If y ∈ 8{0}, then ''p'' ∈ 28{0}7. But then ''p'' is divisible by 7, since for ''n'' ≥ 0 we have 7 × 40_''n''1 = 280_''n''7. Case 3.2: ''p'' begins with 5. In this case we can write ''p'' = 5''y''7. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''557''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''577''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''587''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 2. If 22 ◁ ''y'', then 227 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains zero or one 2's. If ''y'' contains no 2's, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 12, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If ''y'' contains exactly one 2, then we can write ''p'' = 5''z''2''w''7, where ''z'',''w'' ∈ {0}. If 0 ◁ ''z'' and 0 ◁ ''w'', then '''50207''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume either ''z'' or ''w'' is empty. If ''z'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 52{0}7, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 52{0}7 is '''5200007'''. If ''w'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}27, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 5{0}27 is '''5000000000000000000000000000027'''. Case 3.3: ''p'' begins with 7. In this case we can write ''p'' = 7''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''727''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''757''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''787''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 7, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0 or 7. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 7, ''p'' is divisible by 7, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Case 3.4: ''p'' begins with 8. In this case we can write ''p'' = 8''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''827''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''857''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''877''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''887''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 8{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 15, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Case 4: ''p'' ends with 9. In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''9. If ''x'' contains 1, 2, 5, 7, or 8, then (respectively) '''19''' ◁ ''p'', '''29''' ◁ ''p'', '''59''' ◁ ''p'', '''79''' ◁ ''p'', or '''89''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 4, 6, or 9. If 44 ◁ ''x'', then '''449''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''x'' contains zero or one 4's. If x contains no 4's, then all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Hence we may assume that ''x'' contains exactly one 4. Case 4.1: ''p'' begins with 3. In this case we can write ''p'' = 3''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. We must have '''349''' ◁ ''p''. Case 4.2: ''p'' begins with 4. In this case we can write ''p'' = 4''y''9, where all digits of ''y'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''y'', then '''409''' ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''499''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {6}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 4{6}9. But then ''p'' is divisible by 7, since for ''n'' ≥ 0 we have 7 × 6_''n''7 = 46_''n''9. Case 4.3: ''p'' begins with 6. In this case we can write p = 6''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''z'', then 409 ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''z'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 6 ◁ ''z'', then '''6469''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''z'', then 499 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''z'' is empty. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 349 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''6949''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 6. If 06 ◁ ''y'', then '''60649''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {6}{0}. If 666 ◁ ''y'', then '''666649''' ◁ ''p''. If 00000 ◁ ''y'', then '''60000049''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'', 0, 00, 000, 0000, 6, 60, 600, 6000, 60000, 66, 660, 6600, 66000, 660000}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {649, 6049, 60049, 600049, 6000049, 6649, 66049, 660049, 6600049, 66000049, 66649, 666049, 6660049, 66600049, 666000049}, and of these numbers only '''66000049''' and '''66600049''' are primes. Case 4.4: ''p'' begins with 9. In this case we can write p = 9''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''y'', then '''9049''' ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 349 ◁ ''p''. If 6 ◁ ''y'', then '''9649''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''9949''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' is empty. If 0 ◁ ''z'', then 409 ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''z'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''z'', then 499 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''z'' ∈ {6}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 94{6}9, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 94{6}9 is 946669. [[Category:Number theory]] 5y51ypsrudnkd63m8y3t5s6mld3zpfi 10 330232 2841856 2841653 2026-10-21T11:17:29Z Jtneill 10242 # Insufficient use of relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses 2841856 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>Feedback [[wikiversity:FAQ/Template|template]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] exercise for the [[motivation and emotion]] unit. Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]. __NOTOC__</noinclude><includeonly> ==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] review and feedback== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} This chapter has been reviewed according to the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. Written feedback is provided below, plus there is a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|general feedback]] page. 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Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Some emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses; more emphasis would be ideal # Insufficient use of relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # Rather than describing individual studies separately, synthesise findings across related studies to identify common themes, patterns, and differences in the evidence # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the edit summary. # Highlights the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Highlight the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to the chapter being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ### genAI is over-used; write more in your own words, based on your own knowledge based on reading the primary sources ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## Target an ''international'' rather than domestic national audience. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Reduce excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/Many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/Many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st or 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]]. ## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bold, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ## If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: ### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or ### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ## Do not include author first name or initials ## Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ## List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ## A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ## Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ## Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ## Check and correct placement of full-stops ## Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ## Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources # For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both # Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include dois where available ### Hyperlink dois for 1-click access ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of feature box(es) # No use of feature boxes other than the opening scenario # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of scenarios, case studies, or examples # No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples, other than opening scenario <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#See also|template]] ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to related book chapters ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#External links|template]] ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} ~~~~ </pre></small></small></small> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of unacknowledged [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI]] (watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]])—express more in your own words #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits #* Use more specific [[w:Help:Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in each edit #* Insufficient use [[w:Help:Edit summary|edit summaries]] to describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* There is insufficient acknowledgement in edit summaries when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources despite previous feedback about this issue. Unacknowledged use of GenAI-generated content raises concerns about compliance with academic integrity principles and assessment requirements and [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence|Wikiversity's artificial intelligence policy]]. <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Consider using an example that a wider audience can relate to (less than 5% of the world population are university students) # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Figure --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Instead of a diagram, use an image which illustrates the scenario taking a place; use the diagram in a subsequent section # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature box --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Some emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses; more emphasis would be ideal # Insufficient use of relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # Rather than describing individual studies separately, synthesise findings across related studies to identify common themes, patterns, and differences in the evidence # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the edit summary. # Highlights the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Highlight the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to the chapter being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ### genAI is over-used; write more in your own words, based on your own knowledge based on reading the primary sources ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## Target an ''international'' rather than domestic national audience. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Reduce excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/Many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/Many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st of 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]].## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bo]ld, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ## If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: ### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or ### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ## Do not include author first name or initials ## Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ## List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ## A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ## Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ## Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ## Check and correct placement of full-stops ## Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ## Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources # For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both # Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include dois where available ### Hyperlink dois for 1-click access ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of feature box(es) # No use of feature boxes other than the opening scenario # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of scenarios, case studies, or examples # No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples, other than opening scenario <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#See also|template]] ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to related book chapters ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#External links|template]] ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2026 (UTC) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] * [[Template:METF]] * [[Template:MEMF]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]] </noinclude> 0br8m3in8xgjck6jmv5ezvsbk1p8oeu 0 330325 2841838 2835062 2026-10-21T08:54:09Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 2841838 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikipedia|w:Igbo regalia and Headdresses}} {{course}} == Introduction == '''Igbo regalia and headdresses''' comprise the ceremonial headgear, hairstyles, adornments, accessories, clothing and insignia traditionally associated with the Igbo people. These include mainly the ichafu (head ties), aka (beads), helmet and okpu (caps), Other significant headdresses and regalia include: akupe (hand fans), nza (flywhisks), ofo (elephant tusks), nkpara (staffs ), ugo (eagle's feathers), wigs and other symbolic objects used to express cultural identity, social status, title, spiritual significance and ceremonial functions.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Shaw |first=Thurstan |title=Unearthing Igbo-Ukwu: archaeological discoveries in eastern Nigeria |date=1977 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-575251-9 |location=Ibadan, Nigeria ; New York}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite book |last=Church Missionary Society |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=ien.35556041684267&seq=160 |title=Dictionary of the Ibo Language: English-Ibo |publisher=Church Missionary Society Bookshop |year=1923 |location=Lagos |pages=160}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal |last=Dike |first=P. Chike |date=1987 |title=Art, Symbol and Authority Among the Aro of South-east Nigeria |journal=Nigerian Magazine |volume=55 |pages=30-35}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last=Poynor |first=Robin |url=http://archive.org/details/africanartatharn0000poyn |title=African art at the Harn Museum : spirit eyes, human hands |date=1995 |publisher=Gainesville : University of Florida |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-8130-1325-1 |pages=115}}</ref> Many forms of Igbo regalia are associated with rulers, chiefs, and titled individuals. They are used to mark rank, status, office and authority, and remain an important part of [[Igbo culture|Igbo cultural]] traditions.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":8" /> Archeological excavations at Igbo-Ukwu by Charles Thurstan Shaw uncovered 9th-century burials containing ceremonial regalia, including beads, Headdresses, crowns, fly-whisks, anklets, and other prestige objects. <ref name=":0" />These discoveries show the long-standing use of adornments and regalia among the Igbo people. == Learning Objectives == Before studying this, you should be able to: * Differentiate between the cultural roles, historical origins, and gender associations of various Igbo headdresses and items of regalia. * Understand the socio-political significance of specific insignia like the Okpu ozo, Okpu agu, and Akupe. * Describe the material culture, artistic elements, and components of traditional Igbo clothing ensembles for both men and women. == Module 1: Women's Headdresses, Coiffures, and Crowns == === Ichafu headdress === [[File:Beauty Queen Bianca.jpg|alt=Bianca Ojukwu wearing Ichafu|thumb|Bianca Odumegwu Ojukwu, an Igbo woman and Nigerian Minister of Foreign Affairs wearing '''Ichafu''' (Ichafo) headdress]] [[File:Igbo woman styled in Igbo Ichafu (headscarf) and Akwete obiakwa. Stunning.jpg|thumb|Igbo woman wearing '''Ichafu''' (Ichafo) headdress boldly and stylishly tied with a damask head-tie fabric]] [[File:Eze Obi Ossai and wives wearing Ichafu with wrappers and elephant tusk Ivory (Odu).jpg|alt=An image of Igbo women in 1841 wearing Ichafu headdress, Odu ukwu, and wrappers and carrying Akupe while the Obi carries mkpara muo.|thumb|Igbo women described by [[William Allen (Royal Navy officer)|William Allen]] in his 1841 book as Eze Obi's wives. The image depicts them wearing headcloths known as Ichafu among the Igbo, and elephant ivory anklets known as ''odu''. They carry ''Akupe'' (handfans) while the Obi carries a staff known as ''nkpara mmuo'']] '''Ichafu''' (also recorded as Ichafo and Icafo in historical sources) is a traditional Igbo women's headdress fashioned from a fabric folded, twisted, and pinned into elaborate shapes like a large flower sitting on the head. It is a prominent part of ceremonial dresses typically worn by Nigerian women with traditional outfits. Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie in a piece republished in Style and Substance: Why What We Wear Matters, edited by Gay Garnet narrated watching her mother arrange Ichafu on her head until it sat on her head like a large flower<ref name=":17">{{Cite book |title=Style and substance: why what we wear matters |date=2023 |publisher=John Murray |isbn=978-1-3998-1246-7 |editor-last=Garnett |editor-first=Bay |location=London}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book |last=Butticci |first=Annalisa |title=African Pentecostals in Catholic Europe: the politics of presence in the twenty-first century |date=2016 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-73709-9 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}}</ref>Likewise, Uzo Aduba in her memoir The road is Good described wearing an elaborate Ichafu on her head in the most gorgeous coral colour.<ref name=":18">{{Cite book |last=Aduba |first=Uzo |title=The road is good: how a mother's strength became a daughter's purpose |date=2024 |publisher=Viking |isbn=978-0-593-29912-8 |location=New York}}</ref> Ichafu has influenced contemporay fashion design beyond [[Nigeria]]. A review in the [[fashion]] section of the British newspaper The Observer of Priya Ahluwalia's Spring/Summer 2026 collection noted that the designer's Jacquard knits drew inspiration from Nigerian Ichafu headwraps alongside Bollywood motifs<ref>{{Cite web |last=Deaman |first=Jo Jones, Helen Seamons, Sam |title=Hometown glory: highlights from London Fashion Week sprin... |url=https://observer.co.uk/style/fashion/article/hometown-glory-highlights-from-london-fashion-week-springsummer-2026 |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=The Observer |language=en}}</ref> Ichafu is also included in an Oxford University Press International Baccalaureate Visual Arts curriculum under the theme "Textiles and cultural signs" alongside Japanese kimonos.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Oxford |url=http://archive.org/details/visual-arts-paterson-poppy-and-vaughn-oxford-2017 |title=Visual Arts Paterson, Poppy And Vaughn Oxford 2017 Textbook |date=2017}}</ref> Headcloths formed an important part of traditional Igbo women's headdresses and attire. Historical and linguistic sources record terms such as Ichafu, Icafo, Ichafo, Ichafu isi in reference to headcloths, head ties, headgears and headdresses worn by Igbo women in both everyday and ceremonial settings. This headdress was associated with markets, meetings, religious observances, weddings, celebrations, and other social occasions.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":9" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Cowen |first=Rhoda |url=https://archive.org/details/goldsilverthread0000cowe |title=The Gold and Silver Threads: A memoir of Life in the Twentieth Century |publisher=Alan Sutton Publishing Ltd |year=1994 |location=Stroud, Gloucestershire, England |publication-date=1994 |pages=67, 84}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite book |last=Green |first=M M |url=https://archive.org/detailsibovillageaffair0000gree/page/218/mode/1up |title=Ibo Village Affairs |date=1947 |publisher=Sidgwick and Jackson |year=1947 |location=Sidgwick London |publication-date=1947 |pages=136, 218, 226}}</ref> Headcloths are part of a long-standing tradition of Igbo women's headdresses and full clothing ensemble. In the ethnographic work of the anthropologist M.M. Green in Igboland, he documented women in 1947 wearing festive headcloths to market and observed that headcloths were commonly worn at meetings and social gatherings as part of their clothing ensemble.<ref name=":13" /> Igbo headtie is worn in a big, bold and stylish manner with flared ends using vibrant fabrics measuring six by three feet in size. Writing about her experiences in Igboland, Rhoda Cowen described Igbo headtie referred to as Ichafo and Icafo as a big brightly colored headdress worn in a bold and stylish manner noting that some were wrapped around the head with projecting ends, while others formed striking elements of women's attire alongside vibrant colored fabrics or textiles and gold jewellery.<ref name=":12" /> Igbo headtie has also been recorded in ethnographic studies of Igbo dress as a headgear fashioned from a decorative piece of cloth worn around the head known as Ichafo. It is fashioned from a piece of cloth approximately six by three feet in size, folded into triangular or rectangular forms and wrapped around the head in an elevated manner that creates a style resembling a tall turban with decorative bow. According to the author, a headgear is distinguished from a head-tie which is smaller and worn flat around the head in the Nigerian context while defining Igbo style of headtie as a headgear.<ref name=":9" /> [[File:Girl on ichafu.jpg|alt=A girl wearing Ịchafú n'isi|thumb|An Igbo girl wearing '''Ichafu''' headdress]] === Helmet coiffures and beaded crowns === Igbo headdresses also include elaborate female head adornments, as well as decorative headgear featuring elaborate coiffures worn by masquerades such as the ''Agbogho Mmuo'' (maiden spirit) during festivals and cultural events. The Headdresses and costumes are intended to depict female figures and their feminine appearance and attributes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Celenko |first=Theodore |title=A treasury of African art from the Harrison Eiteljorg Collection |last2=Eiteljorg |first2=Harrison |date=1983 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-11057-2 |location=Bloomington}}</ref> [[File:Ancient Igbo helmet Coiffures and headgear (1921).jpg|alt=Helmet Coiffures and Headgears of Ancient Igbo brides|thumb|Ethnographic photos of Igbo brides known as Nkpu brides of prospective chiefs dressed in helmet Coiffures and heagears, necklaces of Leapard teeth and aggry beads 1920.]] Helmet-shaped coiffures were among the elaborate hairstyles historically worn by Igbo women during courtship, marriage festivities, and other ceremonial occasions. Some were built on a foundation of clay, charcoal and palm oil and moulded into a crest resembling the central ridge of a Roman helmet, extending from the forehead to the nape of the neck. The coiffures were often further decorated with beads, small could plaits, cowry shells, mother-of-pearl, brass ornaments, and mirrors sewn into the hair.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Basden |first=George Thomas |url=https://doi.org/10.5479/sil.115290.39088000476515 |title=Among the Ibos of Nigeria |date=1921 |publisher=Seeley, Service & Co., ltd}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Chudi-Duru |first=Chika C. |date=2024 |title=MMA NWANYI BU EKIKE |url=https://www.journals.ezenwaohaetorc.org/index.php/UJOCC/article/viewFile/3950/4060 |journal=Ohazurume: Unizik Journal of Culture and Civilization (often abbreviated UJOCC) |volume=3 |pages=96-115}}</ref> Other recorded styles include a raised helmet-like ridge formed on a clay foundation and decorated with beads, cowry shells, leopard claws, camwood paste, and other adornments. Such coiffures could signify age, status, wealth or other stages of life and formed part of ceremonial female adornment in parts of Igboland.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /> [[File:An Igbo bride adorn with the isi agu and the red bead.jpg|alt=An attire featuring Igbo beaded head crown called ngala, aka, and nza|thumb|An Igbo bride adorned with beaded crown called ''ngala'', aka(coral beads) worn around the neck and wrist and worn as earrings and carrying the ''nza'' (flywhisks) regalia.]] While elaborate Helmet-shaped coiffures were a prominent part of historical Igbo women's ceremonial adornment, contemporary ceremonial attire incorporates beaded crowns and bead-based headpieces. Studies of present-day Igbo dress culture depict the brides and her maidens wearing beaded crowns as part of the traditional attire, or decorate their hair with bead accessories during weddings and Cultural celebrations. Beaded crowns, together with corals and other ornamental beads remain a prominent feature of Igbo regalia and are associated with beauty, femininity, cultural identity, fertility, spiritual well-being and marital blessings.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":6" /> == Module 2: Elite Signifiers, Beads, and Men's Okpu == === Aka === [[File:Igbo Bride during her traditional marriage 20220216.jpg|alt=Igbo bride adorned with beaded accessories and Uli body arts and carrying a Calabash.|thumb|An Igbo bride dressed for ''Igbankwu'' (traditional wedding) adorned in beaded accessories featuring aka attached on the head, ''nkalari'' or ''erulu'' (coral beads) around the neck, wrists ankles and also worn as earrings. She carries the ''nza'' (fly whisk) regalia and a Calabash with her legs designed in Uli body arts.]] Beaded accessories made of glass beads are known as ''aka'' among the Igbo people. They're of various types which consist of coral beads known as ''erulu'' or ''aka'' and waist beads known as ''mgbaji''. The large coral beads are known as ''nkalari''. The ''mgbaji'' is usually a kind of flat circular coral beads worn around the waist. The large coral beads are worn around the neck, and also worn as earrings and on the wrists.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last=Melie |first=Edith E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iqZbAAAAMAAJ |title=The Ozo Title of Onitsha: A Study of it's Dress and Insignia |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison |year=1977 |location=Madison, Wisconsin, USA |publication-date=1977 |pages=87-140}}</ref><ref name=":19">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UAgOAQAAMAAJ |title=Ikenga |date=1985 |publisher=Institute of African Studies, University of Nigeria. |language=en}}</ref> Aka is an important part of both Igbo men's and Women's dress fashion. Among the men, it is also regarded as a status symbol across [[Africa]] and a ceremonial adornment like bridal attire for Igbo women. Gold beads are also incorporated in the dress attire.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" /> [[File:Glass beads from Igbo-Ukwu.jpg|thumb|9th Century carbon-dated Igbo-ukwu glass beads.]] Beads are highly valued in Igboland<ref>{{Cite book |last=Afigbo |first=A. E. |title=The Igbo and their neighbours: inter-group relations in southeastern Nigeria to 1953 |date=1987 |publisher=University Press |isbn=978-0-19-575713-2 |location=Ibadan}}</ref> and have long been an important part of Igbo ceremonial dress and adornment. Excavations at Igbo-ukwu uncovered large quantities of glass and carnelian beads used in necklaces, armlets, wristlets, girdles, and other ornaments. In one royal burial, hundreds of beads were found around the skull, which suggests that the deceased wore a beaded headdress, while strings of beads and a [[copper]] crown was part of the ceremonial regalia. These discoveries dated as early as the 9th century by Thurstan Shaw show that beaded accessories was widely used as a regalia symbol and adornment in ancient Igbo society.<ref name=":0" /> === Okpu === Okpu refers to traditional caps or helmets used by Igbo adult males of various statuses and ranks in the society for symbolic purposes. There are different kinds of Okpu worn by adult males in Igboland. The most prominent are feathered red cap known as ''okpu ozo'' and leopard cap known as ''Okpu agu''.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Oriji |first=John Nwachimereze |url=http://archive.org/details/ngwahistorystudy0055orij |title=Ngwa history : a study of social and economic changes in Igbo mini-states in time perspective |date=1991 |publisher=New York : P. Lang |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-8204-1411-9}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=M. Angulu Onwuejeogwu |url=http://archive.org/details/an-igbo-civilization-nri-kingdom-and-hegemony |title=An Igbo Civilization: Nri Kingdom and Hegemony |date=1980}}</ref> ==== Okpu ozo ==== [[File:Red Cap Chiefs at an Igbo Traditional Ceremony.jpg|alt=Ndi Nze na ozo you Okpu ozo ma jidekwa Akupe, ofo, na mkpara|thumb|Titled Igbo men known as Ndi Nze na ozo wearing their traditional regalia featuring Okpu ozo (red caps made of hide with eagle's feathers). Their attire also features other Igbo regalia insignia such as Akupe, ''ofo'', ''nza'', ''nkpara'']] Okpu ozo is described as the feathered red cap worn by titled men known as Ndi Nze na Ozo. As a paraphernalia of office, okpu is regarded as sacred thereby prohibiting ordinary people from touching them.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Oriji |first=J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WZliAQAAQBAJ |title=Political Organization in Nigeria since the Late Stone Age: A History of the Igbo People |date=2011-01-17 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-11668-9 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":10">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e-Y6dSeFt_sC |title=Ikenga |date=1980 |publisher=Institute of African Studies, University of Nigeria. |language=en}}</ref>It is a high-crowned red cap made of hide and usually encircled with eight eagle feather plumes called ''ugo''.This is particularly worn by the title holders called ''Nze''. It can also be modest or low-crowned without the feather decorations worn by the ''Ozo'' title holders.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ubani |first=Kenneth |date=2019 |title=Igbo Leadership Through the Visual Arts: Back to the Future |url= |journal=Canadian Social Science |volume=15 |issue=7}}</ref> It is also known as Okpu ''mmee mmee'' which literally translates to colour of the cap and okpu ''mmee'' which signifies true loyalty. Some Igbo regions also refer to it as ''okpu eze''. <ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Ifemesia |first=C. C. |url=http://archive.org/details/traditionalhuman00ifem |title=Traditional humane living among the Igbo : an historical perspecitve |date=1979 |publisher=Enugu, Nigeria : Fourth Dimension Publishers |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-978-156-062-0}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> Okpu ozo is regarded as an insignia that protects the wearer when he was away from his lineage or village as well as other travellers.<ref name=":4" /> The wearers are known as Ndi nze na ozo or red cap chiefs. To obtain the title, a candidate traditionally applied to the red cap chiefs, who supervised the initiation ceremony. During the capping ceremony, the initiate was presented with a red cap and feather as a symbol of his new status and a symbol of authority to enable him perform his duties. This capping stage is also known as ''ikube-okpu''. He also receives other insignia.<ref name=":14">{{Cite book |last=Umeasiegbu |first=Rems N. |title=The way we lived: Ibo customs and stories |date=1981 |publisher=Heinemann |isbn=978-0-435-90061-8 |edition=Repr |series=African writers series |location=London}}</ref> ==== Okpu agu ==== [[File:Igbo kwenu.jpg|alt=Nwoke yi ekike Okpu agu na agba egwu Ohafia|thumb|Ohafia war dance performer wearing Okpu agu]] [[File:Ohafia Igbo Dance Performance Chicago.jpg|alt=Ndi yi Okpu agu agba egwu Ohafia na Chicago|thumb|Ohafia Igbo dance performance in Chicago [[United States]] featuring the Okpu agu Igbo regalia]] Some descriptions of Igbo headdresses highlight that three kinds of helmets were worn: thick ones made of coco-yam stalks, or of the bark of the Achi tree, and fine looking but thin ones made of young palm leaves or raffia hats called ''okpu uturu.''<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Talbot |first=Percy Amaury |title=The People's of Southern Nigeria: A sketch of their History, Ethnology and Languages, with an abstract of 1921 Census. |publisher=Oxford University Press, H Milford. |year=1926 |location=London |publication-date=1926 |pages=413, 839}}</ref> Among these headgears was the okpu agu, a cap associated with Ohafia warrior traditions, known as the leopard cap of bravery. It is round slanting cap made of a knitted wool of black, white and red stripes with a pattern that resemble leopard markings from which the cap derives its name.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McCall |first=John C |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=204eAQAAMAAJ |title=The Ohafia War Dance as Lived Experience |publisher=University of Michigan |year=1992 |location=Ann Arbor, Michigan |pages=37}}</ref> The okpu agu was an important symbol of warrior achievement in Ohafia. According to historical accounts, the red colour of the cap was traditionally reserved for warriors who had taken heads in battle, or returned with the slain body of a strong animal like the leopard and the caps were dyed with the blood of war victims, while the black and white stripe evoked the leopard and it's qualities of strength, agility and martial prowess that were admired in accomplished warriors, as well as the leopard body movement that characterizes the Ohafia War Dance movement.<ref>{{Cite book |last=MacCall |first=John Christensen |title=Dancing histories: heuristic ethnography with the Ohafia Igbo |date=2000 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-11070-4 |location=Ann Arbor}}</ref> Okpu agu was manufactured locally by process of bending over, tying and sowing. It is also known as ''Okpu-Aji'' by Nkanu Igbo people and ''Okpu Ojji'' by Abajah and ''Okpu oggu'' (fighting war caps)<ref name=":5" /> == Module 3: Ceremonial Utensils, Insignia, and Fly-Whisks == === Akupe (hand fan) === [[File:Akupe handfan.webp|thumb|Igbo man carrying an Akupe with ofo symbol carved on it. The image also features him wearing ''Okpu'' ''Ozo'' and Isiagu flowing shirt and ''aka'' (coral beads) worn around his wrist.]] Akupe is a ceremonial traditional handfan of the Igbo people which forms part of the clothing ensemble of Igbo men and women. However, it isn't merely used as a [[fashion]] complement but functions as both a practical object and insignia or symbol of status within Igbo society. It is mainly made of raw leather but was also made of other materials like straw, palm products and copper historically. As a paraphernalia of office, it is mainly associated with the ''Nze na ozo'' title holders.<ref name=":15">{{Cite book |last=Uzochukwu |first=Sam |title=Traditional funeral poetry of the Igbo |date=2001 |publisher=Lagos University Press |isbn=978-978-017-624-2 |location=Lagos, Nigeria}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":8" /> The use of akupe as a ceremonial regalia in Igbo land dates back to Igbo-ukwu archeology where copper hand fan with a handle made of wooden shaft along with other status symbols were unearthed from a royal burial chamber of whom was described by Thurstan Shaw as a high ranking titled man or royalty. These excavations which included the fan was dated 9th century<ref name=":0" /> ==== Akupe as a ceremonial regalia and Fashion among the men ==== The Akupe serves as both a ceremonial insignia and an element of elite male in Igbo Society. It is part of the regalia of titled men like the Ozo title holders, chiefs. and elders. Typically carried at the hand, it complements other symbols of status such as the ''Okpu'', ''nkpara'', ''nza'' or ''odu enyi'' and the traditional flowing shirt known as Isiagu, <ref>{{Cite book |last=Omolade |first=Ajetunmobi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9GISAQAAIAAJ |title=Themes in Social Studies Education and Culture: A book of Readings |year=2000 |location=Nigeria |publication-date=2000 |pages=156-166}}</ref>Akwete or Akwa ocha.<ref name=":8" /> Although it is made of various materials, the titled men specifically use raw leather made handfans which is either called Akupe or ''agu''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ndimele |first=Ozo-mekuri |title=Four Decades in the Study of Languages and Linguistics in Nigeria: A Festschrift for Kay Williamson |year=2003 |publication-date=2003 |pages=435}}</ref> Other names generally used to refer to the ceremonial fan is ''nkuku'' and ''nzuzu'' especially among the ''Agbalanze'' titled group of Onitsha. The Akupe is designed and decorated in various ways but particularly in a thick and heavy pattern for the titled men. Their titles or names are written or carved at the surface of the handfans while their vehicle plate numbers are also designed as such for identification.<ref name=":1" /> The fan is not merely acquired by titled men but bestowed on them during the capping ceremony where candidates are installed as Nze no ozo title holders or red cap chiefs. The final stage of the ceremony involves handing the candidate the ''Okpu nze na ozo'' and the ''Ugo'' feather, a fan and a sword among other insignia.<ref name=":14" /> Akupe also serves as a ritual symbol in the Igbo mmanwu (masquerade) tradition, particularly in the cultural ceremony known as the [[Ijele Masquerade|Ijele]] dance where a significant personality among the dance group is known as Akupe carrier. While he is not a masquerade, he plays the prominent role of leading the ''Ijele'' with it's symbolic powerful Akupe. The disappearance of either the Akupe or it's bearer is believed to place the Ijele at risk. The Akupe bearer determines the movement of the Ijele, which moves or remains stationary according to the bearer's actions<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ikemerike |first=Ikechukwu John |last2=Efuruhievwe |first2=Margaret Akpevweogene |date=2023 |title=Globalization as a Threat to Cultural Identity: A Case Study of Igba Ijele Dance Group of Awkuzu, Anambra State |url=https://ssjhis.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/33.-Globalization-as-a-Threat-to-Cultural-Identity-A-Case-Study-of-Igba-Ijele-Dance-Group-of-Awkuzu-Anambra-State.pdf |journal=South-South Journal of Humanities and International Studies |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=475-496}}</ref> ==== Akupe as a ceremonial regalia and fashion among the women ==== [[File:Akupe- locally made hand fan.jpg|thumb|Akupe made of decorative woolen textiles often used by women including brides and maids of honour ]] In Igbo society, both large hand fans and artistic hand-held fans have traditionally formed part of women's ceremonial presentation, particularly during weddings, festivals or public celebrations. Historical accounts of Igbo marriage and courtship customs as early as 1921, describe Igbo brides and her maids of honour carrying large fans during the marriage ceremony, particularly the ''Nkpu'' rite to cool and keep the bride refreshed after dancing during the ceremony<ref name=":6" /> In Igbo dances and performance traditions, artistic hand-held fans are used for aesthetics and symbolic purposes where they form part of the ceremonial ensemble<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Obijiaku |first=Chidi |date=2023-02-27 |title=HYBRIDITY IN MODERN NIGERIAN MUSIC: THE CASE OF IGBO CHORAL ART MUSIC |url=https://journal.ru.ac.za/index.php/africanmusic/article/view/2456 |journal=African Music : Journal of the International Library of African Music |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=25–42 |doi=10.21504/amj.v11i4.2456 |issn=2524-2741}}</ref> === Fly-whisks (''Nza'', ''Odu ebule'') === [[File:Fly whisk (AM 2015.34.53-1).jpg|thumb|Fly-whisk (''Nza'' or ''Odu ebule'')]] Fly-whisks are known as ''Nza'' or ''odu ebule'' among the Igbo people. It is a traditional ceremonial accessory and symbol of distinction in Igbo society. It forms part of the regalia of titled men, chiefs, elders, and other person's of rank also integrated into the attire which includes the akupe, headgear, staff among others. Historical accounts of title taking ceremonies describe newly initiated titled men receiving ceremonial objects as part of their elevation into positions of honour and responsibility within the community such as the ''Ozo'' title.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":15" /> Archeological evidence from Igbo-ukwu, dating to about the 9th century, shows the antiquity flywhisks within Igbo ceremonial culture. The excavations that uncovered a royal burial furnished with elaborate regalia and the reconstructions of the chamber depicted the high ranking individual holding a ceremonial fly-whisk among other insignia of authority. These regalia have been interpreted in studies as markets of prestige, rank, leadership, royalty, and ritual symbolisms in early Igboland.<ref name=":0" /> Beyond functioning as an insignia among titled men, royalty and chiefs, fly-whisks and related descriptions of the regalia has been recorded as forming part of the attire of Igbo dancers and brides during festivities or ceremonies like dance performances and traditional marriage. According to Basden in 1921, ''Nkpu'' brides during their marriage ceremony carried cow's tail mounted on a leather handle, sometimes accompanied by small mirrors placed in specially carved hand held frames, including large fans which all formed part of their attire in the ceremony.<ref name=":6" /> ''Odu enyi'' is also used in artistic and performance traditions of the Igbi people like the ''nkpokiti'' dance. Studies of Igbo oral poetry includes the fly-whisks among the symbolic paraphernalia carried by performers as emblems of their artistry. The flywhisks were described as part of the ceremonial props employed in dances, processions, and choral performance where they serve both symbolic and aesthetic functions as they express the Igbo culture.<ref name=":15" /> == Module 4: Traditional Dress and Ensembles == === Igbo traditional dress and fashion === Igbo traditional dress and fashion for men typically comprise of loose cotton shirt or robe over an ankle-length wrapper, or loin cloths fashioned from various local Igbo fabrics like the Isiagu, Akwete or Akwaocha complemented with ''okpu'', ''akupe'', ''odu enyi'', ''mkpara'', ''ofo'' and adornments with ''aka'' (coral beads) worn around the neck and wrists. These regalia items proclaim status within the society. Royal robes, royal headdresses, silver sword were used to describe the attire of Igbo royalty like the Obi of Onitsha by Nzimiro and Henderson while the red cap chiefs dressed in their own special attire<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ebuziem |first=Cajetan E. |title=Doing Ministry in the Igbo Context: Towards an Emerging Model and Method for the Church in Africa- Foreword by Theophilus Okere |date=2011 |publisher=Peter Lang Inc., International Academic Publishers |isbn=978-1-4331-1154-9 |edition= |series=Bible and Theology in Africa |location=New York}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite book |last=Nnoromele |first=Salome |url=https://archive.org/details/lifeamongibowome0000nnor |title=Life among the Ibo women of Nigeria |publisher=Lucent books, San Diego |year=1998 |location=San Diego |publication-date=1998}}</ref><ref name=":8" /> <ref name=":16" /> Among the women, the typical tradition of dress consist of a pair of matching wrappers or double wrappers known as ''eregbor'' na ''ntukwasi'', a blouse called ''efe obi'' made of Akwete or George fabrics and Ichafu (also spelt Ichafo and Icafo). In ordinary circumstances according to M.M Green in 1947, the women wore short wrappers folded around the hips and reaching the knee with a headcloth while for ceremonial functions a blouse or tunic was worn together with the waist wrappers and festive headcloth <ref name=":21">{{Cite book |last=Lamb Holmes |first=Venice Judy |title=Nigerian Weaving |publisher=The Roxford Press |year=1981 |pages=247-280}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last=Kent |first=Kate P. |last2=Eicher |first2=Joanne Bubolz |last3=Dendel |first3=Esther Warner |date=1978 |title=Nigerian Handcrafted Textiles |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/3335408 |journal=African Arts |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=14 |doi=10.2307/3335408 |issn=0001-9933}}</ref><ref name=":20" /><ref name=":13" /><ref name=":17" /> Igbo women complement their dressing with ''aka'' (beads) and Jewellries especially for festivities or ceremonial occasions like traditional marriage known as ''Igba nkwu''.The beadded accessories include ''aka'' or ''nkalari'' (coral beads) worn around the neck and wrists and used as earrings, ''mgbaji'' (flat circular waist beads) worn around the waist, and ''ola'' (iron bangles) around the ankles.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":17" /> ==== Layered Identical Double Wrappers (''Eregbor na Ntukwasi''), Blouse (''Efe obi'') and Ichafu ==== Traditionally, Igbo women's textiles like Akwete of all category are woven in pairs of identical design as well as sold in pairs. These pairs are not sewn together but worn together. The two pairs of wrappers are known as ''eregbor na ntukwasi,'' made of multicolored geometric or floral design. The first wrapper is wrapped around the waist and extends down to the ankle. The second wrapper overlaps the first from the waist to the knees, giving the wrappers a layered look. The wrappers are paired with a blouse known as ''efe obi'' which s tucked inside. This combination of wrappers and blouse are paired with head ties described by Chimamanda Adichie as Ichafu. The textiles used are usually Akwete and George.<ref name=":20" /><ref name=":21" /><ref name=":22" /><ref name=":17" /> In recounting her past, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie describes how she had seen her mother dress up in her double wrappers, blouse and Ichafu.  {{Blockquote|text=She folded and twisted and pinned her Ichafu until it sat on her head like a large flower. She wrapped her George - heavy beaded cloth, alive with embroidery, always in bright shades of red or purple pink - around her waist in two layers, The first, the longer piece, hit her ankles, and the second formed an elegant tier just below her knees. Her sequinned blouse caught the light and glittered. Her shoes and handbag always matched|author=Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie|title=Style and Substance: Why What We Wear Matters}} This attire ensemble of layered double wrappers called ''eregbor na'' ''ntukwasi'' paired with a blouse and Ichafu (Ichafo) head tie is also complemented with jewelleries as described by Chimamanda and Uzo Aduba who had witnessed their mother and aunt dress up.<ref name=":17" /><ref name=":18" /> [[File:Igbo woman wearing Jooji obiakwa(double wrapper) with uweobi and Ichafu.jpg|left|thumb|A full clothing ensemble of the Igbo woman featuring ''Eregbor na ntukwasi'' (Layered identical George wrappers) paired with a puffed sleeved blouse ''(efe elu)'' and an Ichafu (Ichafo) headdress]] [[File:An igbo woman in Ichafu headdress.jpg|thumb|An Igbo woman wearing a fitted blouse (''efe obi'')]] == See also == * [[Igbo culture]] [[Category:Igbo culture]] [[Category:Material Culture]] [[Category:Learning Modules]] d0qd1yhdhlm9ntcqd3ufb41tva272wd 2841855 2841838 2026-10-21T11:02:44Z Dolpina 3102236 /* Ichafu headdress */ Following the style on wikipedia. Correcting some unsourced content, original research, undue weight and synthesis. I have seen that some others have made some changes to reduce POV and were wrongfully reverted to maintain POV. 2841855 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikipedia|w:Igbo regalia and Headdresses}} {{course}} == Introduction == '''Igbo regalia and headdresses''' comprise the ceremonial headgear, hairstyles, adornments, accessories, clothing and insignia traditionally associated with the Igbo people. These include mainly the ichafu (head ties), aka (beads), helmet and okpu (caps), Other significant headdresses and regalia include: akupe (hand fans), nza (flywhisks), ofo (elephant tusks), nkpara (staffs ), ugo (eagle's feathers), wigs and other symbolic objects used to express cultural identity, social status, title, spiritual significance and ceremonial functions.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Shaw |first=Thurstan |title=Unearthing Igbo-Ukwu: archaeological discoveries in eastern Nigeria |date=1977 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-575251-9 |location=Ibadan, Nigeria ; New York}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite book |last=Church Missionary Society |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=ien.35556041684267&seq=160 |title=Dictionary of the Ibo Language: English-Ibo |publisher=Church Missionary Society Bookshop |year=1923 |location=Lagos |pages=160}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal |last=Dike |first=P. Chike |date=1987 |title=Art, Symbol and Authority Among the Aro of South-east Nigeria |journal=Nigerian Magazine |volume=55 |pages=30-35}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last=Poynor |first=Robin |url=http://archive.org/details/africanartatharn0000poyn |title=African art at the Harn Museum : spirit eyes, human hands |date=1995 |publisher=Gainesville : University of Florida |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-8130-1325-1 |pages=115}}</ref> Many forms of Igbo regalia are associated with rulers, chiefs, and titled individuals. They are used to mark rank, status, office and authority, and remain an important part of [[Igbo culture|Igbo cultural]] traditions.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":8" /> Archeological excavations at Igbo-Ukwu by Charles Thurstan Shaw uncovered 9th-century burials containing ceremonial regalia, including beads, Headdresses, crowns, fly-whisks, anklets, and other prestige objects. <ref name=":0" />These discoveries show the long-standing use of adornments and regalia among the Igbo people. == Learning Objectives == Before studying this, you should be able to: * Differentiate between the cultural roles, historical origins, and gender associations of various Igbo headdresses and items of regalia. * Understand the socio-political significance of specific insignia like the Okpu ozo, Okpu agu, and Akupe. * Describe the material culture, artistic elements, and components of traditional Igbo clothing ensembles for both men and women. == Module 1: Women's Headdresses, Coiffures, and Crowns == === Ichafu headdress === [[File:Eze Obi Ossai and wives wearing Ichafu with wrappers and elephant tusk Ivory (Odu).jpg|alt=An image of Igbo women in 1841 wearing Ichafu headdress, Odu ukwu, and wrappers and carrying Akupe while the Obi carries mkpara muo.|thumb|Igbo women described by [[William Allen (Royal Navy officer)|William Allen]] in his 1841 book as Eze Obi's wives. The image depicts them wearing headcloths known as Ichafu among the Igbo, and elephant ivory anklets known as ''odu''. They carry ''Akupe'' (handfans) while the Obi carries a staff known as ''nkpara mmuo'']] '''Ichafu''' (also recorded as Ichafo and Icafo in historical sources) according to Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie in a piece republished in Style and Substance: Why What We Wear Matters, edited by Gay Garnet narrated watching her mother arrange Ichafu on her head until it sat on her head like a large flower<ref name=":17">{{Cite book |title=Style and substance: why what we wear matters |date=2023 |publisher=John Murray |isbn=978-1-3998-1246-7 |editor-last=Garnett |editor-first=Bay |location=London}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book |last=Butticci |first=Annalisa |title=African Pentecostals in Catholic Europe: the politics of presence in the twenty-first century |date=2016 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-73709-9 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}}</ref>Likewise, Uzo Aduba in her memoir The road is Good described wearing an elaborate Ichafu on her head in the most gorgeous coral colour.<ref name=":18">{{Cite book |last=Aduba |first=Uzo |title=The road is good: how a mother's strength became a daughter's purpose |date=2024 |publisher=Viking |isbn=978-0-593-29912-8 |location=New York}}</ref> A review in the [[fashion]] section of the British newspaper The Observer of Priya Ahluwalia's Spring/Summer 2026 collection noted that the designer's Jacquard knits drew inspiration from Ichafu headwraps alongside Bollywood motifs<ref>{{Cite web |last=Deaman |first=Jo Jones, Helen Seamons, Sam |title=Hometown glory: highlights from London Fashion Week sprin... |url=https://observer.co.uk/style/fashion/article/hometown-glory-highlights-from-london-fashion-week-springsummer-2026 |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=The Observer |language=en}}</ref> Ichafu is also mentioned by an Igbo student in an Oxford University Press International Baccalaureate Visual Arts curriculum, as scarf, under the theme "Textiles and cultural signs" alongside Japanese kimonos.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Oxford |url=http://archive.org/details/visual-arts-paterson-poppy-and-vaughn-oxford-2017 |title=Visual Arts Paterson, Poppy And Vaughn Oxford 2017 Textbook |date=2017}}</ref> Headcloths formed an important part of traditional Igbo women's headdresses and attire. Historical and linguistic sources record terms such as Ichafu, Icafo, Ichafo, Ichafu isi in reference to headcloths, head ties, headgears and headdresses worn by Igbo women in both everyday and ceremonial settings. This headdress was associated with markets, meetings, religious observances, weddings, celebrations, and other social occasions.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":9" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Cowen |first=Rhoda |url=https://archive.org/details/goldsilverthread0000cowe |title=The Gold and Silver Threads: A memoir of Life in the Twentieth Century |publisher=Alan Sutton Publishing Ltd |year=1994 |location=Stroud, Gloucestershire, England |publication-date=1994 |pages=67, 84}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite book |last=Green |first=M M |url=https://archive.org/detailsibovillageaffair0000gree/page/218/mode/1up |title=Ibo Village Affairs |date=1947 |publisher=Sidgwick and Jackson |year=1947 |location=Sidgwick London |publication-date=1947 |pages=136, 218, 226}}</ref> Headcloths are part of a long-standing tradition of Igbo women's headdresses and full clothing ensemble. In the ethnographic work of the anthropologist M.M. Green in Igboland, he documented women in 1947 wearing festive headcloths to market and observed that headcloths were commonly worn at meetings and social gatherings as part of their clothing ensemble.<ref name=":13" /> Writing about her experiences in Igboland, Rhoda Cowen described Igbo headtie referred to as Ichafo and Icafo as a big brightly colored headdress worn in a bold and stylish manner noting that some were wrapped around the head with projecting ends, while others formed striking elements of women's attire alongside vibrant colored fabrics or textiles and gold jewellery.<ref name=":12" /> It is fashioned from a piece of cloth approximately six by three feet in size, folded into triangular or rectangular forms and wrapped around the head in an elevated manner that creates a style resembling a tall turban with decorative bow. According to the author, a headgear is distinguished from a head-tie which is smaller and worn flat around the head in the Nigerian context.<ref name=":9" /> [[File:Girl on ichafu.jpg|alt=A girl wearing Ịchafú n'isi|thumb|An Igbo girl wearing '''Ichafu''' headdress]] === Helmet coiffures and beaded crowns === Igbo headdresses also include elaborate female head adornments, as well as decorative headgear featuring elaborate coiffures worn by masquerades such as the ''Agbogho Mmuo'' (maiden spirit) during festivals and cultural events. The Headdresses and costumes are intended to depict female figures and their feminine appearance and attributes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Celenko |first=Theodore |title=A treasury of African art from the Harrison Eiteljorg Collection |last2=Eiteljorg |first2=Harrison |date=1983 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-11057-2 |location=Bloomington}}</ref> [[File:Ancient Igbo helmet Coiffures and headgear (1921).jpg|alt=Helmet Coiffures and Headgears of Ancient Igbo brides|thumb|Ethnographic photos of Igbo brides known as Nkpu brides of prospective chiefs dressed in helmet Coiffures and heagears, necklaces of Leapard teeth and aggry beads 1920.]] Helmet-shaped coiffures were among the elaborate hairstyles historically worn by Igbo women during courtship, marriage festivities, and other ceremonial occasions. Some were built on a foundation of clay, charcoal and palm oil and moulded into a crest resembling the central ridge of a Roman helmet, extending from the forehead to the nape of the neck. The coiffures were often further decorated with beads, small could plaits, cowry shells, mother-of-pearl, brass ornaments, and mirrors sewn into the hair.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Basden |first=George Thomas |url=https://doi.org/10.5479/sil.115290.39088000476515 |title=Among the Ibos of Nigeria |date=1921 |publisher=Seeley, Service & Co., ltd}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Chudi-Duru |first=Chika C. |date=2024 |title=MMA NWANYI BU EKIKE |url=https://www.journals.ezenwaohaetorc.org/index.php/UJOCC/article/viewFile/3950/4060 |journal=Ohazurume: Unizik Journal of Culture and Civilization (often abbreviated UJOCC) |volume=3 |pages=96-115}}</ref> Other recorded styles include a raised helmet-like ridge formed on a clay foundation and decorated with beads, cowry shells, leopard claws, camwood paste, and other adornments. Such coiffures could signify age, status, wealth or other stages of life and formed part of ceremonial female adornment in parts of Igboland.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /> [[File:An Igbo bride adorn with the isi agu and the red bead.jpg|alt=An attire featuring Igbo beaded head crown called ngala, aka, and nza|thumb|An Igbo bride adorned with beaded crown called ''ngala'', aka(coral beads) worn around the neck and wrist and worn as earrings and carrying the ''nza'' (flywhisks) regalia.]] While elaborate Helmet-shaped coiffures were a prominent part of historical Igbo women's ceremonial adornment, contemporary ceremonial attire incorporates beaded crowns and bead-based headpieces. Studies of present-day Igbo dress culture depict the brides and her maidens wearing beaded crowns as part of the traditional attire, or decorate their hair with bead accessories during weddings and Cultural celebrations. Beaded crowns, together with corals and other ornamental beads remain a prominent feature of Igbo regalia and are associated with beauty, femininity, cultural identity, fertility, spiritual well-being and marital blessings.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":6" /> == Module 2: Elite Signifiers, Beads, and Men's Okpu == === Aka === [[File:Igbo Bride during her traditional marriage 20220216.jpg|alt=Igbo bride adorned with beaded accessories and Uli body arts and carrying a Calabash.|thumb|An Igbo bride dressed for ''Igbankwu'' (traditional wedding) adorned in beaded accessories featuring aka attached on the head, ''nkalari'' or ''erulu'' (coral beads) around the neck, wrists ankles and also worn as earrings. She carries the ''nza'' (fly whisk) regalia and a Calabash with her legs designed in Uli body arts.]] Beaded accessories made of glass beads are known as ''aka'' among the Igbo people. They're of various types which consist of coral beads known as ''erulu'' or ''aka'' and waist beads known as ''mgbaji''. The large coral beads are known as ''nkalari''. The ''mgbaji'' is usually a kind of flat circular coral beads worn around the waist. The large coral beads are worn around the neck, and also worn as earrings and on the wrists.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last=Melie |first=Edith E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iqZbAAAAMAAJ |title=The Ozo Title of Onitsha: A Study of it's Dress and Insignia |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison |year=1977 |location=Madison, Wisconsin, USA |publication-date=1977 |pages=87-140}}</ref><ref name=":19">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UAgOAQAAMAAJ |title=Ikenga |date=1985 |publisher=Institute of African Studies, University of Nigeria. |language=en}}</ref> Aka is an important part of both Igbo men's and Women's dress fashion. Among the men, it is also regarded as a status symbol across [[Africa]] and a ceremonial adornment like bridal attire for Igbo women. Gold beads are also incorporated in the dress attire.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" /> [[File:Glass beads from Igbo-Ukwu.jpg|thumb|9th Century carbon-dated Igbo-ukwu glass beads.]] Beads are highly valued in Igboland<ref>{{Cite book |last=Afigbo |first=A. E. |title=The Igbo and their neighbours: inter-group relations in southeastern Nigeria to 1953 |date=1987 |publisher=University Press |isbn=978-0-19-575713-2 |location=Ibadan}}</ref> and have long been an important part of Igbo ceremonial dress and adornment. Excavations at Igbo-ukwu uncovered large quantities of glass and carnelian beads used in necklaces, armlets, wristlets, girdles, and other ornaments. In one royal burial, hundreds of beads were found around the skull, which suggests that the deceased wore a beaded headdress, while strings of beads and a [[copper]] crown was part of the ceremonial regalia. These discoveries dated as early as the 9th century by Thurstan Shaw show that beaded accessories was widely used as a regalia symbol and adornment in ancient Igbo society.<ref name=":0" /> === Okpu === Okpu refers to traditional caps or helmets used by Igbo adult males of various statuses and ranks in the society for symbolic purposes. There are different kinds of Okpu worn by adult males in Igboland. The most prominent are feathered red cap known as ''okpu ozo'' and leopard cap known as ''Okpu agu''.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Oriji |first=John Nwachimereze |url=http://archive.org/details/ngwahistorystudy0055orij |title=Ngwa history : a study of social and economic changes in Igbo mini-states in time perspective |date=1991 |publisher=New York : P. Lang |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-8204-1411-9}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=M. Angulu Onwuejeogwu |url=http://archive.org/details/an-igbo-civilization-nri-kingdom-and-hegemony |title=An Igbo Civilization: Nri Kingdom and Hegemony |date=1980}}</ref> ==== Okpu ozo ==== [[File:Red Cap Chiefs at an Igbo Traditional Ceremony.jpg|alt=Ndi Nze na ozo you Okpu ozo ma jidekwa Akupe, ofo, na mkpara|thumb|Titled Igbo men known as Ndi Nze na ozo wearing their traditional regalia featuring Okpu ozo (red caps made of hide with eagle's feathers). Their attire also features other Igbo regalia insignia such as Akupe, ''ofo'', ''nza'', ''nkpara'']] Okpu ozo is described as the feathered red cap worn by titled men known as Ndi Nze na Ozo. As a paraphernalia of office, okpu is regarded as sacred thereby prohibiting ordinary people from touching them.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Oriji |first=J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WZliAQAAQBAJ |title=Political Organization in Nigeria since the Late Stone Age: A History of the Igbo People |date=2011-01-17 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-11668-9 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":10">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e-Y6dSeFt_sC |title=Ikenga |date=1980 |publisher=Institute of African Studies, University of Nigeria. |language=en}}</ref>It is a high-crowned red cap made of hide and usually encircled with eight eagle feather plumes called ''ugo''.This is particularly worn by the title holders called ''Nze''. It can also be modest or low-crowned without the feather decorations worn by the ''Ozo'' title holders.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ubani |first=Kenneth |date=2019 |title=Igbo Leadership Through the Visual Arts: Back to the Future |url= |journal=Canadian Social Science |volume=15 |issue=7}}</ref> It is also known as Okpu ''mmee mmee'' which literally translates to colour of the cap and okpu ''mmee'' which signifies true loyalty. Some Igbo regions also refer to it as ''okpu eze''. <ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Ifemesia |first=C. C. |url=http://archive.org/details/traditionalhuman00ifem |title=Traditional humane living among the Igbo : an historical perspecitve |date=1979 |publisher=Enugu, Nigeria : Fourth Dimension Publishers |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-978-156-062-0}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> Okpu ozo is regarded as an insignia that protects the wearer when he was away from his lineage or village as well as other travellers.<ref name=":4" /> The wearers are known as Ndi nze na ozo or red cap chiefs. To obtain the title, a candidate traditionally applied to the red cap chiefs, who supervised the initiation ceremony. During the capping ceremony, the initiate was presented with a red cap and feather as a symbol of his new status and a symbol of authority to enable him perform his duties. This capping stage is also known as ''ikube-okpu''. He also receives other insignia.<ref name=":14">{{Cite book |last=Umeasiegbu |first=Rems N. |title=The way we lived: Ibo customs and stories |date=1981 |publisher=Heinemann |isbn=978-0-435-90061-8 |edition=Repr |series=African writers series |location=London}}</ref> ==== Okpu agu ==== [[File:Igbo kwenu.jpg|alt=Nwoke yi ekike Okpu agu na agba egwu Ohafia|thumb|Ohafia war dance performer wearing Okpu agu]] [[File:Ohafia Igbo Dance Performance Chicago.jpg|alt=Ndi yi Okpu agu agba egwu Ohafia na Chicago|thumb|Ohafia Igbo dance performance in Chicago [[United States]] featuring the Okpu agu Igbo regalia]] Some descriptions of Igbo headdresses highlight that three kinds of helmets were worn: thick ones made of coco-yam stalks, or of the bark of the Achi tree, and fine looking but thin ones made of young palm leaves or raffia hats called ''okpu uturu.''<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Talbot |first=Percy Amaury |title=The People's of Southern Nigeria: A sketch of their History, Ethnology and Languages, with an abstract of 1921 Census. |publisher=Oxford University Press, H Milford. |year=1926 |location=London |publication-date=1926 |pages=413, 839}}</ref> Among these headgears was the okpu agu, a cap associated with Ohafia warrior traditions, known as the leopard cap of bravery. It is round slanting cap made of a knitted wool of black, white and red stripes with a pattern that resemble leopard markings from which the cap derives its name.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McCall |first=John C |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=204eAQAAMAAJ |title=The Ohafia War Dance as Lived Experience |publisher=University of Michigan |year=1992 |location=Ann Arbor, Michigan |pages=37}}</ref> The okpu agu was an important symbol of warrior achievement in Ohafia. According to historical accounts, the red colour of the cap was traditionally reserved for warriors who had taken heads in battle, or returned with the slain body of a strong animal like the leopard and the caps were dyed with the blood of war victims, while the black and white stripe evoked the leopard and it's qualities of strength, agility and martial prowess that were admired in accomplished warriors, as well as the leopard body movement that characterizes the Ohafia War Dance movement.<ref>{{Cite book |last=MacCall |first=John Christensen |title=Dancing histories: heuristic ethnography with the Ohafia Igbo |date=2000 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-11070-4 |location=Ann Arbor}}</ref> Okpu agu was manufactured locally by process of bending over, tying and sowing. It is also known as ''Okpu-Aji'' by Nkanu Igbo people and ''Okpu Ojji'' by Abajah and ''Okpu oggu'' (fighting war caps)<ref name=":5" /> == Module 3: Ceremonial Utensils, Insignia, and Fly-Whisks == === Akupe (hand fan) === [[File:Akupe handfan.webp|thumb|Igbo man carrying an Akupe with ofo symbol carved on it. The image also features him wearing ''Okpu'' ''Ozo'' and Isiagu flowing shirt and ''aka'' (coral beads) worn around his wrist.]] Akupe is a ceremonial traditional handfan of the Igbo people which forms part of the clothing ensemble of Igbo men and women. However, it isn't merely used as a [[fashion]] complement but functions as both a practical object and insignia or symbol of status within Igbo society. It is mainly made of raw leather but was also made of other materials like straw, palm products and copper historically. As a paraphernalia of office, it is mainly associated with the ''Nze na ozo'' title holders.<ref name=":15">{{Cite book |last=Uzochukwu |first=Sam |title=Traditional funeral poetry of the Igbo |date=2001 |publisher=Lagos University Press |isbn=978-978-017-624-2 |location=Lagos, Nigeria}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":8" /> The use of akupe as a ceremonial regalia in Igbo land dates back to Igbo-ukwu archeology where copper hand fan with a handle made of wooden shaft along with other status symbols were unearthed from a royal burial chamber of whom was described by Thurstan Shaw as a high ranking titled man or royalty. These excavations which included the fan was dated 9th century<ref name=":0" /> ==== Akupe as a ceremonial regalia and Fashion among the men ==== The Akupe serves as both a ceremonial insignia and an element of elite male in Igbo Society. It is part of the regalia of titled men like the Ozo title holders, chiefs. and elders. Typically carried at the hand, it complements other symbols of status such as the ''Okpu'', ''nkpara'', ''nza'' or ''odu enyi'' and the traditional flowing shirt known as Isiagu, <ref>{{Cite book |last=Omolade |first=Ajetunmobi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9GISAQAAIAAJ |title=Themes in Social Studies Education and Culture: A book of Readings |year=2000 |location=Nigeria |publication-date=2000 |pages=156-166}}</ref>Akwete or Akwa ocha.<ref name=":8" /> Although it is made of various materials, the titled men specifically use raw leather made handfans which is either called Akupe or ''agu''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ndimele |first=Ozo-mekuri |title=Four Decades in the Study of Languages and Linguistics in Nigeria: A Festschrift for Kay Williamson |year=2003 |publication-date=2003 |pages=435}}</ref> Other names generally used to refer to the ceremonial fan is ''nkuku'' and ''nzuzu'' especially among the ''Agbalanze'' titled group of Onitsha. The Akupe is designed and decorated in various ways but particularly in a thick and heavy pattern for the titled men. Their titles or names are written or carved at the surface of the handfans while their vehicle plate numbers are also designed as such for identification.<ref name=":1" /> The fan is not merely acquired by titled men but bestowed on them during the capping ceremony where candidates are installed as Nze no ozo title holders or red cap chiefs. The final stage of the ceremony involves handing the candidate the ''Okpu nze na ozo'' and the ''Ugo'' feather, a fan and a sword among other insignia.<ref name=":14" /> Akupe also serves as a ritual symbol in the Igbo mmanwu (masquerade) tradition, particularly in the cultural ceremony known as the [[Ijele Masquerade|Ijele]] dance where a significant personality among the dance group is known as Akupe carrier. While he is not a masquerade, he plays the prominent role of leading the ''Ijele'' with it's symbolic powerful Akupe. The disappearance of either the Akupe or it's bearer is believed to place the Ijele at risk. The Akupe bearer determines the movement of the Ijele, which moves or remains stationary according to the bearer's actions<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ikemerike |first=Ikechukwu John |last2=Efuruhievwe |first2=Margaret Akpevweogene |date=2023 |title=Globalization as a Threat to Cultural Identity: A Case Study of Igba Ijele Dance Group of Awkuzu, Anambra State |url=https://ssjhis.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/33.-Globalization-as-a-Threat-to-Cultural-Identity-A-Case-Study-of-Igba-Ijele-Dance-Group-of-Awkuzu-Anambra-State.pdf |journal=South-South Journal of Humanities and International Studies |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=475-496}}</ref> ==== Akupe as a ceremonial regalia and fashion among the women ==== [[File:Akupe- locally made hand fan.jpg|thumb|Akupe made of decorative woolen textiles often used by women including brides and maids of honour ]] In Igbo society, both large hand fans and artistic hand-held fans have traditionally formed part of women's ceremonial presentation, particularly during weddings, festivals or public celebrations. Historical accounts of Igbo marriage and courtship customs as early as 1921, describe Igbo brides and her maids of honour carrying large fans during the marriage ceremony, particularly the ''Nkpu'' rite to cool and keep the bride refreshed after dancing during the ceremony<ref name=":6" /> In Igbo dances and performance traditions, artistic hand-held fans are used for aesthetics and symbolic purposes where they form part of the ceremonial ensemble<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Obijiaku |first=Chidi |date=2023-02-27 |title=HYBRIDITY IN MODERN NIGERIAN MUSIC: THE CASE OF IGBO CHORAL ART MUSIC |url=https://journal.ru.ac.za/index.php/africanmusic/article/view/2456 |journal=African Music : Journal of the International Library of African Music |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=25–42 |doi=10.21504/amj.v11i4.2456 |issn=2524-2741}}</ref> === Fly-whisks (''Nza'', ''Odu ebule'') === [[File:Fly whisk (AM 2015.34.53-1).jpg|thumb|Fly-whisk (''Nza'' or ''Odu ebule'')]] Fly-whisks are known as ''Nza'' or ''odu ebule'' among the Igbo people. It is a traditional ceremonial accessory and symbol of distinction in Igbo society. It forms part of the regalia of titled men, chiefs, elders, and other person's of rank also integrated into the attire which includes the akupe, headgear, staff among others. Historical accounts of title taking ceremonies describe newly initiated titled men receiving ceremonial objects as part of their elevation into positions of honour and responsibility within the community such as the ''Ozo'' title.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":15" /> Archeological evidence from Igbo-ukwu, dating to about the 9th century, shows the antiquity flywhisks within Igbo ceremonial culture. The excavations that uncovered a royal burial furnished with elaborate regalia and the reconstructions of the chamber depicted the high ranking individual holding a ceremonial fly-whisk among other insignia of authority. These regalia have been interpreted in studies as markets of prestige, rank, leadership, royalty, and ritual symbolisms in early Igboland.<ref name=":0" /> Beyond functioning as an insignia among titled men, royalty and chiefs, fly-whisks and related descriptions of the regalia has been recorded as forming part of the attire of Igbo dancers and brides during festivities or ceremonies like dance performances and traditional marriage. According to Basden in 1921, ''Nkpu'' brides during their marriage ceremony carried cow's tail mounted on a leather handle, sometimes accompanied by small mirrors placed in specially carved hand held frames, including large fans which all formed part of their attire in the ceremony.<ref name=":6" /> ''Odu enyi'' is also used in artistic and performance traditions of the Igbi people like the ''nkpokiti'' dance. Studies of Igbo oral poetry includes the fly-whisks among the symbolic paraphernalia carried by performers as emblems of their artistry. The flywhisks were described as part of the ceremonial props employed in dances, processions, and choral performance where they serve both symbolic and aesthetic functions as they express the Igbo culture.<ref name=":15" /> == Module 4: Traditional Dress and Ensembles == === Igbo traditional dress and fashion === Igbo traditional dress and fashion for men typically comprise of loose cotton shirt or robe over an ankle-length wrapper, or loin cloths fashioned from various local Igbo fabrics like the Isiagu, Akwete or Akwaocha complemented with ''okpu'', ''akupe'', ''odu enyi'', ''mkpara'', ''ofo'' and adornments with ''aka'' (coral beads) worn around the neck and wrists. These regalia items proclaim status within the society. Royal robes, royal headdresses, silver sword were used to describe the attire of Igbo royalty like the Obi of Onitsha by Nzimiro and Henderson while the red cap chiefs dressed in their own special attire<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ebuziem |first=Cajetan E. |title=Doing Ministry in the Igbo Context: Towards an Emerging Model and Method for the Church in Africa- Foreword by Theophilus Okere |date=2011 |publisher=Peter Lang Inc., International Academic Publishers |isbn=978-1-4331-1154-9 |edition= |series=Bible and Theology in Africa |location=New York}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite book |last=Nnoromele |first=Salome |url=https://archive.org/details/lifeamongibowome0000nnor |title=Life among the Ibo women of Nigeria |publisher=Lucent books, San Diego |year=1998 |location=San Diego |publication-date=1998}}</ref><ref name=":8" /> <ref name=":16" /> Among the women, the typical tradition of dress consist of a pair of matching wrappers or double wrappers known as ''eregbor'' na ''ntukwasi'', a blouse called ''efe obi'' made of Akwete or George fabrics and Ichafu (also spelt Ichafo and Icafo). In ordinary circumstances according to M.M Green in 1947, the women wore short wrappers folded around the hips and reaching the knee with a headcloth while for ceremonial functions a blouse or tunic was worn together with the waist wrappers and festive headcloth <ref name=":21">{{Cite book |last=Lamb Holmes |first=Venice Judy |title=Nigerian Weaving |publisher=The Roxford Press |year=1981 |pages=247-280}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last=Kent |first=Kate P. |last2=Eicher |first2=Joanne Bubolz |last3=Dendel |first3=Esther Warner |date=1978 |title=Nigerian Handcrafted Textiles |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/3335408 |journal=African Arts |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=14 |doi=10.2307/3335408 |issn=0001-9933}}</ref><ref name=":20" /><ref name=":13" /><ref name=":17" /> Igbo women complement their dressing with ''aka'' (beads) and Jewellries especially for festivities or ceremonial occasions like traditional marriage known as ''Igba nkwu''.The beadded accessories include ''aka'' or ''nkalari'' (coral beads) worn around the neck and wrists and used as earrings, ''mgbaji'' (flat circular waist beads) worn around the waist, and ''ola'' (iron bangles) around the ankles.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":17" /> ==== Layered Identical Double Wrappers (''Eregbor na Ntukwasi''), Blouse (''Efe obi'') and Ichafu ==== Traditionally, Igbo women's textiles like Akwete of all category are woven in pairs of identical design as well as sold in pairs. These pairs are not sewn together but worn together. The two pairs of wrappers are known as ''eregbor na ntukwasi,'' made of multicolored geometric or floral design. The first wrapper is wrapped around the waist and extends down to the ankle. The second wrapper overlaps the first from the waist to the knees, giving the wrappers a layered look. The wrappers are paired with a blouse known as ''efe obi'' which s tucked inside. This combination of wrappers and blouse are paired with head ties described by Chimamanda Adichie as Ichafu. The textiles used are usually Akwete and George.<ref name=":20" /><ref name=":21" /><ref name=":22" /><ref name=":17" /> In recounting her past, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie describes how she had seen her mother dress up in her double wrappers, blouse and Ichafu.  {{Blockquote|text=She folded and twisted and pinned her Ichafu until it sat on her head like a large flower. She wrapped her George - heavy beaded cloth, alive with embroidery, always in bright shades of red or purple pink - around her waist in two layers, The first, the longer piece, hit her ankles, and the second formed an elegant tier just below her knees. Her sequinned blouse caught the light and glittered. Her shoes and handbag always matched|author=Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie|title=Style and Substance: Why What We Wear Matters}} This attire ensemble of layered double wrappers called ''eregbor na'' ''ntukwasi'' paired with a blouse and Ichafu (Ichafo) head tie is also complemented with jewelleries as described by Chimamanda and Uzo Aduba who had witnessed their mother and aunt dress up.<ref name=":17" /><ref name=":18" /> [[File:Igbo woman wearing Jooji obiakwa(double wrapper) with uweobi and Ichafu.jpg|left|thumb|A full clothing ensemble of the Igbo woman featuring ''Eregbor na ntukwasi'' (Layered identical George wrappers) paired with a puffed sleeved blouse ''(efe elu)'' and an Ichafu (Ichafo) headdress]] [[File:An igbo woman in Ichafu headdress.jpg|thumb|An Igbo woman wearing a fitted blouse (''efe obi'')]] == See also == * [[Igbo culture]] [[Category:Igbo culture]] [[Category:Material Culture]] [[Category:Learning Modules]] c2hldmrs8kkk7bez68w188pwx6ibmbn 0 331021 2841760 2836223 2026-10-20T21:05:41Z Jtneill 10242 Copyediting 2841760 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment:<br>How does it work and what are the effects?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|right|250x250px|'''Figure 1.''' Andriy moves through his 3MDR treatment.]] '''Scenario: Immersive PTSD therapies''' Andriy, a soldier, harnessed to a treadmill, walks towards an image he spent months avoiding, his clinical therapist beside him. This is multi-modular motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR) therapy, one of a new generation of immersive therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder. Learn about immersive therapy and Andriy’s* experience below (*Andriy: a fictional name). {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|Post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD) develops after severe or life-threatening trauma and carries a substantial personal and societal cost (Figure 2), with military personnel disproportionately represented (Boska et al., 2025). PTSD's emotional impact is shaped by [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotional dysregulation]], a difficulty in managing intense feelings such as guilt, fear or shame (Westphal et al., 2017). This commonly triggers [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and behavioural avoidance that offers short-term relief but prevents traumatic memory from being adaptively processed, trapping individuals in cycles of avoidance and chronic hyper-arousal (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersive interventions, including [[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|virtual reality exposure therapy]] (VRET) and 3MDR, aim to break this avoidance cycle by creating controlled environments in which trauma cues can be safely approached rather than avoided (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). This chapter explains the psychological theory behind these approaches, reviews the research evidence for their effects and considers their limitations. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions'''[[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]] * Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? * How can immersive therapies influence the emotional processes underlying PTSD? * What does the research evidence show? * What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? == [[File:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 2.''' The World Health Organisation (2024) estimated that [https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder 3.9% of the world's population had PTSD] at some stage.]] [[File:PTSD.png|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' PTSD can deeply affect our emotions.]] PTSD is formally diagnosed according to [[w:DSM-5|DSM-5]] criteria and is characterised by disrupted executive and emotional processing systems, heightened threat perception, hyper-vigilance and persistent negative emotional states as depicted in Figure 3 (Kukharuk et al., 2025; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022; Osman et al., 2016). Emotional processing theory {{f}} provides the primary framework for understanding this disruption, supported by emotion regulation theory and inhibitory learning models. === Understanding PTSD and emotions === Emotional processing theory suggests that recovery requires the trauma memory to be reactivated and updated with corrective information {{f}}. In PTSD, this process is blocked and to manage distress, many individuals adopt cognitive and behavioural avoidance mechanisms (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). Avoidance offers short-term relief, but prevents the traumatic memory from being reactivated, so it cannot be updated. Trauma reminders such as flashbacks continue to trigger extreme distress, trapping the individual in a maladaptive, self-reinforcing avoidance cycle (Figure 4) (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). At a neural level, Westphal et al. (2017) linked this to [[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|transdiagnostic]] [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]], in which the traumatic memory network remains isolated from the brain's [[w:Salience_network|salience]] and central executive networks. Effective treatment requires reactivating this network so the memory can be integrated (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Westphal et al., 2017). This is empirically supported: A 2025 study of Danish military veterans (''n''= 142) found that emotional regulation difficulties explained an additional 28% of the variance in PTSD symptoms; combined with [[w:Comorbidity|comorbid]] symptoms, these factors accounted for 52% of the variance in severity (Elklit & Dahl, 2025). === Why treatment can be difficult === [[File:Avoidance and Processing Cycles.png|450x450px|right|'''Figure 4'''. Avoidance cycles and the anticipated positive responses associated with immersive therapies. Based on Lopez-Ojeda et al. (2022), Felemban et al. (2026), and Vermetten et. al. (2025b).]] Trauma-focused psychotherapies such as [[w:Prolonged_exposure_therapy|prolonged exposure]] (PE) and [[w:Cognitive_processing_therapy|cognitive processing therapy]] (CPT) ask patients to actively engage with distressing memories to generate fear extinction {{ic|link to book chapter}}, precisely what avoidance prevents (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). Many patients cannot tolerate the emotional exposure these therapies require (Lopes et al., 2025; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Because the trigger is never confronted, the brain cannot experience a prediction error needed to learn the threat has passed, so symptoms persist (de Haart et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). This is reflected in outcomes where an estimated 39% of patients fail to respond to standard trauma-focused therapy, and dropout rates range from 16-48% (de Haart et al., 2026; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Among military veterans, younger patients show heightened severity when trauma is central to their identity, while others turn to poor diet or substance abuse, further eroding emotional regulation (Efremov, 2025; Niles et al., 2023). [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] was historically viewed as a fixed barrier requiring lengthy stabilisation before treatment could begin (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). More recent evidence suggests otherwise; although emotional regulation contributes to PTSD symptoms, it is also being increasingly viewed as a modifiable process with dynamic capacity, one able to improve as a natural consequence of successful memory processing (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). This reframes the clinical challenge as helping an individual safely approach and process the traumatic memory, not correcting a fixed deficit. [[File:UC PhD VR study.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' PhD work by Selvakumaran (2025) examining cultural adaptation using the US-''Bravemind'' system.]] Cultural context adds another layer of difficulty. Doctoral research at the [[University of Canberra]] is integrating exposure therapy with gamified, posture-adaptive cognitive rehabilitation to support physical and emotional recovery (Figure 5). Selvakumaran (2025) is examining how existing protocols such as used in the US-centric ''[https://medvr.ict.usc.edu/projects/bravemind.html Bravemind]'' system need cultural adaptation for Australian veterans and first responders, because their operational context and backgrounds differ from their US counterparts (Selvakumaran, 2025). These treatment gaps carry a substantial economic and personal cost, part of the motivation for developing alternatives such as immersive therapies. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[Image:Crystal Clear app help index.svg|left|50px]] ;Predict the outcome A soldier with PTSD encounters a trauma-related image expecting: '''TRAUMA CUE → DANGER → DISTRESS → AVOID''' However, during immersive treatment, the expected danger does not occur. What is the most likely consequence?<quiz display=simple> { |type="()"} - Fear increases permanently. - Memory cannot change. + Prediction error creates opportunities for new learning. - Emotional processing stops.  } </quiz> <div style="text-align:right; color:red; font-weight:bold;"> Click "show" below to understand more⤵ </div> {{Hidden begin|title=Please consider the answer before opening this section}}The answer is '''C'''. <div style="text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;"> Mismatches between expected and actual danger create a '''prediction error'''. This may contribute to fear extinction, emotion regulation, and memory reconsolidation. '''Think about it:''' If approaching rather than avoiding trauma can create new learning, what role might emotion regulation, fear extinction, prediction error and memory reconsolidation play? </div> {{Hidden end}} <div style="text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;"> </div> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == How can immersive therapies influence emotional processes? == Immersive PTSD treatments mark a shift from passive, sedentary therapy towards active, embodied, interactive approaches (van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersive therapy uses three psychological mechanisms and their interaction: multisensory presence, embodied cognition, and divergent thinking (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Embodied cognition is how physical states of the body can directly modify states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersion therapy goes beyond simple visual replication of a trauma memory; instead, it captures the participant’s visceral and cognitive focus by limiting distractions (Macey et al., 2026). === What is immersive therapy? === [[w:Immersion_therapy|Immersive therapies]] use [[w:Extended_reality|extended reality]] (XR) platforms, encompassing [[virtual reality]] (VR), [[Augmented Reality|augmented reality]] (AR), and [[w:Mixed_reality_game|mixed reality]] (MR), to create customisable, controlled, and standardised therapeutic environments (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). This ecosystem is depicted in Figure 6. This chapter focuses on two applications: * VRET where therapists reconstruct traumatic scenarios in safe, graded environments, and * 3MDR, which extends this by having the patient move on a treadmill beside their therapist, rather than in a stationary, face-to-face session (de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026). [[File:XR and Human Senses.png|thumb|'''Figure 6.''' The Extended Reality environment. |center|750x750px]] === Presence and embodied cognition === Immersive therapy’s distinguishing feature is its ability to generate presence, or the psychological illusion of being ‘''there’''. The illusion is amplified by integrating synchronised audio, visual, [[w:Olfactory|olfactory]], [[wikipedia:Haptic_perception|haptic]], and movement stimuli (Lopes et al., 2025; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). This increases engagement with the trauma memory and supports emotional processing (van Gelderen et al., 2018). In 3MDR, presence combines with cognition. The working principle is that physical states of the body can directly shape states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). Walking towards a virtual trauma reminder functions as a fear antagonistic action and rather than retreating in avoidance, the patient approaches, converting passive helplessness into active, empowered participation and disrupting the rigid and repetitive trauma narratives common in PTSD (de Haart et al., 2026; Osman et al., 2016; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Notably, extinction learning normally requires moderate-to-high-intensity activity to stimulate [[w:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|brain-derived neurotrophic factor]] (BDNF), but 3MDR's walking pace (< 4 km/h) is too slow to generate meaningful BDNF secretion, making a major exercise-induced BDNF mechanism unlikely, although physiological factors cannot be ruled out. The approach action and the cognitive restructuring it enables may be more important psychological drivers (de Haart et al., 2026). === Prediction error and inhibitory learning === Immersive therapy builds on the inhibitory learning model of exposure therapy, in which a new, safe association competes with and suppresses the original fear response {{f}}. Walking towards a trauma cue and encountering safety instead of the expected catastrophe creates a prediction error between the anticipated, life-threatening event and actual reality. This may destabilise the traumatic memory, potentially creating conditions for memory reconsolidation to occur (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). === Memory reconsolidation === According to [[w:Memory_consolidation|memory reconsolidation]] theory, traumatic memories retrieved in a safe immersive context can become [[w:Malleability_of_intelligence|malleable]], allowing new, safe information to reconsolidate the memory in a non-threatening form (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). To prevent the patient from becoming overwhelmed, 3MDR uses dual-attention tasks such as tracking an oscillating ball (Figure 1), which tax working memory resources and reduce the vividness and emotional intensity of the memory (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Emerging linguistic research suggests this processing is reflected in patients' language. Across successive 3MDR sessions, [[w:Affect_labeling|affective labelling]] of feelings such as guilt shifted from past-tense to present-tense narration, consistent with a renewed ability to integrate traumatic memories into present-moment awareness (Vermetten, Barcaro, et al., 2025a). == What does the research evidence show? == Addressing these barriers is important for any PTSD population, but especially critical for military populations with high treatment failure and dropout rates (van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersive therapies, as outlined in Table 1, can tailor patient-selected trauma cues to improve access to traumatic memory networks (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). === Virtual reality exposure therapy === [[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|VRET]] reconstructs traumatic events in a structured context (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). This may help bypass imagination challenges such as emotional numbing or amnesia that can prevent patients from engaging with traditional therapy (Macey et al., 2026). A meta-analysis of {{ic|how many?}} VRET for PTSD studies found substantial symptom reductions, averaging a 33.73-point decrease in the 0-80 point [[w:Clinician_Administered_PTSD_Scale|Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale]] and a 20.96-point decrease in the 0-80 point [https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/adult-sr/ptsd-checklist.asp PTSD Checklist PCL-5) scale] (Felemban et al., 2026). Because changes of 10-20 points on these scales are considered clinically significant, this could mean the difference between severe functional impairment and mild or subclinical symptoms (Boska et al., 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026). Comparative effects against other active PTSD treatments remain modest, but VRET appears to be a more engaging alternative to conventional treatment (Felemban et al., 2026). === 3MDR === 3MDR takes the same multisensory effect in VRET and adds an activating context. Rather than a sedentary, face-to-face session, the patient and the therapist face the virtual display together (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). It follows a three-phase protocol: pre-platform preparation, platform treadmill exposure, and post-platform re-consolidation (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). In a trial involving treatment-resistant PTSD; 3MDR showed large effect sizes from pre-treatment to six-months (''n'' = 134, ''d'' = 1.0) and high-acceptability, with 7-20% dropout rates (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Substantially lower than the 16-48% typical trauma-focused therapy in military populations (Lewis et al., 2020) {{g}}. Improvements are not limited to PTSD symptoms. A trial of 62 adults with severe PTSD, including childhood sexual trauma, found intensive trauma-focused treatment improved emotion-regulation abilities regardless of PTSD outcome (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). Some researchers link this improvement to positive psychology [[w:Broaden-and-build|broaden-and-build theory]], theorising that as patients regain a sense of safety and control, this may support a positive spiral of emotional flexibility that reinforces recovery (Fredrickson, 2001; Niles et al., 2023; Westphal et al., 2017). Critically, the exact causation remains unknown. Given the recent innovations in immersive therapies and small study samples, it remains unclear whether they work through exposure-based extinction, enhanced emotional engagement, physiological factors, embodiment, or positive cognitive restructuring. These questions are relevant to both basic and applied research and have not yet been adequately addressed by current trial designs. '''Table 1''' ''Treatment Effects and Psychological Mechanisms'' {{f}} {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible" | valign="top" |'''Clinical Dimension''' | valign="top" |'''Traditional''' | valign="top" |'''Immersive''' | valign="top" |'''Psychological Mechanisms''' |- | valign="top" |'''Context''' | valign="top" |'''''Sedentary'''''. Face-to-face, verbally describes trauma. | valign="top" |'''''Activating.''''' Dynamic, multi-sensory environment. | valign="top" |'''''Fear Antagonistic Action.''''' '''''Approach behaviours''''' '''''Prediction Errors''''' |- | valign="top" |'''Trauma cue delivery''' | valign="top" |'''''Imaginary Retrieval''''' Patient capacity | valign="top" |'''''Multisensory Immersion''''' Highly tailored | valign="top" |'''''External Scaffolding.''''' Bypasses internal barriers to activate memory networks. |- | valign="top" |'''Processing''' | valign="top" |'''''Convergent processing.''''' Repeated narration and fear habituation. | valign="top" |'''''Active Narrative Processing.''''' Interactive, real-time affective labelling and dual-attention tasks. | valign="top" |'''''Working Memory.''''' Memory taxation reduces vividness and emotional intensity. |- | valign="top" |'''Engagement''' | valign="top" |'''''Attrition.''''' Dropout rates 16-48%. | valign="top" |'''''Acceptability.''''' Attractive. Dropout rates 7-20%. | valign="top" |'''''Sustained Motivation.''''' Presence and safety in immersive environment. |} === Applied example: 3MDR treatment in Ukraine === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Scenario: Ukraine War: an applied 3MDR example''' Andriy*, a Ukrainian Armed Forces volunteer, is struggling with hyper-vigilance, anxiety, and depression (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Traditional ‘talk’ therapy feels impossible; his mind remains in a constant state of combat readiness, even in quiet rooms. In the pre-platform phase, Andriy identifies ‘hotspot’ memories in photographs. On the treadmill, harnessed and walking, he faces a panoramic screen as personalised warm-up music plays, selected to keep him connected to his traumatic memory network (Vermetten et al., 2025b). As his hotspot image fills the screen, his therapist asks three questions (Vermetten et al., 2025b): 1. What do you '''SEE''' ? 2. What does it '''TELL''' you? 3. What do you '''FEEL''' in your body NOW? When Andriy identifies a surge of shame, the word '''GUILT''' is displayed as an affective label {{ic|why not show '''SHAME'''?}}, and a dual-attention task begins. He tracks an oscillating, numbered ball while he stays with the emotion, taxing his working memory and reducing the intensity of the recalled trauma. [[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px|'''Figure 7.''' Andriy's 3MDR treatment.]] By the end of the session, Andriy had walked toward what he used to avoid, creating a mismatch between his expectation of threat and his safety and turning a rigid, stuck memory into a manageable narrative. *''Andriy, a fictional name given to one of 69 Ukrainian veterans, participating in a 2023 randomised controlled trial. Many demobilised after one year because of mental or neurological injuries'' (Kukharuk et al., 2025). {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies? == PTSD carries a substantial economic burden. PTSD was associated with an estimated US$232 billion in excess costs in the United States in 2018 and over £40 billion in the United Kingdom in 2020-21, 92% of which were indirect rather than direct clinical costs (Davis et al., 2022; Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025). In Australia, the annual cost of PTSD per military veteran was estimated at $112,172 in 2025 (Magnusson & Dey, 2025). In addition, individual healthcare costs surge by 142% in the year following a PTSD diagnosis, with comorbidities tripling this effect (Bothe et al., 2020). These figures span several countries and years and should be read as an indication of scale rather than as directly comparable totals. Immersive therapy’s ability to move from small trials into mainstream PTSD treatment remains limited by methodological [[w:Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity|heterogeneity]], small sample sizes, and a lack of long-term data (Felemban et al., 2026). Many trials rely on military-heavy, treatment-resistant samples with few active comparison conditions, which limits the generalisation of findings to civilian or initial treatment populations. Practical issues such as [[w:Virtual_reality_sickness|cyber sickness]] or motion sickness can disrupt participation (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Structural barriers include workforce training and equipment costs. Basic VR systems cost around US$3,500 per provider headset annually, with advanced simulation environments costing up to US$200,000 (Garrett et al., 2018). Despite this, adoption of immersive therapy is scaling. The [[w:United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs|United States Veterans Affairs]] have expanded VR use from five medical centres in 2017 to over 154 centres and 2,300 staff, with applications now including over 40 documented clinical interventions such as chronic pain and suicide intervention (Bailey et al., 2024). Reflecting this potential growth trend, some market analysts estimate the global PTSD-focused VR therapy market was worth US$1.59 billion in 2025, forecasted to reach US$5.94 billion by 2032, driven largely by growing mental health awareness and the absence of standard clinical protocols (Stratistics MRC, 2025, an industry market report). These limitations do not undermine the case for immersive therapy, but they show its evidence base and infrastructure are still maturing. Demonstrating rigorously how these therapies work, rather than assuming their novelty accounts for their effects is essential to avoid misallocating resources to unproven interventions and may support an emerging shift towards greater emphasis on post-traumatic growth and renewed optimism (Trejo et al., 2015; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). {{Robelbox|theme=2|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Which of the following is an expected outcome of immersive therapy? |type="()"} - Patients are at risk because of an uncontrolled environment. - The environments represent traditional face-to-face treatments. - Failure and dropout rates are higher than traditional PTSD treatment. + Patients often broaden and build an upward spiral of emotion and optimism. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Conclusion == PTSD traps people in a [[#Understanding PTSD and emotions|self-reinforcing cycle of avoidance]] that blocks the adaptive processing necessary for traumatic memories to be resolved. Standard trauma-focused therapies require patients to confront exactly what this cycle causes them to avoid, which contributes to [[#Why treatment can be difficult|high non-response and dropout rates]]. Immersive therapies such as VRET and 3MDR address this by using presence, embodied cognition, prediction error and memory reconsolidation to help patients safely approach trauma cues rather than avoid them]]. The technology itself is only a delivery mechanism that enables the processes; the positive benefits appear to arise from the psychological mechanisms that immersive therapies facilitate, rather than the novelty of technology alone. The [[#What does the research evidence show?|evidence to date]] shows meaningful reductions in PTSD symptoms and comparatively low drop-out rates, alongside broader gains in emotional regulation. However, small samples, methodological variation, and a lack of long-term data mean the evidence base is still developing, and [[#What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies?|cost and infrastructure barriers remain significant]]. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home message:''' Immersive therapies do not heal PTSD trauma through technological novelty or digital feedback. Instead, they create a safe, dynamic space that lets individuals confront trauma and reprocess memories into something they can live with. In doing so, people’s lives may once again shift toward value, optimism, and wellness. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == '''Sub-pages''' * [[/Non-invasive brain stimulation techniques/|Non-invasive brain stimulation techniques and PTSD]] '''Wikiversity''' * [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Anxiety|Anxiety]] (Book chapter, 2010) * [[Evidence-based assessment/Posttraumatic stress disorder (disorder portfolio)|Evidence-based PTSD assessment]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Sense hacking|Sense hacking]] (Book chapter, 2024) '''Wikipedia''' * [[w:Affect_labeling|Affective labelling]] * [[Augmented Reality|Augmented reality]] * [[w:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|Brain-derived neurotrophic factor]] * [[w:Broaden-and-build|Broaden-and-build theory]] * [[w:Cognitive_processing_therapy|Cognitive processing therapy]] * [[w:Virtual_reality_sickness|Cyber sickness]] * [[w:DSM-5|DSM-5]] * [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] * [[w:Extended_reality|Extended reality]] * [[w:Malleability_of_intelligence|Malleability of intelligence]] * [[w:Memory_consolidation|Memory reconsolidation]] * [[w:Mixed_reality_game|Mixed reality]] * [[w:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|Post-traumatic stress disorder]] * [[w:Prolonged_exposure_therapy|Prolonged exposure therapy]] * [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual reality exposure therapy]] == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Bailey, A. L., Kirsh, S., Rawlins, C., Persky, S., & Clancy, C. (2024). Early scaling of immersive technology within the Veterans Health Administration. ''NEJM Catalyst Innovations in Care Delivery'', 5(4). https://doi.org/10.1056/cat.23.0356 Boska, R. L., Bishop, T. M., Capron, D. W., Paxton Willing, M. M., & Ashrafioun, L. (2025). Difficulties with emotion regulation within PTSD clusters and moral injury subtypes. ''Military Psychology'', 37(2), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2024.2322904 de Haart, R., Daniels, J. K., Timmerman, M. E., Cath, D. C., & Lommen, M. J. J. (2026). Augmenting virtual reality exposure for PTSD with physical activity: Study protocol of a randomised controlled trial. ''European'' ''Journal of Psychotraumatology'', 17(1), 2605803. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2605803 Efremov, A. (2025). Age-specific mental health profiles of combat veterans: Post-traumatic stress disorder and related disorders. ''Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy'', 44(4), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-025-00637-7 Elklit, A., & Dahl, N. H. (2025). Emotion regulation difficulties, aggression, and PTSD symptoms in Danish treatment-seeking veterans. ''Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies'', 8(1), 308-326. https://doi.org/10.31374/sjms.264 Felemban, R. G., Alzahrani, R. R., Alrefaei, N. F., Alharbi, N. M., Alghamdi, A. S., & Alqadi, S. (2026). Efficacy of virtual reality-based exposure therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder in military veterans: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Frontiers in Psychiatry'', 17, 1857109. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1857109 Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. ''American Psychologist'', 56(3), 218-226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218 Garrett, B., Taverner, T., Gromala, D., Tao, G., Cordingley, E., & Sun, C. (2018). Virtual reality clinical research: Promises and challenges. ''JMIR Serious Games'', 6(4), e10839. https://doi.org/10.2196/10839 Kukharuk, O., Tkalich, K., Kamash, N., & Georgiou, O. (2025). Effectiveness of immersive VR therapy in reducing stress-associated symptoms in Ukraine. ''European Journal of Psychotraumatology'', 16(1), 2488097. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2488097 Lewis, C., Roberts, N. P., Andrew, M., Starling, E., & Bisson, J. I. (2020). Psychological therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: Systematic review and meta-analysis. ''European Journal of Psychotraumatology'', 11(1), 1729633. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1729633 Lopes, M. K. S., Perreault, L., de Jesus, B. Jr., Roberge, M. C., & Falk, T. H. (2025). Subjective and objective evaluation of the benefits of multisensory virtual nature immersion for patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. In ''Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience'' (QoMEX) (pp.1-5). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/QoMEX65720.2025.11219945 López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. (2022). Extended reality technologies: Expanding therapeutic approaches for PTSD. ''The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences'', 34(1), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21100244 Macey, A.-L., Macey, J., & Hamari, J. (2026). Emotion regulation in immersive virtual reality environments: A scoping review. ''Interacting with Computers'', 29, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1093/iwc/iwag029 Niles, B., Lang, A., & Olff, M. (2023). Complementary and integrative interventions for PTSD. ''European Journal of Psychotraumatology'', 14(2), 2247888. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2023.2247888 Osman, A., Paczynski, M., & Jha, A. P. (2016). Affective expectations influence neural responses to stressful images in soldiers. ''Military Psychology'', 29(1), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000128 Selvakumaran, R. V. (2025). Developing virtual reality (VR) simulations with embedded user analytics for cognitive rehabilitation in PTSD veterans. In ''Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Multimodal Interaction'' (pp. 740-744). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3716553.3750826 Trejo, B. C., Richard, E. M., van Driel, M., & McDonald, D. P. (2015). Cross-cultural competence: The role of emotion regulation ability and optimism. ''Military Psychology'', 27(5), 276-286. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000081 van Gelderen, M. J., Nijdam, M. J., & Vermetten, E. (2018). An innovative framework for delivering psychotherapy to patients with treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: Rationale for interactive motion-assisted therapy. ''Frontiers in Psychiatry'', 9, 176. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00176 van Toorenburg, M. M., Sanches, S. A., Linders, B., Rozendaal, L., Voorendonk, E. M., Van Minnen, A., & De Jongh, A. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties affect outcome of intensive trauma-focused treatment of patients with severe PTSD? ''European Journal of Psychotraumatology'', 11(1), 1724417. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1724417 Vermetten, E., Barcaro, S., Espejo, E., Bellini, P., Roy, M. J., & Bremault-Phillips, S. (2025a). Linguistic analysis of patients’ labels during 3MDR psychotherapy. ''Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology'', 35(Suppl. 1), S29. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241024 Vermetten, E., Burback, L., Sevigny, P. R., Nijdam, M. J., Winkler, O., Espejo, E., Sessoms, P., Bright, K., Roy, M. J., & Brémault-Phillips, S. (2025b). Brief manual for multi-modal motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. ''Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology'', 35(Suppl. 1), S122. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241028 Westphal, M., Aldao, A., & Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. ''Military Psychology'', 29(3), 216-233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157 Wiederhold, B. K., & Wiederhold, M. D. (2025). Virtual reality therapy combined with physiological monitoring provides effective treatment, with objective metrics, for post-traumatic stress disorder. ''Expert Review of Medical Devices'', 22(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2025.2454930 }} == External links == * '''Web:''' [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd Post traumatic stress disorder] (Australian Government) * '''Web:''' [https://www.ptsd.va.gov/index.asp National Center for PTSD information home page] (US Government) * '''Web:''' [https://www.innovation.va.gov/hil/views/immersive/immersive-programs.html US Veterans Affairs Immersive Programs Innov][https://www.innovation.va.gov/hil/views/immersive/immersive-programs.html ation] (US Government) * '''Web:''' [https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report Australian Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide - Final Report] [https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report](Australian Government) * '''Web:''' [https://www.strategymrc.com/report/virtual-reality-therapy-for-ptsd-market Virtual reality therapy for PTSD market forecasts to 2032:] (Stratistics MRC, a 2025 industry market report). * '''Podcast:''' [https://shows.acast.com/5c3353e484e2e79370e1d135/5c3353ef84e2e79370e1d13c PTSD Podcast] (Peace of Mind: Mental Health and Psychiatry, ACAST, 43 min) * '''Video:''' [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD43R_oa6qo 3MDR: Virtual reality treatment for veterans] (National Centre for Mental Health,Youtube, 2:46 min) * '''Video:''' [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jL2bKmniMTc VR exposure for combat PTSD] (PsyTech VR, Youtube, 2:20 min) * '''Final Report:''' [https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf 3MDR randomised control trial - Final-Report] (Cardiff University) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]] dr9v8592sanqwosy60x8j0zupm6ohbn 0 331068 2841820 2838246 2026-10-21T07:41:21Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 2841820 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Envy in the workplace:<br>What role does envy play in workplace behaviour?}} __TOC__ === [[wikipedia:Emotion|Overview]] === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} [[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]] ;Case study Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a complex yet common [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotion]]. In the workplace, it arises when employees compare themselves to others who have more opportunities, recognition or support than they do (Duffy et al, 2021; Li et al, 2021). Often viewed as [[wikipedia:Negative|negative]], workplace envy is not always harmful (Duffy et al, 2021). Research shows that workplace envy shapes how people interpret their status within a team environment (Crusius et al, 2021). Workplace envy matters because it affects cooperation, communication, responses to perceived fairness, and the willingness to help or share information (Dong et al, 2026; Su & Chen, 2023). It is important to understand how envy operates in the workplace, and how it's different forms can lead to distinct emotional and behavioural outcomes. Research shows that different forms of envy shape employees' motivation, which influences whether they strive to improve their performance or engage in behaviours that undermine others (Duffy et al, 2021). Over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the [[wikipedia:Phenomenon|phenomenon]] of workplace envy (Duffy et al, 2021). While every workplace is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, it is important to consider the environmental influences and timing when looking at workplace envy, due to this area of research constantly [[wiktionary:evolving|evolving]] (Liu et al, 2021). This book chapter describes workplace envy, details the different types of workplace envy, discusses its link and relationship to [[wikipedia:Motivation|motivation]], [[wikipedia:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]] and [[wikipedia:Social_comparison_theory|social comparison theory]] and outlines the role it plays in [[wikipedia:Work_behavior|workplace behaviour]]. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the role of envy in the workplace? * What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? * What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation? * What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy? * What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Role of envy in the workplace == Envy plays an important role in shaping how employees think, feel and behave at work. When people compare themselves to others, envy can influence motivation, teamwork, communication and workplace culture. Research shows that envy can encourage some employees to work harder, improve skills or seek new opportunities for growth (Crusius et al, 2021). At the same time, envy may lead to behaviours such as hiding information, reducing support or becoming less willing to collaborate, which can affect team functioning and productivity (Duffy et al, 2021). These patterns highlight that workplace envy can shape both [[wikipedia:Positive_psychology|positive]] and [[wikipedia:Negative_affectivity|negative]] behaviours, depending on how employees respond to differences in success or recognition (Li et al, 2021). Envy can also be shaped through guidance and leadership and used as a workplace 'tool' to drive behaviour (Liu et al, 2021). However, it can also lead to people copying or supporting a boss's negative behaviour which may cause others to feel excluded or overlooked. It can further reduce people's willingness to share ideas or contribute to innovation, limiting creativity within the team (Walter et al, 2022). '''Influence of leadership''' Leadership plays an important role in reducing the negative effects of envy at work. When leaders communicate clearly, treat people fairly and recognise people's efforts, envy is less likely to grow into harmful behaviour (Liu et al, 2021). Supportive leadership also helps people feel valued, which makes them more willing to share ideas and work together. Research shows that when leaders create a trusting and respectful environment, employees are less likely to compare themselves negatively to others or feel left out (Walter et al, 2022). Good leadership acts a buffer, helps teams stay focused, motivated and cooperative even when differences in success or recognition exist (Li et al, 2022). Leadership plays a central role in shaping workplace envy as they hold the power to influence promotions, rewards and opportunities (Liu et al, 2021). Emotionally intelligent leaders can use feedback, fair decision-making and supportive relationships to turn negative envy into a more positive, motivational behaviour. Leaders who fail to manage fairness, feedback and team dynamics, can unintentionally increase harmful envy and reduce motivation (Liu et al, 2022). == Benign versus malicious envy == Workplace envy has two faces and can present as either [https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benign benign] or [[wikipedia:Spite_(sentiment)|malicious]] (Yang & Tang, 2021). Even though they both start with the same feeling of [[wiktionary:inferior#English|inferiority]], they can trigger different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Distinguishing between benign and malicious envy is important because they can lead to very different behaviours (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow, while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aim to bring a person down (see Table 1). The workplace culture is said to influence whether benign or malicious envy appears, supportive environments encourage benign envy while competitive environments increase malicious envy (Su & Chen, 2023). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario''' Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out.[[File:MAD MEN Masterclass with André and Maria Jacquemetton (7210958522).jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can quickly escalate in the workplace]] Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly (see Figure 2). In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful. This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and pull him down. {{RoundBoxBottom}}Envy can influence many workplace behaviours and these effects often depend on whether envy becomes constructive or destruction. Some types of malicious behaviour are: '''Social undermining''' [[wikipedia:Social_undermining|Social undermining]] is a type of malicious envy. Social undermining can make people dwell on relationship problems because it increases the feeling of being envied by others (Song & Zhao, 2022). When employees sense envy in the workplace, they may feel stressed, or worried about how others see them. These emotions drain their energy, harm their performance and make them think more ([[wikipedia:Ruminant|ruminate]]) about interpersonal relationships (Song & Zhao, 2022). By understanding how social undermining leads to feelings of being envied, it helps explain why these experiences can damage both workplace outcomes and wellbeing. ==== Knowledge hiding ==== Malicious envy often drives knowledge hiding which is a protective behaviour (Su & Chen, 2023). It can emerge when people feel threatened, insecure or resentful. In a competitive work environment, hiding knowledge provides a person with power as an advantage over the envied person. This type of behaviour is motivated by a desire to maintain status or to avoid losing credibility in the workplace (Su & Chen, 2023). The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace. '''Table 1.''' Malicious versus benign envy {| class="wikitable" ! ! Benign envy ! Malicious envy |- | Definition | Envy that motivates self‑improvement. | Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements. |- | Emotional response | Encourages growth, motivation and learning. | Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority. |- | Typical behaviours | Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities. | Exclusion, gossip, criticism, knowledge hiding or subtle sabotage. |- | Impact on workplace culture | Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development. | Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture. |- | Outcome | Positive: supports improvement and collaboration. | Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning. |} '''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour? |type="()"} + True - False {Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour? |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Relationship between envy and motivation? == Workplace envy shapes motivation in positive and negative ways (see Figure 3). Instead of motivating improvement, envy can move towards an unethical or toxic behaviour to close the [[wikipedia:Status_attainment|status]] gap between the envied person and the envier (Nakai & Numazaki, 2026}. In most workplaces, envy affects human relationships by generating competition between colleagues (Gonzalez-Navarro et al, 2018). Workplace envy interacts closely with motivation, pushing employees either towards constructive self-improvement or towards harmful, staus-protecting behaviour. ==== Benign envy and motivation ==== Benign envy can motivate people to improve themselves and move closer to the success they see in others. This motivational push comes from a negative feeling aimed at the self that highlights one's lower standing (Nakai & Numazaki, 2026), This discomfort activates moving-up motivation, encouraging people to set more challenging goals and strive towards the achievements of the person they envy. Nakai & Numazaki (2026) reinforced that self-focused negativity is what transforms benign envy into constructive upward-driving motivation, that helps people achieve success.[[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Envy can motivate positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.|220x220px]] ==== Malicious envy and motivation ==== Malicious envy can reduce motivation and lead to harmful behaviour. Instead of focusing on self-improvement, a person will undermine the person they envy or boost themselves up by creating dysfunctional patterns that affect motivation and workplace relationships (Lange et al, 2018). When someone feels malicious envy, they experience resentment towards the other person that negativity creates pulling-down motivation which can cause harm or reduce the other person's status (Nakai & Numazaki, 2026). Lange et al (2018) linked benign and malicious envy to dark personality traits. However, there is a lack of understanding as to the influence of envy on workplace behaviours (Dong et al, 2025). ==== Loss of motivation due to being envied ==== People who feel they are being envied in the workplace often experience emotions of anger, guilt or anxiety (Koksalet et al, 2026). These feelings can affect their overall motivation and they may appear to hide or lay low around the workplace. This can lead to reduced motivation or effort as they try to avoid negative attention (Koksalet et al, 2026). This drop in motivation is a coping strategy to avoid being targeted in the workplace. '''Table 2.''' The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model showing the relationship between envy and motivation: {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Motivation to improve (benign envy) | Blind spot: Fear based motivation noticed by others but not yourself (applies to malicious envy) |- | '''Not known to others''' || Fear of failure (malicious envy) | Hidden motivation (benign envy) |} == Relationship between envy and by self-efficacy? == Self-efficacy acts as a psychological filter that determines whether envy becomes productive or destructive. It shapes how employees interpret comparisons and whether they believe they can respond effectively. There are two types of self-efficacy: ==== High self-efficacy ==== Aydin & Bozkurt (2022) found that people with high self-efficacy are less likely to let envy push them towards quitting or leaving their job. Instead, they are more likely to use envy as motivation to improve or develop their skills. If an employee has high self-efficacy, they will cope better with workplace envy (see Figure 4). They compare themselves upwards and are more motivated to be like the person they are envious of. Research shows that when people feel confident in their abilities, upward comparisons are more likely to lead to benign envy (Li & Wang, 2023). [[File:Self and environment.png|thumb|'''Figure 4'''. Self-efficacy can be high or low. ]] Self-efficacy also affects how people interpret others' success. People with higher self-efficacy are more likely to see others' achievements as far more reachable for them, which increases benign envy (Lange et al, 2018). It is thought that having strong emotional regulation skills contributes to managing envy in competitive workplaces (Nakai & Numazaki, 2021). These studies suggest that when people feel capable, they are less likely to fall into malicious envy. However, most of this research relies on self-report surveys which may not capture real behaviours due to bias. Self-efficacy is also thought to protect people from the negative effects of workplace stress. However, when people have high self-efficacy, they are less likely to feel powerless in the first place. Competitive workplaces increase malicious envy, but strong self-efficacy helps people cope better with competition (Su & Chen, 2023). These findings show that self-efficacy can act as a protective barrier (Polat et al, 2024), reducing the harm envy can cause in stressful working environments. ==== Low self-efficacy ==== Low self-efficacy influences envy in the workplace due to people feeling they cannot close the gap between themselves and others (Erdil & Muceldili, 2014). Knowledge hiding and reduced engagement often stems from insecurity and low confidence levels (Su & Chen, 2023). Low self-efficacy is also thought to be responsible for disruptions in communication (Wilkes, 2023). Most research to date has focused on the influence of high self-efficacy or self-efficacy overall, rather than low self-efficacy. ==== Self-efficacy across cultural and workplace settings ==== Research across workplace envy and self-efficacy has shown consistent patterns across roles and cultures. Aydin & Bozkurt (2022) examined air traffic controllers, a profession known for its high pressure and constant performance monitoring and found that employees with low self-efficacy were more vulnerable to harmful envy outcomes, including withdrawal and intention to quit. Polat et al (2024) studied nurses working in emotionally and physically demanding healthcare settings. They reported that higher self-efficacy supported benign envy, helping employees respond to social comparison with motivation as opposed to resentment. Aydin & Bozkurt (2022) examined Spanish workplace samples noting similar trends, where self-efficacy shaped whether envy became constructive or harmful. Together, these examples show that within different occupational and cultural contexts, self-efficacy influences how employees interpret comparison and cope with envy. However, they do not test self-efficacy as a moderator or mediator. Therefore, future research could directly measure self-efficacy and its influence on behaviours becoming motivating or destructive. '''Table 3.''' Self-efficacy and envy (based on Polat et al, 2024). {| class="wikitable" |+ ! Dimension ! High self‑efficacy ! Low self‑efficacy |- | Likely envy type | Increases benign envy | Increases malicious envy |- | Emotional pattern | Confidence, motivation, willingness to improve | Insecurity, resentment, threat sensitivity |- | Behavioural response | Self‑improvement, constructive comparison | Hostility, withdrawal, negative comparison |- | Relationship between envy types | Benign and malicious envy both present, but benign becomes dominant | Benign and malicious envy both present, but malicious becomes dominant |- | Role of education | Higher education → higher self‑efficacy → more benign envy | Lower education → lower self‑efficacy → more malicious envy |- | Workplace impact | Healthier emotional climate; reduced interpersonal strain | Higher risk of conflict, tension, and harmful reactions |- | Overall effect | Protective factor that channels envy into growth | Risk factor that channels envy into harm |} '''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click "Submit":<quiz display="simple"> {What is a common sign of low self-efficacy? |type="()"} + Avoiding tasks because you expect to fail - Feeling confident you can handle new challenges {What is a common sign of high self-efficacy? |type="()"} - Avoiding tasks because they appear too hard + Confidence in handling challenges </quiz> == Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? == Social comparison theory explains why employees evaluate their abilities and success by observing others (Han et al, 2022). These comparisons strongly influence emotional reactions such as envy and shape workplace behaviour. The two forms of social comparison theory are (see Figure 5): ==== Upward social comparison ==== [[File:Social Comparison Diagram.JPG|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' Social comparisons can occur upward or downward.]] Upward social comparison is when a person compares themselves to someone who appears more skilled, more successful or performing at a higher level (Han et al, 2022). By comparing themselves upward, can either motivate them to develop themselves or it can create feelings of envy, stress or pressure when the gap appears to be unachievable (Han et al, 2022). ==== Downward social comparison ==== Downward social comparison is when a person compares themselves to someone who seems worse off or less skilled than them. When a person feels powerless, downward comparison can become a better coping strategy for them (Dong et al, 2025). It can boost their confidence by providing reassurance although, it can also foster a delusion or false sense of security (Han et al, 2022). '''Table 4.''' Upward versus downward social comparison {| class="wikitable" |+ ! Comparison type ! Description ! Emotional outcome ! Link to envy ! Motivational effect |- | '''Upward social comparison''' | Comparing yourself to someone doing better (more help, higher outcomes, better performance) | Can feel motivating or threatening | Triggers envy (benign or malicious) | Benign envy → increased motivation Malicious envy → decreased motivation |- | '''Downward social comparison''' | Comparing yourself to someone worse off than you | Feeling better about yourself, feeling powerful | Not considered an envy trigger | Not considered a motivational tool |} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} [[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 6'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]] ;Case study At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough. Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident. This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 6). {{RoundBoxBottom}} '''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click "Submit":<quiz display="simple"> {What type of social comparison theory is Ebony experiencing? |type="()"} + Upward social comparison - Downward social comparison </quiz> == Conclusion == In conclusion, envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees naturally compare their progress, recognition and opportunities with those around. These comparisons strongly influence how employees feel and behave in the workplace. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, when employees feel threatened, or unable to achieve similar success, envy may shift towards resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond more effectively and foster environments where envy becomes a catalyst for growth, fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships. {{tip|Take-home messages: * Not all workplace envy is negative. * Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way. * Leadership play a key role in influencing positive and negative behaviours. }} ==See also== The following links are the most relevant Wikiversity pages (related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]] to support this book chapter: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy|Envy]] (Book Chapter, 2011) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Jealousy|Jealousy]] (Book Chapter, 2013) * [[wikipedia:Self-efficacy|Self-efficacy]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Aggression in the workplace]] (Book chapter, 2010) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Social comparison and motivation|Social Comparison and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[wikipedia:Workplace_relationship|Workplace relationships]] (Article) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Aydın, G., & Bozkurt, S. (2022). Research on the role of self-efficacy in the effect of workplace envy on intention to quit. ''Istanbul Business Research'', 51(2), 627-642. https://doi.org/10.26650/ibr.2022.51.1062932 Crusius, J., Thierhoff, J., & Lange, J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361 Dong, X. T., Yang, W. C., Joon, H. P., & Jeong, K. Y. (2026). Workplace envy and organizational citizenship behaviour: the mediating effect of cynicism and the moderating effect of organizational support. ''Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration'', e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020. Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., & Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. annual review of organizational psychology and organizational behavior ''Psychology and Organizational Behavior'', ''8'', 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746 Erdil, O., & Müceldili, B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. ''Procedia - "Social and Behavioral Sciences"'', 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050 González-Navarro, P., Zurriaga-Llorens, R., Olateju, A., & Llinares-Insa, L. I. (2018). Envy and counterproductive work behavior: the moderation role of leadership in public and private organizations. ''International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health'', 15(7), 1455. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15071455 Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., & Mu, R. (2022). You have received more help than I did and I envy you: A social comparison perspective on receiving help in the team. ''International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health'', 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351 Köksal, K., Tufan, C., & Griffiths, M.D. (2026). From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. ''Current Psychology''. 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3 Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., & Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the dark side of envy: distinctive links of benign and malicious envy with dark personalities. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin'', 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340 Li, M., Xu, X., & Kwan, H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. ''Asia Pacific Journal of Management''. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y Li, Y., & Wang, S. (2023). Comparisons are odious? - exploring the dual effect of upward social comparison on workplace coping behaviors of temporary agency workers. ''Psychology research and behavior management'', 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946 Liu, H., Geng, J., & Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of leadership and envy: how to resolve workplace envy with leadership-a bibliometric review study. ''Journal of Intelligence'', 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044 Nakai, A., and Numazaki, M. (2026). The emotional nature of malicious and benign envy: separate measurements for emotion and motivation. ''Japan Psychol Res''. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568 Polat, Ş., Yeşil, A., & Afşar Doğrusöz, L. (2024). The relationship between self-efficacy, malicious or benign envy in nurses: A cross-sectional study. ''International Nursing Review'' 71, 832–840. https://doi.org/10.1111/inr.12925 Song, Y., & Zhao, Z. (2022). Social undermining and interpersonal rumination among employees: the mediating role of being the subject of envy and the moderating role of social support. ''International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health'', 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419 Su, X., & Chen, C. (2023). The influence of workplace envy on employees’ knowledge-hiding behavior based on a comparative analysis between generation cohorts. ''Behavioral Sciences'', 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716 Walter, C. E., & Au-Yong-Oliveira, M. (2022). An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy. ''Journal of Organizational Change Management'', Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034 Wilkes, D. (2023). Workplace envy: exploring the effect of envy on team communication and organizational information sharing. ''Open Journal of Business and Management'', 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099 Yang, C., & Tang, R. (2021). Validating the “two faces” of envy: the effect of self-control. ''Front. Psychol.'' 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451 }} {{tip|Take-away messages: * Low self-efficacy can promote malicious envy/negative behaviours *Leadership have the power to influence the positive behaviours of workplace envy *Malicious envy, if left to fester, can create a toxic workplace culture }} == External links == The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter: * [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube) * https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk) * [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk) * [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube) <references />{{DEFAULTSORT:https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace#Role_of_envy_in_the_workplace}} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 2hanbgwv74am4jqepzupjojsk2pxeru 0 331104 2841832 2841379 2026-10-21T08:28:07Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 2841832 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Excitement as an emotion:<br>What is the emotion of excitement and how does it influence behaviour and well-being?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:2022-07-03 Basketball, Männer, European Qualifiers, Deutschland - Polen 1DX 1386 by Stepro.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Steve is ready and excited to play basketball.]] ; Consider this scenario It's 11:30 p.m. the night before Steve's championship basketball game for the state title. As the undefeated team's captain and leading scorer, he has been preparing his whole life for this moment, and tomorrow, he will get to showcase his skills towards a lifelong dream in front of teammates, coaches, fans, family, and professional basketball team recruiters. Instead of feeling nervous, he is suddenly excited. His heart beats faster. He feels energetic, alert, and unusually motivated. He starts to imagine himself having a great game. He practises his shooting form in the mirror one more time, sends basketball highlights and tape to his teammates for review and feedback, and even begins planning what he'll do and say if his team wins the game. The next morning, he wakes up before his alarm. Steve is still buzzing with anticipation. As he walks onto the court, his attention narrows onto the basket. He feels ready to act (see Figure 1). But there is a problem. Steve's excitement becomes so intense that he starts rushing his teams plays too quickly. He manoeuvres through bodies, overlooks an open shot, and finds himself making decisions and passes without thinking them through. So, was his excitement helpful or harmful? And why can it motivate us to pursue opportunities while also influencing how we think, behave, and experience well-being? {{RoundBoxBottom}} In Steve's case, excitement primes his body and propels him to prepare for his big game but this also comes with some unanticipated consequences as he begins to rush and miss information. The following chapter explores excitement as an emotion and how it can influence our behaviours and wellbeing. By examining how and why we get excited, and its physiological and psychological affects, we can better understand how we perceive and respond to it. This understanding may consciously allows us to reframe and engage with excitement as an active tool to shape our behaviours, experiences, and well-being. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is excitement as an emotion, and how does it differ from other emotions? * What are the physiological and psychological processes that underpin excitement? * How does excitement influence motivation, cognition, and behaviour? * How does excitement contribute to, or undermine psychological well-being across individual and cultural contexts? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Understanding excitement as an emotion== Excitement is more than the feeling of happiness, it is generally characterised to be a positive, high-arousal emotional state associated with preparing an individual to engage with something anticipated or desired and is linked to things like interest, motivation and even risk-taking (Fredrickson, 2001; Ketonen et al., 2023). It is simultaneously unique from other emotions as it often involves relatively high levels of physiological and psychological activation, but similar, as many of its behaviours, internal feelings and physiological affects can be attributed to other emotional states such as anxiety, or even anger. Excitement is also affected by both the subjective experiences of the emotion and the physiological processes that accompany it as experienced by the individual (Schachter & Singer, 1962, as cited in Brooks, 2014; Russel, 1980). Early works by Stratton (1928) identified excitement as a distinct state and a unique emotion characterised by the the intense impulse to be directed towards a specific goal. Stratton noticed that excited individuals often were more organised for a specific task at hand and had greater motor movement and specifically targeted behaviour, proposing that excitement was a purposeful psychophysical state that dictates cognitive and motor responses. === The circumplex model of affect === One framework to further understand excitement is Russell's (1980) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Circumplex model of affect|circumplex model of affect]] which places excitement on a set of continuous dimensions: * [[w:Valence_(psychology)|Valence]], the appraisal of a situation or stimulus as either pleasant (positive) or unpleasant (negaitve). * [[wikipedia:Arousal|Arousal]], the degree by which a stimulus places the bodys nervous system into physical and mental readiness ranging from a deactived state (e.g. sleepiness) to an activated state (e.g. high alert). [[File:Valence-Arousal Circumplex.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' The circumplex model of affect (Russell, 1980). |266x266px]] Within this model, excitement consistently places in the upper-right quandrant, seen as high-arousal and with a positive valence (see Figure 2). Across Russell's experiment to investigate emotions, participants interacted with 28 tasks relating to the categorisation of emotions and their word meanings. Russell's model has helped propose the idea that emotions can act as affective states that are systematically interrelated, and not individual. Through the circumplex model of affect, excitement is best able to be understood and characterised compared to other emotions (see Table 1). ;Table 1 ''Comparison of Selected Emotions Along Valence and Arousal Dimensions'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Emotion !Valence !Arousal/Activation Level !Primary Motivational Oreintation |- |Excitement |Positive (Pleasant) |High |High Apporach (Goal Pursuit) (Gable & Dreisbach, 2021) |- |Happiness |Positve (Pleasant) |Variable (Moderate to High) |Moderate Approach (Tugade et al., 2014) |- |Contentment |Positive (Pleasant) |Low |Low Approach (Post-Goal Savouring) (Tugade et al., 2014) |- |Anxiety |Negative (Unpleasant) |High |High Avoidance/Threat Vigilance (Brooks, 2014) |- |Sadness |Negative (Unpleasant) |Low |Low Avoidance/Withdrawal (Gable & Dreisbach, 2021) |} === The motivational dimensional model of affect (MDMA) === While the two-dimensional cirumplex model captures valence and arousal, Gable and Harmon-Jones' (2010) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Motivational dimensional model of affect|Motivational dimensional model of affect (MDMA)]] expands upon this, incorporating motivational intensity, the urge to approach or avoid a stimulus. MDMA demontrates that excitement is a high-intensity, approach-motivated positive state driven by the [[wikipedia:Gray's_biopsychological_theory_of_personality|Behavioural activation system (BAS)]]. Like excitement, high-intensity pre-goal states prepare organisms for direct action, wehereas low-intensity post-goal states like contentment signal reward and accomplishment (Gable & Dreisbach, 2021). === Excitement as an anticipatory emotion === The Japanese expression ''waku waku'' (ワクワク) describes a feeling of eager anticipation and excitement and is associated with the expection of something enjoyable (Hasada, 1994). Work by Macahizawa et al. (2020) proposes that excitement is fundamentally an anticipatory emotion driven by the predicting of positive future outcomes under uncertainty. To understand this temporal, future anticipatory dimension of excitement, electroencephalography (EEG) data was recorded from 28 adult participants when tested with different anticipatory tones while predicting an upcoming emotional image. From this data, the study developed a three-axial model integrating valence, arousal and a new cognitive dimension of expectation/anticipation. Through this study, Macahizawa et al., (2020) found that this added temporal dimension was significant to the emotional experience of excitement. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Scenario application''' Steve loves basketball, is skilled at the sport and thrives on competition. His subjective perception of his upcoming final game has a positive valence, high arousal and he is motivated, goal driven and anticpatory, signalling excitement. Steve's girlfriend, who is not so into basketball and hates crowds might have a completely different emotional state if she were put into the same position. One that most likely reflects an unpleasant valence and high arousal making her avoid working towards this reality entirely. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Physiological and psychological processes of excitement== {{anchor|Physiological responses}} === Physiological responses === With high arousal, excitement triggers robust [[wikipedia:Autonomic_nervous_system|autonomic nervous sytem]] (ANS) activation, preparing the body for action (Oxendine, 1970). * A study tracking the biometric markers of 136 high school students compared to their self-report on emotion (i.e. excitement, calm, boredom etc.) found that after controlling for physical activity, self-reported excitement was associated with increased physiological arousal. This included increased heart rate, alertness and energy with reduced heart rate variability, signalling a heightened sympathetic nervous system (Ketonen et al., 2023). The corresponding associations for anxiety and calmness were not found to be signficant thus possibly signalling excitement as a unique emotional experience despite ununique physiological responses i.e., anxiety sharing similar physiological responses to excitement. * Emotional excitement may also increase blood pressure and/or cause this to spike acutely (Piira et al., 2011). Physiological arousal isn't inherently positive or negative; its interpretation depends partly on context which may also alter if the individual is perceiving the physiological and psychological changes as excitement or something else (Schachter & Singer, 1962). [[File:Excitement from Two-Factor Theory.png|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Physiological and psyhcological changes of excitement altered by the individual's perceived context (Schacter & Singer, 1962)|417x417px]] {{anchor|Psychological processes}} === Psychological processes === Psychologically, excitement alters how individuals perceive an upcoming task or event (Brooks, 2014). *Anticipation and excitement shift cognitive resources toward potential rewards or desirable outcomes, and has been shown to boost self-efficacy and perceived readiness to act in the face of a pre-goal reward expectation (Brooks, 2014). * Excitement can increase an individual's perceived readiness to act and even alter momentary thought-actions encouraging problem-solving, and affecting an individual's exploration (Fredrickson, 2001). {{anchor|Anticipatory emotion}} {{Robelbox|theme=5|width=40%|title=Quiz Question|iconwidth=48px|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg}}<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> '''What is an example of excitement based on Steve's physiological and psychological changes?''' |type="()"} - Steve feels calm, his heart rate slows, and he begins to feel sleepy + Steve feels ready to take on the world, he feels his heart start to race as he hops out of bed - Following a bad practice, Steve feels his heart rate and alertness increase, he wants to leave the arena immediately </quiz> </div> {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==The influence of excitement on motivation, cognition, and behaviour== {{anchor|Approach motivation}} === Approach motivation and goal pursuit === High affective states have been linked to more approach-oriented behaviour, that is to say, motivation to move towards a specific goal. As excitement has a high positive affective state, this emotion has been linked with approach-oriented behaviour with high approach motivation increasing an individual's persistence and goal-directed activation. Research suggests that the emotional state of excitement can influence the willingness to pursue desirable goals. In these instances, excitement may act as a catalyst for approach motivations further reinforcing behavioural activation towards long term goals and increasing persistence. Gable & Dreisbach (2021) suggest that this may be because anticipating a positive outcome can motivate action before the reward is actually obtained and further supports the model of excitement as an anticipatory emotion. From this research, it is important to note that other emotional affective states can also have goal directed behaviour, however, as excitement is a high positive affect (valence) state and anticipatory, it can be posited that excitement compared to some other emotions may be stronger in approach-oriented behaviour. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario application''' Steve's excitement leads him to practice and refine his basketball moves and watch tape before the game. An active approach to the challenge rather than not engaging with it or avoiding it completely. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{anchor|Cognitive and behavioural effects}} === Excitements affect on cognition === Excitement can have affects on cognition, as well as effecting ones ability to take in information and environmental cues, making this broader or narrow, referred to as cognitive scope. Work on positive affect emotions have found that these positively valenced states can alter attentional focus. Fredrickson (2001) describes low-intensity, positive emotions (e.g. contentment, joy, pride) as being able to broaden momentary thought-action repertoires, fostering creative exploration, known as the Broaden-and-build theory. In contrast, high-intensity approach positive affect such as excitement narrows cognitive scope. Excitement may instead concentrate attention on a central goal stimuli while filtering out peripheral details leading to greater goal performance at the cost of additional detail and exploration (Gable & Dreisbach, 2021). The consequences of positive emotion on cognition may depend partly on motivational intensity and not always translate into greater performance. Excitement may help in focusing in on a task, but an overly narrow focus may make it more difficult to take in necessary information and stimuli; see Table 2. '''Table 2''' ''Comparison of low-intensity positive affect on cognitive scope versus high (Fredrickson, 2001; Gable & Dreisbach, 2021)'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! !Low-intensity positive affect !High-intensity positive affect |- |'''Cognitive scope''' |Broadens attention to access wider range of stimuli and information. |Narrows attention towards central goal potentially filtering out relevant information. |- |'''Potential benefits''' |Encourages creative exploration, flexible thinking, alternative ideas. |Focused processing of goal-related information, persistence and performance on tasks with focused attention. |- |'''Potential limitations''' |Broad focus may cause less action towards specific goal required, or lack intense concentration needed towards target. |Narrow focus may cause important stimuli to be lost or peripheral information to be overlooked. |} Furthermore, according to Joseph Oxendine's (1968) emotional arousal mode, excitement's effect on motor sports performance follows task-specific requirements. In this research, high excitement improved tasks relying on raw strength, speed, and endurance (e.g., sprinting and football tacking) whereas, fine motor tasks and decision-making were impaired. Activities like basketball free throws and archery that required fine motor precision, steady hand control and complex tactical judgement were negatively affected. === Excitement on behaviour === ==== Impulsivity and risk taking ==== Unregulated excitement can lead to a sort of behavioural overshooting. Galentino et al. (2017) demonstrates that positive emotional arousal significantly increases preferences for monetary risks by over-valuing rewards over their potential losses. This could extend into other behaviours outside of fiscally motivated rewards. Supporting this, Andrede, Odean & Lin (2016) tested 55 experimental asset markets over a number of participants and found that excitement generated significantly larger market bubbles in magnitiude and peak amplitude driving immediate overevaluation across a first round. While excitement can increase motivion and engagement, this heightened arousal may also influence judgement and behavioural control. Consequently, excitement may encourage productive action in some situations while contributing to impulsive or risky decisions in others (Sohn et al., 2015; Galentino, Bonini, & Savadori, 2017; Andrade, Odean, & Lin, 2016). Storebeck & Clore (2008) also saw high affective arousal impact individuals judgement leading to poorer choices, however, some functions of learning and memory were greater. When helpful, excitement may aid an individual towards a goal by motivating them to prepare, practice and engage. However, when unhelpful, a person may become excessively excited about an invested reward, with focus and fixation leading to an underestimation of risks and causing impulsive decisions. == Excitement and its influence on wellbeing == === Cognitively restructuring emotions as excitement === Excitement and anxiety share similar high-arousal physiological profiles. A study by Brooks (2014) identified that these similar profiles were difficult to suppress with a majority of of participants believing variations of 'calming down' was the best cognitive strategy to assist when under high-pressure tasks. Instead, this research demonstrated that reframing anxiety via simple self-statements such as "I am excited" or prompts such as "Get excited" shifted participants mindsets from threat to opportunity without requiring an unphysiological drop in responses such as increased heart rate. When simply employing this cognitive restructure, users found increases in activities such as karaoke singing accuracy, public speaking persuasiveness, and math accuracy under pressure. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario application''' During the finals game, Steve continues to make mistakes and he starts to get anxious. Under this high pressure environment, Steve starts to reframe his mistakes as opprtunities to learn and chances to adjust to his competition. He uses some simple self-statements which he feels helps him connect to his game. His teammates notice his performance improve.{{RoundBoxBottom}} === Excitement across the lifespan === Excitement and individuals with the proclivity towards this emotional state may impact them across their lifespan. Liu et al. (2026) evaluated the differential impact on pleasant positive affect (low-arousal/harmony) versus energised positive affect (high-arousal/excitement) on life satisfaction. Using random intercept cross-lagged panel models across a 9-wave longitudinal study, pleasant positive affect exhibited reicprocal associations with life satisfaction that were twice as strong as energised positive affect. Liu et al. (2026) proposed that pleasant positive affect may stabilise life satisfaction whereas more energised positive affect may be present in individuals with gaps between a current and desired states. These may drive personal growth, agency, and goal adaptation as opposed to those with a baseline satisfaction. More research may be required to expand upon this idea, but most individuals may find themselves across both states dictated by life experiences, personal interest and their own perception of ability and performance across tasks. Overall, positive affect in general has been shown to increase life satisfaction and relationships over time (Liu et al., 2016). As excitement is a positive emotional experience, it too may contribute to ones subjective well-being. By making activities feel more engaging, this anticipation can lead to more engagement and possibly reward. Excitement may not necessarily improve well-being simply because it is a positive emotional state, rather, the emotion may encourage preparation, engagement and goal pursuit which can further contribute to a sense of accomplishment (Liu et al. 2026). === Excitement as viewed cross-culturally === [[File:Excitement and anticipation at the Reykjavík Children’s Culture Festival 2016 (26145642903).jpg|thumb|'''Figure 4.''' Excitement may be viewed differently across cultures]] Tsai (2024) and Lim (2016) highlight that emotional valuation may vary systematically across cultures, with some individualistic Westerm cultures seemingly valuing high arousal positive states, such as excitement and enthusiasm as compared to some Eastern cultures. This may be due to Western cultures individualism, that is to say, the desire to assert personal autononmy and influence on others. Eastern cultures on the other hand might value low arousal positive states such as calmness, serenity and peacefulness as their ideal affect to promote social harmony so as to better support collectivist values. As excitement is a perception of an event and an individual's own physiological and psychological states, one's own culture and upbringing may begin to give rise to how to react and value this emotional state across a lifespan but also population. {{anchor|Does excitement help or hinder behaviour?}} === Does excitement help or hinder behaviour? === With helpful excitement, an individual might move towards a goal by preparing, practising, engaging and performing behaviours that lead to a desired outcome. However, with unhelpful excitement a person may become excessively excited about an invested reward, this focus and fixation may lead them to underestimate risks and form and impulsive decision (Galentino et al., 2017). Extremely high emotional arousal may become overwhelming, with the consequences of excitement dependent on the context and the individual's ability to regulate their behaviour. Excitement should not necessarily be conceptualised as beneficial simply because it is a positive emotion. Excitement can support well-being when it facilitates meaningful engagement, motivation and goal pursuit, but its effects depends on intensity, context and behavioural regulation. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''Intervention application''' To reduce the effects of overwhelm during high emotional arousal, interventions should work in teaching individuals to identify when excitement is too great and use cognitive restructures in the form of strategies like 'simple statements'.{{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== Excitement is a positively valenced, high-arousal emotional state associated with anticipation, approach motivation and readiness to act. It can encourage preparation, persistence and engagement with meaningful goals. Although, following in similar physiological traits to other emotions such as anxiety, excitement may differ from other emotions due to its combination of positive valence, high activation/arousal, approach to goals and anticipatory nature (Russell, 1980; Gable & Harmon-Jones, 2010; Macahizawa et al., 2020). Excitement as a state triggers activation of the autonomic nervous system, preparing itself for some kind of action (Oxendine, 1970). Common physiological responses include elevated heart rate, alertness, energy and rise in blood pressure (Ketonen et al., 2023). Psychologically, excitement can boost an individual's readiness to act, perceived self-efficacy, and cognitive scope (Brooks, 2014; Fredrickson, 2001), while also causing them to underestimate or overevaluate certain aspects of the situation (Galentino, Bonini, & Savadori, 2017; Andrade, Odean, & Lin, 2016). As a catalyst to engaging with actions towards a certain goal, excitement can effect ones cognition, narrowing or widening its scope (Fredrickson, 2001), and possibly leading to greater impulsive or risk taking behaviours (e.g., Galentino et al., 2017). Excitement can also be a powerful tool in restructuring other emotions, and as a positive emotion, may increase satisfaction across the lifespan (Liu et al., 2016). With its value differing across culture, excitement can support well-being by promoting engagement and pursuit of rewarding experiences, although excessive arousal or poorly regulated excitement may produce less beneficial outcomes. Understanding excitement therefore requires recognising it not simply as a pleasurable feeling, but as an emotion that prepares people to act and can shape how they think, behave and experience their well-being. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Take-home message''' Excitement is a unique emotional state that can be as much of a powerful tool in goal pursuit, action and well-being as it is simply a positive state of being. An event that strikes fear into one, may be exciting for another, therefore, excitement and emotions as whole come from the unique interplay of our active and passive shaping of the significance we assign to our experiences. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11|title=Quiz}}<quiz display=simple> {'''Chapter quiz:''' Steve and his team begin to pull away in the final minutes of the game. A smile emerges from his face as he anticipates the messages and coverage he will receive from the crowd and media. On the otherhand, his teammate Bob, hates attention and he begins to feel stressed. According to the chapter, what best explains this situation? |type="()"} +Their individual perceptions and interpretations of the sitatuion influence whether they experience heightened arousal as excitement or stress. -Everyone experiences excitement the same way. -Their emotional responses are determined entirely by physiological arousal, rather than how they interpret the situation. </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also== * [[w:Affect_(psychology)|Affect (psychology)]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Circumplex model of affect|Circumplex model of affect]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Motivational dimensional model of affect|Motivational dimensional model of affect]] (Book chapter, 2025) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Andrade, E. B., Odean, T., & Lin, S. (2016). Bubbling with Excitement: An Experiment. ''Review of Finance, 20''(2), 447–466. https://doi.org/10.1093/rof/rfv016 Brooks, A. W. (2014). Get Excited: Reappraising Pre-Performance Anxiety as Excitement. ''Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 143''(3), 1144–1158. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035325 Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The Role of Positive Emotions in Positive Psychology: The Broaden-and-Build Theory of Positive Emotions. ''The American Psychologist, 56''(3), 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218 Gable, P. A., & Dreisbach, G. (2021). Approach motivation and positive affect. ''Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 39'', 203–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2021.03.030 Gable, P., & Harmon-Jones, E. (2010). The motivational dimensional model of affect: Implications for breadth of attention, memory, and cognitive categorisation. ''Cognition and Emotion, 24''(2), 322–337. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930903378305 Galentino, A., Bonini, N., & Savadori, L. (2017). Positive Arousal Increases Individuals’ Preferences for Risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 8'', Article 2142. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02142 Hasada, R. (1994). ''The semantic aspects of onomatopoeia: focusing on Japanese psychomimes'' [Master's thesis, The Australian National University]. ANU Open Research. https://doi.org/10.25911/5d723cb12c49c Ketonen, E. E., Salonen, V., Lonka, K., & Salmela‐Aro, K. (2023). Can you feel the excitement? Physiological correlates of students’ self‐reported emotions. ''British Journal of Educational Psychology, 93''(S1), Article 12534. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12534 Lim, N. (2016). Cultural differences in emotion: differences in emotional arousal level between the East and the West. ''Integrative Medicine Research, 5''(2), 105–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.imr.2016.03.004 Liu, J., Vittersø, J., Teulings, I. J. E., Nes, R. B., Mayerhofer, L., & Røysamb, E. (2026). Jingle all the way? Pleasant and energized positive affect show differential longitudinal relationships with life satisfaction and personality. ''The Journal of Positive Psychology'', (Latest Articles), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2026.2701098 Machizawa, M. G., Lisi, G., Kanayama, N., Mizuochi, R., Makita, K., Sasaoka, T., & Yamawaki, S. (2020). Quantification of anticipation of excitement with a three-axial model of emotion with EEG. ''Journal of Neural Engineering, 17''(3). https://doi.org/10.1088/1741-2552/ab93b4 Oxendine, J. B. (1970). Emotional Arousal and Motor Performance. ''Quest (National Association for Kinesiology in Higher Education), 13''(1), 23–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/00336297.1970.10519673 Piira, O.-P., Huikuri, H. V., & Tulppo, M. P. (2011). Effects of emotional excitement on heart rate and blood pressure dynamics in patients with coronary artery disease. ''Autonomic Neuroscience, 160''(1–2), 107–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autneu.2010.11.011 Posner, J., Russell, J. A., & Peterson, B. S. (2005). The circumplex model of affect: An integrative approach to affective neuroscience, cognitive development, and psychopathology. ''Development and Psychopathology, 17''(3), 715–734. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579405050340 Robinson, M. D., & Irvin, R. L. (2022). Out of the shell, into the world: preferences for openness as a substrate of approach motivation and positive affect. ''Motivation and Emotion, 46''(3), 307–318. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-022-09934-5 Russell, J. A. (1980). A circumplex model of affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39(6), 1161–1178. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0077714 Schachter, S., & Singer, J. (1962). Cognitive, social, and physiological determinants of emotional state. ''Psychological Review, 69''(5), 379–399. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0046234 Smith, K. E., Woodard, K., & Pollak, S. D. (2025). Arousal May Not Be Anything to Get Excited About. ''Emotion Review, 17''(1), 3–15. https://doi.org/10.1177/17540739241303499 Sohn, J.-H., Kim, H.-E., Sohn, S., Seok, J.-W., Choi, D., & Watanuki, S. (2015). Effect of emotional arousal on inter-temporal decision-making: an fMRI study. ''Journal of Physiological Anthropology, 34''(1), Article 8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40101-015-0047-5 Storbeck, J., & Clore, G. L. (2008). Affective Arousal as Information: How Affective Arousal Influences Judgments, Learning, and Memory. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2''(5), 1824–1843. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2008.00138.x Stratton, G. M. (1928). The function of emotion as shown particularly in excitement. ''Psychological Review, 35''(5), 351–366. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0071406 Tsai, J. L. (2024). Investigating culture and emotion: From responses to ideals. In M. J. Gelfand, C.-Y. Chiu, & Y.-Y. Hong (Eds.), ''Handbook of advances in culture and psychology'' (pp. 54–117). Oxford University Press. Tugade, M. M., Shiota, M. N., & Kirby, L. D. (Eds.). (2014). ''Handbook of positive emotions'' (1st ed.). Guilford Press. }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S9tBnXz2B1Q How to turn anxiety into excitement] (SciShow Psych) * [https://fi.edu/en/blog/science-emotions-excitement?ct=1787858646114 Science of emotions: excitement] (The Franklin Institue) * [https://www.simplypsychology.com/articles/anxiety-reappraisal-strategies Cognitive reappraisal for anxiety: evidence-based strategies that work] (Simply Psychology) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 8jayv91g6qqu3py4p4pljtux47zu9iu 0 331111 2841765 2841423 2026-10-20T22:28:39Z U3143751 3106785 /* Emotional labor as a mediating factor between Empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion */ reworked order of bullet points 2841765 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion:<br>How does sustained empathic engagement contribute to emotional exhaustion?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Exhausted smartphone user.JPG|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. An emotionally exhausted Aelin at the end of the work day]] ; Scenario Aelin, a 23-year-old social worker employed at headspace {{ic|Link to the Wikipedia article to help explain what this term means}}, works with approximately 20 {{ic|Explain what sort of}}Imagine you are only 23 years old and are working as a social worker at headspace. You see around 20 clients each week, many of whom have experienced rough living conditions. During your first six months in this role, you felt highly motivated and excited to help people in need. You are an excellent active listener and can easily remember details about your clients Live’s. You are also good at recognising signs of distress in your client’s body language and adjust yours in order to show warmth and understanding. As you progress in your role, you take on more cases that involve complex past traumas. The workload becomes too much for you to get done at work, but you don’t want your clients to miss out, so you take your work home to complete it in the evenings. Your workload increases again and you now start doing work on your weekends as well. After several months of working this way, you start to notice you feel exhausted every morning before you have even started work. You then start to notice you’re responding to people at work differently. Instead of your usual energised active listening response you feel frustrated, empathetic and detached. After work you are too drained to socialise with friends. This begins to worry you. What if you won’t be able to continue working as a social worker? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Aelin is experiencing '''emotional exhaustion''' from a sustained empathic response. Due to the nature of Aelin's work, they are constantly engaged in an empathic response. Empathic responses require cognitive and physical resources to sustain. Because Aelin is taking their work home and not resting on weekends, they do not have a chance to rest. It is important for Aelin to recognise what is happening and why. Not actioning the problem has led to empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion. Emotional exhaustion is one of the key aspects of [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmpathy_fatigue_and_emotional_exhaustion&diff=2840411&oldid=2832859 burnout], a long-term condition of existing in a constant state of high stress. Psychological science can support Aelin in recognising and mapping the symptoms they are experiencing, understand coping strategies to minimise the current and future effects to improve their wellbeing. Understanding the symptoms will also support their role as a social worker, providing more tools for the people they support on a day-to-day basis. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * Why do people become emotionally exhausted? * What is the relationship between empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion? * What role does emotional labor play in emotional exhaustion? * How does understanding emotional labor and empathy fatigue work to reduce the effects of emotional exhaustion? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Emotional Exhaustion == '''Talk about stress and its role in emotional exhaustion''' Emotional exhaustion is the core component of burnout and can be recognised as "''definition''"(De Beer et al., 2024; Seidler et al., 2014). As a major factor, its symptoms are similar to burnout and stress. '''How would you recognise that someone is emotionally exhausted''' The major symptoms include: "''dot point list of biggest symptoms''" Someone experiencing these symptoms are at a higher risk of cardiovascular disease, etc. xyz (why bad) There are many theories that attempt to explain why emotional exhaustion occurs. Two of these theories with good evidence are the [[wikipedia:Conservation_of_resources_theory|Conservation of resources stress model]] (Hobfoll, 1989) and the [[wikipedia:Job_demands-resources_model|Job Demands-Resources model]] (Demerouti et al., 2001). === Conservation of resources stress model === * Psychological stress occurs when individuals lose valued resources (Halbesleben et al., 2014; Hobfoll, 1989) ** Discuss what resources are (e.g. social relationships) ** Discuss how losing resources leads to increased vulnerability to stress ** discuss gain and loss spirals === Job Demands-Resources model === * Talk about Job demands and job resources (Demerouti et al., 2001) ** Why do we actually feel exhausted after a sustained empathic response? ** Job demands require sustained physical or psychological effort *** Empathic response can be a job demand ** Job resources support achieving work goals or reduce job demands * Discuss how the model looks at prolonged job demands depleting energy leading to exhaustion/burnout (Schaufeli, 2017) * Discuss how the model treats job resources as a mediating factor for reducing the negative effects of job demands == Empathy Fatigue == * Empathy is understood as ... (is there a link to another Wikiversity page? double check) * Empathy Fatigue is understood as ... . * Before understanding empathy fatigue, define what empathy is (what are the theories behind empathy? Why do we have empathy? What theory am I using) ** Individual ability to imagine or understand another person's feelings and/or emotions (Riess, 2017; Shao et al., 2024) === What are the types of empathy? === * Affective empathy - emotional reaction to someone else's mental state (Shao et al., 2024) * Cognitive empathy - understand someone's feelings or emotions (Cui et al., 2022) * Integrating the two - "affective component is the essence of empathy, and the cognitive component is a process through which that essence comes into being" (Bošnjaković & Radionov, 2018) ** (Author's note: change quote into paraphrasing) === What is compassion fatigue? (theories of compassion fatigue) === * Distinction between empathy and compassion fatigue * Compassion fatigue is closely related to Secondary traumatic stress usually found in healthcare professionals (Figley, 2002) ** Compassion fatigue is to Empathy fatigue as emotional exhaustion is to burnout * Make it clear that Aelin is experiencing Compassion Fatigue vs Empathy fatigue (they are the same but different) (Author's note: include an update to the scenario here!) '''Empathy fatigue questions'''. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Surface acting is when the observer actually feels the emotion: |type="()"} - True + False {Compassion fatigue and empathy fatigue are synonymous: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Emotional labor as a mediating factor between Empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion == What is emotional labor (Hochschild, 2012) * Emotional labor is this * It happens because of a combination of Emotional contagion (emotions are contagious), and surface/deep acting === Emotional contagion === Emotional contagion as the theory to moderate surface/deep acting * Emotional contagion (Panksepp and Lahvis, 2011) ** emotions can spread (expand, combines empathy and acting) ** “the tendency to automatically mimic and synchronize expressions, vocalizations, postures, and movements with those of another person’s and, consequently, to converge emotionally.” (Elaine Hatfield, 1993) === Types of acting === * Surface acting ** This is where emotive dissonance comes into play ** Leads to emotional exhaustion (Kenworthy et al., 2014) ** "Should" language - in this situation, this is what I ''should'' feel * Deep acting ** People who 'deep act', as in genuinely change the way they feel (match the feelings they have with the feelings that they need to display) often report positive relationships with emotional labor ** Actual language - in this situation, this is what I ''actually'' feel Discuss the differences in gender norms and expectations in relationships === The mediating effect of emotional labor === Surface acting does not mediate the effect (high surface acting leads to emotional exhaustion) whereas the inverse is true for deep acting (Wrobel, 2013) == Strategies for combating Empathy fatigue and emotional fatigue == * Talk about emotion regulation (Gross, 1998) and mood regulation strategies as a way to deal with coping (Wrobel, 2013) (Author's note: need more research/references for this section) * Talk about breaks ** Rest and downtime from not performing emotional labor regenerates * How do we reduce the amount of emotional labor we're performing (Jeung et al., 2018) ** Communication/boundaries ** Reducing surface acting (allowing ourselves to feel how we actually feel and reduce emotive dissonance) === Strategies in the workplace === * Discuss types of strategies that are available in the workplace (organisation models) * SCARF model (Aplin-Houtz, 2025) ** Link back to COR and JDR models e.g. praise could be a job resource vs criticism could be a job demand *Reduce workload to reduce emotional exhaustion, and by extension reduce emotional fatigue. ==Figures (for reference before final assessment)== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) == Learning features (for reference before final assessment) == Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Summarise what empathy fatigue is, and why people become emotionally exhausted (+ the role of emotional labor) * Summarise the symptoms and how to recognise them in yourself and someone else * Emphasise and summarise psychological strategies to support someone going through emotional exhaustion * Summarise ways to prevent emotional exhaustion from happening * Overall message is: *# What is emotional exhaustion *# how do you recognise it *# how do you treat it *# how do you prevent it * Link back to the focus questions ==See also== * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Metacognition_and_emotional_regulation&oldid=2756264 Metacognition and emotional regulation] (Book chapter, 2026) {{ic|Use an internal link style as shown in Tutorial 2}} * [[wikipedia:Conservation_of_resources_theory|Conservation of resources theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Job_demands-resources_model|Job demands-resources model]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Aplin-Houtz, M. (2025). Unraveling the SCARF: How dimensions of the SCARF model influence the relationship between workplace exclusion and turnover intentions. Journal of Management & Organization, 31(6), 2699–2725. https://doi.org/10.1017/jmo.2025.10026 Bošnjaković, J., & Radionov, T. (2018). Empathy: Concepts, Theories and Neuroscientific Basis. Alcoholism (Zagreb), 54(2), 123–150. https://doi.org/10.20471/de..2018.54.02.04 Cui, F., Huang, X., Jing, Y., Luo, Y., Liu, J., & Gu, R. (2022). How resource sharing resists scarcity: the role of cognitive empathy and its neurobiological mechanisms. Cerebral Cortex (New York, N.Y. 1991), 32(23), 5330–5342. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhac017 De Beer, L. T., van der Vaart, L., Escaffi-Schwarz, M., De Witte, H., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2024). Maslach Burnout Inventory - General Survey. European Journal of Psychological Assessment : Official Organ of the European Association of Psychological Assessment, 40(5), 360–375. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000797 Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., Nachreiner, F., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2001). The Job Demands-Resources Model of Burnout. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(3), 499–512. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.3.499 Figley, C. R. (2002). Compassion fatigue: Psychotherapists’ chronic lack of self care. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58(11), 1433–1441. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.10090 Grandey, A. A. (2003). When ‘the show must go on’: surface acting and deep acting as determinants of emotional exhaustion and peer-rated service delivery. Academy of Management Journal, 46(1), 86–96. https://doi.org/10.5465/30040678 Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2(3), 271–299. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271 Halbesleben, J. R. B., Neveu, J.-P., Paustian-Underdahl, S. C., & Westman, M. (2014). Getting to the “COR”: Understanding the Role of Resources in Conservation of Resources Theory. Journal of Management, 40(5), 1334–1364. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206314527130 Hatfield, E., Cacioppo, J. T., & Rapson, R. L. (1993). Emotional Contagion. Current Directions in Psychological Science : A Journal of the American Psychological Society, 2(3), 96–99. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.ep10770953 Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of Resources: A New Attempt at Conceptualizing Stress. The American Psychologist, 44(3), 513–524. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.44.3.513 Hochschild, A. R. (2012). The managed heart : commercialization of human feeling (Updated, with a new preface.). University of California Press. Jeung, D.-Y., Kim, C., & Chang, S.-J. (2018). Emotional Labor and Burnout: A Review of the Literature. Yonsei Medical Journal, 59(2), 187–193. https://doi.org/10.3349/ymj.2018.59.2.187 Lavelle, J. J., Rupp, D. E., Herda, D. N., Pandey, A., & Lauck, J. R. (2021). Customer Injustice and Employee Performance: Roles of Emotional Exhaustion, Surface Acting, and Emotional Demands–Abilities Fit. Journal of Management, 47(3), Article 0149206319869426. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206319869426 Panksepp, J. B., & Lahvis, G. P. (2011). Rodent empathy and affective neuroscience. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 35(9), 1864–1875. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2011.05.013 Riess, H. (2017). The Science of Empathy. Journal of Patient Experience, 4(2), 74–77. https://doi.org/10.1177/2374373517699267 Schaufeli, W. B. (2017). Applying the job demands-resources model: a “how to” guide to measuring and tackling work engagement and burnout. Organizational Dynamics, 46(2), 120–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orgdyn.2017.04.008 Shao, M., Li, L., Li, X., Wei, Z., Wang, J., Hong, M., Liu, X., & Meng, J. (2024). The effect of top-down attention on empathy fatigue. Cerebral Cortex (New York, N.Y. 1991), 34(1), Article bhad441. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhad441 Wharton, A. S. (2009). The Sociology of Emotional Labor. Annual Review of Sociology, 35(1), 147–165. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-070308-115944 Wrobel, M. (2013). Can empathy lead to emotional exhaustion in teachers? The mediating role of emotional labor. International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health, 26(4), 581–592. https://doi.org/10.2478/s13382-013-0123-1 }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Burnout]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] f2ukwl1roqfecf2zxkpnx0wv2096g8a 2841766 2841765 2026-10-20T22:39:18Z U3143751 3106785 + summary of differences table for types of acting 2841766 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion:<br>How does sustained empathic engagement contribute to emotional exhaustion?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Exhausted smartphone user.JPG|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. An emotionally exhausted Aelin at the end of the work day]] ; Scenario Aelin, a 23-year-old social worker employed at headspace {{ic|Link to the Wikipedia article to help explain what this term means}}, works with approximately 20 {{ic|Explain what sort of}}Imagine you are only 23 years old and are working as a social worker at headspace. You see around 20 clients each week, many of whom have experienced rough living conditions. During your first six months in this role, you felt highly motivated and excited to help people in need. You are an excellent active listener and can easily remember details about your clients Live’s. You are also good at recognising signs of distress in your client’s body language and adjust yours in order to show warmth and understanding. As you progress in your role, you take on more cases that involve complex past traumas. The workload becomes too much for you to get done at work, but you don’t want your clients to miss out, so you take your work home to complete it in the evenings. Your workload increases again and you now start doing work on your weekends as well. After several months of working this way, you start to notice you feel exhausted every morning before you have even started work. You then start to notice you’re responding to people at work differently. Instead of your usual energised active listening response you feel frustrated, empathetic and detached. After work you are too drained to socialise with friends. This begins to worry you. What if you won’t be able to continue working as a social worker? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Aelin is experiencing '''emotional exhaustion''' from a sustained empathic response. Due to the nature of Aelin's work, they are constantly engaged in an empathic response. Empathic responses require cognitive and physical resources to sustain. Because Aelin is taking their work home and not resting on weekends, they do not have a chance to rest. It is important for Aelin to recognise what is happening and why. Not actioning the problem has led to empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion. Emotional exhaustion is one of the key aspects of [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmpathy_fatigue_and_emotional_exhaustion&diff=2840411&oldid=2832859 burnout], a long-term condition of existing in a constant state of high stress. Psychological science can support Aelin in recognising and mapping the symptoms they are experiencing, understand coping strategies to minimise the current and future effects to improve their wellbeing. Understanding the symptoms will also support their role as a social worker, providing more tools for the people they support on a day-to-day basis. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * Why do people become emotionally exhausted? * What is the relationship between empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion? * What role does emotional labor play in emotional exhaustion? * How does understanding emotional labor and empathy fatigue work to reduce the effects of emotional exhaustion? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Emotional Exhaustion == '''Talk about stress and its role in emotional exhaustion''' Emotional exhaustion is the core component of burnout and can be recognised as "''definition''"(De Beer et al., 2024; Seidler et al., 2014). As a major factor, its symptoms are similar to burnout and stress. '''How would you recognise that someone is emotionally exhausted''' The major symptoms include: "''dot point list of biggest symptoms''" Someone experiencing these symptoms are at a higher risk of cardiovascular disease, etc. xyz (why bad) There are many theories that attempt to explain why emotional exhaustion occurs. Two of these theories with good evidence are the [[wikipedia:Conservation_of_resources_theory|Conservation of resources stress model]] (Hobfoll, 1989) and the [[wikipedia:Job_demands-resources_model|Job Demands-Resources model]] (Demerouti et al., 2001). === Conservation of resources stress model === * Psychological stress occurs when individuals lose valued resources (Halbesleben et al., 2014; Hobfoll, 1989) ** Discuss what resources are (e.g. social relationships) ** Discuss how losing resources leads to increased vulnerability to stress ** discuss gain and loss spirals === Job Demands-Resources model === * Talk about Job demands and job resources (Demerouti et al., 2001) ** Why do we actually feel exhausted after a sustained empathic response? ** Job demands require sustained physical or psychological effort *** Empathic response can be a job demand ** Job resources support achieving work goals or reduce job demands * Discuss how the model looks at prolonged job demands depleting energy leading to exhaustion/burnout (Schaufeli, 2017) * Discuss how the model treats job resources as a mediating factor for reducing the negative effects of job demands == Empathy Fatigue == * Empathy is understood as ... (is there a link to another Wikiversity page? double check) * Empathy Fatigue is understood as ... . * Before understanding empathy fatigue, define what empathy is (what are the theories behind empathy? Why do we have empathy? What theory am I using) ** Individual ability to imagine or understand another person's feelings and/or emotions (Riess, 2017; Shao et al., 2024) === What are the types of empathy? === * Affective empathy - emotional reaction to someone else's mental state (Shao et al., 2024) * Cognitive empathy - understand someone's feelings or emotions (Cui et al., 2022) * Integrating the two - "affective component is the essence of empathy, and the cognitive component is a process through which that essence comes into being" (Bošnjaković & Radionov, 2018) ** (Author's note: change quote into paraphrasing) === What is compassion fatigue? (theories of compassion fatigue) === * Distinction between empathy and compassion fatigue * Compassion fatigue is closely related to Secondary traumatic stress usually found in healthcare professionals (Figley, 2002) ** Compassion fatigue is to Empathy fatigue as emotional exhaustion is to burnout * Make it clear that Aelin is experiencing Compassion Fatigue vs Empathy fatigue (they are the same but different) (Author's note: include an update to the scenario here!) '''Empathy fatigue questions'''. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Surface acting is when the observer actually feels the emotion: |type="()"} - True + False {Compassion fatigue and empathy fatigue are synonymous: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Emotional labor as a mediating factor between Empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion == What is emotional labor (Hochschild, 2012) * Emotional labor is this * It happens because of a combination of Emotional contagion (emotions are contagious), and surface/deep acting === Emotional contagion === Emotional contagion as the theory to moderate surface/deep acting * Emotional contagion (Panksepp and Lahvis, 2011) ** emotions can spread (expand, combines empathy and acting) ** “the tendency to automatically mimic and synchronize expressions, vocalizations, postures, and movements with those of another person’s and, consequently, to converge emotionally.” (Elaine Hatfield, 1993) === Types of acting === * Surface acting ** This is where emotive dissonance comes into play ** Leads to emotional exhaustion (Kenworthy et al., 2014) ** "Should" language - in this situation, this is what I ''should'' feel * Deep acting ** People who 'deep act', as in genuinely change the way they feel (match the feelings they have with the feelings that they need to display) often report positive relationships with emotional labor ** Actual language - in this situation, this is what I ''actually'' feel Discuss the differences in gender norms and expectations in relationships {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Deep acting !! Surface acting |- | '''Emotional dissonance''' || || X |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} === The mediating effect of emotional labor === Surface acting does not mediate the effect (high surface acting leads to emotional exhaustion) whereas the inverse is true for deep acting (Wrobel, 2013) == Strategies for combating Empathy fatigue and emotional fatigue == * Talk about emotion regulation (Gross, 1998) and mood regulation strategies as a way to deal with coping (Wrobel, 2013) (Author's note: need more research/references for this section) * Talk about breaks ** Rest and downtime from not performing emotional labor regenerates * How do we reduce the amount of emotional labor we're performing (Jeung et al., 2018) ** Communication/boundaries ** Reducing surface acting (allowing ourselves to feel how we actually feel and reduce emotive dissonance) === Strategies in the workplace === * Discuss types of strategies that are available in the workplace (organisation models) * SCARF model (Aplin-Houtz, 2025) ** Link back to COR and JDR models e.g. praise could be a job resource vs criticism could be a job demand *Reduce workload to reduce emotional exhaustion, and by extension reduce emotional fatigue. ==Figures (for reference before final assessment)== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) == Learning features (for reference before final assessment) == Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Summarise what empathy fatigue is, and why people become emotionally exhausted (+ the role of emotional labor) * Summarise the symptoms and how to recognise them in yourself and someone else * Emphasise and summarise psychological strategies to support someone going through emotional exhaustion * Summarise ways to prevent emotional exhaustion from happening * Overall message is: *# What is emotional exhaustion *# how do you recognise it *# how do you treat it *# how do you prevent it * Link back to the focus questions ==See also== * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Metacognition_and_emotional_regulation&oldid=2756264 Metacognition and emotional regulation] (Book chapter, 2026) {{ic|Use an internal link style as shown in Tutorial 2}} * [[wikipedia:Conservation_of_resources_theory|Conservation of resources theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Job_demands-resources_model|Job demands-resources model]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Aplin-Houtz, M. (2025). Unraveling the SCARF: How dimensions of the SCARF model influence the relationship between workplace exclusion and turnover intentions. Journal of Management & Organization, 31(6), 2699–2725. https://doi.org/10.1017/jmo.2025.10026 Bošnjaković, J., & Radionov, T. (2018). Empathy: Concepts, Theories and Neuroscientific Basis. Alcoholism (Zagreb), 54(2), 123–150. https://doi.org/10.20471/de..2018.54.02.04 Cui, F., Huang, X., Jing, Y., Luo, Y., Liu, J., & Gu, R. (2022). How resource sharing resists scarcity: the role of cognitive empathy and its neurobiological mechanisms. Cerebral Cortex (New York, N.Y. 1991), 32(23), 5330–5342. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhac017 De Beer, L. T., van der Vaart, L., Escaffi-Schwarz, M., De Witte, H., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2024). Maslach Burnout Inventory - General Survey. European Journal of Psychological Assessment : Official Organ of the European Association of Psychological Assessment, 40(5), 360–375. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000797 Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., Nachreiner, F., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2001). The Job Demands-Resources Model of Burnout. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(3), 499–512. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.3.499 Figley, C. R. (2002). Compassion fatigue: Psychotherapists’ chronic lack of self care. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58(11), 1433–1441. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.10090 Grandey, A. A. (2003). When ‘the show must go on’: surface acting and deep acting as determinants of emotional exhaustion and peer-rated service delivery. Academy of Management Journal, 46(1), 86–96. https://doi.org/10.5465/30040678 Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2(3), 271–299. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271 Halbesleben, J. R. B., Neveu, J.-P., Paustian-Underdahl, S. C., & Westman, M. (2014). Getting to the “COR”: Understanding the Role of Resources in Conservation of Resources Theory. Journal of Management, 40(5), 1334–1364. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206314527130 Hatfield, E., Cacioppo, J. T., & Rapson, R. L. (1993). Emotional Contagion. Current Directions in Psychological Science : A Journal of the American Psychological Society, 2(3), 96–99. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.ep10770953 Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of Resources: A New Attempt at Conceptualizing Stress. The American Psychologist, 44(3), 513–524. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.44.3.513 Hochschild, A. R. (2012). The managed heart : commercialization of human feeling (Updated, with a new preface.). University of California Press. Jeung, D.-Y., Kim, C., & Chang, S.-J. (2018). Emotional Labor and Burnout: A Review of the Literature. Yonsei Medical Journal, 59(2), 187–193. https://doi.org/10.3349/ymj.2018.59.2.187 Lavelle, J. J., Rupp, D. E., Herda, D. N., Pandey, A., & Lauck, J. R. (2021). Customer Injustice and Employee Performance: Roles of Emotional Exhaustion, Surface Acting, and Emotional Demands–Abilities Fit. Journal of Management, 47(3), Article 0149206319869426. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206319869426 Panksepp, J. B., & Lahvis, G. P. (2011). Rodent empathy and affective neuroscience. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 35(9), 1864–1875. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2011.05.013 Riess, H. (2017). The Science of Empathy. Journal of Patient Experience, 4(2), 74–77. https://doi.org/10.1177/2374373517699267 Schaufeli, W. B. (2017). Applying the job demands-resources model: a “how to” guide to measuring and tackling work engagement and burnout. Organizational Dynamics, 46(2), 120–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orgdyn.2017.04.008 Shao, M., Li, L., Li, X., Wei, Z., Wang, J., Hong, M., Liu, X., & Meng, J. (2024). The effect of top-down attention on empathy fatigue. Cerebral Cortex (New York, N.Y. 1991), 34(1), Article bhad441. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhad441 Wharton, A. S. (2009). The Sociology of Emotional Labor. Annual Review of Sociology, 35(1), 147–165. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-070308-115944 Wrobel, M. (2013). Can empathy lead to emotional exhaustion in teachers? The mediating role of emotional labor. International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health, 26(4), 581–592. https://doi.org/10.2478/s13382-013-0123-1 }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Burnout]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] cjm9119nzxtqfb8h9ckg7s8lox6q11a 0 331132 2841823 2839024 2026-10-21T08:06:37Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 Attempting to solve lints 2841823 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Consumer emotion measurement:<br>How can consumer emotion be measured?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Airpods.jpeg|thumb|170px|'''Figure 1.''' Consumer using Apple AirPods. ]] '''Scenario''' Imagine a consumer purchasing a new pair of Apple AirPods (see Figure 1). They may feel excited about the product's design, satisfied by its convenience and connected to the Apple brand. Another consumer, however, may find the AirPod's uncomfortable, feel frustrated at their price or simply have little emotional response to the product. Although consumers may be exposed to the same product, their emotional responses can differ. {{RoundBoxBottom}} This raises an important question for businesses and researchers alike: ''How can we know what consumers are actually feeling?'' A company like Apple evaluating consumer responses to AirPods specifically could ask consumers to report their feelings through questionnaires, observe their behaviour, or use psychological measures to identify emotional responses and overall product satisfaction. However, each approach provides different information, and due to the complex nature of emotions, consumers are unlikely to experience and express their emotions parallel to one another. The challenge is that [[Emotion|emotions]] are not directly observable. Instead, researchers must infer emotional experiences through psychological, physiological and behavioural responses. Understanding these responses can act as a catalyst for a company's success, emotions can influence how consumers evaluate products, develop attitudes towards brands, experience satisfaction, and further, contribute to purchasing decisions and [[w:consumer behaviour|consumer behaviour]]. Measuring consumer emotion can therefore help businesses understand consumer responses and use these insights to improve products, branding, advertising and sales strategies. This chapter explores what consumer emotion is, how it can be measured, why consumers may respond differently to the same stimulus, and how individual differences affect the interpretation of emotional responses.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Focus questions''' * What is consumer emotion? * What methods are used to measure consumer emotion? * How do individual differences influence consumers' emotional responses and their measurement? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is consumer emotion?== Consumer emotion refers to affective experiences that arise during interactions with products, brands, marketing communications and consumption experiences. Emotions can influence how consumers interpret information, evaluate products, make decisions and respond to brands (Achar et al., 2016; Bagozzi et al., 1999). Importantly, emotions are not simply positive or negative reactions. Different emotions can produce different patterns of judgement and behaviour, even when they share the same level of [[w:Valence_(psychology)|valence]]. For example, a consumer who feels angry about an unsatisfactory pair of AirPods may respond differently to those who feel disappointed, despite both experiencing a "negative" reaction. Understanding these differences requires consideration of both specific emotions and broader dimensions of emotional experience. Two complementary perspectives are particularly useful for understanding consumer emotion: discrete or core emotion approaches, which distinguish specific emotional states (Ekman, Dalgleish & Power, 1999), and dimensional approaches, which represent emotional experiences along continuous dimensions such as valence and [[w:Arousal|arousal]] (Russell & Barrett, 1999). These perspectives provide a complementary approach to conceptualising consumer emotion and provide a foundation for understanding how emotional responses can be measured (Prescott, 2017). === Core emotions === Core emotion approaches propose that emotional experiences can be distinguished into relatively discrete categories, also known as a categorical approach to organising emotions. [[w:Paul_Ekman|Ekman]] (1992) argued that evidence for common patterns in emotional expression and physiology supports a biological basis, grounded in [[w:Darwinism|Darwinism]], for several [[w:Emotion_classification|basic emotions]]. This approach has commonly been associated with emotions such as happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, and disgust. For consumer research, a discrete approach is useful because identifying the specific emotion experienced can provide more information than simply determining whether a consumer feels positively or negatively (Stein & Trabasso, 1992). Similarly, modern research recognises small sub-sets of dimensions to identify and classify "basic" emotions (Fontaine et al., 2022; Grgić et al., 2022; PS & Mahalakshmi, 2017). For example, two consumers may have a negative response to the same AirPods advertisement, but one may feel anger because the advertisement appears misleading, while another may feel disappointment because the product does not meet their expectations. These emotions may lead to different evaluations and behavioural responses. Lerner and Keltner (2001) demonstrated this distinction in research on fear and anger, finding that although both emotions were negative in valence, fear was associated with more pessimistic risk estimates and risk-averse choices, whereas anger was associated with more optimistic risk estimates and risk-seeking choices. This supports the importance of measuring specific emotions rather than treating all negative emotional responses as equivalent. Consumer research provides further support for this approach. In a meta-analysis of 1,035 effect sizes involving more than 40,000 participants, Kranzbühler et al. (2020) found that models incorporating discrete emotions provided greater explanatory power for firm–customer encounters than models based only on valence and arousal. However, discrete emotion approaches have limitations. There is ongoing debate about which emotions should be considered “basic” and whether emotional experiences can be reliably separated into universal categories (Ekman, 1992; Ortony & Turner, 1990). Consumers may also experience multiple emotions simultaneously, making a single categorical label insufficient to describe the complexity of a consumption experience. Consequently, discrete emotions provide valuable specificity but do not capture every aspect of emotional experience. === Dimensional approach to consumer emotion === Dimensional approaches provide an alternative way of conceptualising emotion by representing emotional experiences along continuous dimensions rather than as separate categories. Russell's (1980) circumplex model of affect proposes that affective experiences can be represented primarily according to valence, ranging from unpleasant to pleasant, and arousal, ranging from low to high activation (see Figure 2).This means that emotions can be understood according to both how pleasant they feel and how activated the consumer is (Harmon-Jones, Harmon-Jones & Summerell, 2017).[[File:Circumplex model of emotion.svg|center|thumb|400x400px|'''Figure 2.''' Russell's Circumplex Model of emotion, a dimensional approach to classifying emotional experience (Russell, 1980).]] For example, a consumer who is excited about purchasing AirPods may experience high pleasure and high arousal, whereas a consumer who feels calm satisfaction after using them may experience high pleasure but lower arousal. Similarly, frustration may involve unpleasant valence and relatively high arousal, while boredom may involve unpleasant valence and lower arousal. The circumplex model therefore provides a useful framework for identifying the general emotional position of a consumer response. Dimensional approaches are particularly useful in consumer research because they simplify complex emotional experiences into measurable characteristics. However, relying only on valence and arousal can reduce the specificity of consumer responses. Kranzbühler et al. (2020) found that discrete emotions often explained firm–customer responses better than models based solely on core affect, demonstrating that knowing an emotion's valence and arousal does not necessarily reveal its behavioural consequences. For example, anger and fear may both involve negative valence and high arousal, yet can lead to substantially different judgements and decisions (Lerner & Keltner, 2001). Dimensional approaches provide a broad representation of the intensity and general direction of an emotional response, while discrete emotions provide greater information about the specific experience. For an AirPods evaluation, asking consumers to rate how pleasant and activated they felt could identify the overall emotional profile, while asking whether they felt excited, frustrated, satisfied, or disappointed could provide greater insight into the meaning of that response. Together, these perspectives demonstrate why consumer emotion cannot be fully captured by a single measure. Therefore, measuring consumer emotion requires researchers to consider not only whether a response is positive or negative, but also the specific emotion experienced and its position within broader dimensions such as valence and arousal. These distinctions provide the theoretical foundation for examining the methods used to measure consumer emotion (Achar et al., 2016; Bagozzi et al., 1999; Zeelenberg & Pieters, 2004). '''Table 1''' ''Comparing categorical and dimensional approaches to consumer emotion'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Approach !How emotion is conceptualised !Key theory !Key dimensions |- |'''Discrete/core emotions''' |Emotions are understood as distinguishable emotional states or categories. |Basic Emotion Theory: Ekman (1992) proposed that a set of basic emotions can be distinguished by characteristic features, including facial expressions and physiological responses. These emotions are considered relatively distinct from one another. |Happiness, anger, fear, sadness, surprise, disgust |- |'''Dimensional approach''' |Emotions are represented as positions along continuous dimensions. |The Circumplex Model of affect: Russell and Barrett (1999) argued that '''“'''emotion” is too broad to be treated as one scientific category, meaning that different things referred to as emotion may need to be distinguished. A prototypical emotional episode is more complex and involves a sequence of processes, including an antecedent, appraisal, physiological and cognitive changes, behavioural responses and self-categorisation (Russell & Barrett, 1999). |Valence (pleasant–unpleasant) and arousal (low–high activation) |} As Table 1 shows, dimensional approaches identify the general valence and arousal of emotions, whereas categorical approaches distinguish specific emotional states. Kranzbühler et al. (2020) found that discrete emotions often provided greater explanatory power in firm–customer encounters. Combining both approaches may therefore provide a more comprehensive understanding of consumer emotion and support more effective measurement. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} '''Scenario comprehension check quiz '''<quiz display=simple> {'''A consumer tries a new pair of AirPods and reports feeling “negative and highly activated". What additional information would help a researcher understand the consumer's response? |type="()"} + Identify the specific emotion they are experiencing, such as anger, frustration, or anxiety. - Measure only the overall positivity or negativity of their experience. </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} * == What methods are used to measure consumer emotion? == Emotions involve [[w:Subjective_character_of_experience|subjective experiences]], observable behaviours, and physiological responses. Researchers therefore use multiple methods to capture different aspects of emotional experience (Chamberlain & Broderick, 2007). These methods include [[w:Self-report_study|self-report questionnaires]], [[w:Observational_study|behavioural observation]], and physiological measures. Each provides different information, meaning the most appropriate method depends on what researchers aim to understand. === Self-report measures === Self-report measures ask consumers to describe their emotional experiences using questionnaires, emotion scales, or rating tasks. Consumers may rate how strongly they feel particular emotions, such as happiness, frustration, or disappointment, or indicate how pleasant or unpleasant an experience was. For example, after trying AirPods, a consumer might rate their satisfaction and frustration on a scale from 1 to 7. '''Table 2''' ''Examples of self-report measures used in consumer emotion research'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Measure !Description !Advantage !Limitation |- |Emotion adjective scales |Consumers rate emotions such as anger, excitement, or disappointment. |Identifies specific emotional experiences. |Depends on consumers recognising and reporting their feelings. |- |Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) |Measures positive and negative affect using emotion-related words. |Provides a structured way to compare emotional responses. |May not capture all emotions relevant to a particular consumption experience. |- |Consumption Emotion Set (CES) |Measures emotions experienced during consumption using consumption-related emotion descriptors. |Specifically developed to capture emotions associated with consumption. |The selected emotion words may not suit every product or cultural context. |} Sources: Richins (1997); Watson & Spence (2007). Self-report measures are useful because they provide direct access to consumers’ perceived emotional experiences, which may not be apparent from their behaviour or physiology (Chamberlain & Broderick, 2007). However, responses can be influenced by memory, [[w:Social-desirability_bias|social desirability]], and difficulties identifying or expressing emotions. For example, a consumer may report being satisfied with their AirPods because they want to justify their purchase, despite experiencing some disappointment. Therefore, self-reports indicate what consumers say they feel, but may not fully represent their emotional experience. === Behavioural and physiological measures === Behavioural and physiological measures examine observable actions and bodily responses associated with emotion. The [[w:James–Lange_theory|James–Lange theory of emotion]] proposes that emotional experiences arise from the perception of bodily changes following a stimulus (James, 2002). This provides a theoretical basis for examining physiological responses, such as heart rate and skin conductance, alongside behavioural indicators, including facial expressions and product interactions (Chamberlain & Broderick, 2007; James, 2002; Ningjian, 2024). However, physiological arousal alone cannot reliably identify a specific emotion because similar bodily responses may accompany different emotional states. For example, an increased heart rate when trying AirPods could reflect excitement, anxiety, or frustration. Therefore, although behavioural and physiological measures provide useful evidence about emotional responses, they should not be treated as direct proof of what a consumer feels (Siedlecka & Denson, 2019). '''Table 3''' ''Comparing behavioural and physiological methods of measuring consumer emotion'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Method !What is measured !Potential application !Key limitation |- |Facial expression analysis | Facial movements associated with emotional responses. | Assessing consumer reactions to advertisements or products. | Facial expressions do not always reflect a person's actual emotional experience. |- |Heart rate | Changes in heart rate associated with physiological arousal. | Measuring excitement or stress in response to advertisements. | Changes can result from physical activity or other factors unrelated to emotion. |- |Skin conductance | Changes in skin electrical conductivity caused by sweating. | Measuring emotional arousal in response to product experiences or marketing stimuli. | Cannot reliably identify which specific emotion is being experienced. |- |Eye tracking | Eye movements, gaze direction and fixation duration. | Identifying which elements of advertisements or products attract consumer attention. |Attention does not necessarily indicate positive emotion or purchase intention. |} Source: Bell et al. (2018).{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} '''Scenario comprehension check quiz '''<quiz display=simple> {'''A consumer tries a new pair of AirPods. Researchers observe an increased heart rate but do not ask the consumer how they feel. |type="()"} - The consumer is definitely excited about the AirPods. + The consumer is physiologically aroused, but further information is needed to identify the emotion. </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} * == How do individual differences influence consumers' emotional responses? == [[File:Arnolds appraisal theory of emotion.png|thumb|430px|'''Figure 3.''' The Appraisal theory of emotion (Moors et al., 2013).]] Although measurement methods can provide insight into consumer emotion, emotional responses should not be assumed to be consistent across individuals. Consumers may experience and express different emotions in response to the same stimuli because of differences in [[w:Personality_psychology|personality]], cultural makeup, experiences, personal values and [[Appraising Emotional Responses|appraisal]] processes. The Appraisal theory proposes that emotions arise from how individuals interpret and evaluate events in relation to their personal goals and concerns (Moors et al., 2013; see Figure 3).These differences are important when interpreting emotional measurements as a single score may not be representative of the range of consumers' emotional experiences. Understanding individual differences can therefore help researchers select appropriate measurement approaches and accurately interpret findings (Winter & Kuiper, 1997). [[Culture and Identity|Cultural identity]] can influence how emotions are understood, experienced and expressed. Notably, [[w:Individualistic_culture|individualistic cultures]] tend to emphasise personal goals and independence, conversely, [[w:Collectivism_(disambiguation)|collectivist]] cultures place greater emphasis on group relationships and interdependence. These cultural orientations may influence how consumers interpret emotional experiences and report their feelings. Matsumoto & Hwang (2012) highlight the importance of considering cultural influences when examining emotion and its measurement. Consequently, emotion measures developed within one cultural context should not automatically be assumed to be equally applied across all populations. Personality and personal values can also influence emotional responses to consumer-related stimuli. Although Ekman’s basic emotion approach identifies commonly recognised emotions, such as happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust, consumers may differ in the circumstances that elicit these emotions and in how strongly they experience them (Ekman et al., 1999). In reference to the exemplar scenario, two consumers may respond differently to the price of AirPods: one may feel excited about the product’s features, while another may feel frustrated because the cost exceeds their budget. These differences highlight the importance of considering both the emotional category being measured and the personal circumstances shaping the response. Research by Xie et al. (2015) illustrates how individual characteristics can influence consumer emotions and subsequent business outcomes. Their research examined consumers’ emotional responses to corporate environmental actions, finding that negative corporate actions could elicit moral emotions, including contempt, anger, and disgust, while positive environmental actions could elicit gratitude. Individual characteristics, including [[empathy]], [[w:Moral_identity|moral identity]], and social justice values, helped explain differences in these responses. These emotions were also associated with consumer reactions such as complaints, boycotting, positive word-of-mouth, and stronger company identification. This example demonstrates that consumer emotions are not simply reactions to a company’s actions; they can also reflect consumers’ values and moral evaluations of corporate behaviour (Bigné & Andreu, 2004). The way emotions are measured may therefore affect the conclusions researchers draw. Dimensional approaches assess emotional experiences along broad dimensions, such as valence and arousal, whereas categorical approaches distinguish between specific emotions, such as joy, anger, and fear. Faullant et al. (2011) examined relationships between personality, emotions, and customer satisfaction, highlighting the relevance of individual characteristics when investigating emotional responses. Broad emotional dimensions can help researchers compare general responses, while specific emotion categories may provide additional information about why consumers react as they do. However, neither approach captures every aspect of emotional experience, and the most appropriate method depends on the research question, consumer context and cultural background. This is particularly important because Western, individualistic perspectives have historically permeated understandings of personality and emotion, which may limit the applicability of some concepts and psychological measures across [[Cross-cultural psychology|culturally diverse populations]]. Finally, consumer emotion measurement can inform [[w:Market_segmentation|market segmentation]] by identifying differences in consumers’ emotional needs and responses to products, brands, and marketing (Bigné & Andreu, 2004). These insights can guide product development, advertising, brand positioning, and customer experience by informing decisions related to perceived value, purchase intentions, satisfaction, and word-of-mouth. However, emotional data should be interpreted alongside other consumer information, with consideration for cultural differences, privacy, and ethical use. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} '''Chapter comprehension check quiz''' <quiz display=simple> {All consumers will experience the same emotion when exposed to the same product or marketing stimulus''':''' |type="()"} - True + False {Emotions must be inferred through measurable responses: |type="()"} + True - False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} * ==Conclusion== Consumer emotion is complex and cannot be directly observed, meaning it must be inferred through measurable responses. Self-report, behavioural and physiological measures each provide different insights into emotional experiences, while categorical and dimensional theories guide how these responses are conceptualised and measured. However, emotional responses cannot be fully understood without considering individual differences, including personality, cultural background and personal values, which influence how consumers experience and express emotions. Integrating multiple measurement methods with an understanding of the consumer context can therefore provide more meaningful and accurate insights. Ultimately, effective consumer emotion measurement can support emotional segmentation and inform business decisions across product development, branding, advertising and customer experience, helping businesses better understand consumer needs and strengthen consumer relationships. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Take-home message''' Two consumers can experience the same product differently. Understanding ''why'' one consumer loves AirPods while another feels frustrated requires looking beyond the emotion itself to how it is measured and what shapes the consumer’s response. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also== * [[w:Consumer behaviour|Consumer behaviour]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Emotional buying|Emotional Buying]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Personality and emotion|Personality and Emotion]] (Book chapter, 2019) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Achar, C., So, J., Agrawal, N., & Duhachek, A. (2016). What we feel and why we buy: The influence of emotions on consumer decision-making. ''Current Opinion in Psychology'', ''10'', 166–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.01.009 Bagozzi, R. P., Gopinath, M., & Nyer, P. U. (1999). The role of emotions in marketing. ''Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 27'' (2), ''184–206.'' 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''Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science'', ''43''(3), 333–356. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-014-0394-5 Zeelenberg, M., & Pieters, R. (2004). Beyond valence in customer dissatisfaction: A review and new findings on behavioral responses to regret and disappointment in failed services. ''Journal of Business Research'', ''57''(4), 445–455. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0148-2963(02)00278-3 }} ==External links== * [https://www.ted.com/talks/sam_usher_neuromarketing_knowing_why_you_buy Neuromarketing: Knowing Why You Buy | Sam Usher | TED talk] (TED) * [https://www.apa.org/news/podcasts/speaking-of-psychology/shopping-behavior Tightwads and spendthrifts: How emotions drive our shopping behaviour | Podcast] (Speaking of Psychology, American Psychological Association) * [https://www.ted.com/talks/lisa_feldman_barrett_you_aren_t_at_the_mercy_of_your_emotions_your_brain_creates_them You aren't at the mercy of your emotions -- your brain creates them | Lisa Feldman Barrett | TED talk] (TED) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Money]] dl8gesw652q8wo3af7tx9uewlzaepxz 0 331144 2841859 2838927 2026-10-21T11:34:30Z Jtneill 10242 Copyediting 2841859 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-determination theory and military veteran reintegration:<br>How do autonomy, competence, and relatedness shape psychological adjustment after military service?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} ;Scenario [[File:Military-to-civilian reintegration.png|thumb|225px|'''Figure 1'''. Transition from military service to civilian life]] What happens when the thing that gave your life structure suddenly vanishes? For many military veterans, leaving the service gains them freedom, but freedom can also bring uncertainty. After 15 years of military service, including postings and deployments, a veteran returns home expecting civilian life to feel like freedom (see Figure 1). Instead, freedom feels disorientating. For over a decade, their days were shaped by established routines, explicit expectations, clear responsibilities, and a sense of belonging. Roles were understood. Decisions had purposes. Belonging was built into day-to-day life. The team was your support. Then, almost overnight, the rules had changed. There are no longer orders telling them what needs to be done, no team waiting or relying on them, and no familiar structure defining what it means to be successful. Decisions that were once straightforward now require navigating through uncertainty and often with little guidance or support. The confidence they had developed through military service may not readily translate into civilian life, whilst the relationships that brought connection and belonging may suddenly be hundreds or thousands of kilometres away. What was supposed to be liberation has now become a profound psychological adjustment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <nowiki> </nowiki> [[w:Military|Military]]-to-[[w:Civilian|Civilian]] transition is a major period of adjustment that brings an increased likelihood of psychosocial risk. It is a multidimensional process that involves changes to individuals' work, community roles, family, health, identity, housing and sources of purpose. These changes can challenge veterans' wellbeing, motivation, and [[w:adjustment| psychological disposition]] as they adapt to a new environment. [[w:Self-determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (SDT) offers a parsimonious account of one psychological pathway through this process. SDT proposes that wellbeing and autonomous motivation are fostered when three basic psychological needs are satisfied: autonomy, or acting with volition and self-endorsement; competence, or feeling satisfactory; and relatedness, or experiencing belonging and mutual care (Ryan & Deci, 2022). This chapter applies SDT to military-to-civilian reintegration. It explores how military experiences and their transition to civilian life can influence veterans' autonomy, competence, and relatedness. It examines how changes in these psychological needs may shape veterans' emotional wellbeing, psychological adjustment, and motivation. Finally, this chapter considers how SDT-informed interventions can both support need satisfaction and facilitate a successful reintegration. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} ;Focus questions # How does self-determination theory explain military-to-civilian transition? # How does military experience influence autonomy, competence, and relatedness? # How do military experiences shape veterans' wellbeing and adjustment? # How can self-determination theory informed interventions support successful reintegration? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == How does self-determination theory explain military-to-civilian transition? == SDT is an organismic and [[w:Dialectic|dialectical]] theory of human motivation and personality that was developed by [[w:Edward L. Deci| Edward Deci]] and [[w:Richard M. Ryan| Richard Ryan]]. Rather than treating motivation as a fixed individual trait, it examines how social contexts either support or obstruct development. A key principle of SDT is that people require satisfaction of three basic psychological needs; autonomy, competence, and relatedness, to function effectively. === What is self-determination theory? === SDT proposes that people have an inherent tendency towards development and growth, but social environments either support or interfere with this process. This theory considers both the individual and environment when explaining psychological functioning and motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2022; see Figure 2). [[File:Figure 2. Self-determination theory as a framework for understanding military-to-civilian transition.png|thumb|center|600px|'''Figure 2'''. Self-determination theory as a framework for understanding military-to-civilian transition]] Autonomy is a core psychological need to experience oneself as the author of one's own life, {{g}} this includes having a sense of choice and self-direction in one's own actions. People can experience autonomy when their behaviour reflects their interests, values, and choices rather than feeling influenced, coerced or controlled by external pressures. However, autonomy does not mean to be completely independent from others, {{g}} instead, it involves experiencing one's behaviour as being personally endorsed (Deci, & Ryan, 2022). Competence is the need to feel both effective and capable in one's interaction with the environment. It involves feeling a sense of confidence in one's ability to manage tasks, achieve desired outcomes, and overcome different challenges. However, it is important to note that competence is not defined by an objective level of skill or an ability that someone possesses, {{g}} instead, it's how capable and effective they perceive themselves (Deci, & Ryan., 2022). Relatedness is the feeling of being connected to and cared for by others, as well as having the opportunity to care for others. Individuals can feel accepted, understood, valued, and developing a sense of belonging within a broader community. Relatedness is not just being surrounded by other people, but instead feeling a genuine connection and feeling that one has a meaningful place within a social group. When one experiences rejection, loneliness, or a loss of meaningful connections it can frustrate this need (Deci, & Ryan., 2022). Need satisfaction and need frustration are two ways to explain how environments can influence these psychological needs. Need satisfaction refers to when autonomy, competence, and relatedness are supported, which promotes overall positive psychological wellbeing and growth. In contrast, need frustration can occur when these needs are actively undermined which can contribute to distress and maladaptive behaviours. See Table 1 below for a comparison of these needs. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1. Need Satisfaction vs Need Frustration (based on Olafasen, et al. 2021) ! !Autonomy !Competence !Relatedness |- |Need satisfaction |experiencing choice, self-direction, freedom in one's actions |experiencing mastery, capability and effectiveness in skills. |feeling a warm, secure and mutual care with others. |- |Need frustration |feeling controlled, pressured or coerced |feeling incompetent, inefficient, and doubting abilities. |experiencing loneliness, alienation, and social exclusion. |} SDT also distinguishes between two forms of motivation, ranging from autonomous to controlled motivation. It also explains how these motivations relate to engagement, vitality, performance, and psychological health (Loverre, et al. 2024). Autonomous motivation includes intrinsic motivation and fully internalised extrinsic motivation, whereas controlled motivation involves internal pressures or external demands (Rybakovaite, et al. 2021). SDT cautions against viewing reintegration as a simplistic shift from military control to civilian freedom, rather the issue is whether the post-service environment supports veterans' needs {{f}}. This perspective is relevant to military reintegration, where greater freedom does not necessarily translate into greater psychological need satisfaction. == How does military experience influence autonomy, competence, and relatedness? == Psychological need satisfaction provides a mechanism through which social environments influence motivation, adjustment, and wellbeing. The value of SDT for understanding the military to civilian transition is its capacity to explain why similar transitions can produce markedly different experiences. Rather than assuming that leaving the military is inherently beneficial or detrimental, it instead suggests that SDT adjustment depends on whether the new environment supports or frustrates these needs. {{f}} === Autonomy and the experience of choice === SDT conceptualises autonomy as experienced volition rather than independence {{f}}. Consequently, autonomy can still be supported within structured environments when individuals endorse and understand the reasons for their own actions {{f}}. This is particularly relevant to the military context as the military hierarchy and expectations do not necessarily undermine autonomy. Instead, personnel may continue to experience autonomous choices when their roles align with their personal values and purposes. Conversely, environments with greater freedom may not necessarily promote autonomy if meaningful alternatives are constrained. The significance of autonomy satisfaction is highlighted by Grimell (2024), who identified that greater need satisfaction was linked to higher levels of life satisfaction, vitality and wellbeing. Further, environments that are characterised by excessive control and limited self-endorsement may exacerbate autonomy frustration and lead to poorer psychological outcomes. During the transition period, veterans' {{g}} often gain greater responsibility for decisions relating to employment, relationships, and future goals {{f}}. However, increased choice does not automatically translate to increased autonomy. Pressures such as financial strain, health limitations, and difficulties in translating military qualifications, may restrict meaningful options. Notably, autonomy is less likely influenced by the quality of available choices but instead whether veterans' perceive opportunities as personally attainable and meaningful {{f}}. Raabe et al. (2024) identified considerable variability in {{ic|how many?}} veterans' perceptions of choice and control during the transition. This suggests that autonomy experiences differ substantially across individuals and their circumstances. === Competence and the sense of capability === Competence refers to feeling capable and effective in one's interactions with the environment. Military service is seen to often support competence through their structured training, opportunities to develop and demonstrate skills, and clear performance expectations (Carra, et al. 2022). However, competence may be undermined during the transition as actual capability and perceived competence are not always equivalent. Veterans may possess substantial knowledge and experience but struggle to transfer their military skills to unfamiliar civilian contexts or communicate their skills and value to employers. Tillberg et al. (2026) notes that translating military skills into civilian employment represents a significant challenge for many veterans. This suggests that competence may be undermined despite the presence of considerable capability. Although employment is often considered the indicator of successful reintegration, its relationship with competence is complex. Employment may support competence by providing veterans' opportunities to utilise existing abilities, experience achievement and develop new skills, however, employment alone does not guarantee competence satisfaction {{f}}. Employment that is poorly matched to a veterans' skills may provide limited opportunities for growth, or fail to recognise military experience. This may reduce perceived competence. Consequently, successful adjustment may be less dependent on obtaining employment, but instead whether veterans' experience their capabilities as valued, recognised, and effectively applied in civilian roles. {{f}} === Relatedness and the need to belong === Relatedness refers to feeling valued, connected, and being accepted by others. Military service often fosters significant social bonds through collective goals, shared experiences, and unit cohesion {{f}}. This transition may also involve not only a change in social networks but also the loss of an important source of belonging and identity {{f}}. Veterans often face the dual challenge of maintaining military connections whilst simultaneously establishing meaningful relationships within civilian communities (Barnett, et al. 2021). Continued military relationships may provide a sense of continuity during the transition period, whereas, developing meaningful civilian connections may help support long-term adjustment and integration. Difficulties establishing or maintaining these connections can contribute to social isolation, loneliness, experiencing alienation and along with lower levels of psychological wellbeing {{f}}. However, relatedness cannot be simply determined by the number of social contacts available. Instead {{g}} positive relatedness in the adjustment transition appears to depend on whether veterans' experience relationships that provide genuine mutual understanding, belonging, and support which can be influential in the post-service environment {{f}}. === Motivation and wellbeing === A central premise of SDT is that motivational quality, rather than just motivational quantity, shapes psychological functioning, behavioural outcomes and wellbeing {{f}}. Rather than treating motivation as a uniform construct, SDT proposes that the reasons underlying behaviour may be just as important as the behaviour itself (Linden at al., 2026). The satisfaction of autonomy, competence and relatedness are essential for optimal functioning and wellbeing{{f}}. The satisfaction of these needs provide positive organisational outcomes with a more positive attitude and less turnover intentions, stronger psychological understanding, and overall positive well-being. This is particularly relevant during military reintegration as veterans' must establish new responsibilities, goals, and sources of purpose. Whilst activities such as employment, or their engagement with transition services are often viewed as indicators of successful reintegration, their impact on wellbeing is dependent on the underlying motivation. veterans' who pursue these opportunities because it's meaningful and aligned with their personal values are more likely to experience more autonomous motivation (Linden et al., 2026). Engagement that is primarily driven by internal contingencies or external expectations may reflect more controlled motivation. Alternatively, veterans' who struggle to identify meaningful goals or have a perceived lack of purpose may experience amotivation. Therefore, understanding the quality of veterans' motivation may provide greater insight into their post-service wellbeing than simply examining participation in transition-related activities (Linden et al., 2026). {{simplify}} === Interacting needs === Whilst autonomy, competence, and relatedness are conceptually distinct, SDT proposes them as interrelated and operate as an integrated system (Mobbs, et al. 2018). Satisfaction and frustration of these needs may occur concurrently across different life contexts, {{g}} frustration in one area may also coincide with difficulties and challenges in another {{rewrite}}. This is particularly relevant for veterans' {{g}} as their transition to civilian life frequently involves concurrent changes in their social, family and occupational roles {{f}}. Raabe et al. (2024) observed {{ic|was this a research study?}} that veterans' transition can involve challenges across all three psychological needs. This includes changes in choice and control thats relevant to autonomy, relationships within the military which is connected to relatedness and challenges translating military skills into civilian employment which impacts competence. Similarly, Lanning et al. (2024) found improvements {{how}} in autonomy, competence, and relatedness amongst military service members and veterans' after a 5-week therapeutic programme. They reported an increase in satisfaction and a decrease in frustration, alongside reduced integration difficulties. Together, these findings suggest that examining psychological needs together may provide a comprehensive understanding of veterans' adjustment rather than considering each need independently. == How do military experiences shape veterans' wellbeing and adjustment? == Military services creates {{g}} a highly structured occupational and social environment through clearly defined roles, hierarchy, shared identity and collective goals {{f}}. These features can strengthen and support psychological needs through occupational responsibilities, training, unit cohesion, and teamwork, however, it may create potential tensions with autonomy when structure is experienced as controlling. Reintegration changes these conditions irrespective of whether they were positive or negative environments of new roles, expectations, relationships, and responsibilities. However, experiences may differ depending on whether veterans' discharge is voluntary or involuntary. === Structure, hierarchy, and autonomy === Military organisations rely heavily on rules, hierarchy, orders and clear responsibilities, shaping a high level of structure that is not often seen in civilian environments {{f}}. However, structure is not inherently incompatible with autonomy. From an SDT perspective, autonomy can be supported when personnel understand and endorse the purpose of their responsibilities, actions, and roles (Barnett, et al. 2021). Consequently, the sole presence of hierarchy does not determine whether autonomy is either supported or frustrated. Leadership plays an integral role in influencing these experiences. Autonomy supportive leadership involves providing meaningful rationales, acknowledging individuals' perspectives and offering appropriate opportunities for choice whilst upholding organisational requirements. These practices are associated with greater wellbeing, engagement, and performance amongst military personnel (Knevelsrud, et al. 2023). In contrast, leadership that is characterised by coercion, excessive pressure or micromanagement may frustrate autonomy by causing individuals to experience their behaviour as externally controlled rather than self-endorsed. These issues remain significant during reintegration. While civilian life often provides greater choice, increased choice does not automatically correlate to greater autonomy, as veterans' may still continue to experience constraints such as health limitations, financial constraints and uncertainty. The circumstances of discharge may also influence veterans' perceived control as involuntary discharge may limit opportunities for self-direction and preparation {{f}}. Nevertheless, regardless of discharge circumstances, veterans' may still encounter uncertainty and difficulties identifying meaningful pathways. Therefore, successful reintegration depends less on the amount of freedom available and more on whether veterans' experience meaningful opportunities within a new environment. <quiz display=simple> {'''When can military structure support autonomy?''' |type="()"} + When personnel understand and value their purpose - When all choices are removed - When personnel experience coercion and external pressure - When responsibilities are increased {'''Which psychological need may be most affected when a veteran loses their military unit after discharge?''' |type="()"} - Competence + Relatedness - Belonging - Autonomy </quiz> === Training, occupational roles, and competence === Military training and occupational roles provide multiple opportunities for feedback, skill development, achievement and responsibility which can strengthen competence. veterans' {{g}} often leave the service with highly developed diverse interpersonal and technical skills, including communication, leadership and teamwork {{f}}. However, possessing these transferable skills does not necessarily guarantee that competence is experienced or recognised in civilian environments (Tillberg et al., 2026). A recurrent challenge during reintegration is translating military skills into compentencies that civilian employers value and understand. Tillberg, et al. (2026) found {{how}} that difficulties transferring military skills to civilian employment can undermine perceived competence regardless of underlying capability. Similarly, Becker et al. (2022) documented that Australian veterans' {{f}} frequently experienced challenges adapting to civilian workplaces and applying military experience in different occupational settings. These findings emphasise that successful transitions involve more than obtaining employment, rather, it depends on if veterans' can communicate, recognise and apply their skills in meaningful ways. From an SDT perspective, competence is highly likely to be supported when civilian roles provide veterans' with opportunities for skill recognition, utilisation, and continued development. Successful vocational reintegration may depend more on their experience where their capabilities are valued, effective and relevant to their new environment rather than just employment status. === Relatedness: from military cohesion to civilian belonging === Military service often provides meaningful opportunities for relatedness through unit cohesion, teamwork, shared experiences and goals. These experiences foster social support and a sense of belonging that becomes deeply embedded in daily military life (Barnett, et al. 2021). Consequently, reintegration may not involve only changes in social networks, but also a loss of an important source of identity and community which can be significant for veterans' psychological adjustment. The relationship between military identity and belonging is complex. Flake and Kite (2021), {{g}} examined {{how}} 358 Australian Defence members and identified that identity change throughout the transition process can involve poor wellbeing, social isolation, and psychosocial transition challenges. For some, relinquishing a dominant military identity may contribute to social withdrawal and a greater divide between military and civilian life. This may contribute to a decreased effort to reconnect psychosocially. Therefore, successful adjustment may depend less on abandoning a military identity and more on integrating it into new civilian roles and communities. Military service can provide a strong sense of identity and purpose through clearly defined responsibilities, roles, and collective goals. As a result, reintegration may require veterans' to reconstruct how they understand themselves whilst developing new sources of meaning in civilian life. The challenge for veterans' {{g}} during reintegration is not just losing relationships, but instead adjusting to the loss of an environment that embedded belonging, social connection, and shared identity into everyday life. == How can self-determination theory-informed interventions and successful integration? == Understanding how psychological challenges of military-to-civilian transition provides a basis for developing supports that promote rather than constrain psychological needs {{g}}. An SDT-informed approach reorients the focus from simply helping veterans' cope with change, to instead creating social environments that support autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Transition services should then be evaluated according to the extent to which they provide opportunities for mastery, choice, and social connection {{f}}. === Creating supportive transition environments === Effective reintegration support should address both the psychological and practical aspects of transitions. Raabe et al. (2024) identified {{how}} that veterans' perceptions of choice and control significantly influenced their experiences of autonomy and further observed that family relationships could also provide autonomy support. These findings suggest that veterans' should be actively involved in decisions about their pathways and goals rather than treated as passive recipients. However, supporting autonomy does not mean the removal of all structure. veterans' {{g}} may value from clear guidance, pathways, and practical assistance whilst still retaining ownership of their decisions, as providing options alone is insufficient if veterans' {{g}} feel pressured towards certain outcomes. Therefore, effective support balances structure with choice without imposing predetermined outcomes. === Supporting competence and connection === Competence can be supported by assisting veterans' {{g}} to recognise, effectively communicate, and apply their military skills and capability within civilian settings. This is especially relevant given evidence {{f}} that translating military experience into civilian skills can be difficult to navigate and complex, causing perceptions of competence to potentially fluctuate as they enter unfamiliar work environments. Services such as career counselling, feedback, recognition and retraining may help veterans' develop the confidence and recognise their existing capabilities. Relatedness can be further supported through services and programs such as mentoring, family involvement, peer support and community involvement. Romaniuk, {{g}} et al. (2024) reported improvements in adjustment and reintegration following an Australian veteran program that combined peer discussion, psychoeducation and reflection activities. Although, the intervention was not solely based upon SDT, its person-centred approach illustrated how psychological and social support may facilitate successful reintegration. === Implications and limitations === SDT provides a valuable framework for evaluating how reintegration services can support wellbeing by fostering autonomy, competence, and relatedness. However, psychological need satisfaction cannot account for all influences on adjustment as factors such as financial security, housing, physical health, and access to services, may also shape reintegration outcomes {{f}}. Therefore, SDT should complement, rather than replace, broader social and practical supports. Furthermore, the research examining SDT-informed interventions for veterans' remains minimal {{ic|expand on what is meant by minimal - e.g., how many?}}. Future longitudinal and Australian-specific research is needed to help determine whether interventions targeting psychological need satisfaction produce sustained improvements in long-term wellbeing and reintegration outcomes. Additional research examining differences in discharge circumstances would be beneficial in understanding how autonomy, competence, and relatedness are supported across diverse veteran experiences. ==Conclusion== Military-to-civilian reintegration is a complex adjustment that involves transformations in relationships, identity, purpose, employment, and daily structure. SDT provides a valuable framework for understanding these changes by highlighting the importance of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in influencing veterans' motivation, adjustment and wellbeing. The evidence {{f}} further suggests that successful reintegration depends not solely on practical outcomes, but also on whether post-service environments support psychological need satisfaction. Changes in control and choice may shape autonomy, difficulty translating military skills may impact competence, and the loss of military communities may challenge relatedness. Successful reintegration involves more than just entering civilian life. Instead, it requires opportunities to experience meaningful choice, develop a sense of belonging and purpose, and utilise valued capabilities. By fostering these psychological needs, SDT-informed approaches may help veterans' build self-directed, fulfilling, and socially connected lives post-service. ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Social connection and emotion regulation|Social connection and emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[w:Self-determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Barnett, A., Savic, M., Lubman, D. (2021). Transitioning to civilian life: The importance of social group engagement and identity among Australian Defence Force veterans. ''Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 56''(8). https://doi.org/10.1177/00048674211046894 Becker, K., Bish, A., Abell, D., McCormack, M., Smidt, M. (2022). Supporting Australian veteran transition: career construction through a person-environment fit perspective. ''The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 36''(5), 799–823. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2022.2077127 Carra, K., Curtin, M., Fortune, T., Gordon, B. (2022). Service and demographic factors, health, trauma exposure, and participation are associated with adjustment for former Australian Defence Force members. ''Military Psychology, 35''(5), 480–492. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2022.2120312 Flack, M., Kite, L. (2021). Transition from military service to civilian: identity, social connectedness, and veteran wellbeing. ''PLoS ONE, 16''(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0261634 Grimell, J. (2024). You can take a person out of the military, but you can't take the military out of the person: findings from a ten-year identity study on transition from military to civilian life. ''Frontiers in Sociology, 9.'' https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2024.1406710 Kerr, N., Lane, S., Plotnikoff, R., Ashby, S. (2023). The "Transition" to civilian life from the perspective of former serving Australian Defence Force members. ''Journal of Veteran Studies, 9''(1), 129–142. https://doi.org/10.21061/jvs.v9i1.407. Knevelsrud, H.C., Sorlie, H., Valaker, S. (2023). Mission command: A self determination theory perspective. ''Military Psychology, 36''(6), 672–688. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2023.2252718 Linden, A., Borjesson, M. (2026). Motivation in physically demanding military roles: a qualitative study using self-determination theory. ''Military Psychology,'' 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2026.2671587 Loverre, M., Chirico, A., Cinque, L., Palombi, T., Alivernini, F., Lucidi, F., Alessandri, G., Livi, S. (2024). A systematic review of self-determination theory's application in military and police organisations. ''Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 40''(5), 685–707. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-024-09718-2 Mobbs, M., Bonanno, G. (2018). Beyond war and PTSD: The crucial role of transition stress in the lives of military veterans. ''Clinical Psychology Review, 59,'' 137–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.11.007 Olafsen, A., Halvari, H., Frolound, C. (2021). The basic psychological need satisfaction and need frustration at work scale: A validation study. ''Organisational Psychology, 12.'' https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.697306 Romaniuk, M., Saunders-Dow, E., Brown, K., Batterham, P. (2024). Feasibility, acceptability, and initial outcomes of a psychological adjustment and reintegration program for transitioned military veterans. ''BMC Psychology, 12''(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-02097-7 Ryan, R., Deci, E. (2022). Self determination theory. ''Encyclopedia of quality of life and well-being research.'' https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69909-7_2630-2 Rybakovaite. J., Poskus, M., Blue, S. (2021). Forced or free choice: Hardiness, need satisfaction, and engagement among military conscripts. ''Current Psychology, 42''(1), 7909–7919. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02123-6 Tillberg, L., Truusa, T.T, Tillberg, P. (2026). The skillful veteran: Transforming overseas experience into competence, from the military to civilian working life domain. ''Vocations and Learning, 19''(5). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12186-026-09385-w }} ==External links== * [https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report Military-to-civilian Transition Final Report] (Royal Commission) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QsYa_w5eugA Veteran transition support] (Youtube) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-determination theory]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Veterans]] 9la350p23rnlprdwjmmv9xdjpbe1g0u 1 331238 2841761 2834787 2026-10-20T21:06:33Z Jtneill 10242 Book chapter feedback 2841761 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Vermetten image== {{ping|StretchBeyond}} You noted that "(The Vermetten 2025 reading has an excellent flow chat to use if I can figure out how to get it embedded. the journal article is Creative Commons4.0 - need to ask James." : If you can download the image, it can then be uploaded to [[commons:]] and embedded on Wikiversity. However, there is a catch. The license is CC-NC (Non-commercial) which restricts re-use. Wiki Commons only accepts media which are unrestricted for re-use (e.g., public domain or creative commons attribution). Unfortunately, this image couldn't, for example, be re-used in private enterprise. You could potentially create your own image inspired by the original, and then you own the copyright to that image and can upload/embed it. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 05:21, 18 August 2026 (UTC) :Thank you. Based on what your advised yesterday, I have had an attempt at integrating some journal concepts into a graphic that I generated with Microsoft CoPilot. I have embedded it into my article now and referenced it in the caption, but I can't get the caption to be visual on the front page. I'm still struggling with how to manipulate figures and boxes, as the edits are not intuitive. [[User:StretchBeyond|StretchBeyond]] ([[User talk:StretchBeyond|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/StretchBeyond|contribs]]) 08:34, 19 August 2026 (UTC) : Well done! Hopefully, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FImmersive_therapy_for_PTSD_treatment&diff=2823045&oldid=2823035 this] did the trick. The images are clickable through to the licensing etc., so those details don't need to be in the caption. After a while it will probably make sense to use "edit source" which gives more editing control. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 08:51, 19 August 2026 (UTC) ::Thank you. I'll have some questions on this stuff tomorrow. [[User:StretchBeyond|StretchBeyond]] ([[User talk:StretchBeyond|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/StretchBeyond|contribs]]) 08:55, 19 August 2026 (UTC) == Strong topic development == Just leaving some feedback, as this topic development chapter is genuinely excellent. The theory, mechanisms, and research evidence are integrated at a very high level, and the immersive therapy examples are clear and engaging. It’s one of the strongest drafts I’ve come across. The structure and flow are exceptionally strong, especially for a topic development stage. [[User:StudentUC2026|StudentUC2026]] ([[User talk:StudentUC2026|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/StudentUC2026|contribs]]) 10:22, 22 August 2026 (UTC) <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and subtitle are correctly worded and use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] |2= <!-- Heading structure --> <!-- 2-level --> # Clear [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] # Remove links and citations from headings # This chapter is likely to exceeed the maximum word count, so consider truncating preliminary material <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Excellent alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure |3= <!-- Overview--> # Very good # Consider providing a compelling real-life or fictional scenario; costs could be cited in subsequent sections # Consider abbreviating the problem description and moving detail into subsequent sections # Reduce overcapitalisation; APA is a down-style: https://www.google.com.au/search?q=capitalization+site%3Aapastyle.apa.org <!-- Style --> # Use 3rd person point of view for focus questions <!-- Focus questions --> # Focus questions are aligned with sub-title and top-level headings |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Key points are well developed for each section # Prelminary material (e.g., "Why is emotional processing important in PTSD?") will likely need to be abbreviated or removed to allow the chapter to concentrate on answering "How does it work and what are the effects?" within the maximimum word count <!-- Theory and research --> # Promising balance of theory and research <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion is well underway # Concentrate on answering the focus questions |5= <!-- Figure --> # Excellent - Relevant figure(s) presented, captioned, and cited <!-- Creation --> # Well done on creating and uploading your own image! {{smile}}—this can also be listed on your user page as a social contribution |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Excellent in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Promising use of scenarios/examples/case studies # Keep scenarios brief <!-- Quiz --> # Promising use of quiz question(s) # Keep quiz questions brief and embed them in the most relevant sections <!-- Tables --> # Promising use of table(s) # Table 1 is probably overly detailed; consider how to simplify |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Very good <!-- Systematic reviews --> # Well done on identifying relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses <!-- APA style --> # Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]: ## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]] |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## Good ## See in-text comment <!-- External links --> # External links ## Good ## See in-text comment |9= <!-- User page --> # Excellent <!-- Description about self --> # Excellent description about self provided <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # A link to the book chapter is provided |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # Outstanding – at least three different types of contributions with direct link(s) to evidence }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 01:00, 29 August 2026 (UTC) == Authors Statement == '''Authors Statement''' ''I certify that no part of this assignment has been copied from any other student’s work or from any other source except where due acknowledgement is made in the assignment. No part of this assignment has been written for me by any other person. The material contained in this assignment has not been previously submitted for assessment in any other formal unit of study.'' '''Gen AI Use Statement''' ''I have used the following Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI) tools/services in the preparation of this assessment:'' ·       '''GenAI service name and version:''' Microsoft Copilot ·       '''Link to the GenAI service:''' https://copilot.microsoft.com/ ·       '''Ways this GenAI service was used:''' for initial ideation in response to the topic and to brainstorm and develop a writing strategy for this material. Copilot was also used at the end of the process to compare the advanced draft against the rubric. Copilot was used to identify any gross logic errors or data discrepancies in the argument. Copilot was used to proofread the final reference list for APA 7 compliance after EndNote 21 automated it. https://m365.cloud.microsoft/chat/conversation/0895ffb5-6712-49d4-890d-1198212346ee?auth=2--[[User:StretchBeyond|StretchBeyond]] ([[User talk:StretchBeyond|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/StretchBeyond|contribs]]) 09:15, 18 September 2026 (UTC) ·       '''GenAI service name and version:''' University of Canberra Studiosity ·       '''Link to the GenAI service:''' https://studiosity.com/connect/partners/university-of-canberra/student_home ·       '''Ways this GenAI service was used:''' for university-sponsored AI feedback to improve written work prior to submission. This was particularly useful in maintaining logical flow through the paragraph PEEL structure and in some aspects of grammar improvement. ·       '''GenAI service name and version:''' Grammarly Desktop 2026 for Microsoft Word ·       '''Link to the GenAI service:''' https://www.grammarly.com/ '''Ways this GenAI service was used:''' I used an integrated MS Word Grammarly subscription to help edit grammar, writing clarity, and punctuation. The tool also assists with inadvertent plagiarism detection, ensuring that citations are sound. ''I confirm that I have not used the Generative Artificial Intelligence service in the development of this work for assessment, other than as declared and acknowledged above, and that I have cited and referenced any GenAI content in my assessment submission, applying the relevant referencing style''. ''I understand that providing false or misleading information in this declaration and acknowledgement may constitute a breach of the'' [https://www.canberra.edu.au/about-uc/policy-and-legislation/legislation/rules/University-of-Canberra-Student-Conduct-Rules-2023.pdf University of Canberra (Student Conduct) Rules 2023.] [[User:StretchBeyond|StretchBeyond]] ([[User talk:StretchBeyond|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/StretchBeyond|contribs]]) 09:05, 16 September 2026 (UTC) == Feedback == Hi Andrew Thanks for providing feedback on my book chapter. I have read over your chapter and it looks great! Your writing is clear and moves the reader seamlessly through each section. One point for improvement I noticed was that the sentence "Integrating exposure therapy with gamified, posture-adaptive cognitive rehabilitation to support physical and emotional recovery (Figure 5) (Selvakumaran, 2025)." seems to be missing a final part. For example, you may like to consider linking this sentence to your previous sentence by finishing it with something like "...may facilitate better cross-cultural applications of the US-centric ''Bravemind''". I also noticed your use of the Wiki style citations at certain points (i.e. [3]). These were helpful to me as a reader but I believe I read in the marking criteria that we are encouraged to use either APA or wiki style citations, not both. Could you perhaps hyperlink text so the reader can see these sources, or include them in your external sources list instead? Another minor note is that your figures are well-chosen and make the chapter easy to follow, but they are hard to read in the size they currently are. Could you perhaps enlarge these so the reader can see them in full detail at a glance, rather than having to enlarge them? I've trialed enlarging Figure 6 for you so you can see if you like the feel of it, although I do appreciate it may break the flow of text. I added some Wiki links for some terms lay people may not immediately recognise, including olfactory and haptic, to ensure the chapter is accessible to a wide range of audiences. I also added some links in your conclusion that take the reader back to the part of the chapter you cite. Lastly, I also encourage citing Table 1 in a relevant point of your text to contextualise the table for readers. All the best with your final edits! Kind regards, Pepper [[User:U3253363|U3253363]] ([[User talk:U3253363|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3253363|contribs]]) 10:34, 27 September 2026 (UTC) :Pepper, :Thank you very much for taking the time to review it. Your suggestions are great and really useful. I reworked the Bravemind paragraph you flagged. It had become disjointed over time. Also removed the three footnote-style citations. I really appreciate you making the internal conclusion links - I haven't been able to figure them out yet. [[User:StretchBeyond|StretchBeyond]] ([[User talk:StretchBeyond|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/StretchBeyond|contribs]]) 04:05, 28 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This chapter is very well written and makes particularly effective use of figures and other interactive learning features to communicate about the problem in an accessible, applied, scientifically-informed manner <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* [[w:Help:Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to clearly communicated the changes made in most or all edits <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FImmersive_therapy_for_PTSD_treatment&diff=2841760&oldid=2836223 these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study <!-- Overview – Scenario - Figure --> # I adjusted the Figure 1 layout to match the overall book style # I moved Figure 2 to match the overall book style <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature box --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant) |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent review of relevant research <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent summary and conclusion # Highlights the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent ## Some very minor grammatical and proofreading errors have been fixed ## A few clarification tags have been added <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well captioned <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### The positioning and layout of some images has been adjusted to better match the overall book style <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table; include source(s) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent APA style: ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## Excellent responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/ use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent use of figure(s) # Good use of table(s) # Very good use of feature box(es) # Excellent use of scenarios, case studies, or examples <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Be more selective; only choose the most relevant links <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Be more selective; only choose the most relevant links |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~41 logged, useful, mostly moderate to major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 21:06, 20 October 2026 (UTC) dcjnuldsc5j15y6b5qyvdg83i2fgkyk 0 331240 2841821 2838943 2026-10-21T07:43:24Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 Attempting to solve lints 2841821 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Volunteer wellbeing:<br>How does volunteering affect volunteers' subjective wellbeing?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Youth-soccer-indiana.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Parent volunteering is common in youth sports.]] ;Scenario Claire and Trevor both spend their Saturday mornings volunteering at their local soccer club. Claire looks forward to volunteering, loves helping children learn new skills and has formed close friendships with other volunteers. Trevor enjoyed the role initially but now feels pressured to attend, is upset about the recognition he receives, feels that his contribution is not recognised and struggles to balance volunteering with other commitments. Even though they spend the same amount of time volunteering, Claire leaves feeling energised and fulfilled, while Trevor feels burnt out, exhausted and resentful. Why might similar activities, conditions and responsibilities have such different effects on their wellbeing? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[wikipedia:Volunteering|Volunteering]] contributes directly to many community organisations and essential services. Community sport provides a common and widespread way for people to volunteer in their communities (see Figure 1). But how does helping others and contributing to these organisations and community groups affect the wellbeing of volunteers themselves? Volunteering has been linked with positive experiences, including social connection, purpose and meaning. However, benefits are not guaranteed, and they do not affect everyone in the same way (Nichol et al., 2023). Volunteers may experience stress and exhaustion, especially when their responsibilities become difficult to manage and maintain, particularly when it impacts volunteers' home lives (Huynh et al., 2013). Over time, these challenges can have an effect on their wellbeing and result in them stepping away from volunteering altogether (Magrone et al., 2024). Understanding volunteer wellbeing is therefore not only important for the volunteers themselves, but also for the organisations that rely on their continued participation to function (''ACNC'', 2025). Psychological science seeks to understand why volunteering holds deep rewards for some and becomes an unsustainable commitment for others. Research on subjective wellbeing investigates how people evaluate and feel about their lives, including their overall life satisfaction and their positive and negative emotions (Diener, 1984). Research related to subjective wellbeing can also help to explain how volunteering contributes to a person's sense of meaning, purpose and growth, and may provide a broad perspective on the experiences that volunteering provides. Motivational frameworks and theories, like self-determination theory (SDT) can explain how the quality of someone's motivation, their individual psychological needs and the environment that they volunteer in can shape an individual's experiences (R. M. Ryan & Deci, 2000). These perspectives help to identify when volunteering can support someone's subjective wellbeing and when it becomes psychologically demanding. They also provide guidance for volunteers, organisations and community groups seeking to make volunteer participation sustainable and rewarding to those involved. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Focus questions * What is subjective wellbeing? <br> * How does volunteering affect subjective wellbeing? <br> * Why can volunteering improve wellbeing?<br> * When does volunteering support wellbeing, and when can it undermine it? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Understanding wellbeing == Wellbeing is a broad concept that describes how people feel about their lives, whether they feel like their lives are meaningful, how satisfied they are, and whether they experience purpose (Ryan and Deci, 2001). In the field of psychological research, [[wikipedia:Subjective_well-being|subjective wellbeing]] (SWB) refers to how people evaluate and experience their lives (Diener, 1984). Diener (1984) discusses SWB through three categories: # [[w:Life_satisfaction|Life satisfaction]] - Whether a person views their life positively overall and is satisfied with their life. # [[w:Positive_affectivity|Positive affect]] - How frequently a person experiences positive moods and feelings, like joy or enthusiasm. # [[w:Negative_affectivity|Negative affect]] - The frequency or intensity of unpleasant moods and emotions, like anger or sadness. These three categories are useful when distinguishing how volunteering may improve some parts of a person's wellbeing without improving others. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Subjective well-being in practice Claire may experience joy and excitement while coaching her junior football team without it causing a lasting change to her overall life satisfaction. Alternatively, Trevor may feel proud of his contributions to the football club while also being frustrated by its demands and volunteering environment. Positive and negative experiences can coexist and the sum of these experiences form subjective wellbeing. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Wellbeing is also understood through both hedonic and eudaimonic perspectives (Ryan & Deci, 2001). Hedonic wellbeing is best understood as emphasising happiness, pleasurable and positive experiences and emotions while avoiding discomfort and pain and unpleasant emotions, closely relating it to subjective wellbeing (Disabato et al., 2016). In contrast, eudaimonic wellbeing is concerned with the pursuit of self-realisation, meaning, purpose and personal growth (Ryan & Deci, 2001). These approaches and viewpoints are related, however feeling happy or positive is not the same as feeling satisfied with life or experiencing deep meaning. The distinction between these two concepts helps to explain the experiences of a volunteer. A volunteer may not always experience happiness or avoid stress in their role, but they may still find their contributions meaningful if they experience personal growth or are working towards something that they value (Ryan & Deci, 2001). In other words, a volunteer could find their role demanding while finding value in its purpose. Viewing volunteering through both of these lenses provides a broader understanding of volunteering's relationship to wellbeing. The distinction between the concepts of hedonic and eudaimonic wellbeing is particularly relevant because studies have found that volunteering does not influence all forms of wellbeing in the same way. A study by Son and Wilson (2012) found that volunteering was able to predict later eudaimonic and social wellbeing, but not hedonic wellbeing. It also found that if a participant had higher wellbeing, this increased the likelihood that they would volunteer in the first place, suggesting that the relationship between volunteering and wellbeing operates in both directions. Understanding what aspects of wellbeing a study measures is essential to understanding how, and whether volunteering will actually benefit volunteers. '''Knowledge check''' <div style="margin-top:-2.5em;"> <quiz display="simple"> {Trevor sometimes feels stressed when balancing his weekend volunteering with work and family responsibilities. However, helping young players develop gives him a strong sense of purpose, and he believes the role has helped him grow as a person. Despite its challenges, he considers volunteering a valuable part of his life. Which concept best explains the benefits Trevor describes?} - Hedonic wellbeing, because volunteering consistently provides pleasure and enjoyment. - Life satisfaction, because valuing his volunteering role demonstrates satisfaction with his life overall. + Eudaimonic wellbeing, because volunteering provides meaning, purpose and personal growth despite its challenges. - Positive affect, because finding his contribution worthwhile means that positive emotions outweigh his stress. {Before joining the club, Claire already felt satisfied with her life and socially connected, which encouraged her to volunteer. Since becoming a coach, she has developed new friendships and often feels happier after training. Which interpretation is most consistent with research on the relationship between volunteering and wellbeing?} - Volunteering must have caused her high wellbeing because she finds coaching rewarding. + Higher wellbeing may encourage volunteering, while volunteering may also contribute to subsequent wellbeing. - Her previous high wellbeing means that volunteering cannot improve her wellbeing further. - The relationship operates only from wellbeing to volunteering, because she already felt satisfied before joining. </quiz> </div> ==How volunteering affects wellbeing == Volunteering has been associated with improved wellbeing but in reality its benefits can differ greatly across different people with different experiences (Nichol et al., 2023). Research has found that volunteering can improve some aspects of a person's wellbeing, without affecting others (Kim et al., 2020). Interpreting these findings requires an understanding of the outcomes being measured, and whether the differences that are observed can be attributed to volunteering. Nichol et al. (2023) conducted an umbrella review of 28 systematic reviews that examined the effects of volunteering on participants' social, mental and physical wellbeing. They found benefits across all three of these spheres of wellbeing, suggesting that volunteering can support aspects of volunteers' health and wellbeing. However, this broad finding does not mean that everyone will benefit from volunteering in the same way. It should be noted that the included reviews were identified as generally of poor quality, focusing mainly on older adults in the United States, thus limiting the applicability of findings to other populations of volunteers. Research viewing specific outcomes provides a more targeted and detailed picture of volunteering's effect on wellbeing. Kim et al. (2020) followed 12,998 adults over 50 in the United States. When compared with those who did not volunteer, participants who volunteered for at least 100 hours a year reported greater levels of positive affect and a stronger sense of purpose over a period of 4 years. However, volunteering could not be directly associated with greater life satisfaction or a lower negative affect. This shows that volunteering can support some aspects of wellbeing without improving all of them. Feeling more positive does not necessarily reduce the unpleasant emotions or dissatisfaction with life someone may experience. In a randomised controlled trial involving retired Australians aged 60 and over, Jongenelis et al. (2021) examined whether starting to volunteer improved wellbeing. Participants who were assigned to the volunteering group and volunteered at least one hour a week for six months experienced greater improvements in life satisfaction, personal growth and purpose over 12 months than those who did not volunteer at all. This study did only include participants that maintained their assigned conditions, which could have introduced [[w:Selection_bias|selection bias]] to these results. '''Table 1. Summary of research on volunteering and wellbeing''' {| class="wikitable" ! Study ! Approach ! Main findings ! What should readers consider? |- | Nichol et al. (2023) | Umbrella review of 28 systematic reviews. | Benefits were reported across social, mental and physical health and wellbeing. | Review quality was generally poor, and participants were mainly older adults in the United States. |- | Kim et al. (2020) | Longitudinal study of 12,998 adults aged over 50 in the United States. | Volunteering for at least 100 hours a year was associated with greater positive affect and purpose, but not with life satisfaction or negative affect. | Associations differed across outcomes. The observational design cannot establish that volunteering caused the differences. |- | Jongenelis et al. (2021) | Follow-up of a randomised controlled trial involving retired Australians aged 60 and over. | Participants who followed the volunteering condition showed greater improvements in life satisfaction, purpose and personal growth over 12 months than controls who did not volunteer. | The analysis included only participants who followed their assigned conditions, which may introduce selection bias. |} Together, these studies (see Table 1) suggest that volunteering supports wellbeing, but the benefits vary across people, groups and aspects of wellbeing. Understanding why these benefits occur requires a review of volunteers' motivations and experiences. ==Why volunteering can improve wellbeing== [[File:SelfDeterminationTheory.svg|thumb|303x303px|'''Figure 2'''. A diagram depicting the elements of self determination theory]][[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Volunteer motivation|So why do people volunteer?]] Volunteering provides people with opportunities to develop skills, build relationships and feel like they are making a direct impact and difference (Kanemura, 2023). These experiences are directly relevant to the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and the experiences of purpose, growth and [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Meaning and happiness|meaning]] (Nichol et al., 2024). The following section explores how Self-determination theory combined with research on growth, purpose and meaning can explain the benefits to the subjective wellbeing of volunteers. === Self-Determination and psychological needs === Self-determination theory (SDT) proposes that there are three basic psychological needs (See Figure 2. & Table 2.) that need to be satisfied to support motivation and wellbeing (Deci & Ryan, 2000). {| class="wikitable" |+ Table 2. Psychological needs in the volunteering context ! Psychological need ! What it involves ! When supported ! When frustrated |- | Autonomy | Feeling that actions are freely chosen and personally endorsed. | Having a say in responsibilities and accepting tasks that align with personal values. | Feeling pressured or guilty about declining additional tasks. |- | Competence | Feeling capable and effective. | Receiving guidance and useful feedback that help develop skills. | Feeling incapable when demands exceed skills and guidance is unavailable. |- | Relatedness | Feeling connected, valued and cared for. | Experiencing inclusion and supportive relationships. | Feeling excluded, dismissed or disconnected from others. |}Volunteering can provide opportunities for people to satisfy each of these needs. Participating in a role that reflects personal values and interests can support autonomy, applying and seeing the results of personal effort can support competence, building friendships and finding community within an organisation can support relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 2000). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Claire - fulfilment of psychological needs Autonomy - Claire arrives at training on Thursday night looking forward to coaching a passing drill she has chosen for her team. Competence - After several tries, a player gets it right and smiles at her. Claire feels proud that her coaching has helped her player. Relatedness - After training has finished she chats and jokes with the other coaches as they pack away the equipment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Lubics et al. (2026) reviewed how the satisfaction of psychological needs related to wellbeing among 650 Hungarian volunteers. They found that the satisfaction of autonomy, relatedness and competence was associated with greater wellbeing in volunteers. Conversely it also found that the frustration of these needs was associated with poorer outcomes and wellbeing in the tested population. This supports the idea that the benefits of volunteering are connected to how people experience their roles and fulfill their needs under the SDT. === Meaning, purpose and growth === Volunteering can provide a sense of purpose by giving people an avenue to contribute to something they value, creating opportunities for personal growth and working with others. These experiences reflect the conditions of eudaimonic wellbeing discussed previously, because it involves the development of personal meaning, purpose and growth (Ryan & Deci, 2000). People benefit the most from volunteering when the role is important to them, and they feel that they are genuinely involved in what they are doing (Jongenelis, Jackson, Warburton, et al., 2021). Meneghini & Colledani. (2022) explored this in their study which examined the relationship between motivation, wellbeing and engagement among 175 volunteers. They found that engagement with volunteering helped to explain the link between eudaimonic wellbeing and a person's self-determined motivation. This suggests that participating in volunteering for personal reasons supports meaning and growth. A volunteer who is able to contribute to something they consider worthwhile is likely to find meaning in their participation. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Trevor - Finding meaning After a difficult day at the football club, Trevor notices a player who used to be shy and struggled to make friends joining confidently in a team warmup. Trevor remembers the weeks he spent encouraging them and feels that his contributions at the club matters. Trevor also reflects that coaching has taught him to be more patient and understand different peoples needs. Trevor still struggles to balance volunteering with his other life commitments, but helping children develop and build confidence gives him a sense of purpose. Trevor's experience demonstrates how recognbising the importance of contributions can support eudaimonic wellbeing. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Volunteering can provide a role in community, allow someone the opportunity to directly impact others, give a deep sense of purpose and provide the ability to develop new skills. This experience may motivate someone to continue volunteering, even if their role is demanding or does not provide them with short-term hedonic wellbeing (Kanemura, 2023). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Stop sign us.jpg|right|360px|alt=A standard red octagonal stop sign]] '''Reflection Stop!''' Using previous examples of Claire and Trevor consider the following questions: 1. What basic psychological needs under SDT appear to be supported for Claire? Think of an example of autonomy, competence and relatedness<br> 2. What needs might be frustrated for Trevor? Would you need any more information to know?<br> 3. Why might Trevor find volunteering meaningul while also experiencing stress or exhaustion?<br> 4. What can Claire and Trevor show us about volunteering supporting some aspects of wellbeing without improving others? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == When volunteering helps, and when it does not == The benefits of volunteering are not guaranteed. People's experience of the same roles and activities can vary widely depending on why they are volunteering, the demands that they face and their volunteering environment (Wu & Li, 2019; Magrone et al., 2023). These roles can provide meaning, connection and growth, but their benefits can be undermined when participation feels unsustainable or poorly supported. Understanding these differences in experience and motivation helps to explain why volunteering is a net positive for some and an untenable activity for others. === Autonomous and controlled motivation === Ryan and Deci (2000) support the emphasis on motivation quality as well as the distinction between autonomous and controlled motivation. The quality of an individuals' motivation is a key concept in SDT (Gagné & Deci, 2005). SDT distinguishes between two different forms of motivation: # Autonomous motivation - Where behaviour is driven or acted on because an activity is personally meaningful or enjoyable # Controlled motivation - Where behaviour is driven or acted on through obligation, external expectations, pressure or guilt Separating these two forms of motivation can help to explain differences when assessing differences between volunteers' wellbeing. Does a person volunteer because they genuinely enjoy it? Or are they feeling psychologically pressured to continue? Wu and Li (2018) explored this in their survey of 2,022 volunteers. Their research found that volunteers with higher autonomous motivation were associated with greater life satisfaction and lower rates of emotional exhaustion than others in the population while higher levels of controlled motivation were associated with lower life satisfaction and increased emotional exhaustion. This supports the suggestion that a volunteer's reasons for participating are relevant to their wellbeing. The distinction between autonomous and controlled motivation also helps to explain why volunteers performing the same activity experience it differently. When a volunteer chooses to participate on their own volition, their involvement may reflect enjoyment or a commitment that they personally value (Gagné & Deci, 2005). When participation is driven by guilt or external pressure, the same participation may feel forced or laborious. The activity or conditions in the volunteering only tell part of the story, whether the volunteers feel compelled to participate also matters for their subjective wellbeing (Wu and Li ,2018). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Claire & Trevor - Same task, different motivation Claire and Trevor have been working together to organise the soccer club's fixtures for next weekend using a spreadsheet (see Figure 3). Neither of them particularly enjoys the administrative workload. [[File:Spreadsheet animation.gif|thumb|250px|alt=An animation showing calculations in a spreadsheet.|Figure 3. Administrative tasks may be personally valued even when they are not enjoyable.]] Claire says "It's not the most exciting job, but at least we are making sure the kids get out and play. That makes it a job worth doing." Trevor responds "I'd rather be at home relaxing, but I'd feel too guilty leaving someone else to do it on their own. I don't want the club thinking that I am avoiding helping out." '''Consider:''' * Who shows autonomous motivation, and who shows controlled motivation? What in their comments suggests this? * Why might Claire’s motivation be autonomous even though she does not enjoy the task? * How might their different motivations affect their wellbeing?{{RoundBoxBottom}} === The volunteering environment: support, stress and burnout === Volunteering can become overwhelming when its responsibilities compete with the other areas of a person's life (Magrone et al, 2024). Outside time commitments, family responsibilities, employment and study obligations can make it difficult for anyone to balance a volunteering role. When these demands increase and compound, even a role that someone enjoys and finds meaningful can become difficulty to maintain. Studies, including a recent study by Magrone et al. (2024), have found that interference between a person's home life and volunteering were associated with a volunteer's intention to leave their position. Magrone et al. (2024) found that volunteers were likely to feel cynical or disconnected from their role when it interfered with their home life. This was linked to volunteers wanting to leave their position. However, if the organisation showed appreciation and offered practical support, this relationship was weakened, suggesting that how volunteers are supported matters when they are experiencing difficulty. [[File:Panicking Cartoon Guy Working Overtime With A Lot Of Paperwork.svg|thumb|280px|alt=A cartoon person overwhelmed by stacks of paperwork and time pressure.|'''Figure 4.''' Volunteering responsibilities can affect volunteers' wellbeing, especially when it impacts the volunteers' home life ]] Another study from the same journal explored burnout within volunteers in rural Australia. Holmes et al. (2026) highlight that high workloads, shortages of volunteers, bureaucracy, limited funding and time commitments contributed to burnout in rural volunteers. This demonstrates the compounding effect that several challenges can make volunteering hard to sustain, and place volunteer wellbeing under strain (see Figure 4). The nature of the role can also increase emotional demands. Volunteers providing crisis support through services like [https://www.lifeline.org.au/ Lifeline] may encounter distressing situations, making the intervention of their organisation in their wellbeing particularly important (Willems et al., 2020). Volunteer organisations can influence how volunteers manage these demands (Magrone et al., 2024). Simple things like the recognition of effort, realistic expectations, flexibility around people's lives and appropriate resource management can help volunteers to manage demanding roles. Unfortunately, poor support mechanisms and unrealistic expectations can undermine the benefits that make volunteering rewarding. Magrone et al. (2024) support this through their findings that organisational support and appreciation weakened the link between interference with volunteers' home life and intentions to leave their role. This demonstrates that stress experienced by volunteers is often systemic within an organisational structure. '''Knowledge check''' <div style="margin-top:-2.5em;"> <quiz display="simple"> {Which response from the sporting club would be most likely to support Trevor's wellbeing? } - Increase his responsibilities so he feels more important in the club . + Discuss his workload with him, provide greater flexibility, clarify expectations, and recognise his contribution . - Reduce communication with him so that he can manage his role independently . - Remind him that other volunteers depend on him and that leaving would create extra work . {Which of Trevor's psychological needs is most likely to be undermined if he feels pressured to continue volunteering even when he no longer wants to?.} - Competence. - Relatedness. - Personal Growth. + Autonomy. </quiz> </div> ==Conclusion== Volunteering can support people's subjective wellbeing, but its benefits are not guaranteed or the same for everyone (Nichol et al., 2024). Psychological theory, primarily SDT, helps to explain these individual differences by showing how volunteers' motivations, needs and experiences interact with their environment (Wu & Li, 2019; Lubics et al., 2026). Meaningful positions that support personal competence, choice and relatedness can make participation rewarding, while excessive pressure, stress and a lack of support contributes to burnout and exhaustion (Wu & Li, 2019; Huynh et al., 2013). The benefits of volunteering depend on why a person is volunteering in the first place and how they experience their role. Supporting volunteer wellbeing can be accomplished by creating opportunities for people to contribute in ways that align with their values, while ensuring that they can balance volunteering with the rest of their lives and feel supported. Volunteering is likely to support individual wellbeing when people are free to choose their role, find their contribution meaningful and have organisational support to manage their responsibilities (Wu & Li, 2019; Jongenelis, Jackson, Warburton, et al., 2022). Caring for volunteers means valuing their wellbeing as much as the work they accomplish. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} '''Key Takeaways''' * '''Consider wellbeing broadly.''' Positive emotions, life satisfaction and a sense of meaning are related but distinct. Volunteering may benefit some aspects without improving others. * '''Look beyond participation alone.''' Understanding the benefits of volunteering requires considering people’s motivations, experiences and circumstances. * '''Support choice, capability and connection.''' Opportunities to act willingly, feel effective and build relationships help explain how volunteering can support wellbeing. * '''Recognise that meaning and strain can coexist.''' A valued role can still be exhausting. Meaningful participation does not remove the need for manageable demands and support. * '''Treat wellbeing as a shared responsibility.''' Sustainable volunteering depends on both individual circumstances and organisational practices that value and support people. '''Take-home message:''' The wellbeing benefits of volunteering depend on why people participate and how they experience their contribution. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Burnout|Burnout]] - What is burnout and how can it be managed and prevented (Book chapter, 2023) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Compassion fatigue|Compassion fatigue]] - What is compassion fatigue, what are the consequences, and how can it be managed? (Book chapter, 2020) * [[wikipedia:Eudaimonia|Eduaimonia]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Functional approach to volunteerism|Functional approach to volunteerism]] - How does the functional approach explain volunteer motivation and how can it be applied? (Book chapter, 2024) * [[wikipedia:Hedonic_motivation|Hedonic motivation]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Job_demands-resources_model|Jobs demands-resources model]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Perceived_organizational_support|Perceived organisational support]] (Wikipedia) * [[Prosocial behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikiversity) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|Social support and emotion]] - What effect does social support have on emotion? (Book chapter, 2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Subjective well-being|Subjective well-being]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[wikipedia:Subjective_well-being|Subjective well-being]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= ''Charity by numbers: The volunteer effect'' {{!}} ACNC. (2025, December 10). Acnc.Gov.Au. https://www.acnc.gov.au/tools/reports/charity-numbers-volunteer-effect Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). ''Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior''. Plenum Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-2271-7 Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. ''Psychological Bulletin, 95''(3), 542–575. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.95.3.542 Disabato, D. J., Goodman, F. R., Kashdan, T. B., Short, J. L., & Jarden, A. (2016). Different types of well-being? A cross-cultural examination of hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. ''Psychological Assessment, 28''(5), 471–482. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000209 Gagné, M., & Deci, E. L. (2005). Self-determination theory and work motivation. ''Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26''(4), 331–362. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.322 Holmes, K., Lockstone-Binney, L., Davies, A., O’Halloran, M., & Janowski, I. (2026). Managing burnout among rural volunteers in Australia. ''International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations'', 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0957876526000161 Huynh, J. Y., Xanthopoulou, D., & Winefield, A. H. (2013). Social support moderates the impact of demands on burnout and organizational connectedness: A two-wave study of volunteer firefighters. ''Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 18''(1), 9–15. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030804 Jongenelis, M. I., Jackson, B., Newton, R. U., & Pettigrew, S. (2021). Longitudinal associations between formal volunteering and well-being among retired older people: Follow-up results from a randomized controlled trial. ''Aging & Mental Health, 26''(2), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2021.1884845 Jongenelis, M. I., Jackson, B., Warburton, J., Newton, R. U., & Pettigrew, S. (2021). Aspects of formal volunteering that contribute to favourable psychological outcomes in older adults. ''European Journal of Ageing, 19''. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10433-021-00618-6 Kanemura, R. (2023, June 27). ''5. Volunteer experience and impact''. NCVO. https://www.ncvo.org.uk/news-and-insights/news-index/time-well-spent-2023/volunteer-experience-impact/ Kim, E. S., Whillans, A. V., Lee, M. T., Chen, Y., & VanderWeele, T. J. (2020). Volunteering and subsequent health and well-being in older adults: An outcome-wide longitudinal approach. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 59(2), 176–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2020.03.004 Lubics, O., Magyaródi, T., & Nagy, H. (2026). Basic psychological needs and beneficence in the volunteer experience: Exploring satisfaction, frustration, and their links to well-being and ill-being. ''Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly''. https://doi.org/10.1177/08997640261453280 Magrone, M., Montani, F., Emili, S., Bakker, A. B., & Sommovigo, V. (2024). A new look at job demands, resources, and volunteers’ intentions to leave: The role of work–home interference and burnout. ''VOLUNTAS International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations''. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-024-00679-y Meneghini, A. M., & Colledani, D. (2022). “Doing well by doing good”: When and how volunteering fosters hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. ''The Humanistic Psychologist''. https://doi.org/10.1037/hum0000303 Nichol, B., Wilson, R., Rodrigues, A., & Haighton, C. (2023). Exploring the effects of volunteering on the social, mental, and physical health and well-being of volunteers: An umbrella review. ''VOLUNTAS: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 35''(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-023-00573-z Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. ''American Psychologist, 55''(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 Ryan, R., & Deci, E. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. ''Annual Review of Psychology, 52''(1), 141–166. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.141 Son, J., & Wilson, J. (2012). Volunteer work and hedonic, eudemonic, and social well-being. ''Sociological Forum, 27''(3), 658–681. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1573-7861.2012.01340.x Willems, R., Drossaert, C., Vuijk, P., & Bohlmeijer, E. (2020). Impact of crisis line volunteering on mental wellbeing and the associated factors: A systematic review. ''International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17''(5), 1641. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17051641 Wu, Y., & Li, C. (2018). Helping others helps? A self-determination theory approach on work climate and wellbeing among volunteers. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 14''. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-018-9642-z }} ==External links== * [https://www.acnc.gov.au/tools/reports/australian-charities-report-12th-edition Australian Charities Report] (ACNC) * [https://www.acnc.gov.au/media/news/new-report-highlights-essential-role-volunteer-run-charities-australia Australian Charities Media Release] (ACNC) * [https://www.ted.com/talks/dan_pink_the_puzzle_of_motivation Daniel H. Pink: The puzzle of motivation] (TED) * [https://www.ted.com/talks/elizabeth_dunn_helping_others_makes_us_happier_but_it_matters_how_we_do_it Elizabeth Dunn: Helping others makes us happier - but it matters how we do it] (TED) * [https://www.volunteeringaustralia.org/get-involved/resources/vol-engaged/ Keeping Volunteers Connected and Engaged] (Volunteering Australia) * [https://www.mentalhealth.org.uk/explore-mental-health/kindness/kindness-matters-guide? Kindness matters guide] (Mental Health Foundation UK) * [https://www.volunteeringaustralia.org/get-involved/resources/nationalstandards/ National Standards for Volunteer Involvement] (Volunteering Australia) * [https://volunteeringact.org.au/about/publications-and-reports/resources-for-volunteers/ Resources for Volunteers] (Volunteering ACT) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/the-theory/ Self-Determination Theory] (Center For Self-Determination Theory) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Volunteering]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] opliggk233nra239ujvgpbgp0jnn7ji 0 331258 2841738 2841717 2026-10-20T19:43:38Z ~2026-55910-53 3112914 /* Basic emotions */ final draft of what are moral emotion 2841738 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Moral emotions and ethical behaviour<br>How do moral emotions motivate ethical and prosocial action?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} [[File:Begging man Harmony Lot 27 Elliot Street downtown Brattleboro VT July 2025 02.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Homeless man begging]] ;Scenario Imagine that you are doing your weekly shopping and you come across a homeless person who is asking for food or money. The person present in an unkempt state and initially you make sure you walk past, your stomach drops, and subconsciously wrinkle your nose and you decide to take a longer path to the shops in order to avoid them. When paying for your groceries, you realise that you don’t have quite enough to pay the full amount, instantly, your face gets hot as there is a line of people waiting behind you and it seems they are all staring at you, judging your error. Whilst you are talking to the register assistant, asking for some time to go through your groceries to determine which items are a priority, the person behind you offers to make up the difference. Suddenly, the hot feeling in your face becomes a warm feeling in your chest and you start profusely thanking the person and ask if there is anything you can do to make it up to them, they respond with “when you are in a position to pay it forward to some else, please do so.” {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Moral_emotions|Moral emotions]] potentially set humans apart from other animals, by enabling people to react to social events that do not directly affect the self but concern the interests or welfare either of others and society as a whole (''Haidt, 2003).'' They arise when individuals evaluate actions, intentions, or social situations in terms of right or wrong, in accordance with social norms and moral standards. This guides behaviours that support cooperation, fairness and social harmony. This distinguishes moral emotions from [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Individual emotions|basic emotions]], which are a person's primary response to a situation. Basic emotions fast, short lived, whilst moral emotions, like secondary emotions, are more complex and require a cognitive evaluation of the self from learned social meaning (''Guy-Evans'', 2026). To understand how moral emotions motivate behaviour, examination of the psychological/ psychological mechanisms behind these emotions is required. Moral emotions involve appraisals of responsibility and social meaning, biological responses that prepare the body for action, and expressive behaviours that communicate intentions. These mechanisms create ''action readiness'', transforming moral evaluations into behavioural tendencies such as helping, repairing harm, confronting wrongdoing, or avoiding social violations (''Reeve'', 2023). Understanding moral emotions is essential to link how they motivate ethical and prosocial action. [[w:Self-conscious_emotions|Self-conscious moral emotions]] - such as guilt, shame, embarrassment, and authentic pride - occur when people evaluate their own behaviour against internalised moral standards. These emotions regulate the moral self by motivating reparative action, helping others, rule compliance, or withdrawal (''Tangney, Tracy, & Robins'', 2007). Importantly [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Guilt and shame|guilt and shame]] differ in their internalised state, appraisal of self and motivation urge resulting in different behaviours (''Tangney, Stuewig, & Mashek'', 2007). Other‑evaluative moral emotions—including compassion, gratitude, elevation/ awe, along with contempt, disgust and moral outrage—arise when people respond to the experiences or actions of others. These emotions generate intuitive impulses to help, reciprocate kindness, emulate moral exemplars, confront wrongdoing or avoid social violations (''Haidt'', 2003). Together, these insights show how moral emotions serve as powerful motivational systems that shape ethical and prosocial behaviour in everyday life. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}'''Focus questions''' {{ic|}} * What moral emotions and how do they differ from basic emotions? <br> * How are moral emotions felt and motivate action?<br> * How do self-conscious moral emotions influence ethical behaviour? * How to other-evaluating emotions motivate prosocial behaviour?{{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What are moral emotions?== Moral emotions, defined to [[w:Jonathan_Haidt|Jonathan Haidt]] (2003), are the complex cognitively enriched emotional systems that have origins to simpler evolutionary precursors and responses to changes affecting the self. The defining qualifier of moral emotions are those involving social appraisals, cultural meaning systems and norm-based judgements that elicit motivation to act in ways that are shaped by local values and knowledge, which in turn indirectly provide benefits to the self. E.g., contempt depends on understanding rank; guilt depends on communal relationships; elevation depends on recognising moral virtue. === Historical development === In 1932, [[w:Jean_Piaget|Jean Piaget]] developed his [[w:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|theory of Cognitive development]] and in 1965 published "The moral Judgement of the child" which explores how children develop moral reasoning, tracing the evolution of their understanding of rules, justice, justice and responsibility from early childhood to adolescence (Cherry, 2026). [[w:Lawrence_Kohlberg|Lawrence Kohlberg]] further explored upon Piaget's theory and outlined the individual [[w:Lawrence_Kohlberg's_stages_of_moral_development|stages of moral development]], indicating six stages and how moral decisions are made based on various factors; such as avoiding punishment, following laws or ethical principles. It depicts how morality evolves through their lives with not all stages being achieved (Cherry, 2026 and McLeod, 2026). Haidt emphasises that researchers historically overlooked moral emotions because they focused on basic, low‑cognition forms rather than the richer, socially embedded forms that drive human morality. Although moral emotions rely on cognitive processes such as appraising injustice, evaluating social hierarchy, or recognising moral excellence, Haidt does not classify them as cognitions; instead, he frames them as "emotion–cognition hybrids" that operate intuitively and motivate moral action more powerfully than reasoning, challenging both [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eJTIo_MhG3M Piaget] and [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f0axVjiTe9Q Kolberg] theories of cognition‑centered moral psychology. Contemporary affective science views moral emotions as cognitively enriched affective states that arise when people evaluate actions, intentions, or social situations in terms of right and wrong. Rather than treating emotion and reason as separate systems, modern theorists such as Zaki and Stellar argue that moral emotions emerge from the integration of basic affective processes with higher‑order appraisals of harm, fairness, responsibility, and cultural norms. This framework emphasises that moral emotions serve adaptive social functions—motivating care, cooperation, and norm enforcement—while remaining malleable through development, cultural learning, and deliberate practices such as compassion training. In this view, moral emotions are not distinct biological modules but constructed, socially tuned emotional responses that guide ethical behaviour in complex social environments (Zaki & Stella, 2025). === Basic emotions build moral ones === [[File:Four Components of Emotion.jpg|thumb|251x251px|Four components of emotion]] Emotions are explained by Reeve as innate, universal emotional reactions that arise automatically in response to significant life events and prepare the body for action and identifies the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Ekman's basic emotions|basic emotions]] (or fundamental) of fear, anger, disgust, sadness, interest, joy and contempt. He reconciles the biological/ cognitive perspectives by stating that each basic emotion, is the foundation of a family related characteristics that are the same in each of the four components (figure 2), and by distinguishing first order and second order stages, rooted in evolutionary adaptation (Reeve, 2022). Moral emotions are second-order emotions that are cognitively complex variants that Haidt treating them as evolved emotions families that motivatee responses to violations of automnty, community and divinity. Additionally, moral emotinos are follow from appraisals, guide moral reasoning and are mallable through developemtn, culure and training that provide funstional roles that motivate action (Zaki &Stella, 2025) == How moral emotions arise and motivate action == Haidt theorises that moral emotions have two distinct "prototypical features"; distinerested elicitors and Prosocial action tendencies. Haidt defines disinterested elicitors as events that trigger moral emotions even when the situation does not directly affect the self, showing that the emotion is oriented toward others or the moral community rather than personal welfare (Haidt, 2003). Haidt uses the term prosocial action tendencies to describe the behavioural impulses moral emotions generate—such as helping, comforting, punishing wrongdoing, or reciprocating kindness—that promote cooperation and uphold social norms (Haidt, 2003). Prototypical features divides moral emotions into 4 families == Self-conscious moral emotions and ethical behaviour == === Elevation/ Gratitude - === Discuss how positive moral emotions (Elevation and gratitude) can contribute to moral flourishing and improve patient care, (linking back to the scenario). (Bai,C., Liu, R., and Zhang, H. 2026) {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} ;Let's look back at the scenario You walk back to the car and are amazed at the kindness of strangers and so grateful that when you come across the person who was asking for money again. This time, you decide that even though you don’t have much in the way of money, you want to offer the person one of the ready meals in your shopping and wish the person a good day. Walking away, you feel a warm sensation in your chest and your back straightened and you find you are smiling to yourself. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Guilt === Explore the following ''"Guilt is recognized as a social and moral emotion that drives prosocial behaviour, typically through actions to repair relationships with victims, often at a personal cost" .('' Kinosada, Y., et al, 2026, p.1) === Shame === Traditionally shame has been used to punish and reform behaviour, but does it actually reduce criminality? Discuss. **one reference still waiting on88 cannot confirm if it is applicable. Is shame an effective emotion now or redundant and causes more harm than good? evolutionary, it was esentail for survival, in a modern society is it causing prevalence of mental health disorders. [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00310/full#S7 Frontiers | The Role of Self-Blaming Moral Emotions in Major Depression and Their Impact on Social-Economical Decision Making] Punishment and Shame: A Philosophical Study - a North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, NC, United States === Moral disengagement === Explore the way unethical acts are reasoned due to moral disengagement == Mitigating maladaptive moral affect == {{ic|Include an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections}} === Altruism === [[w:Altruism|Altruism]] === Light Triad === [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] === Environmental influences === * Adverse Childhood experiences - (Katharine D. Wojcik, Daniel W. Cox, David Kealy, Adverse childhood experiences and shame- and guilt-proneness: Examining the mediating roles of interpersonal problems in a community sample, Child Abuse & Neglect, Volume 98, 2019, 104233, ISSN 0145-2134, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104233</nowiki> .) *positive environmental influence ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") *[[w:Moral_emotions|Moral emotions]] include [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Guilt and shame|guilt, shame]], embarrassment, {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' ''Bodily Responses to Moral emotions'' {| class="wikitable" !Strategy !Bodily responses |- |Embarrassment | |- |Guilt | |- |Shame | |- |Pride | |- |Righteous anger | |- |Comptempt | |- |Disgust | |- |Elevation | |- |Gratitude | |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {Unlike guilt, which pertains to specific actions, shame involves a global negative evaluation of the self. |type="()"} + True - False {Self-conscious emotions include righteous anger, contempt, disgust, elevation and gratitude |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Moral emotions motivate ethical decision and behaviour * Childhood trauma can disrupt the development of moral emotions, * All is not lost - protective factors can mitigate the negative impact of shame. * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. {{Hanging indent|1= Bai,C., Liu, R., and Zhang, H. (2026) Moral elevation, gratitude, and meaning in nurses’ positive mental health. ''Nursing Ethics'' Vol. 33(4) 1078–1093 [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/09697330261424358 https://doi.org/10.1177/09697330261424358] Kinosada, Y., Furukawa, Y., Wakai, T., & Nakashima, K. (2026). Does guilt motivate prosocial behaviour at the expense of others? Preregistered replications and exploratory statistical modelling. ''Asian Journal of Social Psychology'', 29, e70099. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1111/ajsp.70099 Santoro, G., Sideli, L., Musetti, A., & Schimmenti, A. (2025) The Relationship Between Childhood Trauma and Shame: The Mediating Role of Dissociation. ''European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education''. ;15(8):151. [[doi:10.3390/ejihpe15080151|http://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe15080151]] Romera EM, Ortega-Ruiz R, Rodríguez-Barbero S and Falla D (2019) How Do You Think the Victims of Bullying Feel? A Study of Moral Emotions in Primary School. ''Frontiers in Psychology, Educational Psychology.'' 10:1753. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01753 [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01753/full l] Tangney, J. P., Stuewig, J., & Mashek, D., J., (2007). Moral Emotions and Moral Behavior. ''Annual Review of Psychology'' 58:345-372. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145 [https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145] Turner, J., H., & Stets, J., E (2006). Moral Emotions. In ''Handbook of the Sociology of Emotions (''pp.544 - 566). Spinger. [https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-0-387-30715-2 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-30715-2] . Tillman CJ, Gonzalez K, Whitman MV, Crawford WS and Hood AC (2018) A Multi-Functional View of Moral Disengagement: Exploring the Effects of Learning the Consequences. ''Frontiers in Psychology, Personality and Social Psychology''. 8:2286. [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02286/full#F2 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02286] Wojcik, K., D., Cox, D., W., & Kealy,D. (2019) Adverse childhood experiences and shame- and guilt-proneness: Examining the mediating roles of interpersonal problems in a community sample, ''Child Abuse & Neglec''t, Volume 98, 2019, 104233, ISSN 0145-2134, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104233 }} APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: Use "Edit source" <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [https://www.ted.com/talks/asha_curran_how_acts_of_kindness_sparked_a_global_movement Ideas change everything] (TED) [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b4CfyLe0IlQ Prosocial Behavior | Ethics Defined] (Youtube) [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Morality]] 3kqn67pd1v64wbrpe95qpqzlzvtoy3q 2841794 2841738 2026-10-21T02:01:43Z ~2026-55910-53 3112914 /* Basic emotions build moral ones */ refining text and removing repetitive information 2841794 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Moral emotions and ethical behaviour<br>How do moral emotions motivate ethical and prosocial action?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} [[File:Begging man Harmony Lot 27 Elliot Street downtown Brattleboro VT July 2025 02.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Homeless man begging]] ;Scenario Imagine that you are doing your weekly shopping and you come across a homeless person who is asking for food or money. The person present in an unkempt state and initially you make sure you walk past, your stomach drops, and subconsciously wrinkle your nose and you decide to take a longer path to the shops in order to avoid them. When paying for your groceries, you realise that you don’t have quite enough to pay the full amount, instantly, your face gets hot as there is a line of people waiting behind you and it seems they are all staring at you, judging your error. Whilst you are talking to the register assistant, asking for some time to go through your groceries to determine which items are a priority, the person behind you offers to make up the difference. Suddenly, the hot feeling in your face becomes a warm feeling in your chest and you start profusely thanking the person and ask if there is anything you can do to make it up to them, they respond with “when you are in a position to pay it forward to some else, please do so.” {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Moral_emotions|Moral emotions]] potentially set humans apart from other animals, by enabling people to react to social events that do not directly affect the self but concern the interests or welfare either of others and society as a whole (''Haidt, 2003).'' They arise when individuals evaluate actions, intentions, or social situations in terms of right or wrong, in accordance with social norms and moral standards. This guides behaviours that support cooperation, fairness and social harmony. This distinguishes moral emotions from [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Individual emotions|basic emotions]], which are a person's primary response to a situation. Basic emotions fast, short lived, whilst moral emotions, like [https://www.simplypsychology.org/primary-and-secondary-emotions.html secondary emotions], are more complex and require a cognitive evaluation of the self from learned social meaning. To understand how moral emotions motivate behaviour, examination of the psychological/ psychological mechanisms behind these emotions is required. Moral emotions involve appraisals of responsibility and social meaning, biological responses that prepare the body for action, and expressive behaviours that communicate intentions. These mechanisms create ''action readiness'', transforming moral evaluations into behavioural tendencies such as helping, repairing harm, confronting wrongdoing, or avoiding social violations (''Reeve'', 2023). Understanding moral emotions is essential to link how they motivate ethical and prosocial action. [[w:Self-conscious_emotions|Self-conscious moral emotions]] - such as guilt, shame, embarrassment, and authentic pride - occur when people evaluate their own behaviour against internalised moral standards. These emotions regulate the moral self by motivating reparative action, helping others, rule compliance, or withdrawal (''Tangney, Tracy, & Robins'', 2007). Importantly [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Guilt and shame|guilt and shame]] differ in their internalised state, appraisal of self and motivation urge resulting in different behaviours (''Tangney, Stuewig, & Mashek'', 2007). Other‑evaluative moral emotions—including compassion, gratitude, elevation/ awe, along with contempt, disgust and moral outrage—arise when people respond to the experiences or actions of others. These emotions generate intuitive impulses to help, reciprocate kindness, emulate moral exemplars, confront wrongdoing or avoid social violations (''Haidt'', 2003). Together, these insights show how moral emotions serve as powerful motivational systems that shape ethical and prosocial behaviour in everyday life. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}'''Focus questions''' {{ic|}} * What moral emotions and how do they differ from basic emotions? <br> * How are moral emotions felt and motivate action?<br> * How do self-conscious moral emotions influence ethical behaviour? * How to other-evaluating emotions motivate prosocial behaviour?{{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What are moral emotions?== Moral emotions, defined to [[w:Jonathan_Haidt|Jonathan Haidt]] (2003), are the complex cognitively enriched emotional systems that have origins to simpler evolutionary precursors and responses to changes affecting the self. The defining qualifier of moral emotions are those involving social appraisals, cultural meaning systems and norm-based judgements that elicit motivation to act in ways that are shaped by local values and knowledge, which in turn indirectly provide benefits to the self. E.g., contempt depends on understanding rank; guilt depends on communal relationships; elevation depends on recognising moral virtue. === Historical development === In 1932, [[w:Jean_Piaget|Jean Piaget]] developed his [[w:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|theory of Cognitive development]] and in 1965 published "The moral Judgement of the child" which explores how children develop moral reasoning, tracing the evolution of their understanding of rules, justice, justice and responsibility from early childhood to adolescence (Cherry, 2026). [[w:Lawrence_Kohlberg|Lawrence Kohlberg]] further explored upon Piaget's theory and outlined the individual [[w:Lawrence_Kohlberg's_stages_of_moral_development|stages of moral development]], indicating six stages and how moral decisions are made based on various factors; such as avoiding punishment, following laws or ethical principles. It depicts how morality evolves through their lives with not all stages being achieved (Cherry, 2026 and McLeod, 2026). Haidt emphasises that researchers historically overlooked moral emotions because they focused on basic, low‑cognition forms rather than the richer, socially embedded forms that drive human morality. Although moral emotions rely on cognitive processes such as appraising injustice, evaluating social hierarchy, or recognising moral excellence, Haidt does not classify them as cognitions; instead, he frames them as "emotion–cognition hybrids" that operate intuitively and motivate moral action more powerfully than reasoning, challenging both [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eJTIo_MhG3M Piaget] and [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f0axVjiTe9Q Kolberg] theories of cognition‑centered moral psychology. Contemporary affective science views moral emotions as cognitively enriched affective states that arise when people evaluate actions, intentions, or social situations in terms of right and wrong. Rather than treating emotion and reason as separate systems, modern theorists such as Zaki and Stellar argue that moral emotions emerge from the integration of basic affective processes with higher‑order appraisals of harm, fairness, responsibility, and cultural norms. This framework emphasises that moral emotions serve adaptive social functions—motivating care, cooperation, and norm enforcement—while remaining malleable through development, cultural learning, and deliberate practices such as compassion training. In this view, moral emotions are not distinct biological modules but constructed, socially tuned emotional responses that provide functional roles that motivate ethical behaviour in complex social environments (Zaki & Stella, 2025). === Basic emotions build moral ones === [[File:Four Components of Emotion.jpg|thumb|379x379px|Four components of emotion]] Reeve explains emotions as innate, universal patterns of feeling and bodily responses that arise automatically in response to significant life events which motivate the body for adaptive action, using expressive behaviours by individuals to navigate the environment around them. Reeve identifies the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Ekman's basic emotions|basic emotions]] (or fundamental) as fear, anger, disgust, sadness, interest, joy and contempt. He reconciles the biological/ cognitive perspectives by stating that each basic emotion, is the foundation of a family related characteristics that are the same in each of the four components (figure 2), and distinguishes first order and second order stages, that are rooted in evolutionary adaptation (Reeve, 2022). Moral emotions are second-order emotions that are cognitively complex variants with Haidt treating them as evolved emotions families that motivatee responses to violations of automnty, community and divinity (Haidt, 2003). Additionally, moral emotions emerge when basic affective emotions are enriched by cognitive appraisals of harm, fairnessm transforming universal emotinoal responses into context sensitive judgments of right and wrong (Zaki &Stella, 2025) == How moral emotions arise and motivate action == Haidt theorises that moral emotions have two distinct "prototypical features"; distinerested elicitors and Prosocial action tendencies. Haidt defines disinterested elicitors as events that trigger moral emotions even when the situation does not directly affect the self, showing that the emotion is oriented toward others or the moral community rather than personal welfare (Haidt, 2003). Haidt uses the term prosocial action tendencies to describe the behavioural impulses moral emotions generate—such as helping, comforting, punishing wrongdoing, or reciprocating kindness—that promote cooperation and uphold social norms (Haidt, 2003). Prototypical features divides moral emotions into 4 families == Self-conscious moral emotions and ethical behaviour == === Elevation/ Gratitude - === Discuss how positive moral emotions (Elevation and gratitude) can contribute to moral flourishing and improve patient care, (linking back to the scenario). (Bai,C., Liu, R., and Zhang, H. 2026) {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} ;Let's look back at the scenario You walk back to the car and are amazed at the kindness of strangers and so grateful that when you come across the person who was asking for money again. This time, you decide that even though you don’t have much in the way of money, you want to offer the person one of the ready meals in your shopping and wish the person a good day. Walking away, you feel a warm sensation in your chest and your back straightened and you find you are smiling to yourself. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Guilt === Explore the following ''"Guilt is recognized as a social and moral emotion that drives prosocial behaviour, typically through actions to repair relationships with victims, often at a personal cost" .('' Kinosada, Y., et al, 2026, p.1) === Shame === Traditionally shame has been used to punish and reform behaviour, but does it actually reduce criminality? Discuss. **one reference still waiting on88 cannot confirm if it is applicable. Is shame an effective emotion now or redundant and causes more harm than good? evolutionary, it was esentail for survival, in a modern society is it causing prevalence of mental health disorders. [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00310/full#S7 Frontiers | The Role of Self-Blaming Moral Emotions in Major Depression and Their Impact on Social-Economical Decision Making] Punishment and Shame: A Philosophical Study - a North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, NC, United States === Moral disengagement === Explore the way unethical acts are reasoned due to moral disengagement == Mitigating maladaptive moral affect == {{ic|Include an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections}} === Altruism === [[w:Altruism|Altruism]] === Light Triad === [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] === Environmental influences === * Adverse Childhood experiences - (Katharine D. Wojcik, Daniel W. Cox, David Kealy, Adverse childhood experiences and shame- and guilt-proneness: Examining the mediating roles of interpersonal problems in a community sample, Child Abuse & Neglect, Volume 98, 2019, 104233, ISSN 0145-2134, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104233</nowiki> .) *positive environmental influence ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") *[[w:Moral_emotions|Moral emotions]] include [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Guilt and shame|guilt, shame]], embarrassment, {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' ''Bodily Responses to Moral emotions'' {| class="wikitable" !Strategy !Bodily responses |- |Embarrassment | |- |Guilt | |- |Shame | |- |Pride | |- |Righteous anger | |- |Comptempt | |- |Disgust | |- |Elevation | |- |Gratitude | |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {Unlike guilt, which pertains to specific actions, shame involves a global negative evaluation of the self. |type="()"} + True - False {Self-conscious emotions include righteous anger, contempt, disgust, elevation and gratitude |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Moral emotions motivate ethical decision and behaviour * Childhood trauma can disrupt the development of moral emotions, * All is not lost - protective factors can mitigate the negative impact of shame. * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. {{Hanging indent|1= Bai,C., Liu, R., and Zhang, H. (2026) Moral elevation, gratitude, and meaning in nurses’ positive mental health. ''Nursing Ethics'' Vol. 33(4) 1078–1093 [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/09697330261424358 https://doi.org/10.1177/09697330261424358] Kinosada, Y., Furukawa, Y., Wakai, T., & Nakashima, K. (2026). Does guilt motivate prosocial behaviour at the expense of others? Preregistered replications and exploratory statistical modelling. ''Asian Journal of Social Psychology'', 29, e70099. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1111/ajsp.70099 Santoro, G., Sideli, L., Musetti, A., & Schimmenti, A. (2025) The Relationship Between Childhood Trauma and Shame: The Mediating Role of Dissociation. ''European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education''. ;15(8):151. [[doi:10.3390/ejihpe15080151|http://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe15080151]] Romera EM, Ortega-Ruiz R, Rodríguez-Barbero S and Falla D (2019) How Do You Think the Victims of Bullying Feel? A Study of Moral Emotions in Primary School. ''Frontiers in Psychology, Educational Psychology.'' 10:1753. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01753 [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01753/full l] Tangney, J. P., Stuewig, J., & Mashek, D., J., (2007). Moral Emotions and Moral Behavior. ''Annual Review of Psychology'' 58:345-372. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145 [https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145] Turner, J., H., & Stets, J., E (2006). Moral Emotions. In ''Handbook of the Sociology of Emotions (''pp.544 - 566). Spinger. [https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-0-387-30715-2 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-30715-2] . Tillman CJ, Gonzalez K, Whitman MV, Crawford WS and Hood AC (2018) A Multi-Functional View of Moral Disengagement: Exploring the Effects of Learning the Consequences. ''Frontiers in Psychology, Personality and Social Psychology''. 8:2286. [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02286/full#F2 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02286] Wojcik, K., D., Cox, D., W., & Kealy,D. (2019) Adverse childhood experiences and shame- and guilt-proneness: Examining the mediating roles of interpersonal problems in a community sample, ''Child Abuse & Neglec''t, Volume 98, 2019, 104233, ISSN 0145-2134, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104233 }} APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: Use "Edit source" <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [https://www.ted.com/talks/asha_curran_how_acts_of_kindness_sparked_a_global_movement Ideas change everything] (TED) [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b4CfyLe0IlQ Prosocial Behavior | Ethics Defined] (Youtube) [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Morality]] qsu1off9fxn5mw7jw3rhbobzp0ghket 2841798 2841794 2026-10-21T02:34:49Z ~2026-55910-53 3112914 /* How moral emotions arise and motivate action */ added subheadings 2841798 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Moral emotions and ethical behaviour<br>How do moral emotions motivate ethical and prosocial action?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} [[File:Begging man Harmony Lot 27 Elliot Street downtown Brattleboro VT July 2025 02.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Homeless man begging]] ;Scenario Imagine that you are doing your weekly shopping and you come across a homeless person who is asking for food or money. The person present in an unkempt state and initially you make sure you walk past, your stomach drops, and subconsciously wrinkle your nose and you decide to take a longer path to the shops in order to avoid them. When paying for your groceries, you realise that you don’t have quite enough to pay the full amount, instantly, your face gets hot as there is a line of people waiting behind you and it seems they are all staring at you, judging your error. Whilst you are talking to the register assistant, asking for some time to go through your groceries to determine which items are a priority, the person behind you offers to make up the difference. Suddenly, the hot feeling in your face becomes a warm feeling in your chest and you start profusely thanking the person and ask if there is anything you can do to make it up to them, they respond with “when you are in a position to pay it forward to some else, please do so.” {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Moral_emotions|Moral emotions]] potentially set humans apart from other animals, by enabling people to react to social events that do not directly affect the self but concern the interests or welfare either of others and society as a whole (''Haidt, 2003).'' They arise when individuals evaluate actions, intentions, or social situations in terms of right or wrong, in accordance with social norms and moral standards. This guides behaviours that support cooperation, fairness and social harmony. This distinguishes moral emotions from [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Individual emotions|basic emotions]], which are a person's primary response to a situation. Basic emotions fast, short lived, whilst moral emotions, like [https://www.simplypsychology.org/primary-and-secondary-emotions.html secondary emotions], are more complex and require a cognitive evaluation of the self from learned social meaning. To understand how moral emotions motivate behaviour, examination of the psychological/ psychological mechanisms behind these emotions is required. Moral emotions involve appraisals of responsibility and social meaning, biological responses that prepare the body for action, and expressive behaviours that communicate intentions. These mechanisms create ''action readiness'', transforming moral evaluations into behavioural tendencies such as helping, repairing harm, confronting wrongdoing, or avoiding social violations (''Reeve'', 2023). Understanding moral emotions is essential to link how they motivate ethical and prosocial action. [[w:Self-conscious_emotions|Self-conscious moral emotions]] - such as guilt, shame, embarrassment, and authentic pride - occur when people evaluate their own behaviour against internalised moral standards. These emotions regulate the moral self by motivating reparative action, helping others, rule compliance, or withdrawal (''Tangney, Tracy, & Robins'', 2007). Importantly [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Guilt and shame|guilt and shame]] differ in their internalised state, appraisal of self and motivation urge resulting in different behaviours (''Tangney, Stuewig, & Mashek'', 2007). Other‑evaluative moral emotions—including compassion, gratitude, elevation/ awe, along with contempt, disgust and moral outrage—arise when people respond to the experiences or actions of others. These emotions generate intuitive impulses to help, reciprocate kindness, emulate moral exemplars, confront wrongdoing or avoid social violations (''Haidt'', 2003). Together, these insights show how moral emotions serve as powerful motivational systems that shape ethical and prosocial behaviour in everyday life. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}'''Focus questions''' {{ic|}} * What moral emotions and how do they differ from basic emotions? <br> * How are moral emotions felt and motivate action?<br> * How do self-conscious moral emotions influence ethical behaviour? * How to other-evaluating emotions motivate prosocial behaviour?{{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What are moral emotions?== Moral emotions, defined to [[w:Jonathan_Haidt|Jonathan Haidt]] (2003), are the complex cognitively enriched emotional systems that have origins to simpler evolutionary precursors and responses to changes affecting the self. The defining qualifier of moral emotions are those involving social appraisals, cultural meaning systems and norm-based judgements that elicit motivation to act in ways that are shaped by local values and knowledge, which in turn indirectly provide benefits to the self. E.g., contempt depends on understanding rank; guilt depends on communal relationships; elevation depends on recognising moral virtue. === Historical development === In 1932, [[w:Jean_Piaget|Jean Piaget]] developed his [[w:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|theory of Cognitive development]] and in 1965 published "The moral Judgement of the child" which explores how children develop moral reasoning, tracing the evolution of their understanding of rules, justice, justice and responsibility from early childhood to adolescence (Cherry, 2026). [[w:Lawrence_Kohlberg|Lawrence Kohlberg]] further explored upon Piaget's theory and outlined the individual [[w:Lawrence_Kohlberg's_stages_of_moral_development|stages of moral development]], indicating six stages and how moral decisions are made based on various factors; such as avoiding punishment, following laws or ethical principles. It depicts how morality evolves through their lives with not all stages being achieved (Cherry, 2026 and McLeod, 2026). Haidt emphasises that researchers historically overlooked moral emotions because they focused on basic, low‑cognition forms rather than the richer, socially embedded forms that drive human morality. Although moral emotions rely on cognitive processes such as appraising injustice, evaluating social hierarchy, or recognising moral excellence, Haidt does not classify them as cognitions; instead, he frames them as "emotion–cognition hybrids" that operate intuitively and motivate moral action more powerfully than reasoning, challenging both [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eJTIo_MhG3M Piaget] and [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f0axVjiTe9Q Kolberg] theories of cognition‑centered moral psychology. Contemporary affective science views moral emotions as cognitively enriched affective states that arise when people evaluate actions, intentions, or social situations in terms of right and wrong. Rather than treating emotion and reason as separate systems, modern theorists such as Zaki and Stellar argue that moral emotions emerge from the integration of basic affective processes with higher‑order appraisals of harm, fairness, responsibility, and cultural norms. This framework emphasises that moral emotions serve adaptive social functions—motivating care, cooperation, and norm enforcement—while remaining malleable through development, cultural learning, and deliberate practices such as compassion training. In this view, moral emotions are not distinct biological modules but constructed, socially tuned emotional responses that provide functional roles that motivate ethical behaviour in complex social environments (Zaki & Stella, 2025). === Basic emotions build moral ones === [[File:Four Components of Emotion.jpg|thumb|379x379px|Four components of emotion]] Reeve explains emotions as innate, universal patterns of feeling and bodily responses that arise automatically in response to significant life events which motivate the body for adaptive action, using expressive behaviours by individuals to navigate the environment around them. Reeve identifies the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Ekman's basic emotions|basic emotions]] (or fundamental) as fear, anger, disgust, sadness, interest, joy and contempt. He reconciles the biological/ cognitive perspectives by stating that each basic emotion, is the foundation of a family related characteristics that are the same in each of the four components (figure 2), and distinguishes first order and second order stages, that are rooted in evolutionary adaptation (Reeve, 2022). Moral emotions are second-order emotions that are cognitively complex variants with Haidt treating them as evolved emotions families that motivatee responses to violations of automnty, community and divinity (Haidt, 2003). Additionally, moral emotions emerge when basic affective emotions are enriched by cognitive appraisals of harm, fairnessm transforming universal emotinoal responses into context sensitive judgments of right and wrong (Zaki &Stella, 2025) == How moral emotions arise and motivate action == Haidt theorises that moral emotions have two distinct "prototypical features"; distinerested elicitors and Prosocial action tendencies. Haidt defines disinterested elicitors as events that trigger moral emotions even when the situation does not directly affect the self, showing that the emotion is oriented toward others or the moral community rather than personal welfare (Haidt, 2003). Haidt uses the term prosocial action tendencies to describe the behavioural impulses moral emotions generate—such as helping, comforting, punishing wrongdoing, or reciprocating kindness—that promote cooperation and uphold social norms (Haidt, 2003). === Prototypical features === === Emotion Families === link back to the basic emotion families. === Moral identity === == Self-conscious moral emotions and ethical behaviour == === Elevation/ Gratitude - === Discuss how positive moral emotions (Elevation and gratitude) can contribute to moral flourishing and improve patient care, (linking back to the scenario). (Bai,C., Liu, R., and Zhang, H. 2026) {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} ;Let's look back at the scenario You walk back to the car and are amazed at the kindness of strangers and so grateful that when you come across the person who was asking for money again. This time, you decide that even though you don’t have much in the way of money, you want to offer the person one of the ready meals in your shopping and wish the person a good day. Walking away, you feel a warm sensation in your chest and your back straightened and you find you are smiling to yourself. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Guilt === Explore the following ''"Guilt is recognized as a social and moral emotion that drives prosocial behaviour, typically through actions to repair relationships with victims, often at a personal cost" .('' Kinosada, Y., et al, 2026, p.1) === Shame === Traditionally shame has been used to punish and reform behaviour, but does it actually reduce criminality? Discuss. **one reference still waiting on88 cannot confirm if it is applicable. Is shame an effective emotion now or redundant and causes more harm than good? evolutionary, it was esentail for survival, in a modern society is it causing prevalence of mental health disorders. [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00310/full#S7 Frontiers | The Role of Self-Blaming Moral Emotions in Major Depression and Their Impact on Social-Economical Decision Making] Punishment and Shame: A Philosophical Study - a North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, NC, United States === Moral disengagement === Explore the way unethical acts are reasoned due to moral disengagement == Mitigating maladaptive moral affect == {{ic|Include an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections}} === Altruism === [[w:Altruism|Altruism]] === Light Triad === [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] === Environmental influences === * Adverse Childhood experiences - (Katharine D. Wojcik, Daniel W. Cox, David Kealy, Adverse childhood experiences and shame- and guilt-proneness: Examining the mediating roles of interpersonal problems in a community sample, Child Abuse & Neglect, Volume 98, 2019, 104233, ISSN 0145-2134, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104233</nowiki> .) *positive environmental influence ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") *[[w:Moral_emotions|Moral emotions]] include [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Guilt and shame|guilt, shame]], embarrassment, {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' ''Bodily Responses to Moral emotions'' {| class="wikitable" !Strategy !Bodily responses |- |Embarrassment | |- |Guilt | |- |Shame | |- |Pride | |- |Righteous anger | |- |Comptempt | |- |Disgust | |- |Elevation | |- |Gratitude | |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {Unlike guilt, which pertains to specific actions, shame involves a global negative evaluation of the self. |type="()"} + True - False {Self-conscious emotions include righteous anger, contempt, disgust, elevation and gratitude |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Moral emotions motivate ethical decision and behaviour * Childhood trauma can disrupt the development of moral emotions, * All is not lost - protective factors can mitigate the negative impact of shame. * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. {{Hanging indent|1= Bai,C., Liu, R., and Zhang, H. (2026) Moral elevation, gratitude, and meaning in nurses’ positive mental health. ''Nursing Ethics'' Vol. 33(4) 1078–1093 [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/09697330261424358 https://doi.org/10.1177/09697330261424358] Kinosada, Y., Furukawa, Y., Wakai, T., & Nakashima, K. (2026). Does guilt motivate prosocial behaviour at the expense of others? Preregistered replications and exploratory statistical modelling. ''Asian Journal of Social Psychology'', 29, e70099. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1111/ajsp.70099 Santoro, G., Sideli, L., Musetti, A., & Schimmenti, A. (2025) The Relationship Between Childhood Trauma and Shame: The Mediating Role of Dissociation. ''European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education''. ;15(8):151. [[doi:10.3390/ejihpe15080151|http://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe15080151]] Romera EM, Ortega-Ruiz R, Rodríguez-Barbero S and Falla D (2019) How Do You Think the Victims of Bullying Feel? A Study of Moral Emotions in Primary School. ''Frontiers in Psychology, Educational Psychology.'' 10:1753. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01753 [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01753/full l] Tangney, J. P., Stuewig, J., & Mashek, D., J., (2007). Moral Emotions and Moral Behavior. ''Annual Review of Psychology'' 58:345-372. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145 [https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145] Turner, J., H., & Stets, J., E (2006). Moral Emotions. In ''Handbook of the Sociology of Emotions (''pp.544 - 566). Spinger. [https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-0-387-30715-2 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-30715-2] . Tillman CJ, Gonzalez K, Whitman MV, Crawford WS and Hood AC (2018) A Multi-Functional View of Moral Disengagement: Exploring the Effects of Learning the Consequences. ''Frontiers in Psychology, Personality and Social Psychology''. 8:2286. [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02286/full#F2 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02286] Wojcik, K., D., Cox, D., W., & Kealy,D. (2019) Adverse childhood experiences and shame- and guilt-proneness: Examining the mediating roles of interpersonal problems in a community sample, ''Child Abuse & Neglec''t, Volume 98, 2019, 104233, ISSN 0145-2134, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104233 }} APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: Use "Edit source" <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [https://www.ted.com/talks/asha_curran_how_acts_of_kindness_sparked_a_global_movement Ideas change everything] (TED) [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b4CfyLe0IlQ Prosocial Behavior | Ethics Defined] (Youtube) [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Morality]] 2dm17ylu41pm4vtrckb8zf799o1pyos 2841803 2841798 2026-10-21T03:22:39Z ~2026-55910-53 3112914 /* How moral emotions arise and motivate action */ added introductory paragraph 2841803 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Moral emotions and ethical behaviour<br>How do moral emotions motivate ethical and prosocial action?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} [[File:Begging man Harmony Lot 27 Elliot Street downtown Brattleboro VT July 2025 02.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Homeless man begging]] ;Scenario Imagine that you are doing your weekly shopping and you come across a homeless person who is asking for food or money. The person present in an unkempt state and initially you make sure you walk past, your stomach drops, and subconsciously wrinkle your nose and you decide to take a longer path to the shops in order to avoid them. When paying for your groceries, you realise that you don’t have quite enough to pay the full amount, instantly, your face gets hot as there is a line of people waiting behind you and it seems they are all staring at you, judging your error. Whilst you are talking to the register assistant, asking for some time to go through your groceries to determine which items are a priority, the person behind you offers to make up the difference. Suddenly, the hot feeling in your face becomes a warm feeling in your chest and you start profusely thanking the person and ask if there is anything you can do to make it up to them, they respond with “when you are in a position to pay it forward to some else, please do so.” {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Moral_emotions|Moral emotions]] potentially set humans apart from other animals, by enabling people to react to social events that do not directly affect the self but concern the interests or welfare either of others and society as a whole (''Haidt, 2003).'' They arise when individuals evaluate actions, intentions, or social situations in terms of right or wrong, in accordance with social norms and moral standards. This guides behaviours that support cooperation, fairness and social harmony. This distinguishes moral emotions from [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Individual emotions|basic emotions]], which are a person's primary response to a situation. Basic emotions fast, short lived, whilst moral emotions, like [https://www.simplypsychology.org/primary-and-secondary-emotions.html secondary emotions], are more complex and require a cognitive evaluation of the self from learned social meaning. To understand how moral emotions motivate behaviour, examination of the psychological/ psychological mechanisms behind these emotions is required. Moral emotions involve appraisals of responsibility and social meaning, biological responses that prepare the body for action, and expressive behaviours that communicate intentions. These mechanisms create ''action readiness'', transforming moral evaluations into behavioural tendencies such as helping, repairing harm, confronting wrongdoing, or avoiding social violations (''Reeve'', 2023). Understanding moral emotions is essential to link how they motivate ethical and prosocial action. [[w:Self-conscious_emotions|Self-conscious moral emotions]] - such as guilt, shame, embarrassment, and authentic pride - occur when people evaluate their own behaviour against internalised moral standards. These emotions regulate the moral self by motivating reparative action, helping others, rule compliance, or withdrawal (''Tangney, Tracy, & Robins'', 2007). Importantly [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Guilt and shame|guilt and shame]] differ in their internalised state, appraisal of self and motivation urge resulting in different behaviours (''Tangney, Stuewig, & Mashek'', 2007). Other‑evaluative moral emotions—including compassion, gratitude, elevation/ awe, along with contempt, disgust and moral outrage—arise when people respond to the experiences or actions of others. These emotions generate intuitive impulses to help, reciprocate kindness, emulate moral exemplars, confront wrongdoing or avoid social violations (''Haidt'', 2003). Together, these insights show how moral emotions serve as powerful motivational systems that shape ethical and prosocial behaviour in everyday life. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}'''Focus questions''' {{ic|}} * What moral emotions and how do they differ from basic emotions? <br> * How are moral emotions felt and motivate action?<br> * How do self-conscious moral emotions influence ethical behaviour? * How to other-evaluating emotions motivate prosocial behaviour?{{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What are moral emotions?== Moral emotions, defined to [[w:Jonathan_Haidt|Jonathan Haidt]] (2003), are the complex cognitively enriched emotional systems that have origins to simpler evolutionary precursors and responses to changes affecting the self. The defining qualifier of moral emotions are those involving social appraisals, cultural meaning systems and norm-based judgements that elicit motivation to act in ways that are shaped by local values and knowledge, which in turn indirectly provide benefits to the self. E.g., contempt depends on understanding rank; guilt depends on communal relationships; elevation depends on recognising moral virtue. === Historical development === In 1932, [[w:Jean_Piaget|Jean Piaget]] developed his [[w:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|theory of Cognitive development]] and in 1965 published "The moral Judgement of the child" which explores how children develop moral reasoning, tracing the evolution of their understanding of rules, justice, justice and responsibility from early childhood to adolescence (Cherry, 2026). [[w:Lawrence_Kohlberg|Lawrence Kohlberg]] further explored upon Piaget's theory and outlined the individual [[w:Lawrence_Kohlberg's_stages_of_moral_development|stages of moral development]], indicating six stages and how moral decisions are made based on various factors; such as avoiding punishment, following laws or ethical principles. It depicts how morality evolves through their lives with not all stages being achieved (Cherry, 2026 and McLeod, 2026). Haidt emphasises that researchers historically overlooked moral emotions because they focused on basic, low‑cognition forms rather than the richer, socially embedded forms that drive human morality. Although moral emotions rely on cognitive processes such as appraising injustice, evaluating social hierarchy, or recognising moral excellence, Haidt does not classify them as cognitions; instead, he frames them as "emotion–cognition hybrids" that operate intuitively and motivate moral action more powerfully than reasoning, challenging both [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eJTIo_MhG3M Piaget] and [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f0axVjiTe9Q Kolberg] theories of cognition‑centered moral psychology. Contemporary affective science views moral emotions as cognitively enriched affective states that arise when people evaluate actions, intentions, or social situations in terms of right and wrong. Rather than treating emotion and reason as separate systems, modern theorists such as Zaki and Stellar argue that moral emotions emerge from the integration of basic affective processes with higher‑order appraisals of harm, fairness, responsibility, and cultural norms. This framework emphasises that moral emotions serve adaptive social functions—motivating care, cooperation, and norm enforcement—while remaining malleable through development, cultural learning, and deliberate practices such as compassion training. In this view, moral emotions are not distinct biological modules but constructed, socially tuned emotional responses that provide functional roles that motivate ethical behaviour in complex social environments (Zaki & Stella, 2025). === Basic emotions build moral ones === [[File:Four Components of Emotion.jpg|thumb|379x379px|Four components of emotion]] Reeve explains emotions as innate, universal patterns of feeling and bodily responses that arise automatically in response to significant life events which motivate the body for adaptive action, using expressive behaviours by individuals to navigate the environment around them. Reeve identifies the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Ekman's basic emotions|basic emotions]] (or fundamental) as fear, anger, disgust, sadness, interest, joy and contempt. He reconciles the biological/ cognitive perspectives by stating that each basic emotion, is the foundation of a family related characteristics that are the same in each of the four components (figure 2), and distinguishes first order and second order stages, that are rooted in evolutionary adaptation (Reeve, 2022). Moral emotions are second-order emotions that are cognitively complex variants with Haidt treating them as evolved emotions families that motivatee responses to violations of automnty, community and divinity (Haidt, 2003). Additionally, moral emotions emerge when basic affective emotions are enriched by cognitive appraisals of harm, fairnessm transforming universal emotinoal responses into context sensitive judgments of right and wrong (Zaki &Stella, 2025) == How moral emotions arise and motivate action == Moral emotions develop when emotional reactions—such as anger, disgust, empathy, and admiration—are shaped by cognitive appraisals of harm, fairness, responsibility, and social norms. These appraisals give universal emotional responses moral meaning and turn them into motivations for ethical action. As Haidt (2003) emphasises, moral emotions can be triggered by events that do not directly affect the individual’s own interests, known as ''disinterested elicitors''. These moral emotions generate ''prosocial action tendencies'', including helping, comforting, punishing wrongdoing, repairing harm, and aspiring to moral ideals (Haidt, 2003). Contemporary views highlight that they bridge feeling and doing, explaining how emotional experiences motivate ethical action and shape moral behaviour in everyday life (Zaki & Stellar, 2025). === Prototypical features === === Four families of moral emotions === Haidt (2003) groups moral emotions into four functional families: * '''Other‑condemning emotions:''' anger, contempt, and disgust. * '''Self‑conscious emotions:''' guilt, shame, and embarrassment. * '''Other‑suffering emotions:''' compassion. * {| class="wikitable" |+ ! ! ! ! |- | | | | |- | | | | |- | | | | |} * '''Other‑praising emotions:''' gratitude and elevation. link back to the basic emotion families. === Moral identity === == Self-conscious moral emotions and ethical behaviour == === Elevation/ Gratitude - === Discuss how positive moral emotions (Elevation and gratitude) can contribute to moral flourishing and improve patient care, (linking back to the scenario). (Bai,C., Liu, R., and Zhang, H. 2026) {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} ;Let's look back at the scenario You walk back to the car and are amazed at the kindness of strangers and so grateful that when you come across the person who was asking for money again. This time, you decide that even though you don’t have much in the way of money, you want to offer the person one of the ready meals in your shopping and wish the person a good day. Walking away, you feel a warm sensation in your chest and your back straightened and you find you are smiling to yourself. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Guilt === Explore the following ''"Guilt is recognized as a social and moral emotion that drives prosocial behaviour, typically through actions to repair relationships with victims, often at a personal cost" .('' Kinosada, Y., et al, 2026, p.1) === Shame === Traditionally shame has been used to punish and reform behaviour, but does it actually reduce criminality? Discuss. **one reference still waiting on88 cannot confirm if it is applicable. Is shame an effective emotion now or redundant and causes more harm than good? evolutionary, it was esentail for survival, in a modern society is it causing prevalence of mental health disorders. [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00310/full#S7 Frontiers | The Role of Self-Blaming Moral Emotions in Major Depression and Their Impact on Social-Economical Decision Making] Punishment and Shame: A Philosophical Study - a North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, NC, United States === Moral disengagement === Explore the way unethical acts are reasoned due to moral disengagement == Mitigating maladaptive moral affect == {{ic|Include an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections}} === Altruism === [[w:Altruism|Altruism]] === Light Triad === [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] === Environmental influences === * Adverse Childhood experiences - (Katharine D. Wojcik, Daniel W. Cox, David Kealy, Adverse childhood experiences and shame- and guilt-proneness: Examining the mediating roles of interpersonal problems in a community sample, Child Abuse & Neglect, Volume 98, 2019, 104233, ISSN 0145-2134, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104233</nowiki> .) *positive environmental influence ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") *[[w:Moral_emotions|Moral emotions]] include [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Guilt and shame|guilt, shame]], embarrassment, {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' ''Bodily Responses to Moral emotions'' {| class="wikitable" !Strategy !Bodily responses |- |Embarrassment | |- |Guilt | |- |Shame | |- |Pride | |- |Righteous anger | |- |Comptempt | |- |Disgust | |- |Elevation | |- |Gratitude | |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {Unlike guilt, which pertains to specific actions, shame involves a global negative evaluation of the self. |type="()"} + True - False {Self-conscious emotions include righteous anger, contempt, disgust, elevation and gratitude |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Moral emotions motivate ethical decision and behaviour * Childhood trauma can disrupt the development of moral emotions, * All is not lost - protective factors can mitigate the negative impact of shame. * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. {{Hanging indent|1= Bai,C., Liu, R., and Zhang, H. (2026) Moral elevation, gratitude, and meaning in nurses’ positive mental health. ''Nursing Ethics'' Vol. 33(4) 1078–1093 [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/09697330261424358 https://doi.org/10.1177/09697330261424358] Kinosada, Y., Furukawa, Y., Wakai, T., & Nakashima, K. (2026). Does guilt motivate prosocial behaviour at the expense of others? Preregistered replications and exploratory statistical modelling. ''Asian Journal of Social Psychology'', 29, e70099. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1111/ajsp.70099 Santoro, G., Sideli, L., Musetti, A., & Schimmenti, A. (2025) The Relationship Between Childhood Trauma and Shame: The Mediating Role of Dissociation. ''European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education''. ;15(8):151. [[doi:10.3390/ejihpe15080151|http://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe15080151]] Romera EM, Ortega-Ruiz R, Rodríguez-Barbero S and Falla D (2019) How Do You Think the Victims of Bullying Feel? A Study of Moral Emotions in Primary School. ''Frontiers in Psychology, Educational Psychology.'' 10:1753. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01753 [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01753/full l] Tangney, J. P., Stuewig, J., & Mashek, D., J., (2007). Moral Emotions and Moral Behavior. ''Annual Review of Psychology'' 58:345-372. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145 [https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145] Turner, J., H., & Stets, J., E (2006). Moral Emotions. In ''Handbook of the Sociology of Emotions (''pp.544 - 566). Spinger. [https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-0-387-30715-2 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-30715-2] . Tillman CJ, Gonzalez K, Whitman MV, Crawford WS and Hood AC (2018) A Multi-Functional View of Moral Disengagement: Exploring the Effects of Learning the Consequences. ''Frontiers in Psychology, Personality and Social Psychology''. 8:2286. [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02286/full#F2 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02286] Wojcik, K., D., Cox, D., W., & Kealy,D. (2019) Adverse childhood experiences and shame- and guilt-proneness: Examining the mediating roles of interpersonal problems in a community sample, ''Child Abuse & Neglec''t, Volume 98, 2019, 104233, ISSN 0145-2134, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104233 }} APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: Use "Edit source" <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [https://www.ted.com/talks/asha_curran_how_acts_of_kindness_sparked_a_global_movement Ideas change everything] (TED) [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b4CfyLe0IlQ Prosocial Behavior | Ethics Defined] (Youtube) [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Morality]] dl9u8uha6saj7pvye9gqky5mkcyt1ji 0 331386 2841830 2840968 2026-10-21T08:23:36Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 Attempting to solve lints 2841830 wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] {{title|Self-determination theory and dementia care:<br>How can autonomy, competence, and relatedness be supported in people living with dementia?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Wolf Creek NFH nursing home fishing event October 2024.png|thumb|'''Figure 1:''' Residents of an aged care home enjoying an outside activity ]] ;Imagine this ... Imagine you are an elderly resident with dementia living in a psychogeriatric ward in the beautiful Dutch countryside. On the walk from your bedroom to the communal dining room, you pass many people; staff, other residents and resident’s family members, but you do not recognise any of them. You take your breakfast to a table overlooking the garden and imagine walking outside, feeling the sun and smelling the flowers. Despite your longing to enjoy the garden, whether you get outside today is not up to you. You have been told it is unsafe, and you may only go out when a staff member has time to take you. How would this scenario make you feel? Trapped? Unsafe? {{RoundBoxBottom}} This scenario draws on experiences that residents of a Dutch psychogeriatric ward shared with researchers studying what gives residents a sense of freedom and safety. They identified that time in nature, knowing the staff and spending time with others all contributed positively to a sense of personal freedom and safety in the ward (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024). Scenarios like this are common within aged care homes for residents living with dementia. A review of 1158 articles published between 2000 and 2018 found that residents felt a lack of freedom, belonging, and connection, with some residents even describing their living situation as “living in a prison camp” (Shiells et al., 2020, p 1563). Many residents describe their well-being as low with reports of poor self-esteem, connection, value and independence (Shiells et al., 2020). This chapter asks how self-determination theory (SDT) can help understand and support the psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness (ACR) in people with dementia. It begins with an overview of dementia and models of care, introduces SDT as a framework for understanding motivation and well-being, then examines how ACR can be supported for people living with dementia and highlights where the evidence is still limited. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus Questions''' # What is dementia, and what care options exist to support people living with it? # What does SDT propose about human motivation and well-being, and why is it a useful framework for understanding dementia care? # What interventions increase well-being for dementia patients? # How does person-centred care impact psychological well-being? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding dementia and models of care == '''Addresses focus question 1''' Dementia is a neurodegenerative disease (Cipriani et al., 2020). 57 million people across the globe live with dementia as of 2021, making it the seventh most common cause of death globally (World Health Organisation, 2026). Dementia disproportionately affects women as they are both more likely to get dementia and more likely to look after people with it (World Health Organisation, 2026). There are four types of dementia: Alzheimer’s disease, [https://www.dementia.org.au/about-dementia/vascular-dementia vascular dementia], frontotemporal dementia and dementia Lewy body (Maclin et al., 2019). Alzheimer’s is the most common type of dementia, occurring in 69% of the population over 75. Alzheimer’s involves gradual memory and cognitive loss that impairs daily activities. The second most common is frontotemporal dementia and is distinguished by a distorted personality, along with loss of social and executive function, including in some cases the loss of speech (Maclin et al., 2019). Vascular dementia affects cognition from blood vessels in the brain becoming blocked resulting in deficits in the sensory and motor systems. Lewy bodies is characterised by [[wikipedia:Lewy_body|cellular inclusions]] in the brain that cause fluctuations in [[Cognition|cognitive function]], hallucinations and behavioural problems. Support is often needed for people with dementia in the early stages for complex daily activities such as organising transportation. As the disease progresses, help with basic activities like getting dressed is needed too (Cipriani et al., 2020). Providing care and support for people living with dementia comes in many forms including in-home and institutionalised care. Families and patients choose between models based on a number of factors, including cultural values, knowledge of dementia, access to services, financial position and geographic location (Singh et al., 2014; Giebel et al., 2021). People receiving in-home care may be looked after by informal caregivers such as family members, formal caregivers or a mix of both, who are able to provide services at the home of the patient (Singh et al., 2014). Institutionalised care refers to the model of care where patients move into a facility where they can be monitored and looked after entirely by professionals or formal caregivers. In Australia, most people living with dementia choose in-home care. However, there are still over one million people living in institutionalised settings (Singh et al., 2014). == Self-determination theory == '''Addresses focus question 2''' Self-determination theory (SDT) is a theory of motivation. SDT predicts motivation by explaining why people are intrinsically or extrinsically motivated to perform a behaviour (Dombestein et at, 2020; Ryan & Deci, 2020). If someone is intrinsically motivated to perform a behaviour it means they find motivation from internal factors with no influence from the environment. This could be learning to [[Portal:Dance|dance]] purely for the enjoyment of it. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation is when someone behaves in response to environmental factors (Ryan & Deci, 2020). This could be learning to dance because all of their friends are dancing. People are very rarely motivated entirely for internal or external reasons therefore, extrinsic motivation is considered to be a continuum, starting with external regulation and finishing at integration: * External regulation - behaviours are regulated from environmental cues, rewards and punishments. * Introjection - environmental cues are being injected internally for instance the “punishment” of doing something wrong is feeling guilty. * Identified - you identify with your behaviours for example you identify with being a good student, so you show up to class but do not enjoy class. * Integration - there is less conflict between your identity and your behaviour. For example, you show up to class because you value being a good student and think it’s the right thing to do (Dombestein et al, 2020). Motivation is multidimensional, as people often have several forms of motivation for the same task (Ryan & Deci, 2020). For example, someone might run because their doctor advised it (identified) and because they enjoy seeing friends there (intrinsic). SDT offers an explanation as to where on the motivation continuum people operate. SDT says that for people to be intrinsically motivated or on the upper end of the extrinsic motivation scale you must satisfy all three critical psychological needs. These needs are:   * Autonomy - feeling ownership over actions and life circumstances * Competence - a sense of confidence or mastery over performing tasks * Relatedness - the need to feel like you belong to a group, that you are supported by others and in return people feel supported by you. Achievement of these three psychological needs is not automatic, and people often require support to achieve these needs. Organismic SDT states that people have a natural drive towards obtaining the critical psychological needs (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Zou et al. (2026) found that Chinese girls chose menstrual products that increased bodily autonomy, confidence in areas they identified with, and closeness to family and media figures, but could only do so if they could afford them. This reflects the theory that people have a natural desire to achieve the three psychological needs but need support from their environment. There is some debate in motivation research as to whether the different types of motivation describe distinct qualitative forms of motivation or if they point to different quantitative points along a scale of motivation (Van den Broeck et al., 2021). SDT theorists view motivation as a continuum, supported by findings that students with higher ACR have better wellbeing, higher grades and more intrinsic motivation. (Bureau et al., 2022; Ryan & Deci, 2020). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Key points''' * SDT is a theory of motivation. Extrinsic motivation sits on a continuum: external regulation, introjection, identified and integration. * Autonomy, competence and relatedness must all be met for people to be intrinsically motivated or at the upper end of the continuum. * People have a natural drive towards these needs but require support from their environment. * Higher need satisfaction is linked to better wellbeing. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Putting self-determination theory into practice: Meeting Psychological Needs in Dementia Patients == '''Addresses focus question 3''' SDT proposes that supporting ACR in people living with dementia leads to better well-being, but these needs cannot just be given directly to a person. Therefore, the strategies discussed below are best understood as shaping conditions rather than delivering outcomes. One of the most well-documented examples of SDT in practice is the process of facilitating patient decision-making. Colclough et al. (2026) found that it did not improve well-being directly but did so by separately increasing satisfaction levels of all three needs, which is consistent with SDT’s claim that need satisfaction underlies well-being. However, decision-making is not the only pathway to increase ACR. [[File:Self-determination_theory_diagrame.png|thumb|347x347px|'''Figure 2.''' Self-determination theory diagram]] === '''Competency''' === Competency has been seen to be supported by carers assisting or allowing patients where possible to perform tasks independently (Custers et al., 2011). When adults with dementia cannot perform simple tasks by themselves like eating, they report feeling ashamed and embarrassed (Estrada, 2021). The ability to perform tasks independently is one reason most people prefer to stay in their home (Wammes et al., 2021). Both formal and informal caregivers help people with dementia feel competent and safe in their own home with patients reporting that their informal caregivers help them with daily living tasks, navigating the health system and organising social activities (Wammes et al., 2021). Similar sentiments have been shared around formal caregivers helping with medical information and daily tasks (Hoel et al., 2021). Aides for everyday activities are also cited as supporting competence (Rapaport et al., 2020; Wammes et al., 2021). The importance of the environment for allowing psychological needs to flourish is evident in respect to competency as people living in aged care homes are less likely to complete tasks independently as cognitive decline progresses, compared to people receiving informal care (Anselmo et al., 2025). Residents often report having little control over daily routines, such as what they eat or when they shower (Shiells et al., 2020). Assisting dementia patients to identify personal strengths and meaningful activities have been seen to increase self-direction (Döpp et al., 2021). Although the correlations are unclear, these studies suggest that helping residents identify personal strengths and meaningful activities could show caregivers where to allow more independence, such as control over daily routines. === Autonomy === Supporting autonomy in people with dementia is best understood through SDT’s definition of autonomy which is having a sense of agency over one’s life rather than the physical ability to act independently (Ryan & Deci, 2020). A study by Stumpf et al. (2025) found that people with dementia did not mind if they did not contribute much to decision making, as long as they were included in the process. 90% of people living with mild forms of dementia can articulate preferences and provide reasons for their preferences based on their [https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/values#google_vignette values] (Stumpf et al., 2025). Despite this, healthcare professionals will often defer all questions to patient’s family members (Stumpf et al., 2025). People with dementia generally accept the gradual loss of independence that comes with the progression of the disease if the decisions they do make around everyday things like going for a walk or dyeing their hair are respected (Estrada, 2021). Interventions that help to increase decision-making capacity by applying advance care planning to everyday situations, simplifying and visualising options, and staff knowing the residents have all helped increase autonomy (Van Der Weide et al., 2023). Van Der Weide et al. (2023) did warn that offering fewer choices increases the risk of staff accidently letting their preferences dictate the options available to residents. They also found autonomy interventions only appeared valuable within trusting relationships with family and staff (Van Der Weide et al., 2023). === Relatedness === The need for relatedness is often clearly expressed by people living in aged care homes with many residents reporting love and connection as important values (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024). Shiells et al. (2020) have discovered that reading groups, exercising, and helping other residents with problems have all been linked to feeling valued. The provision of in-home care by formal caregivers has been seen to increase feelings of relatedness, as people report appreciating the conversation and liking when they had regular contact with the same carer, as that carer better understood their preferences (Hoel et al., 2021).  Lastly, decision-making has also been seen to increase relatedness if ideas are heard and respected (Stumpf et al., 2025).  Estrada (2021) offers a richer understanding as to why decision-making might increase relatedness through the principles of [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6465833/ person-centred care], by which you can develop a deeper connection through conversation. Many of these strategies depend on carers having the time, energy and support to deliver them. Therefore, person-centred care has also been explored as an intervention to help increase the well-being of carers. == Person-centred care impacts on promoting psychological well-being == '''Addresses focus question 4''' Person or client-centred care is an approach to care that focuses on maintaining a person’s sense of self by putting them and their needs at the forefront of importance when delivering care (Serbser-Koal et al., 2024). Person-centred care has been investigated for solutions to increase staff satisfaction in aged care homes and in-home services and to help to increase well-being in people with dementia. One of the principles of person-centred care is to ‘enter the person’s world’ through communication to develop a better connection (Serbser-Koal et al., 2024). Estrada (2021) revealed that one way you can increase connection with dementia patients is by simply allowing more time for conversations. People with dementia need more time to communicate because as their disease progresses their processing speed and [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19672843/ short-term memory] capacity decreases (Estrada, 2021). Allowing enough time for communicating is important as many people express frustrations when they feel rushed (Estrada, 2021). Even in people with non-fluent dementia, communication can increase relatedness through the encouragement of non-verbal communication like smiling, waving or touch (Estrada, 2021). Although it is well established that increased and better-quality communication between nursing, home staff and residents is needed, nursing staff report not having enough time to get to know residents (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024) and therefore place more importance on basic survival needs over psychological needs (Estrada, 2021). In-home care staff have also reported that the lack of time to address patient needs is also a reason for high staff turnover (Lämås et al., 2021). Lämås et al. (2021) tested person-centred care in home care services. 'Thriving' rose among people with dementia, but self-determination fell and formal caregivers did not benefit. However, the caregiver [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19672843/ sample] was too small to detect an effect, and the self-determination measure captured only autonomy, whereas the thriving measure (attitudes to home, care and relationships) likely reflected all three needs better. A study with a larger sample size by Vassbø et al. (2020) looked at the effects of a person-centred intervention over 14 months and also found no effect on job satisfaction. Person-centred care therefore does not appear to be a solution to increase staff satisfaction. However, there are promising signs it may increase well-being in dementia patients. == Increasing the well-being of informal caregivers == The psychological well-being of informal caregivers also affects the well-being of the people they care for. Informal caregivers report needing more emotional support, finding caring increasingly difficult as they become older, and report navigating the healthcare system on their own as challenging (Wammes et al., 2021). Interventions, based on SDT, that focus on increasing coping skills, communication skills and improving relationships made carers more intrinsically motivated to care for their loved ones, which led to increased wellbeing (Dombestein et al., 2020). Carers also reported that being able to drop their loved ones off at [https://agedcare.salvos.org.au/residential-aged-care/carpenter-court-aged-care-centre/ day-care centres] allowed them to socialise with others, thereby increasing relatedness, and provision of at-home aides that helped them complete domestic tasks helped them feel competent (Wammes et al., 2021). ==Conclusion== Dementia makes independent living challenging, but it does not mean that agency should be taken away. As shown above, dementia patients are capable of decision-making even in severe cases.  SDT seeks to explain well-being through the prism of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. To become intrinsically motivated an individual must satisfy all three psychological needs. The strategies for increasing psychological well-being discussed in this paper are most successful when the interconnected nature of the needs are understood (Slemp et al., 2024). Interventions aimed at one need often support others. For example, feeling genuinely listened-to and respected increases both relatedness and autonomy (Stumpf et al., 2025; Estrada, 2021). Because these needs overlap and cannot be supplied directly, the most effective interventions are those that change the environment to allow them to develop. Allowing more time to communicate, creating spaces where people can act more independently, and increasing collaboration in decision-making all support the satisfaction of one or more needs, which in turn supports the satisfaction of other needs. Carer well-being remains an important area for future research to help increase well-being for dementia patients. {{Robelbox|theme=13|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg|iconwidth=48px|title=Review time!}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {You operate a dementia care live-in clinic. Two of your employees come to you with competing ideas of how to make the lives of your patients better. Employee A suggests that you should provide the patients with a larger variety of food. Employee B suggests that you should allow patients to choose what they want to eat. Assuming you can implement either option, which would you choose?} - A. Larger variety of food + B. Choosing the weekly menu </quiz> </div> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == External links == * [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551552/ Behavioural and psychological symptoms in dementia] (National library of medicine) * [https://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/dementia-care-study-highlights-importance-of-caregiver-self-efficacy Dementia care study highlights importance of caregiver self-efficacy] (UCLA newsroom) * [https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/scholarlywork/1753807-older-adults-using-technology-for-meaningful-activities-during-covid-19--an-analysis-through-the-lens-of-self-determination-theory Older] [https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/scholarlywork/1753807-older-adults-using-technology-for-meaningful-activities-during-covid-19--an-analysis-through-the-lens-of-self-determination-theory adults using technology for meaningful activities during COVID-19: an analysis through the lens of self-determination theory] (University of Melbourne) == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Basic psychological need theory|Basic psychological need theory]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Dementia care motivation|Dementia care motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[Dementia]] (Wikiversity) * [[wikipedia:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[Neurodegenerative disease]] (Wikiversity) == References == <div style="padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;"> Anselmo, A., Corallo, F., Pagano, M., Cardile, D., Marra, A., Maresca, G., De Luca, R., Alagna, A., Quartarone, A., Calabrò, R. 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''BMC Geriatrics, 21''(1), Article 720. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-021-02661-5 Maclin, J. M. A., Wang, T., & Xiao, S. (2019). Biomarkers for the diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease, dementia Lewy body, frontotemporal dementia and vascular dementia. ''General Psychiatry, 32''(1), e100054-n/a. https://doi.org/10.1136/gpsych-2019-100054 Rapaport, P., Burton, A., Leverton, M., Herat-Gunaratne, R., Beresford-Dent, J., Lord, K., Downs, M., Boex, S., Horsley, R., Giebel, C., & Cooper, C. (2020). “I just keep thinking that I don’t want to rely on people.” a qualitative study of how people living with dementia achieve and maintain independence at home: Stakeholder perspectives. ''BMC Geriatrics, 20''(1), Article 5. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-019-1406-6 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. 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Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Personality and ''Social Psychology, 127''(5), 1012–1037. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459 Stumpf, A. D. H., McKenzie, E., & Beavers, A. (2025). An account of personal autonomy for people living with dementia. ''The Gerontologist, 65''(11), 1. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnaf210 Van Andel, S., & Holkenborg, A. (2024). From the perspective of people with dementia: Using creative qualitative measures to assess the values and opinions on freedom and safety among people living with dementia. ''Healthcare,12''(14), 1412. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12141412 Van Den Broeck, A., Howard, J. L., Van Vaerenbergh, Y., Leroy, H., & Gagné, M. (2021). Beyond intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: A meta-analysis on self-determination theory’s multidimensional conceptualization of work motivation. ''Organizational Psychology Review, 11''(3), 240–273. https://doi.org/10.1177/20413866211006173 Van Der Weide, H., Lovink, M. H., Luijkx, K. G., & Gerritsen, D. L. (2023). Supporting autonomy for people with dementia living in nursing homes: A rapid realist review. ''International Journal of Nursing Studies'',137, Article 104382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2022.104382 Vassbø, T. K., Bergland, Å., Kirkevold, M., Lindkvist, M., Lood, Q., Sandman, P., Sjögren, K., & Edvardsson, D. (2020). Effects of a person‐centred and thriving‐promoting intervention on nursing home staff job satisfaction: A multi‐centre, non‐equivalent controlled before–after study. ''Nursing Open, 7''(6), 1787–1797. https://doi.org/10.1002/nop2.565 Wammes, J. D., Labrie, N. H. M., Agogo, G. O., Monin, J. K., Bekker‐Grob, E. W., & MacNeil Vroomen, J. L. (2021). Persons with dementia and informal caregivers prioritizing care: A mixed‐methods study. 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J''ournal of Health Psychology, 31''(9), 3512–3527. https://doi.org/10.1177/13591053251407843 </div> 8a3m3z6jxx5ax2uq7oyx0flcqrhe905 0 331409 2841740 2841389 2026-10-20T19:47:58Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 2841740 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Competence motivation in self-determination theory:<br>How does the need for competence function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== <div style="background:#fff6e8;{{text color default}}; border:2px solid #f2b866; border-radius:12px; padding:1em 1.2em; margin:1em 0; overflow:hidden; clear:both;"> '''Case study:''' [[File:Woman Suffering from Stress at Work (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|260px|'''Figure 1'''. Facing a large, unstructured task without guidance or feedback can leave a person doubting their own ability.]] Maya, a 24-year-old administrative officer, has not opened her biggest project in three days. Instead, she has answered every email and tidied a shared drive she built herself: familiar tasks she knows she can do well. Two months ago, Maya was excited when her manager asked her to review and reorganise more than 500 folders in the team's records system. But she received no guidance on where to start or what "finished" should look like. Each folder revealed new complexity, and nobody told her if her decisions were right. (see Figure 1). Some days she thinks, "I just need clearer instructions." On other days her thoughts turn personal: "I'm hopeless at this." The first thought sends her to ask for help; the second sends her back to her inbox. ''Why does the same task leave a person ready to improve on some days, and ready to give up on others?'' </div> According to [[Self-determination theory|self-determination theory]]<nowiki/>y (SDT), this difference often comes down to the need for [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Self-determination theory|competence]]. Competence is the need to feel effective and capable (Ryan & Deci, 2017). It is one of three basic psychological needs, alongside [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Autonomy and intrinsic motivation in self-determination theory|autonomy]] and [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory|relatedness]] (Ryan & Deci, 2017). When competence is satisfied, people tend to show stronger [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivation]], persistence, and wellbeing (Ryan & Deci, 2020). When it is frustrated, as in Maya's case, people tend to avoid tasks and give up (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). <div style="background:#eaf3fc;;{{text color default}}; border:2px solid #8fbce6; border-radius:12px; padding:1em 1.2em; margin:1em 0; overflow:hidden; clear:both;"> '''Focus questions''' * What is competence, according to self-determination theory? * How does competence relate to intrinsic motivation? * How does cognitive evaluation theory explain why feedback and rewards can strengthen or undermine motivation? * What happens when the need for competence is frustrated? * What does research show about how competence can be supported? </div> <div style="clear:both;"></div> ==Self-determination theory and competence== ===What is self-determination theory?=== SDT is a broad theory of human motivation. It proposes that people have three innate psychological needs: autonomy (feeling volitional), competence (feeling effective), as well as relatedness (feeling connected to others) (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2017). SDT is made up of six mini-theories, and two of these are central to this chapter. These are cognitive evaluation theory and basic psychological needs theory (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). SDT is often compared with [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]]. Maslow (1943) proposed a hierarchy in which lower needs, such as physiological and safety needs, generally take priority over higher needs, such as esteem and self-actualisation. He placed mastery within esteem needs. SDT agrees that people strive to feel capable. However, SDT does not rank its needs and considers all three essential at all times (Ryan & Deci, 2017). [[File:MaslowsHierarchyOfNeeds.svg|thumb|right|300px|'''Figure 2'''. Maslow's hierarchy of needs places mastery within esteem needs, near the top of the hierarchy. SDT treats competence as essential at every level.]] Tay and Diener (2011) tested these two views using Gallup World Poll data from 60,865 people in 123 countries. Although people did tend to meet basic and safety needs first, which partly supports Maslow, each need, including mastery, contributed to wellbeing regardless of whether the other needs were met (Tay & Diener, 2011). The needs that mirror SDT, namely social relationships, autonomy, and mastery, were among the strongest predictors of everyday feelings across all eight world regions studied. One limitation is that the data were cross-sectional. Each need was also measured with only two or three yes or no questions, so the study shows association, not cause. ===What is competence within self-determination theory?=== The idea of competence as a motivational force dates back to White (1959), who challenged the drive theories of his time. He noticed that infants and young animals explore and play, as well as manipulate objects, even when they are fed and safe. He argued that this behaviour comes from a built-in need to have an effect on the environment, which he called effectance motivation. SDT builds on this idea and defines competence as the need to ''feel'' effective, not simply to possess a skill (Ryan & Deci, 2017). As a result a highly skilled person can still feel incompetent if they receive no sign that their efforts are working. According to SDT, competence is best satisfied in well-structured environments that offer "optimal challenge", positive feedback, and opportunities for growth (Ryan & Deci, 2020). An optimally challenging task sits slightly beyond a person's current skill, but it comes with enough structure and support to close the gap. Tasks that are too easy offer no sense of growth, while tasks that are too hard, especially without guidance, signal failure (Reeve, 2024). Maya's difficulty illustrates how a lack of structure and feedback can make a manageable task feel too hard. Basic psychological needs theory treats need satisfaction and need frustration as two separate experiences (Vansteenkiste & Ryan, 2013). Need satisfaction is linked to a "bright" pathway of growth and engagement, as well as wellbeing (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). Need frustration is linked to a "dark" pathway of defensiveness, avoidance, and ill-being (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). Low satisfaction and active frustration are therefore not the same thing. Receiving no feedback may leave a person unfulfilled, but being repeatedly made to feel ineffective actively harms wellbeing (Vansteenkiste & Ryan, 2013). The case study shows this shift. Maya moves from low satisfaction in the early weeks to active frustration after her manager's review, described later in the chapter. ===Competence and self-efficacy=== Competence overlaps closely with [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]], which is a person's belief that they can successfully perform a specific behaviour (Bandura, 1977). Bandura separated two expectations that shape whether people act. An ''efficacy expectation'' asks "Can I do it?", and an ''outcome expectation'' asks "Will it work?" Efficacy beliefs are built from four sources: personal mastery experiences, watching similar others succeed, verbal persuasion, and how people interpret their own stress (Bandura, 1977). Of these, mastery experiences are the most powerful (Bandura, 1977). In the case study, several of these sources are weakened. Without feedback, Maya cannot judge whether her decisions are effective, so her real progress is not experienced as mastery. As the case study later shows, her manager's comments act as negative persuasion. Her anxiety before opening the project is also likely to be read as evidence that she is not capable. The key difference between the two concepts is that self-efficacy is a belief about a specific future task (Bandura, 1977). In contrast, SDT treats competence as a universal need that shapes motivation and wellbeing over time (Ryan & Deci, 2017). In practice, however, the two are difficult to separate, because both are usually measured with similar self-report questions. Some "competence" findings may therefore simply reflect confidence. <div style="clear:both;"></div> ==Competence and intrinsic motivation== SDT's central claim is that the ''quality'' of motivation matters as much as its quantity (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Feeling competent affects where people sit on the motivation continuum, as well as how they respond to feedback and rewards (Deci et al., 1999; Ryan & Deci, 2020). ===The motivation continuum=== SDT describes motivation as a continuum (Ryan & Deci, 2020; see Figure 3). The continuum ranges from [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Amotivation|amotivation]], meaning no intention to act, through several forms of extrinsic motivation, to intrinsic motivation, meaning acting for enjoyment or interest (Ryan & Deci, 2020). A lack of competence is one of the main causes of amotivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). It shows in thoughts such as "I can't do this" or "my effort won't make a difference". In contrast, feeling capable helps people [[w:Internalization (sociology)|internalise]] the value of a task, so the task feels self-endorsed instead of obligatory (Ryan & Deci, 2020). In the case study, Maya's growing avoidance of her project suggests she is sliding toward amotivation. [[File:Taxonomy of motivation.png|thumb|center|600px|'''Figure 3'''. The SDT motivation continuum, ranging from amotivation, through controlled and autonomous forms of extrinsic motivation, to intrinsic motivation.]] ===Cognitive evaluation theory=== [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Cognitive evaluation theory and motivation|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (CET) explains how external events such as feedback and rewards affect intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). According to CET, every such event has a ''controlling'' aspect, which affects autonomy, and an ''informational'' aspect, which affects competence (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Informational feedback increases perceived competence and intrinsic motivation (Deci et al., 1999). In contrast, rewards that feel like pressure tend to undermine intrinsic motivation, even when they signal success (Deci et al., 1999). CET therefore predicts that ''how'' feedback is delivered matters as much as ''what'' it says. Later versions of CET added a third, ''amotivating'' aspect (Ryan & Deci, 2017). Events that signal incompetence, or that effort will not change the outcome, can push people toward amotivation. Criticism that offers no way forward, such as the feedback Maya later receives, is likely to carry this amotivating message. Research generally supports these predictions, although the earliest evidence was weak. In Deci's (1971) original experiment, students paid $1 for each puzzle they solved later spent less free time on the puzzles once payment stopped. However, the study had only 24 participants, and the result was only a trend (Deci, 1971). A later meta-analysis of 128 experiments, mostly with children and university students, found a clearer pattern (Deci et al., 1999). People who expected a tangible reward for an interesting task spent less free time on it afterwards. In studies with children, this effect was still present more than a week later. The most damaging rewards were those that signalled a person had fallen short (Deci et al., 1999). Feedback style also mattered. Informational praise increased intrinsic motivation, but the same praise with a controlling phrase such as "just as you ''should''" decreased it (Ryan et al., 1983, as cited in Deci et al., 1999). Negative feedback was less harmful when it included guidance on how to improve (Fong et al., 2019). Rewards did not undermine motivation for boring tasks or when they were unexpected (Deci et al., 1999). CET assumes that these effects work ''through'' perceived competence (Ryan & Deci, 2017). However, relatively few studies have measured perceived competence directly to test this (Deci et al., 1999). One exception is Vallerand and Reid (1984), who gave 84 male students positive, negative, or no verbal feedback on a balance task. Positive feedback raised both perceived competence and intrinsic motivation, while negative feedback lowered both. Perceived competence explained about 40% of the differences in intrinsic motivation, compared with under 8% for feedback alone. However it is important to note that competence was measured with a single question, and the all-male laboratory sample limits how far the findings generalise. Beyond this study, the mechanism is more often assumed than demonstrated. Even so, the practical message is consistent. Feedback that identifies a problem, such as "the scope needs to be better defined", without showing how to fix it is unlikely to support competence (Fong et al., 2019). <div style="background:#eaf3fc;;{{text color default}}; border:2px solid #8fbce6; border-radius:12px; padding:1em 1.2em; margin:1em 0; overflow:hidden; clear:both;"> '''Check your understanding''' <quiz display=simple> {According to cognitive evaluation theory, positive feedback is most likely to increase intrinsic motivation when it is: |type="()"} - Given with a large financial reward + Informative and delivered in an autonomy-supportive way - Delivered as a comparison with other people - Given constantly, regardless of performance </quiz> </div> <div style="clear:both;"></div> ==When competence is frustrated== <div style="background:#fff6e8;{{text color default}}; border:2px solid #f2b866; border-radius:12px; padding:1em 1.2em; margin:1em 0; overflow:hidden; clear:both;"> '''Case study continued: Maya's first review''' '''Week 6.''' Maya's manager reviews the project. She acknowledges some progress, then adds that the plan needs to be clearer and the scope better defined. She does not say what a clearer plan looks like or how to narrow the scope. Maya leaves the meeting feeling like a failure. She had enjoyed the first few folders, but now she dreads opening the system. '''What is happening?''' The feedback identified a problem without giving Maya the information to solve it. Her effort no longer seems to lead anywhere, which is when a need starts to be actively frustrated, not just unmet. </div> Research supports the distinction between low satisfaction and active frustration (Vansteenkiste & Ryan, 2013). Bartholomew et al. (2011) found that athletes who saw their coach as controlling reported greater thwarting of all three needs. Need thwarting, in turn, predicted burnout, depressive symptoms, and negative emotion (Bartholomew et al., 2011). Feeling actively undermined was more harmful than simply not feeling supported. If the same pattern holds for competence, vague, critical feedback may harm Maya more than no feedback at all. When people repeatedly experience that their effort makes no difference, they may develop [[w:Learned helplessness|learned helplessness]] (Seligman & Maier, 1967). In classic experiments, dogs exposed to inescapable shocks later failed to escape shocks they could have avoided (Seligman & Maier, 1967). Dogs that had been given control earlier learned to escape. In SDT terms, helplessness resembles amotivation caused by repeated competence frustration Ryan and Deci (2017). In humans, helplessness reduces effort and is linked to apathy and depression (Abramson et al., 1978). How people explain failure also matters. The reformulated helplessness model proposes that explaining failure with internal, stable and global causes is more damaging than explaining it with external, unstable or specific causes (Abramson et al., 1978). Maya's two thoughts show this difference. "I'm hopeless at this" blames a lasting personal flaw and is more likely to lead to giving up, whereas "I just need clearer instructions" points to a specific, changeable cause that keeps her trying. <div style="background:#eaf3fc;{{text color default}}; border:2px solid #8fbce6; border-radius:12px; padding:1em 1.2em; margin:1em 0; overflow:hidden; clear:both;"> '''Check your understanding''' <quiz display=simple> {Maya thinks, "I'm hopeless at this." According to research on explanatory style, why is this thought more harmful than "I just need clearer instructions"? |type="()"} - It is less accurate + It explains failure with an internal, stable cause she cannot easily change - It blames her manager instead of herself - It focuses on the task rather than on herself </quiz> </div> <div style="clear:both;"></div> ==What supports or undermines competence?== In two workplace studies, Baard et al. (2004) found that employees' satisfaction of autonomy, competence, and relatedness predicted their wellbeing as well as their performance evaluations. Because supervisors rated performance, this finding is less affected by self-report bias. However, the design still cannot show which came first. A meta-analysis by Van den Broeck et al. (2016) found that competence predicted wellbeing, work attitudes, and behaviour, even after the other two needs were taken into account. This suggests competence is not simply a by-product of feeling autonomous or connected. Leadership also matters. Managers' autonomy-supportive behaviour is associated with greater need satisfaction as well as more autonomous motivation in employees (Slemp et al., 2018). For Maya, her manager's behavior may be affecting her need satisfaction, including her sense of competence. Similar patterns are found in classroom environments. Bureau et al. (2022) pooled studies of what predicts student motivation and found that, of the three needs, support for competence was the strongest predictor of autonomous motivation. Notably, because SDT has historically given autonomy the most attention (Ryan & Deci, 2017). At least in classroom environments, feeling capable may matter as much as feeling free to choose. However, the meta-analysis draws mainly on correlational studies, so it shows which students do well, but it does not prove that supporting competence causes better outcomes. <div style="clear:both;"></div> ==How strong is the evidence?== The strength of the evidence depends on the methods used. The reward findings, for example, were contested. Cameron and Pierce (1994) found no overall undermining effect and argued that CET should be abandoned. Deci et al. (1999) argued that this result came from mixing boring and interesting tasks, as well as using inappropriate control groups. Laboratory studies also relied mostly on single sessions with children and students (Deci et al., 1999). Self-reported interest also showed much weaker effects than behaviour. Outside the laboratory, most studies are cross-sectional. This makes it unclear whether competence drives motivation or whether motivated people simply feel more competent (Van den Broeck et al., 2016). Some critics have questioned whether basic needs are truly universal, because SDT was developed largely in Western contexts (Chen et al., 2015). However, a study of adults in Belgium, China, Peru, and the United States found that need satisfaction and need frustration predicted wellbeing and ill-being in all four cultures (Chen et al., 2015). Together with the overlap between competence and self-efficacy, these limitations point to the same gap noted in CET. SDT predicts outcomes well, but whether competence itself is the active ingredient remains less certain than the theory suggests (Deci et al., 1999). Most competence research has also used neurotypical samples (Morsink et al., 2022). Morsink et al. (2022) noted that research on [[w:Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder|attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD) has mostly studied rewards and overlooked psychological needs. This is despite evidence that children with more ADHD symptoms report lower need satisfaction at school (Morsink et al., 2022). Frequent correction may push teachers and parents toward controlling styles, which can further frustrate competence (Morsink et al., 2022). Whether supporting competence helps neurodivergent people in the same way remains largely untested. <div style="clear:both;"></div> ==Applying competence in practice== The research reviewed so far points to a consistent set of conditions under which people feel capable. Table 1 contrasts environments that support competence with those that thwart it. These features reflect the four sources of competence support in SDT, which are clear expectations, optimal challenge, guidance, and constructive feedback (Reeve, 2024). {| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto; border-radius:8px;" |+ '''Table 1'''<br>''Features of Competence-Supportive and Competence-Thwarting Environments'' |- ! style="background:#eaf3fc;{{text color default}};" | Competence-supportive !! style="background:#fff6e8;;{{text color default}};" | Competence-thwarting |- | Clear expectations about how to succeed || Vague or missing guidance |- | Guidance and modelling of "how-to" skills || Being left to work it out alone |- | Optimal challenge matched to current skills || Tasks far too hard or too easy |- | Specific, informative feedback || Absent, harsh, or controlling feedback |- | Long-term goals broken into short-term goals || No sense of progress |- | Mistakes framed as learning || Mistakes criticised or punished |} <div style="background:#fff6e8;{{text color default}}; border:2px solid #f2b866; border-radius:12px; padding:1em 1.2em; margin:1em 0; overflow:hidden; clear:both;"> '''Case study continued: Maya's turnaround''' '''Week 8.''' Maya's manager notices the slowing progress and changes approach. They agree on what "finished" looks like and break the project into stages, starting with the 50 most-used folders. '''Week 12.''' After each stage, Maya receives specific feedback on what is working. She now makes decisions confidently and has started suggesting improvements herself. '''What changed?''' The structure around how the task would be completed: clear expectations, achievable steps, and feedback that informed instead of judged. Each gave Maya evidence that she was effective. </div> Breaking Maya's project into stages draws on [[w:Goal setting|goal-setting theory]] (Locke & Latham, 2002). Locke and Latham (2002) reviewed 35 years of laboratory and field studies. They found that specific, challenging goals combined with regular feedback consistently outperform vague "do your best" goals. In SDT, this kind of structure is a form of competence support (Reeve, 2024). Specific goals work partly because they show people exactly what success looks like. Each completed stage also acts as a mastery experience, which is the strongest source of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977). This helps explain why Maya's confidence returned once the work was divided into stages. <div style="background:#eaf3fc;{{text color default}}; border:2px solid #8fbce6; border-radius:12px; padding:1em 1.2em; margin:1em 0; overflow:hidden; clear:both;"> '''Check your understanding''' <quiz display=simple> {Which change would best support Maya's need for competence? |type="()"} - Offering her a bonus if she finishes faster + Breaking the project into stages with clear goals and specific feedback - Telling her she is doing a great job regardless of progress - Comparing her progress with a colleague's </quiz> </div> <div style="clear:both;"></div> ==Conclusion== Competence is the need to ''feel'' effective, and SDT treats it as important at all times, not only once basic needs are met (Ryan & Deci, 2017; Tay & Diener, 2011). Feeling competent moves people toward more autonomous motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2020). CET explains why the same feedback can either energise or deflate a person, depending on whether it informs or controls (Deci et al., 1999). When competence is actively frustrated, the consequences are more severe than when it is simply unmet. These consequences range from burnout to the helpless thinking shown in the case study (Abramson et al., 1978; Bartholomew et al., 2011). Research across workplaces and classrooms suggests, that clear expectations and informational feedback, as well as challenges broken into achievable steps, can reverse this pattern (Baard et al., 2004; Locke & Latham, 2002). However, much of this evidence is correlational and rarely tests competence directly as the mechanism (Van den Broeck et al., 2016). '''Take-home messages''' * '''Competence is about feeling effective:''' skilled people can still feel incompetent if they get no sign their effort is working. * '''Feedback should inform, not control:''' say what is working and how to improve, without pressure. * '''Make progress visible:''' break big tasks into stages and agree on what "finished" looks like. * '''Notice the explanation:''' "I'm hopeless" leads towards giving up, while "I need clearer instructions" keeps people trying. <div style="clear:both;"></div> ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Autonomy and intrinsic motivation in self-determination theory|Autonomy and intrinsic motivation in self-determination theory]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Self-determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory|Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[w:Self-determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Self-efficacy|Self-efficacy]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Learned helplessness|Learned helplessness]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Abramson, L. Y., Seligman, M. E., & Teasdale, J. D. (1978). Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformulation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87(1), 49–74. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.87.1.49 Baard, P. P., Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2004). Intrinsic need satisfaction: a motivational basis of performance and well-being in two work settings. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 34(10), 2045–2068. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2004.tb02690.x Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191–215. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191 Bartholomew, K. J., Ntoumanis, N., Ryan, R. M., Bosch, J. A., & Thøgersen-Ntoumani, C. (2011). Self-Determination Theory and Diminished Functioning: The Role of Interpersonal Control and Psychological Need Thwarting. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 37(11), 1459–1473. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167211413125 Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to Student Motivation: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents of Autonomous and Controlled Motivations. Review of Educational Research, 92(1), 46–72. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426 Cameron, J., & Pierce, W. D. (1994). Reinforcement, Reward, and Intrinsic Motivation: A Meta-Analysis. Review of Educational Research, 64(3), 363–423. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543064003363 Chen, B., Vansteenkiste, M., Beyers, W., Boone, L., Deci, E. L., Van der Kaap-Deeder, J., Duriez, B., Lens, W., Matos, L., Mouratidis, A., Ryan, R. M., Sheldon, K. M., Soenens, B., Van Petegem, S., & Verstuyf, J. (2015). Basic psychological need satisfaction, need frustration, and need strength across four cultures. Motivation and Emotion, 39(2), 216–236. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-014-9450-1 Deci, E. L. (1971). Effects of externally mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 18(1), 105–115. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0030644 Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (1999). A Meta-Analytic Review of Experiments Examining the Effects of Extrinsic Rewards on Intrinsic Motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 125(6), 627–668. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.125.6.627 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). ''Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior''. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-2271-7 Fong, C. J., Patall, E. A., Vasquez, A. C., & Stautberg, S. (2019). ''A Meta-Analysis of Negative Feedback on Intrinsic Motivation''. Educational Psychology Review, 31(1), 121–162. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-018-9446-6 Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002). '' Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey''. The American Psychologist, 57(9), 705–717. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.57.9.705 Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. ''Psychological Review, 50''(4), 370–396. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054346 Morsink, S., Van der Oord, S., Antrop, I., Danckaerts, M., & Scheres, A. (2022). ''Studying motivation in ADHD: The role of internal motives and the relevance of self determination theory. ''Journal of Attention Disorders, ''26''(8), 1139–1158. https://doi.org/10.1177/10870547211050948 Reeve, J. (2024). ''Understanding motivation and emotion'' (8th ed.). Wiley. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. ''American Psychologist, 55''(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017). ''Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness''. Guilford Press. https://doi.org/10.1521/978.14625/28806 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61'', Article 101860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860 Seligman, M. E. P., & Maier, S. F. (1967). Failure to escape traumatic shock. ''Journal of Experimental Psychology, 74''(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0024514 Slemp, G. R., Kern, M. L., Patrick, K. J., & Ryan, R. M. (2018). Leader autonomy support in the workplace: A meta-analytic review. ''Motivation and Emotion, 42''(5), 706–724. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-018-9698-y Tay, L., & Diener, E. (2011). Needs and subjective well-being around the world. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101''(2), 354–365. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023779 Vallerand, R. J., & Reid, G. (1984). On the causal effects of perceived competence on intrinsic motivation: A test of cognitive evaluation theory. ''Journal of Sport Psychology, 6''(1), 94–102. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsp.6.1.94 Van den Broeck, A., Ferris, D. L., Chang, C.-H., & Rosen, C. C. (2016). A review of self-determination theory's basic psychological needs at work. ''Journal of Management, 42''(5), 1195–1229. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206316632058 Vansteenkiste, M., & Ryan, R. M. (2013). On psychological growth and vulnerability: Basic psychological need satisfaction and need frustration as a unifying principle. ''Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 23''(3), 263–280. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032359 Vansteenkiste, M., Ryan, R. M., & Soenens, B. (2020). Basic psychological need theory: Advancements, critical themes, and future directions. ''Motivation and Emotion, 44''(1), 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-019-09818-1 White, R. W. (1959). Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence. ''Psychological Review, 66''(5), 297–333. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0040934 }} ==External links== * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/the-theory/ The theory] (Center for Self-Determination Theory) * [https://www.apa.org/education-career/k12/motivation Motivating students] (American Psychological Association) * [https://positivepsychology.com/self-determination-theory/ Self-determination theory of motivation] (PositivePsychology.com) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_juPDoa3GBY Self-determination theory explained] (Sprouts, YouTube) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-determination theory/Competence]] lwcvcngufjyhvxohw0db1n39qlv8c8b 0 331479 2841731 2841724 2026-10-20T12:14:29Z Tofu05 3106606 added to individual differences and emotional regulation. added learning feature "check you understanding" 2841731 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotional flooding in relationships:<br>Why does emotional flooding occur, how does it affect relationships, and what can be done about it?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''💭 Imagine this...''' Let’s cut to a scene in Marriage Story (2019). Charlie and Nicole are partners and are in the process of separating after their marriage has broken down. During a heated argument in their apartment, Nicole expresses her frustration about how she has felt throughout their marriage, while Charlie becomes increasingly defensive about the way she sees him and their relationship. What begins as a discussion about their failed marriage quickly turns into an argument where they bring up inner feelings they kept to themselves about years of resentment, sacrifices, parenting, and the ways they have hurt and disappointed each other. As the argument escalates, both become increasingly emotional. They start to speak over each other, interrupt, yell, and respond to each other's accusations rather than listening. Nicole expresses that she feels Charlie has controlled aspects of her life and failed to recognise her needs, while Charlie insists that he has made sacrifices for their family and feels that Nicole is unfairly blaming him. Their anger and frustration continue to build until Charlie becomes visibly overwhelmed and lashes out by punching a wall. By the end of the argument, neither of them had resolved the issues they were discussing. '''Think...''' *Have you ever been in a situation where a small disagreement suddenly became much more intense than expected? *What do you think happened to Charlie and Nicole as their argument escalated? *Why might it become harder for them to listen to each other or respond calmly as the conflict escalates? {{RoundBoxBottom}} The situation that Charlie and Nicole experienced shows how quickly relationship conflict can escalate when emotional responses become intense (see Figure 1). In these moments where arguments can become much more intense than the issue that started them, a person may become overwhelmed by their emotional response and find it difficult to think clearly and regulate their emotions. This experience is known as emotional flooding. It describes a state in which individuals can become influenced by the experience of another person's negative emotions being intense and overwhelming, so that it interferes with an individual's ability to respond effectively (Del Vecchio et al., 2016). Research suggests that emotional flooding can contribute to poor relationship satisfaction, understanding these processes may help identify ways to recognise and manage emotional flooding before conflict becomes too difficult to resolve. This chapter will explore what emotional flooding is, why it occurs during relationship conflict, and how individual, emotional, cognitive, and interpersonal factors may contribute to it. It will then examine how emotional flooding can influence communication, conflict resolution, and relationship outcomes. Finally, exploring considering psychological strategies that may help individuals recognise and de-escalate emotional flooding. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''🔍 Focus questions''' *What psychological and physiological processes contribute to emotional flooding during relationship conflict? *How does emotional flooding affect emotion regulation and communication between partners in relationships? *What are the potential consequences of emotional flooding for relationship functioning? *What evidence-based strategies can help individuals manage emotional flooding during relationship conflict? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding emotional flooding == Emotional flooding is a psychological response that can occur when a person becomes overwhelmed by their partner’s negative emotions during conflict. Gottman (1993), describes flooding as a response to negative emotions that are unexpected, intense and overwhelming, leaving their partner feeling disorganised and wanting to end the interaction. This may lead a person to withdraw from the conversation or attempt to escape the situation. Therefore, flooding is not simply experiencing a singular emotion such as anger or distress, it involves difficulty maintaining organised and effective functioning when faced with a partner’s negative emotions. Emotional flooding may be influenced by both individual differences and the interpersonal context (Malik et al., 2020). Some individuals may be more prone to becoming overwhelmed during conflict due to their emotional sensitivity, previous experiences or perceptions of their partner’s behaviour. However, flooding cannot be understood as only an individual characteristic. The frequency and intensity of a partner’s negative emotions may also influence whether flooding occurs. This suggests that flooding develops through an interaction between a person's own vulnerability and also the emotional environment where the conflict takes place.  This suggests that flooding develops through an interaction between a person’s individual vulnerability and the emotional environment in which the conflict takes place. Research by Malik et al. (2020) has linked emotional flooding to difficulties in relationship functioning, they found that flooding was associated with negative affect during couples conflict discussions. Couples involving at least one person who experienced high levels of flooding were also less effective in solving problems during conflict discussion (Malik et al., 2020). Their findings suggest that becoming overwhelmed may create difficulty for couples to resolve disagreements constructively. Gottman (1993) involved flooding into a broader theory of marital stability and dissolution, and it was identified as a potential part of progression towards emotional distance and relationship deterioration. Complementing Gottman (1993), Hooper et al. (2017) examined emotional flooding with negative communication behaviours and marital satisfaction, finding that refusal to talk to a partner (stonewalling) had the strongest negative association with marital satisfaction, highlighting its relevance to relationship functioning. Such research demonstrates why understanding emotional flooding is important for explaining how emotional experiences and interpersonal interactions may contribute to escalating conflict within relationships. Psychological research can help explain the processes underlying flooding, including emotional and physiological arousal, cognitive interpretations and interpersonal influences. It can also inform approaches for individuals to recognise emotional overwhelm and respond to conflict more constructively, bettering their individual and relationship wellbeing. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}<quiz display=simple> '''Check your understanding, which statement best describes emotional flooding? '' |type="()"} -Experiencing anger during any disagreement. +Becoming overwhelmed by intense negative emotions in a way that interferes with responding effectively. -Choosing to ignore a partner during conflict. </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why emotional flooding occurs during relationship conflicts == Why do some disagreements become overwhelming while others remain manageable? Research suggests that ''several'' interacting factors including physiological stress responses, how people interpret conflict, and individual differences in emotional regulation may be involved. Though they are not proven causes of flooding in every relationship, these factors have been examined across different studies. Research on couples has linked relationship conflict with biological stress responses, while studies of emotional flooding indicate that both a person's own emotional reactions and their partner’s negative affect are relevant. These findings all together suggest that flooding may occur when a person's own vulnerability interacts with an emotionally intense conflict. === Emotional and physiological arousal === Relationship conflict can activate the body's stress-response systems, potentially influencing how individuals experience and respond to emotional intense situations. One relevant system is the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which governs the cortisol (stress hormone) production and secretion (Kaur et al., 2023). Laurent and Powers (2007) examined factors that could predict hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis responses in emerging adult heterosexual couples. They investigated how temperament and attachment were associated with physiological stress responses during conflict discussions about unresolved relationship issues. Research measured cortisol responses, and the found that partners' dyadic fit (how both partners' attachment styles interact) influenced female cortisol responses during conflict. Additionally, attachment avoidance influenced the effect of males' emotionality on both their own and their partners' cortisol responses (Laurent and Powers, 2007). This suggests that physiological responses during disagreements may be shaped by the conflict, individual characteristics, and the dynamics between partners. Gottman (1993) linked physiological patterns into his theory of marital stability and dissolution in later marital outcomes through exploring heart rate elevation. In his longitudinal research, he compared 52 husbands' baseline heart rate in couples who later divorced, with couples who remained together. It was found that the divorced mean was 84.49 beats per minute (BPM) and the stable couples mean was 73.43 BPM, showing a statistically significant difference, ''t''(51) = 2.62, p < .05.  Although this  finding does not establish that an elevated heart rate causes emotional flooding, it suggests a relevance of physiological patterns to understanding marital instability. Moving beyond physiological arousal in romantic relationships, Del Vecchio et al. (2016) examined parents' responses to children's negative emotions. They found that when parents became overwhelmed by the intensity of a child's negative emotions, they focussed on escaping the aversive situation rather than responding effectively. This finding implies that when emotional reactions become overwhelming, individuals may struggle to engage in constructive responses and want to end the interaction. Although this study focused on parent-child relationships rather than romantic relationships, it provides supporting evidence that emotional overwhelm can interfere with effective interpersonal responses. Therefore, its findings should be interpreted as indirect support rather than direct evidence of emotional flooding in romantic relationships. === The role of cognitive appraisal and interpersonal threat === Cognitive appraisal refers to how individuals interpret stressful events and evaluate their significance. Gottman (1993) proposed that negative behaviours may be attributed to a partner's overall negative traits rather than viewed within the context of a specific situation. This perspective helps explain how people may interpret an isolated disagreement as evidence that their partner possesses enduring negative characteristics. As a result, the conflict may feel more significant and contribute to increasingly negative perceptions of the relationship. Let's take a look at how the interpretation of a partner’s behaviour can influence emotional responses. '''Table 1: Example in a relationship''' {| class="wikitable" |+Imagine your partner forgets to text you back… ! !Response !Emotion |- |Interpretation 1 |“They must be busy, they probably didn't see my message.” |You might feel relatively calm and ask them about it later. |- |Interpretation 2 |“They don't care about me and they always ignore me.” |You might feel hurt or rejected and respond with anger, potentially escalating the disagreement and creating conflict |} Over time, these interpretations may contribute to a more negative perception of the relationship. Gottman (1993) argued that negative interpretations of a partner can persist beyond a specific disagreement, leading individuals to view both their partner and the history of their relationship negatively. A partner's failure to communicate (Table 1) may be interpreted either as an isolated mistake or as evidence that the partner is generally uncaring. He suggested that in unhappy marriages, positive behaviours are often viewed as temporary, whereas negative behaviours are more likely to be attributed to stable and global negative traits of the partner. As a result, individuals may find it more difficult to evaluate a situation within its context or consider information that challenges their existing negative perceptions. Gottman (1993) further proposed that flooding may contribute to a cycle in which flooded individuals become more likely to interpret ambiguous behaviours as threatening or frustrating. These negative interpretations may become increasingly difficult to disconfirm, contributing to a negative view of the relationship. This suggests that emotional responses during conflict may be shaped by a partner's behaviour and by the meaning that is attributed to that behaviour. The role of the interpersonal context in emotional flooding is further supported by Malik et al. (2020). They suggest that flooding is not only an individual tendency to become overwhelmed, but may also be influenced by a partner's expressed negative affect. Their study examined 233 married or cohabiting couples during a problem-solving assessment. They found that both men's and women's flooding was positively associated with their own anger, as well as their partners' experienced and expressed anger. These findings indicate that flooding is associated with an individual's emotional state and the emotions expressed within the interaction. These findings demonstrate associations rather than establishing that a partner's anger or an individual's interpretations directly cause flooding. Emotional responses may also be reciprocal, with negative effects potentially contributing to flooding, while flooding may interfere with effective communication and problem-solving during conflict. Together, these findings suggest that flooding may involve an interaction between how a person interprets their partner's behaviour and the negative emotions expressed during conflict. === Individual differences and emotional regulation === Why do some people become overwhelmed during conflict, while others seem better able to manage their emotions?  Imagine two people having a disagreement with their partners about the same issue. One person becomes overwhelmed, they struggle to explain how they feel and want to leave the conversation. The other feels frustrated but can recognise their emotions, they take a moment to calm down and continue discussing the problem. Although both experience conflict, their emotional responses differ. These differences may partly reflect individual vulnerability to emotional flooding and the ability to recognise and regulate intense emotions. Gross (1998) describes emotion regulation as the process through which individuals influence which emotions they have, when they have them, and how they experience and express them. When emotions become intense during relationship conflict, some individuals may find it more difficult to understand what they are feeling or regulate how they respond. Some people may be more prone to becoming overwhelmed during conflict than others. Malik et al. (2020) suggest that individuals may be more or less likely to flood in a relatively stable, trait-like manner.  However, this does not mean that flooding is simply a personality trait or that an individual will respond the same way in every disagreement. One factor that may help explain these differences is emotional intelligence, particularly the ability to recognise, understand and regulate emotional experiences. Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023), examined perceived emotional intelligence and emotional flooding in a sample of 692 women. They considered three dimensions of perceived emotional intelligence; * Emotional attention * Emotional clarity * Emotional repair. These refer to attending to emotional experiences, understanding what those emotions mean and feeling able to regulate them. Researchers found that emotional clarity and emotional repair were negatively associated with emotional flooding. Women who reported greater clarity about their emotions and greater perceived ability to regulate them also showed lower levels of flooding. Positive conflict-resolution strategies were also associated with lower flooding. These findings suggest that understanding one's emotional experiences and responding constructively during disagreements may be relevant to emotional flooding. Individual differences may influence how people respond to conflict, however emotional responses are not necessarily predictable. Salo et al. (2025),  investigated whether emotion-regulation strategies could influence physiological responses during couple conflict. Their study examined acceptance, which involves allowing emotional experiences without judging them, and cognitive reappraisal which involves changing how a situation is interpreted. Researchers reported that both emotion regulation strategies reduced cardiac reactivity in the manipulated partner compared to the control group (Salo et al., 2025). This provides experimental evidence that using emotion-regulation strategies can influence some physiological responses during relationship conflict. However, the study measured cardiac reactivity rather than emotional flooding itself, so it does not establish that these strategies prevent flooding specifically. These studies suggest that emotional flooding may reflect a combination of individual vulnerability, emotional awareness and the ability to regulate responses during conflict. Some individuals may be more prone to becoming overwhelmed, while emotional clarity and regulation may be relevant to how they experience and deal with disagreements. Responses to conflict are also shaped by the interaction between partners, rather than by individual characteristics alone. Understanding these differences is important because it highlights why recognising emotional overwhelm and developing constructive ways of responding may be useful when managing conflict in close relationships. == How emotional flooding affects relationships == Introduction {{ic|Include an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections}} === Emotional regulation and communication === * Difficulty listening and communicating effectively * Defensiveness, criticism and withdrawal * Escalation of conflict * Emotional flooding can be linked to destructive/negative communication cycles. * Gottman (1993) suggests a sequence where“criticism leads to contempt, which leads to defensiveness, which leads to stonewalling. * These behaviours can progressively shift a conflict from discussing a specific problem, to attacking and defending, eventually causing a withdrawal from the interaction. * Hooper et al. (2017) further highlights the importance of these communication patterns. * Their sample of 591 married individuals, the presence of emotional flooding and the Four Horsemen (term John Gottman used to describe four negative communication behaviours that can be damaging in romantic relationships, criticism, defensiveness, contempt, stonewalling) was associated with poorer marital satisfaction * Stonewalling had “the greatest negative impact on relationship satisfaction.” * This suggests that withdrawal may be particularly problematic when emotionally intense conflict is already making communication difficult. === Conflict and relationship outcomes === * Effects on conflict resolution * Relationship satisfaction * Repeated negative cycles * How partners can influence each other's emotional responses * Emotional flooding may interfere directly with a couple's ability to resolve disagreements. * Malik et al. (2020) found that couples with at least one highly flooded partner demonstrated poorer problem solving during observed conflict. * These couples were less likely to propose viable solutions, weigh the advantages and disadvantages of possible solutions, operationalise plans, follow through with solutions, and reach resolution (Malik et al., 2020). * Hooper et al (2017), reiterate that flooding may be relevant to how partners manage a specific disagreement and also to how positively they experience the relationship overall as stated before. * Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) found significant differences between love-style profiles in conflict and emotional flooding * The greatest differences in flooding and conflict intensity occur between the less stable and more stable profiles. * These findings suggest that flooding may occur as part of broader patterns of conflict rather than in isolation. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}<quiz display=simple> '''Which situation below best demonstrates the potential effects of emotional flooding during relationship conflict?''' |type="()"} -A couple disagrees but calmly discusses different solutions. +One partner becomes overwhelmed, withdraws from the discussion, and the disagreement remains unresolved. -A couple disagrees and later reaches a compromise. -One partner notices they are becoming frustrated and suggests continuing the conversation later. </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} == What can be done to manage emotional flooding in relationships == Introduction {{ic|Include an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections}} === Recognising and regulating emotional arousal === * Recognising signs of flooding * Emotion-regulation strategies * Reducing physiological arousal * Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) suggests that emotional awareness and emotional regulation are associated with healthier conflict responses. * Emotional awareness and regulation may therefore be useful targets for managing emotional flooding. * Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) found that emotional intelligence was associated with differences in conflict and emotional flooding. * This suggests that individuals who are better able to recognise and regulate emotional experiences may be better positioned to manage conflict constructively. === De-escalating conflicts === * Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) suggestsn {{ic|Grammar - this should be past tense when discussing past findings}} that emotional awareness and emotional regulation are associated with healthier conflict responses. * Emotional awareness and regulation may therefore be useful targets for managing emotional flooding. * Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) found that emotional intelligence was associated with differences in conflict and emotional flooding. * This suggests that individuals who are better able to recognise and regulate emotional experiences may be better positioned to manage conflict constructively. * Gottman (1993) states that couples take breaks. * When conflict causes high physiological arousal, continuing the discussion may make constructive communication more difficult. * Gottman (1993) proposed physiological soothing as part of marital intervention. * This involves taking breaks when arousal becomes high. * The purpose of the break is to not simply avoid the issue, but to allow physiological arousal to decrease before partners return to the discussion. * Hooper et al. (2017) state “reducing these forms of communication, especially stonewalling” * De-escalation may also require reducing destructive communication behaviours. * Hooper et al. (2017) recommend reducing negative communication patterns, particularly stonewalling, which showed the strongest negative association with relationship satisfaction in their study. ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Love styles and relationship satisfaction|Love styles and relationships]] (Book chapter, 2025) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Berenguer-Soler, M., Castillo-López, Á. G. del, & Piñeda, D. (2023). Breaking the cycle of emotional flooding: The protective role of women’s emotional intelligence in couple’s conflict. Frontiers in Psychology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1217513 Castillo-López, Á. G., Berenguer-Soler, M., & Pineda, D. (2025). Relationship love styles’ effects on conflict, emotional intelligence, and sexual satisfaction: A latent profile analysis. SAGE Open, 15(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440251358988 Del Vecchio, T., Lorber, M. F., Slep, A. M. S., Malik, J., Heyman, R. E., & Foran, H. M. (2016). Parental flooding during conflict: A psychometric evaluation of a new scale. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44(8), 1587–1597. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-016-0137-9 Gottman, J. M. (1993). A theory of marital dissolution and stability. Journal of Family Psychology, 7(1), 57–75. Hooper, A., Spann, C., McCray, T., & Kimberly, C. (2017). Revisiting the basics: Understanding potential demographic differences with John Gottman’s four horsemen and emotional flooding. The Family Journal, 25(3), 224–229. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480717710650 Malik, J., Heyman, R. E., & Smith Slep, A. M. (2020). Emotional flooding in response to negative affect in couple conflicts: Individual differences and correlates. Journal of Family Psychology, 34(2), 145–154. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000584 }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://www.gottman.com/blog/making-sure-emotional-flooding-doesnt-capsize-your-relationship/ Emotional flooding] (The Gottman Institute) * [https://researchers.mq.edu.au/en/publications/emotional-flooding-and-hostile-discipline-in-the-families-of-todd/ Emotional flooding within family dynamics] (Macquarie University) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relationships]] m1gkie9fimeptna98w19a4xnw5s9pmr 2841793 2841731 2026-10-21T02:01:10Z Tofu05 3106606 added introduction to "how emotional flooding affects relationships" 2841793 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotional flooding in relationships:<br>Why does emotional flooding occur, how does it affect relationships, and what can be done about it?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''💭 Imagine this...''' Let’s cut to a scene in Marriage Story (2019). Charlie and Nicole are partners and are in the process of separating after their marriage has broken down. During a heated argument in their apartment, Nicole expresses her frustration about how she has felt throughout their marriage, while Charlie becomes increasingly defensive about the way she sees him and their relationship. What begins as a discussion about their failed marriage quickly turns into an argument where they bring up inner feelings they kept to themselves about years of resentment, sacrifices, parenting, and the ways they have hurt and disappointed each other. As the argument escalates, both become increasingly emotional. They start to speak over each other, interrupt, yell, and respond to each other's accusations rather than listening. Nicole expresses that she feels Charlie has controlled aspects of her life and failed to recognise her needs, while Charlie insists that he has made sacrifices for their family and feels that Nicole is unfairly blaming him. Their anger and frustration continue to build until Charlie becomes visibly overwhelmed and lashes out by punching a wall. By the end of the argument, neither of them had resolved the issues they were discussing. '''Think...''' *Have you ever been in a situation where a small disagreement suddenly became much more intense than expected? *What do you think happened to Charlie and Nicole as their argument escalated? *Why might it become harder for them to listen to each other or respond calmly as the conflict escalates? {{RoundBoxBottom}} The situation that Charlie and Nicole experienced shows how quickly relationship conflict can escalate when emotional responses become intense (see Figure 1). In these moments where arguments can become much more intense than the issue that started them, a person may become overwhelmed by their emotional response and find it difficult to think clearly and regulate their emotions. This experience is known as emotional flooding. It describes a state in which individuals can become influenced by the experience of another person's negative emotions being intense and overwhelming, so that it interferes with an individual's ability to respond effectively (Del Vecchio et al., 2016). Research suggests that emotional flooding can contribute to poor relationship satisfaction, understanding these processes may help identify ways to recognise and manage emotional flooding before conflict becomes too difficult to resolve. This chapter will explore what emotional flooding is, why it occurs during relationship conflict, and how individual, emotional, cognitive, and interpersonal factors may contribute to it. It will then examine how emotional flooding can influence communication, conflict resolution, and relationship outcomes. Finally, exploring considering psychological strategies that may help individuals recognise and de-escalate emotional flooding. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''🔍 Focus questions''' *What psychological and physiological processes contribute to emotional flooding during relationship conflict? *How does emotional flooding affect emotion regulation and communication between partners in relationships? *What are the potential consequences of emotional flooding for relationship functioning? *What evidence-based strategies can help individuals manage emotional flooding during relationship conflict? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding emotional flooding == Emotional flooding is a psychological response that can occur when a person becomes overwhelmed by their partner’s negative emotions during conflict. Gottman (1993), describes flooding as a response to negative emotions that are unexpected, intense and overwhelming, leaving their partner feeling disorganised and wanting to end the interaction. This may lead a person to withdraw from the conversation or attempt to escape the situation. Therefore, flooding is not simply experiencing a singular emotion such as anger or distress, it involves difficulty maintaining organised and effective functioning when faced with a partner’s negative emotions. Emotional flooding may be influenced by both individual differences and the interpersonal context (Malik et al., 2020). Some individuals may be more prone to becoming overwhelmed during conflict due to their emotional sensitivity, previous experiences or perceptions of their partner’s behaviour. However, flooding cannot be understood as only an individual characteristic. The frequency and intensity of a partner’s negative emotions may also influence whether flooding occurs. This suggests that flooding develops through an interaction between a person's own vulnerability and also the emotional environment where the conflict takes place.  This suggests that flooding develops through an interaction between a person’s individual vulnerability and the emotional environment in which the conflict takes place. Research by Malik et al. (2020) has linked emotional flooding to difficulties in relationship functioning, they found that flooding was associated with negative affect during couples conflict discussions. Couples involving at least one person who experienced high levels of flooding were also less effective in solving problems during conflict discussion (Malik et al., 2020). Their findings suggest that becoming overwhelmed may create difficulty for couples to resolve disagreements constructively. Gottman (1993) involved flooding into a broader theory of marital stability and dissolution, and it was identified as a potential part of progression towards emotional distance and relationship deterioration. Complementing Gottman (1993), Hooper et al. (2017) examined emotional flooding with negative communication behaviours and marital satisfaction, finding that refusal to talk to a partner (stonewalling) had the strongest negative association with marital satisfaction, highlighting its relevance to relationship functioning. Such research demonstrates why understanding emotional flooding is important for explaining how emotional experiences and interpersonal interactions may contribute to escalating conflict within relationships. Psychological research can help explain the processes underlying flooding, including emotional and physiological arousal, cognitive interpretations and interpersonal influences. It can also inform approaches for individuals to recognise emotional overwhelm and respond to conflict more constructively, bettering their individual and relationship wellbeing. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}<quiz display=simple> '''Check your understanding, which statement best describes emotional flooding? '' |type="()"} -Experiencing anger during any disagreement. +Becoming overwhelmed by intense negative emotions in a way that interferes with responding effectively. -Choosing to ignore a partner during conflict. </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why emotional flooding occurs during relationship conflicts == Why do some disagreements become overwhelming while others remain manageable? Research suggests that ''several'' interacting factors including physiological stress responses, how people interpret conflict, and individual differences in emotional regulation may be involved. Though they are not proven causes of flooding in every relationship, these factors have been examined across different studies. Research on couples has linked relationship conflict with biological stress responses, while studies of emotional flooding indicate that both a person's own emotional reactions and their partner’s negative affect are relevant. These findings all together suggest that flooding may occur when a person's own vulnerability interacts with an emotionally intense conflict. === Emotional and physiological arousal === Relationship conflict can activate the body's stress-response systems, potentially influencing how individuals experience and respond to emotional intense situations. One relevant system is the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which governs the cortisol (stress hormone) production and secretion (Kaur et al., 2023). Laurent and Powers (2007) examined factors that could predict hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis responses in emerging adult heterosexual couples. They investigated how temperament and attachment were associated with physiological stress responses during conflict discussions about unresolved relationship issues. Research measured cortisol responses, and the found that partners' dyadic fit (how both partners' attachment styles interact) influenced female cortisol responses during conflict. Additionally, attachment avoidance influenced the effect of males' emotionality on both their own and their partners' cortisol responses (Laurent and Powers, 2007). This suggests that physiological responses during disagreements may be shaped by the conflict, individual characteristics, and the dynamics between partners. Gottman (1993) linked physiological patterns into his theory of marital stability and dissolution in later marital outcomes through exploring heart rate elevation. In his longitudinal research, he compared 52 husbands' baseline heart rate in couples who later divorced, with couples who remained together. It was found that the divorced mean was 84.49 beats per minute (BPM) and the stable couples mean was 73.43 BPM, showing a statistically significant difference, ''t''(51) = 2.62, p < .05.  Although this  finding does not establish that an elevated heart rate causes emotional flooding, it suggests a relevance of physiological patterns to understanding marital instability. Moving beyond physiological arousal in romantic relationships, Del Vecchio et al. (2016) examined parents' responses to children's negative emotions. They found that when parents became overwhelmed by the intensity of a child's negative emotions, they focussed on escaping the aversive situation rather than responding effectively. This finding implies that when emotional reactions become overwhelming, individuals may struggle to engage in constructive responses and want to end the interaction. Although this study focused on parent-child relationships rather than romantic relationships, it provides supporting evidence that emotional overwhelm can interfere with effective interpersonal responses. Therefore, its findings should be interpreted as indirect support rather than direct evidence of emotional flooding in romantic relationships. === The role of cognitive appraisal and interpersonal threat === Cognitive appraisal refers to how individuals interpret stressful events and evaluate their significance. Gottman (1993) proposed that negative behaviours may be attributed to a partner's overall negative traits rather than viewed within the context of a specific situation. This perspective helps explain how people may interpret an isolated disagreement as evidence that their partner possesses enduring negative characteristics. As a result, the conflict may feel more significant and contribute to increasingly negative perceptions of the relationship. Let's take a look at how the interpretation of a partner’s behaviour can influence emotional responses. '''Table 1: Example in a relationship''' {| class="wikitable" |+Imagine your partner forgets to text you back… ! !Response !Emotion |- |Interpretation 1 |“They must be busy, they probably didn't see my message.” |You might feel relatively calm and ask them about it later. |- |Interpretation 2 |“They don't care about me and they always ignore me.” |You might feel hurt or rejected and respond with anger, potentially escalating the disagreement and creating conflict |} Over time, these interpretations may contribute to a more negative perception of the relationship. Gottman (1993) argued that negative interpretations of a partner can persist beyond a specific disagreement, leading individuals to view both their partner and the history of their relationship negatively. A partner's failure to communicate (Table 1) may be interpreted either as an isolated mistake or as evidence that the partner is generally uncaring. He suggested that in unhappy marriages, positive behaviours are often viewed as temporary, whereas negative behaviours are more likely to be attributed to stable and global negative traits of the partner. As a result, individuals may find it more difficult to evaluate a situation within its context or consider information that challenges their existing negative perceptions. Gottman (1993) further proposed that flooding may contribute to a cycle in which flooded individuals become more likely to interpret ambiguous behaviours as threatening or frustrating. These negative interpretations may become increasingly difficult to disconfirm, contributing to a negative view of the relationship. This suggests that emotional responses during conflict may be shaped by a partner's behaviour and by the meaning that is attributed to that behaviour. The role of the interpersonal context in emotional flooding is further supported by Malik et al. (2020). They suggest that flooding is not only an individual tendency to become overwhelmed, but may also be influenced by a partner's expressed negative affect. Their study examined 233 married or cohabiting couples during a problem-solving assessment. They found that both men's and women's flooding was positively associated with their own anger, as well as their partners' experienced and expressed anger. These findings indicate that flooding is associated with an individual's emotional state and the emotions expressed within the interaction. These findings demonstrate associations rather than establishing that a partner's anger or an individual's interpretations directly cause flooding. Emotional responses may also be reciprocal, with negative effects potentially contributing to flooding, while flooding may interfere with effective communication and problem-solving during conflict. Together, these findings suggest that flooding may involve an interaction between how a person interprets their partner's behaviour and the negative emotions expressed during conflict. === Individual differences and emotional regulation === Why do some people become overwhelmed during conflict, while others seem better able to manage their emotions?  Imagine two people having a disagreement with their partners about the same issue. One person becomes overwhelmed, they struggle to explain how they feel and want to leave the conversation. The other feels frustrated but can recognise their emotions, they take a moment to calm down and continue discussing the problem. Although both experience conflict, their emotional responses differ. These differences may partly reflect individual vulnerability to emotional flooding and the ability to recognise and regulate intense emotions. Gross (1998) describes emotion regulation as the process through which individuals influence which emotions they have, when they have them, and how they experience and express them. When emotions become intense during relationship conflict, some individuals may find it more difficult to understand what they are feeling or regulate how they respond. Some people may be more prone to becoming overwhelmed during conflict than others. Malik et al. (2020) suggest that individuals may be more or less likely to flood in a relatively stable, trait-like manner.  However, this does not mean that flooding is simply a personality trait or that an individual will respond the same way in every disagreement. One factor that may help explain these differences is emotional intelligence, particularly the ability to recognise, understand and regulate emotional experiences. Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023), examined perceived emotional intelligence and emotional flooding in a sample of 692 women. They considered three dimensions of perceived emotional intelligence; * Emotional attention * Emotional clarity * Emotional repair. These refer to attending to emotional experiences, understanding what those emotions mean and feeling able to regulate them. Researchers found that emotional clarity and emotional repair were negatively associated with emotional flooding. Women who reported greater clarity about their emotions and greater perceived ability to regulate them also showed lower levels of flooding. Positive conflict-resolution strategies were also associated with lower flooding. These findings suggest that understanding one's emotional experiences and responding constructively during disagreements may be relevant to emotional flooding. Individual differences may influence how people respond to conflict, however emotional responses are not necessarily predictable. Salo et al. (2025),  investigated whether emotion-regulation strategies could influence physiological responses during couple conflict. Their study examined acceptance, which involves allowing emotional experiences without judging them, and cognitive reappraisal which involves changing how a situation is interpreted. Researchers reported that both emotion regulation strategies reduced cardiac reactivity in the manipulated partner compared to the control group (Salo et al., 2025). This provides experimental evidence that using emotion-regulation strategies can influence some physiological responses during relationship conflict. However, the study measured cardiac reactivity rather than emotional flooding itself, so it does not establish that these strategies prevent flooding specifically. These studies suggest that emotional flooding may reflect a combination of individual vulnerability, emotional awareness and the ability to regulate responses during conflict. Some individuals may be more prone to becoming overwhelmed, while emotional clarity and regulation may be relevant to how they experience and deal with disagreements. Responses to conflict are also shaped by the interaction between partners, rather than by individual characteristics alone. Understanding these differences is important because it highlights why recognising emotional overwhelm and developing constructive ways of responding may be useful when managing conflict in close relationships. == How emotional flooding affects relationships == Relationship conflict does not always stay focussed on the issue that started it, think back to the '''case study''', Nicole initiates a conversation with Charlie wanting to resolve a problem. This led to them criticising and yelling at each other, on topics unrelated to the initial issue. When emotions become overwhelming, partners may struggle to listen to each other and communicate their concerns constructively. Research suggests that the relevance of emotional flooding with communication effectiveness, problem solving difficulties and relationship satisfaction extends beyond the immediate experience of feeling overwhelmed. === Emotional regulation and communication === * Difficulty listening and communicating effectively * Defensiveness, criticism and withdrawal * Escalation of conflict * Emotional flooding can be linked to destructive/negative communication cycles. * Gottman (1993) suggests a sequence where“criticism leads to contempt, which leads to defensiveness, which leads to stonewalling. * These behaviours can progressively shift a conflict from discussing a specific problem, to attacking and defending, eventually causing a withdrawal from the interaction. * Hooper et al. (2017) further highlights the importance of these communication patterns. * Their sample of 591 married individuals, the presence of emotional flooding and the Four Horsemen (term John Gottman used to describe four negative communication behaviours that can be damaging in romantic relationships, criticism, defensiveness, contempt, stonewalling) was associated with poorer marital satisfaction * Stonewalling had “the greatest negative impact on relationship satisfaction.” * This suggests that withdrawal may be particularly problematic when emotionally intense conflict is already making communication difficult. === Conflict and relationship outcomes === * Effects on conflict resolution * Relationship satisfaction * Repeated negative cycles * How partners can influence each other's emotional responses * Emotional flooding may interfere directly with a couple's ability to resolve disagreements. * Malik et al. (2020) found that couples with at least one highly flooded partner demonstrated poorer problem solving during observed conflict. * These couples were less likely to propose viable solutions, weigh the advantages and disadvantages of possible solutions, operationalise plans, follow through with solutions, and reach resolution (Malik et al., 2020). * Hooper et al (2017), reiterate that flooding may be relevant to how partners manage a specific disagreement and also to how positively they experience the relationship overall as stated before. * Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) found significant differences between love-style profiles in conflict and emotional flooding * The greatest differences in flooding and conflict intensity occur between the less stable and more stable profiles. * These findings suggest that flooding may occur as part of broader patterns of conflict rather than in isolation. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}<quiz display=simple> '''Which situation below best demonstrates the potential effects of emotional flooding during relationship conflict?''' |type="()"} -A couple disagrees but calmly discusses different solutions. +One partner becomes overwhelmed, withdraws from the discussion, and the disagreement remains unresolved. -A couple disagrees and later reaches a compromise. -One partner notices they are becoming frustrated and suggests continuing the conversation later. </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} == What can be done to manage emotional flooding in relationships == Introduction {{ic|Include an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections}} === Recognising and regulating emotional arousal === * Recognising signs of flooding * Emotion-regulation strategies * Reducing physiological arousal * Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) suggests that emotional awareness and emotional regulation are associated with healthier conflict responses. * Emotional awareness and regulation may therefore be useful targets for managing emotional flooding. * Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) found that emotional intelligence was associated with differences in conflict and emotional flooding. * This suggests that individuals who are better able to recognise and regulate emotional experiences may be better positioned to manage conflict constructively. === De-escalating conflicts === * Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) suggestsn {{ic|Grammar - this should be past tense when discussing past findings}} that emotional awareness and emotional regulation are associated with healthier conflict responses. * Emotional awareness and regulation may therefore be useful targets for managing emotional flooding. * Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) found that emotional intelligence was associated with differences in conflict and emotional flooding. * This suggests that individuals who are better able to recognise and regulate emotional experiences may be better positioned to manage conflict constructively. * Gottman (1993) states that couples take breaks. * When conflict causes high physiological arousal, continuing the discussion may make constructive communication more difficult. * Gottman (1993) proposed physiological soothing as part of marital intervention. * This involves taking breaks when arousal becomes high. * The purpose of the break is to not simply avoid the issue, but to allow physiological arousal to decrease before partners return to the discussion. * Hooper et al. (2017) state “reducing these forms of communication, especially stonewalling” * De-escalation may also require reducing destructive communication behaviours. * Hooper et al. (2017) recommend reducing negative communication patterns, particularly stonewalling, which showed the strongest negative association with relationship satisfaction in their study. ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Love styles and relationship satisfaction|Love styles and relationships]] (Book chapter, 2025) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Berenguer-Soler, M., Castillo-López, Á. G. del, & Piñeda, D. (2023). Breaking the cycle of emotional flooding: The protective role of women’s emotional intelligence in couple’s conflict. Frontiers in Psychology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1217513 Castillo-López, Á. G., Berenguer-Soler, M., & Pineda, D. (2025). Relationship love styles’ effects on conflict, emotional intelligence, and sexual satisfaction: A latent profile analysis. SAGE Open, 15(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440251358988 Del Vecchio, T., Lorber, M. F., Slep, A. M. S., Malik, J., Heyman, R. E., & Foran, H. M. (2016). Parental flooding during conflict: A psychometric evaluation of a new scale. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44(8), 1587–1597. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-016-0137-9 Gottman, J. M. (1993). A theory of marital dissolution and stability. Journal of Family Psychology, 7(1), 57–75. Hooper, A., Spann, C., McCray, T., & Kimberly, C. (2017). Revisiting the basics: Understanding potential demographic differences with John Gottman’s four horsemen and emotional flooding. The Family Journal, 25(3), 224–229. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480717710650 Malik, J., Heyman, R. E., & Smith Slep, A. M. (2020). Emotional flooding in response to negative affect in couple conflicts: Individual differences and correlates. Journal of Family Psychology, 34(2), 145–154. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000584 }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://www.gottman.com/blog/making-sure-emotional-flooding-doesnt-capsize-your-relationship/ Emotional flooding] (The Gottman Institute) * [https://researchers.mq.edu.au/en/publications/emotional-flooding-and-hostile-discipline-in-the-families-of-todd/ Emotional flooding within family dynamics] (Macquarie University) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relationships]] rbd1ck832dkqqb3bha0mi5wvmq39np9 2841815 2841793 2026-10-21T05:36:24Z Tofu05 3106606 Added to Emotional regulation and communication - supported by Microsoft copilot with requesting feedback on readability and grammar pilot.cloud.microsoft 2841815 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotional flooding in relationships:<br>Why does emotional flooding occur, how does it affect relationships, and what can be done about it?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''💭 Imagine this...''' Let’s cut to a scene in Marriage Story (2019). Charlie and Nicole are partners and are in the process of separating after their marriage has broken down. During a heated argument in their apartment, Nicole expresses her frustration about how she has felt throughout their marriage, while Charlie becomes increasingly defensive about the way she sees him and their relationship. What begins as a discussion about their failed marriage quickly turns into an argument where they bring up inner feelings they kept to themselves about years of resentment, sacrifices, parenting, and the ways they have hurt and disappointed each other. As the argument escalates, both become increasingly emotional. They start to speak over each other, interrupt, yell, and respond to each other's accusations rather than listening. Nicole expresses that she feels Charlie has controlled aspects of her life and failed to recognise her needs, while Charlie insists that he has made sacrifices for their family and feels that Nicole is unfairly blaming him. Their anger and frustration continue to build until Charlie becomes visibly overwhelmed and lashes out by punching a wall. By the end of the argument, neither of them had resolved the issues they were discussing. '''Think...''' *Have you ever been in a situation where a small disagreement suddenly became much more intense than expected? *What do you think happened to Charlie and Nicole as their argument escalated? *Why might it become harder for them to listen to each other or respond calmly as the conflict escalates? {{RoundBoxBottom}} The situation that Charlie and Nicole experienced shows how quickly relationship conflict can escalate when emotional responses become intense (see Figure 1). In these moments where arguments can become much more intense than the issue that started them, a person may become overwhelmed by their emotional response and find it difficult to think clearly and regulate their emotions. This experience is known as emotional flooding. It describes a state in which individuals can become influenced by the experience of another person's negative emotions being intense and overwhelming, so that it interferes with an individual's ability to respond effectively (Del Vecchio et al., 2016). Research suggests that emotional flooding can contribute to poor relationship satisfaction, understanding these processes may help identify ways to recognise and manage emotional flooding before conflict becomes too difficult to resolve. This chapter will explore what emotional flooding is, why it occurs during relationship conflict, and how individual, emotional, cognitive, and interpersonal factors may contribute to it. It will then examine how emotional flooding can influence communication, conflict resolution, and relationship outcomes. Finally, exploring considering psychological strategies that may help individuals recognise and de-escalate emotional flooding. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''🔍 Focus questions''' *What psychological and physiological processes contribute to emotional flooding during relationship conflict? *How does emotional flooding affect emotion regulation and communication between partners in relationships? *What are the potential consequences of emotional flooding for relationship functioning? *What evidence-based strategies can help individuals manage emotional flooding during relationship conflict? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding emotional flooding == Emotional flooding is a psychological response that can occur when a person becomes overwhelmed by their partner’s negative emotions during conflict. Gottman (1993), describes flooding as a response to negative emotions that are unexpected, intense and overwhelming, leaving their partner feeling disorganised and wanting to end the interaction. This may lead a person to withdraw from the conversation or attempt to escape the situation. Therefore, flooding is not simply experiencing a singular emotion such as anger or distress, it involves difficulty maintaining organised and effective functioning when faced with a partner’s negative emotions. Emotional flooding may be influenced by both individual differences and the interpersonal context (Malik et al., 2020). Some individuals may be more prone to becoming overwhelmed during conflict due to their emotional sensitivity, previous experiences or perceptions of their partner’s behaviour. However, flooding cannot be understood as only an individual characteristic. The frequency and intensity of a partner’s negative emotions may also influence whether flooding occurs. This suggests that flooding develops through an interaction between a person's own vulnerability and also the emotional environment where the conflict takes place.  This suggests that flooding develops through an interaction between a person’s individual vulnerability and the emotional environment in which the conflict takes place. Research by Malik et al. (2020) has linked emotional flooding to difficulties in relationship functioning, they found that flooding was associated with negative affect during couples conflict discussions. Couples involving at least one person who experienced high levels of flooding were also less effective in solving problems during conflict discussion (Malik et al., 2020). Their findings suggest that becoming overwhelmed may create difficulty for couples to resolve disagreements constructively. Gottman (1993) involved flooding into a broader theory of marital stability and dissolution, and it was identified as a potential part of progression towards emotional distance and relationship deterioration. Complementing Gottman (1993), Hooper et al. (2017) examined emotional flooding with negative communication behaviours and marital satisfaction, finding that refusal to talk to a partner (stonewalling) had the strongest negative association with marital satisfaction, highlighting its relevance to relationship functioning. Such research demonstrates why understanding emotional flooding is important for explaining how emotional experiences and interpersonal interactions may contribute to escalating conflict within relationships. Psychological research can help explain the processes underlying flooding, including emotional and physiological arousal, cognitive interpretations and interpersonal influences. It can also inform approaches for individuals to recognise emotional overwhelm and respond to conflict more constructively, bettering their individual and relationship wellbeing. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}<quiz display=simple> '''Check your understanding, which statement best describes emotional flooding? '' |type="()"} -Experiencing anger during any disagreement. +Becoming overwhelmed by intense negative emotions in a way that interferes with responding effectively. -Choosing to ignore a partner during conflict. </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why emotional flooding occurs during relationship conflicts == Why do some disagreements become overwhelming while others remain manageable? Research suggests that ''several'' interacting factors including physiological stress responses, how people interpret conflict, and individual differences in emotional regulation may be involved. Though they are not proven causes of flooding in every relationship, these factors have been examined across different studies. Research on couples has linked relationship conflict with biological stress responses, while studies of emotional flooding indicate that both a person's own emotional reactions and their partner’s negative affect are relevant. These findings all together suggest that flooding may occur when a person's own vulnerability interacts with an emotionally intense conflict. === Emotional and physiological arousal === Relationship conflict can activate the body's stress-response systems, potentially influencing how individuals experience and respond to emotional intense situations. One relevant system is the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which governs the cortisol (stress hormone) production and secretion (Kaur et al., 2023). Laurent and Powers (2007) examined factors that could predict hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis responses in emerging adult heterosexual couples. They investigated how temperament and attachment were associated with physiological stress responses during conflict discussions about unresolved relationship issues. Research measured cortisol responses, and the found that partners' dyadic fit (how both partners' attachment styles interact) influenced female cortisol responses during conflict. Additionally, attachment avoidance influenced the effect of males' emotionality on both their own and their partners' cortisol responses (Laurent and Powers, 2007). This suggests that physiological responses during disagreements may be shaped by the conflict, individual characteristics, and the dynamics between partners. Gottman (1993) linked physiological patterns into his theory of marital stability and dissolution in later marital outcomes through exploring heart rate elevation. In his longitudinal research, he compared 52 husbands' baseline heart rate in couples who later divorced, with couples who remained together. It was found that the divorced mean was 84.49 beats per minute (BPM) and the stable couples mean was 73.43 BPM, showing a statistically significant difference, ''t''(51) = 2.62, p < .05.  Although this  finding does not establish that an elevated heart rate causes emotional flooding, it suggests a relevance of physiological patterns to understanding marital instability. Moving beyond physiological arousal in romantic relationships, Del Vecchio et al. (2016) examined parents' responses to children's negative emotions. They found that when parents became overwhelmed by the intensity of a child's negative emotions, they focussed on escaping the aversive situation rather than responding effectively. This finding implies that when emotional reactions become overwhelming, individuals may struggle to engage in constructive responses and want to end the interaction. Although this study focused on parent-child relationships rather than romantic relationships, it provides supporting evidence that emotional overwhelm can interfere with effective interpersonal responses. Therefore, its findings should be interpreted as indirect support rather than direct evidence of emotional flooding in romantic relationships. === The role of cognitive appraisal and interpersonal threat === Cognitive appraisal refers to how individuals interpret stressful events and evaluate their significance. Gottman (1993) proposed that negative behaviours may be attributed to a partner's overall negative traits rather than viewed within the context of a specific situation. This perspective helps explain how people may interpret an isolated disagreement as evidence that their partner possesses enduring negative characteristics. As a result, the conflict may feel more significant and contribute to increasingly negative perceptions of the relationship. Let's take a look at how the interpretation of a partner’s behaviour can influence emotional responses. '''Table 1: Example in a relationship''' {| class="wikitable" |+Imagine your partner forgets to text you back… ! !Response !Emotion |- |Interpretation 1 |“They must be busy, they probably didn't see my message.” |You might feel relatively calm and ask them about it later. |- |Interpretation 2 |“They don't care about me and they always ignore me.” |You might feel hurt or rejected and respond with anger, potentially escalating the disagreement and creating conflict |} Over time, these interpretations may contribute to a more negative perception of the relationship. Gottman (1993) argued that negative interpretations of a partner can persist beyond a specific disagreement, leading individuals to view both their partner and the history of their relationship negatively. A partner's failure to communicate (Table 1) may be interpreted either as an isolated mistake or as evidence that the partner is generally uncaring. He suggested that in unhappy marriages, positive behaviours are often viewed as temporary, whereas negative behaviours are more likely to be attributed to stable and global negative traits of the partner. As a result, individuals may find it more difficult to evaluate a situation within its context or consider information that challenges their existing negative perceptions. Gottman (1993) further proposed that flooding may contribute to a cycle in which flooded individuals become more likely to interpret ambiguous behaviours as threatening or frustrating. These negative interpretations may become increasingly difficult to disconfirm, contributing to a negative view of the relationship. This suggests that emotional responses during conflict may be shaped by a partner's behaviour and by the meaning that is attributed to that behaviour. The role of the interpersonal context in emotional flooding is further supported by Malik et al. (2020). They suggest that flooding is not only an individual tendency to become overwhelmed, but may also be influenced by a partner's expressed negative affect. Their study examined 233 married or cohabiting couples during a problem-solving assessment. They found that both men's and women's flooding was positively associated with their own anger, as well as their partners' experienced and expressed anger. These findings indicate that flooding is associated with an individual's emotional state and the emotions expressed within the interaction. These findings demonstrate associations rather than establishing that a partner's anger or an individual's interpretations directly cause flooding. Emotional responses may also be reciprocal, with negative effects potentially contributing to flooding, while flooding may interfere with effective communication and problem-solving during conflict. Together, these findings suggest that flooding may involve an interaction between how a person interprets their partner's behaviour and the negative emotions expressed during conflict. === Individual differences and emotional regulation === Imagine two people having a disagreement with their partners about the same issue. One person becomes overwhelmed, they struggle to explain how they feel and want to leave the conversation. The other feels frustrated but can recognise their emotions, they take a moment to calm down and continue discussing the problem. Although both experience conflict, their emotional responses differ. These differences may partly reflect individual vulnerability to emotional flooding and the ability to recognise and regulate intense emotions. Gross (1998) describes emotion regulation as the process through which individuals influence which emotions they have, when they have them, and how they experience and express them. When emotions become intense during relationship conflict, some individuals may find it more difficult to understand what they are feeling or regulate how they respond. Some people may be more prone to becoming overwhelmed during conflict than others. Malik et al. (2020) suggest that individuals may be more or less likely to flood in a relatively stable, trait-like manner.  However, this does not mean that flooding is simply a personality trait or that an individual will respond the same way in every disagreement. One factor that may help explain these differences is emotional intelligence, particularly the ability to recognise, understand and regulate emotional experiences. Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023), examined perceived emotional intelligence and emotional flooding in a sample of 692 women. They considered three dimensions of perceived emotional intelligence; * Emotional attention * Emotional clarity * Emotional repair. These refer to attending to emotional experiences, understanding what those emotions mean and feeling able to regulate them. Researchers found that emotional clarity and emotional repair were negatively associated with emotional flooding. Women who reported greater clarity about their emotions and greater perceived ability to regulate them also showed lower levels of flooding. Positive conflict-resolution strategies were also associated with lower flooding. These findings suggest that understanding one's emotional experiences and responding constructively during disagreements may be relevant to emotional flooding. Individual differences may influence how people respond to conflict, however emotional responses are not necessarily predictable. Salo et al. (2025),  investigated whether emotion-regulation strategies could influence physiological responses during couple conflict. Their study examined acceptance, which involves allowing emotional experiences without judging them, and cognitive reappraisal which involves changing how a situation is interpreted. Researchers reported that both emotion regulation strategies reduced cardiac reactivity in the manipulated partner compared to the control group (Salo et al., 2025). This provides experimental evidence that using emotion-regulation strategies can influence some physiological responses during relationship conflict. However, the study measured cardiac reactivity rather than emotional flooding itself, so it does not establish that these strategies prevent flooding specifically. These studies suggest that emotional flooding may reflect a combination of individual vulnerability, emotional awareness and the ability to regulate responses during conflict. Some individuals may be more prone to becoming overwhelmed, while emotional clarity and regulation may be relevant to how they experience and deal with disagreements. Responses to conflict are also shaped by the interaction between partners, rather than by individual characteristics alone. Understanding these differences is important because it highlights why recognising emotional overwhelm and developing constructive ways of responding may be useful when managing conflict in close relationships. == How emotional flooding affects relationships == Relationship conflict does not always stay focussed on the issue that started it, think back to the '''case study''', Nicole initiates a conversation with Charlie wanting to resolve a problem. This led to them criticising and yelling at each other, on topics unrelated to the initial issue. When emotions become overwhelming, partners may struggle to listen to each other and communicate their concerns constructively. Research suggests that the relevance of emotional flooding with communication effectiveness, problem solving difficulties and relationship satisfaction extends beyond the immediate experience of feeling overwhelmed. === Emotional regulation and communication === Imagine yourself trying to explain why something hurt your feelings, your partner suddenly interrupts you, defends themselves and responds with criticism. Instead of feeling heard, you may become increasingly frustrated with them, and the original concern can become lost in the argument. This illustrates how communication can deteriorate when partners become involved in negative conversations. '''The Four Horsemen''' “The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse” is a metaphor depicting the end of times in the New Testament, describing conquest, war, hunger, and death (Wilde, 2026). Gottman (1993)  uses this metaphor to describe communication styles that may predict the end of a relationship. He describes a sequence in which “criticism leads to contempt, which leads to defensiveness, which leads to stonewalling” (Gottman, 1993). These are the behaviors that Gottman suggests are the most destructive to relationships. {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible" |+Table 2: Explanation and examples of The Four Horsemen !Communication style !Meaning !Example |- |Criticism |An attack on a partner's character. Instead of small complaints about behaviour, a person attacks their partner’s character |“You forgot to call me” becomes “You’re so selfish, you never think about anyone else.” |- |Contempt |Disrespectful behaviour. A person communicates disrespectfully towards a partner, this may include sarcastic mocking, name-calling, and eye-rolling  (Beeney et al., 2019). | “You seriously can’t do anything right, can you?” or “You’re an idiot for saying that.” |- |Defensiveness |Claiming oneself blameless and a victim of another's attack (Beeney et al., 2019). Rather than engaging with a partner’s concern, it  often involves deflecting blame back onto the partner. | “I only forgot because you never remind me properly.” |- |Stonewalling |Withdrawal from the interaction. This is an emotional avoidance strategy, expressed by non-responsiveness (Beeney et al., 2019). |Looking away, remaining unresponsive and/or refusing to engage with the discussion. |} These patterns can shift an argument away from resolving a specific problem and towards attacking, defending and eventually disengaging. Emotional flooding may make constructive communication more difficult, the Four Horsemen are not symptoms of emotional flooding, however, they help illustrate how negative communication can develop during conflict. * * Hooper et al. (2017) further highlights the importance of these communication patterns. * Their sample of 591 married individuals, the presence of emotional flooding and the Four Horsemen (term John Gottman used to describe four negative communication behaviours that can be damaging in romantic relationships, criticism, defensiveness, contempt, stonewalling) was associated with poorer marital satisfaction * Stonewalling had “the greatest negative impact on relationship satisfaction.” * This suggests that withdrawal may be particularly problematic when emotionally intense conflict is already making communication difficult. === Conflict and relationship outcomes === * Effects on conflict resolution * Relationship satisfaction * Repeated negative cycles * How partners can influence each other's emotional responses * Emotional flooding may interfere directly with a couple's ability to resolve disagreements. * Malik et al. (2020) found that couples with at least one highly flooded partner demonstrated poorer problem solving during observed conflict. * These couples were less likely to propose viable solutions, weigh the advantages and disadvantages of possible solutions, operationalise plans, follow through with solutions, and reach resolution (Malik et al., 2020). * Hooper et al (2017), reiterate that flooding may be relevant to how partners manage a specific disagreement and also to how positively they experience the relationship overall as stated before. * Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) found significant differences between love-style profiles in conflict and emotional flooding * The greatest differences in flooding and conflict intensity occur between the less stable and more stable profiles. * These findings suggest that flooding may occur as part of broader patterns of conflict rather than in isolation. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}<quiz display=simple> '''Which situation below best demonstrates the potential effects of emotional flooding during relationship conflict?''' |type="()"} -A couple disagrees but calmly discusses different solutions. +One partner becomes overwhelmed, withdraws from the discussion, and the disagreement remains unresolved. -A couple disagrees and later reaches a compromise. -One partner notices they are becoming frustrated and suggests continuing the conversation later. </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} == What can be done to manage emotional flooding in relationships == Introduction {{ic|Include an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections}} === Recognising and regulating emotional arousal === * Recognising signs of flooding * Emotion-regulation strategies * Reducing physiological arousal * Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) suggests that emotional awareness and emotional regulation are associated with healthier conflict responses. * Emotional awareness and regulation may therefore be useful targets for managing emotional flooding. * Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) found that emotional intelligence was associated with differences in conflict and emotional flooding. * This suggests that individuals who are better able to recognise and regulate emotional experiences may be better positioned to manage conflict constructively. === De-escalating conflicts === * Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) suggestsn {{ic|Grammar - this should be past tense when discussing past findings}} that emotional awareness and emotional regulation are associated with healthier conflict responses. * Emotional awareness and regulation may therefore be useful targets for managing emotional flooding. * Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) found that emotional intelligence was associated with differences in conflict and emotional flooding. * This suggests that individuals who are better able to recognise and regulate emotional experiences may be better positioned to manage conflict constructively. * Gottman (1993) states that couples take breaks. * When conflict causes high physiological arousal, continuing the discussion may make constructive communication more difficult. * Gottman (1993) proposed physiological soothing as part of marital intervention. * This involves taking breaks when arousal becomes high. * The purpose of the break is to not simply avoid the issue, but to allow physiological arousal to decrease before partners return to the discussion. * Hooper et al. (2017) state “reducing these forms of communication, especially stonewalling” * De-escalation may also require reducing destructive communication behaviours. * Hooper et al. (2017) recommend reducing negative communication patterns, particularly stonewalling, which showed the strongest negative association with relationship satisfaction in their study. ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Love styles and relationship satisfaction|Love styles and relationships]] (Book chapter, 2025) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Berenguer-Soler, M., Castillo-López, Á. G. del, & Piñeda, D. (2023). Breaking the cycle of emotional flooding: The protective role of women’s emotional intelligence in couple’s conflict. Frontiers in Psychology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1217513 Castillo-López, Á. G., Berenguer-Soler, M., & Pineda, D. (2025). Relationship love styles’ effects on conflict, emotional intelligence, and sexual satisfaction: A latent profile analysis. SAGE Open, 15(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440251358988 Del Vecchio, T., Lorber, M. F., Slep, A. M. S., Malik, J., Heyman, R. E., & Foran, H. M. (2016). Parental flooding during conflict: A psychometric evaluation of a new scale. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44(8), 1587–1597. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-016-0137-9 Gottman, J. M. (1993). A theory of marital dissolution and stability. Journal of Family Psychology, 7(1), 57–75. Hooper, A., Spann, C., McCray, T., & Kimberly, C. (2017). Revisiting the basics: Understanding potential demographic differences with John Gottman’s four horsemen and emotional flooding. The Family Journal, 25(3), 224–229. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480717710650 Malik, J., Heyman, R. E., & Smith Slep, A. M. (2020). Emotional flooding in response to negative affect in couple conflicts: Individual differences and correlates. Journal of Family Psychology, 34(2), 145–154. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000584 }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://www.gottman.com/blog/making-sure-emotional-flooding-doesnt-capsize-your-relationship/ Emotional flooding] (The Gottman Institute) * [https://researchers.mq.edu.au/en/publications/emotional-flooding-and-hostile-discipline-in-the-families-of-todd/ Emotional flooding within family dynamics] (Macquarie University) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relationships]] d9ji9jv7f51rq2v88oixqxizrbwkunq 2841822 2841815 2026-10-21T08:06:23Z Tofu05 3106606 Added to How emotional flooding affects relationships- supported by Microsoft copilot with requesting feedback on readability and grammar and structure. pilot.cloud.microsoft. Fixed grammatical errors across chapter 2841822 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotional flooding in relationships:<br>Why does emotional flooding occur, how does it affect relationships, and what can be done about it?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''💭 Imagine this...''' Let’s cut to a scene in Marriage Story (2019). Charlie and Nicole are partners and are in the process of separating after their marriage has broken down. During a heated argument in their apartment, Nicole expresses her frustration about how she has felt throughout their marriage, while Charlie becomes increasingly defensive about the way she sees him and their relationship. What begins as a discussion about their failed marriage quickly turns into an argument where they bring up inner feelings they kept to themselves about years of resentment, sacrifices, parenting, and the ways they have hurt and disappointed each other. As the argument escalates, both become increasingly emotional. They start to speak over each other, interrupt, yell, and respond to each other's accusations rather than listening. Nicole expresses that she feels Charlie has controlled aspects of her life and failed to recognise her needs, while Charlie insists that he has made sacrifices for their family and feels that Nicole is unfairly blaming him. Their anger and frustration continue to build until Charlie becomes visibly overwhelmed and lashes out by punching a wall. By the end of the argument, neither of them had resolved the issues they were discussing. '''Think...''' *Have you ever been in a situation where a small disagreement suddenly became much more intense than expected? *What do you think happened to Charlie and Nicole as their argument escalated? *Why might it become harder for them to listen to each other or respond calmly as the conflict escalates? {{RoundBoxBottom}} The situation that Charlie and Nicole experienced shows how quickly relationship conflict can escalate when emotional responses become intense (see Figure 1). In these moments where arguments can become much more intense than the issue that started them, a person may become overwhelmed by their emotional response and find it difficult to think clearly and regulate their emotions. This experience is known as emotional flooding. It describes a state in which individuals can become influenced by the experience of another person's negative emotions being intense and overwhelming, so that it interferes with an individual's ability to respond effectively (Del Vecchio et al., 2016). Research suggests that emotional flooding can contribute to poor relationship satisfaction, understanding these processes may help identify ways to recognise and manage emotional flooding before conflict becomes too difficult to resolve. This chapter will explore what emotional flooding is, why it occurs during relationship conflict, and how individual, emotional, cognitive, and interpersonal factors may contribute to it. It will then examine how emotional flooding can influence communication, conflict resolution, and relationship outcomes. Finally, exploring considering psychological strategies that may help individuals recognise and de-escalate emotional flooding. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''🔍 Focus questions''' *What psychological and physiological processes contribute to emotional flooding during relationship conflict? *How does emotional flooding affect emotion regulation and communication between partners in relationships? *What are the potential consequences of emotional flooding for relationship functioning? *What evidence-based strategies can help individuals manage emotional flooding during relationship conflict? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding emotional flooding == Emotional flooding is a psychological response that can occur when a person becomes overwhelmed by their partner’s negative emotions during conflict. Gottman (1993), describes flooding as a response to negative emotions that are unexpected, intense and overwhelming, leaving their partner feeling disorganised and wanting to end the interaction. This may lead a person to withdraw from the conversation or attempt to escape the situation. Therefore, flooding is not simply experiencing a singular emotion such as anger or distress, it involves difficulty maintaining organised and effective functioning when faced with a partner’s negative emotions. Emotional flooding may be influenced by both individual differences and the interpersonal context (Malik et al., 2020). Some individuals may be more prone to becoming overwhelmed during conflict due to their emotional sensitivity, previous experiences or perceptions of their partner’s behaviour. However, flooding cannot be understood as only an individual characteristic. The frequency and intensity of a partner’s negative emotions may also influence whether flooding occurs. This suggests that flooding develops through an interaction between a person's own vulnerability and also the emotional environment where the conflict takes place. Research by Malik et al. (2020) has linked emotional flooding to difficulties in relationship functioning, they found that flooding was associated with negative affect during couples conflict discussions. Couples involving at least one person who experienced high levels of flooding were also less effective in solving problems during conflict discussion (Malik et al., 2020). Their findings suggest that becoming overwhelmed may create difficulty for couples to resolve disagreements constructively. Gottman (1993) involved flooding into a broader theory of marital stability and dissolution, and it was identified as a potential part of progression towards emotional distance and relationship deterioration. Complementing Gottman (1993), Hooper et al. (2017) examined emotional flooding with negative communication behaviours and marital satisfaction, finding that refusal to talk to a partner (stonewalling) had the strongest negative association with marital satisfaction, highlighting its relevance to relationship functioning. Such research demonstrates why understanding emotional flooding is important for explaining how emotional experiences and interpersonal interactions may contribute to escalating conflict within relationships. Psychological research can help explain the processes underlying flooding, including emotional and physiological arousal, cognitive interpretations and interpersonal influences. It can also inform approaches for individuals to recognise emotional overwhelm and respond to conflict more constructively, bettering their individual and relationship wellbeing. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}<quiz display=simple> '''Check your understanding, which statement best describes emotional flooding? '' |type="()"} -Experiencing anger during any disagreement. +Becoming overwhelmed by intense negative emotions in a way that interferes with responding effectively. -Choosing to ignore a partner during conflict. </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why emotional flooding occurs during relationship conflicts == Why do some disagreements become overwhelming while others remain manageable? Research suggests that ''several'' interacting factors including physiological stress responses, how people interpret conflict, and individual differences in emotional regulation may be involved. Though they are not proven causes of flooding in every relationship, these factors have been examined across different studies. Research on couples has linked relationship conflict with biological stress responses, while studies of emotional flooding indicate that both a person's own emotional reactions and their partner’s negative affect are relevant. These findings all together suggest that flooding may occur when a person's own vulnerability interacts with an emotionally intense conflict. === Emotional and physiological arousal === Relationship conflict can activate the body's stress-response systems, potentially influencing how individuals experience and respond to emotional intense situations. One relevant system is the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which governs the cortisol (stress hormone) production and secretion (Kaur et al., 2023). Laurent and Powers (2007) examined factors that could predict hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis responses in emerging adult heterosexual couples. They investigated how temperament and attachment were associated with physiological stress responses during conflict discussions about unresolved relationship issues. Research measured cortisol responses and the found that partners' dyadic fit (how both partners' attachment styles interact) influenced female cortisol responses during conflict. Additionally, attachment avoidance influenced the effect of males' emotionality on both their own and their partners' cortisol responses (Laurent and Powers, 2007). This suggests that physiological responses during disagreements may be shaped by the conflict, individual characteristics, and the dynamics between partners. Gottman (1993) linked physiological patterns into his theory of marital stability and dissolution in later marital outcomes through exploring heart rate elevation. In his longitudinal research, he compared 52 husbands' baseline heart rate in couples who later divorced, with couples who remained together. It was found that the divorced mean was 84.49 beats per minute (BPM) and the stable couples mean was 73.43 BPM, showing a statistically significant difference, ''t''(51) = 2.62, p < .05.  Although this  finding does not establish that an elevated heart rate causes emotional flooding, it suggests a relevance of physiological patterns to understanding marital instability. Moving beyond physiological arousal in romantic relationships, Del Vecchio et al. (2016) examined parents' responses to children's negative emotions. They found that when parents became overwhelmed by the intensity of a child's negative emotions, they focussed on escaping the aversive situation rather than responding effectively. This finding implies that when emotional reactions become overwhelming, individuals may struggle to engage in constructive responses and want to end the interaction. Although this study focused on parent-child relationships rather than romantic relationships, it provides supporting evidence that emotional overwhelm can interfere with effective interpersonal responses. Therefore, its findings should be interpreted as indirect support rather than direct evidence of emotional flooding in romantic relationships. === The role of cognitive appraisal and interpersonal threat === Cognitive appraisal refers to how individuals interpret stressful events and evaluate their significance. Gottman (1993) proposed that negative behaviours may be attributed to a partner's overall negative traits rather than viewed within the context of a specific situation. This perspective helps explain how people may interpret an isolated disagreement as evidence that their partner possesses enduring negative characteristics. As a result, the conflict may feel more significant and contribute to increasingly negative perceptions of the relationship. Let's take a look at how the interpretation of a partner’s behaviour can influence emotional responses. '''Table 1: Example in a relationship''' {| class="wikitable" |+Imagine your partner forgets to text you back… ! !Response !Emotion |- |Interpretation 1 |“They must be busy, they probably didn't see my message.” |You might feel relatively calm and ask them about it later. |- |Interpretation 2 |“They don't care about me and they always ignore me.” |You might feel hurt or rejected and respond with anger, potentially escalating the disagreement and creating conflict |} Over time, these interpretations may contribute to a more negative perception of the relationship. Gottman (1993) argued that negative interpretations of a partner can persist beyond a specific disagreement, leading individuals to view both their partner and the history of their relationship negatively. A partner's failure to communicate (Table 1) may be interpreted either as an isolated mistake or as evidence that the partner is generally uncaring. He suggested that in unhappy marriages, positive behaviours are often viewed as temporary, whereas negative behaviours are more likely to be attributed to stable and global negative traits of the partner. As a result, individuals may find it more difficult to evaluate a situation within its context or consider information that challenges their existing negative perceptions. Gottman (1993) further proposed that flooding may contribute to a cycle in which flooded individuals become more likely to interpret ambiguous behaviours as threatening or frustrating. These negative interpretations may become increasingly difficult to disconfirm, contributing to a negative view of the relationship. This suggests that emotional responses during conflict may be shaped by a partner's behaviour and by the meaning that is attributed to that behaviour. The role of the interpersonal context in emotional flooding is further supported by Malik et al. (2020). They suggest that flooding is not only an individual tendency to become overwhelmed, but may also be influenced by a partner's expressed negative affect. Their study examined 233 married or cohabiting couples during a problem-solving assessment. They found that both men's and women's flooding was positively associated with their own anger, as well as their partners' experienced and expressed anger. These findings indicate that flooding is associated with an individual's emotional state and the emotions expressed within the interaction. These findings demonstrate associations rather than establishing that a partner's anger or an individual's interpretations directly cause flooding. Emotional responses may also be reciprocal, with negative effects potentially contributing to flooding, while flooding may interfere with effective communication and problem-solving during conflict. Together, these findings suggest that flooding may involve an interaction between how a person interprets their partner's behaviour and the negative emotions expressed during conflict. === Individual differences and emotional regulation === Imagine two people having a disagreement with their partners about the same issue. One person becomes overwhelmed, they struggle to explain how they feel and want to leave the conversation. The other feels frustrated but can recognise their emotions, they take a moment to calm down and continue discussing the problem. Although both experience conflict, their emotional responses differ. These differences may partly reflect individual vulnerability to emotional flooding and the ability to recognise and regulate intense emotions. Gross (1998) describes emotion regulation as the process through which individuals influence which emotions they have, when they have them, and how they experience and express them. When emotions become intense during relationship conflict, some individuals may find it more difficult to understand what they are feeling or regulate how they respond. Some people may be more prone to becoming overwhelmed during conflict than others. Malik et al. (2020) suggest that individuals may be more or less likely to flood in a relatively stable, trait-like manner.  However, this does not mean that flooding is simply a personality trait or that an individual will respond the same way in every disagreement. One factor that may help explain these differences is emotional intelligence, particularly the ability to recognise, understand and regulate emotional experiences. Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023), examined perceived emotional intelligence and emotional flooding in a sample of 692 women. They considered three dimensions of perceived emotional intelligence; * Emotional attention * Emotional clarity * Emotional repair. These refer to attending to emotional experiences, understanding what those emotions mean and feeling able to regulate them. Researchers found that emotional clarity and emotional repair were negatively associated with emotional flooding. Women who reported greater clarity about their emotions and greater perceived ability to regulate them also showed lower levels of flooding. Positive conflict-resolution strategies were also associated with lower flooding. These findings suggest that understanding one's emotional experiences and responding constructively during disagreements may be relevant to emotional flooding. Individual differences may influence how people respond to conflict, however emotional responses are not necessarily predictable. Salo et al. (2025),  investigated whether emotion-regulation strategies could influence physiological responses during couple conflict. Their study examined acceptance, which involves allowing emotional experiences without judging them, and cognitive reappraisal which involves changing how a situation is interpreted. Researchers reported that both emotion regulation strategies reduced cardiac reactivity in the manipulated partner compared to the control group (Salo et al., 2025). This provides experimental evidence that using emotion-regulation strategies can influence some physiological responses during relationship conflict. However, the study measured cardiac reactivity rather than emotional flooding itself, so it does not establish that these strategies prevent flooding specifically. These studies suggest that emotional flooding may reflect a combination of individual vulnerability, emotional awareness and the ability to regulate responses during conflict. Some individuals may be more prone to becoming overwhelmed, while emotional clarity and regulation may be relevant to how they experience and deal with disagreements. Responses to conflict are also shaped by the interaction between partners, rather than by individual characteristics alone. Understanding these differences is important because it highlights why recognising emotional overwhelm and developing constructive ways of responding may be useful when managing conflict in close relationships. == How emotional flooding affects relationships == Relationship conflict does not always stay focussed on the issue that started it, think back to the '''case study''', Nicole initiates a conversation with Charlie wanting to resolve a problem. This led to them criticising and yelling at each other, on topics unrelated to the initial issue. When emotions become overwhelming, partners may struggle to listen to each other and communicate their concerns constructively. Research suggests that the relevance of emotional flooding with communication effectiveness, problem solving difficulties and relationship satisfaction extends beyond the immediate experience of feeling overwhelmed. === Emotional regulation and communication === Imagine yourself trying to explain why something hurt your feelings, your partner suddenly interrupts you, defends themselves and responds with criticism. Instead of feeling heard, you may become increasingly frustrated with them, and the original concern can become lost in the argument. This illustrates how communication can deteriorate when partners become involved in negative conversations. '''The Four Horsemen''' “The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse” is a metaphor depicting the end of times in the New Testament, describing conquest, war, hunger, and death (Wilde, 2026). Gottman (1993)  uses this metaphor to describe communication styles that may predict the end of a relationship. He describes a sequence in which “criticism leads to contempt, which leads to defensiveness, which leads to stonewalling” (Gottman, 1993). These are the behaviors that Gottman suggests are the most destructive to relationships. {| class="wikitable sortable" |+Table 2: Explanation and examples of The Four Horsemen !Communication style !Meaning !Example |- |Criticism |An attack on a partner's character. Instead of small complaints about behaviour, a person attacks their partner’s character |“You forgot to call me” becomes “You’re so selfish, you never think about anyone else.” |- |Contempt |Disrespectful behaviour. A person communicates disrespectfully towards a partner, this may include sarcastic mocking, name-calling, and eye-rolling  (Beeney et al., 2019). | “You seriously can’t do anything right, can you?” or “You’re an idiot for saying that.” |- |Defensiveness |Claiming oneself blameless and a victim of another's attack (Beeney et al., 2019). Rather than engaging with a partner’s concern, it  often involves deflecting blame back onto the partner. | “I only forgot because you never remind me properly.” |- |Stonewalling |Withdrawal from the interaction. This is an emotional avoidance strategy, expressed by non-responsiveness (Beeney et al., 2019). |Looking away, remaining unresponsive and/or refusing to engage with the discussion. |} These patterns can shift an argument away from resolving a specific problem and towards attacking, defending and eventually disengaging. Emotional flooding may make constructive communication more difficult, the Four Horsemen are not symptoms of emotional flooding, however, they help illustrate how negative communication can develop during conflict. Destructive communication is only one part of the picture of a deteriorating relationship. Researchers have also examined how emotional flooding relates to communication effectiveness and relationship satisfaction. Kashian (2019) investigated emotional flooding and conflict communication among couples and reported that greater flooding during conflict was associated with less effective conflict communication. This association was statistically significant for participants who mainly communicated face-to-face during conflict but not for those who mainly used mediated forms of communication online or through text message. These findings suggest that the relationship between flooding and communication effectiveness may depend partly on the situation in which a disagreement occurs. The link between flooding and relationship functioning is further supported by Hooper et al. (2017), who examined emotional flooding, the Four Horsemen, and marital satisfaction among 591 married individuals. They found that refusal to engage in discussion (stonewalling), had the strongest negative association with relationship satisfaction. This finding shows the potential importance of withdrawal as a communication pattern associated with relationship dissatisfaction. These findings suggest that emotional flooding and negative communication patterns may influence how couples experience and manage conflict. When partners struggle to communicate effectively or withdraw from difficult conversations, disagreements may become harder to resolve, potentially contributing to lower relationship satisfaction over time. === Conflict and relationship outcomes === The effects of emotional flooding may extend beyond what happens during an argument. When individuals become overwhelmed, conflict-resolution processes, such as considering solutions, seeing different perspectives, and reaching agreement, may become difficult. Relationship satisfaction is an important outcome of relationship conflict. Hooper et al. (2017) found that emotional flooding and negative communication behaviours were associated with marital satisfaction. This finding links individuals' experiences during conflict to how they evaluate their relationships overall. Emotional flooding also needs to be understood within broader emotional and interpersonal patterns. Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) examined perceived emotional intelligence, positive conflict-resolution strategies, conflict, emotional flooding, and relationship satisfaction among 692 women. They reported that perceived emotional intelligence predicted 71.8% of the variance in emotional flooding and 35% of the variance in relationship satisfaction through positive conflict resolution and conflict. These findings suggest individuals who are better able to understand and regulate their emotions may therefore be less likely to experience emotional flooding and could experience greater relationship satisfaction. The studies suggest that relationship satisfaction and conflict may influence one another, however these associations do not establish causality. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}<quiz display=simple> '''Which situation below best demonstrates the potential effects of emotional flooding during relationship conflict?''' |type="()"} -A couple disagrees but calmly discusses different solutions. +One partner becomes overwhelmed, withdraws from the discussion, and the disagreement remains unresolved. -A couple disagrees and later reaches a compromise. -One partner notices they are becoming frustrated and suggests continuing the conversation later. </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} == What can be done to manage emotional flooding in relationships == Introduction {{ic|Include an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections}} === Recognising and regulating emotional arousal === * Recognising signs of flooding * Emotion-regulation strategies * Reducing physiological arousal * Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) suggests that emotional awareness and emotional regulation are associated with healthier conflict responses. * Emotional awareness and regulation may therefore be useful targets for managing emotional flooding. * Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) found that emotional intelligence was associated with differences in conflict and emotional flooding. * This suggests that individuals who are better able to recognise and regulate emotional experiences may be better positioned to manage conflict constructively. === De-escalating conflicts === * Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) suggestsn {{ic|Grammar - this should be past tense when discussing past findings}} that emotional awareness and emotional regulation are associated with healthier conflict responses. * Emotional awareness and regulation may therefore be useful targets for managing emotional flooding. * Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) found that emotional intelligence was associated with differences in conflict and emotional flooding. * This suggests that individuals who are better able to recognise and regulate emotional experiences may be better positioned to manage conflict constructively. * Gottman (1993) states that couples take breaks. * When conflict causes high physiological arousal, continuing the discussion may make constructive communication more difficult. * Gottman (1993) proposed physiological soothing as part of marital intervention. * This involves taking breaks when arousal becomes high. * The purpose of the break is to not simply avoid the issue, but to allow physiological arousal to decrease before partners return to the discussion. * Hooper et al. (2017) state “reducing these forms of communication, especially stonewalling” * De-escalation may also require reducing destructive communication behaviours. * Hooper et al. (2017) recommend reducing negative communication patterns, particularly stonewalling, which showed the strongest negative association with relationship satisfaction in their study. ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Love styles and relationship satisfaction|Love styles and relationships]] (Book chapter, 2025) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Berenguer-Soler, M., Castillo-López, Á. G. del, & Piñeda, D. (2023). Breaking the cycle of emotional flooding: The protective role of women’s emotional intelligence in couple’s conflict. Frontiers in Psychology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1217513 Castillo-López, Á. G., Berenguer-Soler, M., & Pineda, D. (2025). Relationship love styles’ effects on conflict, emotional intelligence, and sexual satisfaction: A latent profile analysis. SAGE Open, 15(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440251358988 Del Vecchio, T., Lorber, M. F., Slep, A. M. S., Malik, J., Heyman, R. E., & Foran, H. M. (2016). Parental flooding during conflict: A psychometric evaluation of a new scale. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44(8), 1587–1597. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-016-0137-9 Gottman, J. M. (1993). A theory of marital dissolution and stability. Journal of Family Psychology, 7(1), 57–75. Hooper, A., Spann, C., McCray, T., & Kimberly, C. (2017). Revisiting the basics: Understanding potential demographic differences with John Gottman’s four horsemen and emotional flooding. The Family Journal, 25(3), 224–229. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480717710650 Malik, J., Heyman, R. E., & Smith Slep, A. M. (2020). Emotional flooding in response to negative affect in couple conflicts: Individual differences and correlates. Journal of Family Psychology, 34(2), 145–154. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000584 }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://www.gottman.com/blog/making-sure-emotional-flooding-doesnt-capsize-your-relationship/ Emotional flooding] (The Gottman Institute) * [https://researchers.mq.edu.au/en/publications/emotional-flooding-and-hostile-discipline-in-the-families-of-todd/ Emotional flooding within family dynamics] (Macquarie University) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relationships]] 0cx4vaoqv4jzh455kmwj0nh7ik6z8pw 2841845 2841822 2026-10-21T10:25:38Z Tofu05 3106606 Added to "De-escalating conflicts". Also made cuts to word count. Co pilot was used for feedback on chapter and guidance on structure. pilot.cloud.microsoft 2841845 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotional flooding in relationships:<br>Why does emotional flooding occur, how does it affect relationships, and what can be done about it?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''💭 Imagine this...''' Let’s cut to a scene in Marriage Story (2019). Charlie and Nicole are partners and are in the process of separating after their marriage has broken down. During a heated argument in their apartment, Nicole expresses her frustration about how she has felt throughout their marriage, while Charlie becomes increasingly defensive about the way she sees him and their relationship. What begins as a discussion about their failed marriage quickly turns into an argument where they bring up inner feelings they kept to themselves about years of resentment, sacrifices, parenting, and the ways they have hurt and disappointed each other. As the argument escalates, both become increasingly emotional. They start to speak over each other, interrupt, yell, and respond to each other's accusations rather than listening. Nicole expresses that she feels Charlie has controlled aspects of her life and failed to recognise her needs, while Charlie insists that he has made sacrifices for their family and feels that Nicole is unfairly blaming him. Their anger and frustration continue to build until Charlie becomes visibly overwhelmed and lashes out by punching a wall. By the end of the argument, neither of them had resolved the issues they were discussing. '''Think...''' *Have you ever been in a situation where a small disagreement suddenly became much more intense than expected? *What do you think happened to Charlie and Nicole as their argument escalated? *Why might it become harder for them to listen to each other or respond calmly as the conflict escalates? {{RoundBoxBottom}} The situation that Charlie and Nicole experienced shows how quickly relationship conflict can escalate when emotional responses become intense (see Figure 1). In these moments where arguments can become much more intense than the issue that started them, a person may become overwhelmed by their emotional response and find it difficult to think clearly and regulate their emotions. This experience is known as emotional flooding. It describes a state in which individuals can become influenced by the experience of another person's negative emotions being intense and overwhelming, so that it interferes with an individual's ability to respond effectively (Del Vecchio et al., 2016). Research suggests that emotional flooding can contribute to poor relationship satisfaction, understanding these processes may help identify ways to recognise and manage emotional flooding before conflict becomes too difficult to resolve. This chapter will explore what emotional flooding is, why it occurs during relationship conflict, and how individual, emotional, cognitive, and interpersonal factors may contribute to it. It will then examine how emotional flooding can influence communication, conflict resolution, and relationship outcomes. Finally, exploring considering psychological strategies that may help individuals recognise and de-escalate emotional flooding. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''🔍 Focus questions''' *What psychological and physiological processes contribute to emotional flooding during relationship conflict? *How does emotional flooding affect emotion regulation and communication between partners in relationships? *What are the potential consequences of emotional flooding for relationship functioning? *What evidence-based strategies can help individuals manage emotional flooding during relationship conflict? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding emotional flooding == Emotional flooding is a psychological response that can occur when a person becomes overwhelmed by their partner’s negative emotions during conflict. Gottman (1993), describes flooding as a response to negative emotions that are unexpected, intense and overwhelming, leaving their partner feeling disorganised and wanting to end the interaction. This may lead a person to withdraw from the conversation or attempt to escape the situation. Emotional flooding may be influenced by both individual differences and the interpersonal context (Malik et al., 2020). Flooding cannot be understood as only an individual characteristic. The frequency and intensity of a partner’s negative emotions may also influence whether flooding occurs. This suggests that flooding develops through an interaction between a person's own vulnerability and also the emotional environment where the conflict takes place. Research by Malik et al. (2020) has linked emotional flooding to difficulties in relationship functioning, they found that flooding was associated with negative affect during couples conflict discussions. Couples involving at least one person who experienced high levels of flooding were also less effective in solving problems during conflict discussion (Malik et al., 2020). Their findings suggest that becoming overwhelmed may create difficulty for couples to resolve disagreements constructively. Gottman (1993) involved flooding into a broader theory of marital stability and dissolution, and it was identified as a potential part of progression towards emotional distance and relationship deterioration. Complementing Gottman (1993), Hooper et al. (2017) examined emotional flooding with negative communication behaviours and marital satisfaction, finding that refusal to talk to a partner (stonewalling) had the strongest negative association with marital satisfaction, highlighting its relevance to relationship functioning. Such research demonstrates why understanding emotional flooding is important for explaining how emotional experiences and interpersonal interactions may contribute to escalating conflict within relationships. Psychological research can help explain the processes underlying flooding, including emotional and physiological arousal, cognitive interpretations and interpersonal influences. It can also inform approaches for individuals to recognise emotional overwhelm and respond to conflict more constructively, bettering their individual and relationship wellbeing. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}<quiz display=simple> '''Check your understanding, which statement best describes emotional flooding? '' |type="()"} -Experiencing anger during any disagreement. +Becoming overwhelmed by intense negative emotions in a way that interferes with responding effectively. -Choosing to ignore a partner during conflict. </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why emotional flooding occurs during relationship conflicts == Why do some disagreements become overwhelming while others remain manageable? Research suggests that ''several'' interacting factors including physiological stress responses, how people interpret conflict, and individual differences in emotional regulation may be involved. Though they are not proven causes of flooding in every relationship, these factors have been examined across different studies. Research on couples has linked relationship conflict with biological stress responses, while studies of emotional flooding indicate that both a person's own emotional reactions and their partner’s negative affect are relevant. These findings all together suggest that flooding may occur when a person's own vulnerability interacts with an emotionally intense conflict. === Emotional and physiological arousal === Relationship conflict can activate the body's stress-response systems, potentially influencing how individuals experience and respond to emotional intense situations. One relevant system is the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which governs the cortisol (stress hormone) production and secretion (Kaur et al., 2023). Laurent and Powers (2007) examined factors that could predict hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis responses in emerging adult heterosexual couples. They investigated how temperament and attachment were associated with physiological stress responses during conflict discussions about unresolved relationship issues. Research measured cortisol responses and the found that partners' dyadic fit (how both partners' attachment styles interact) influenced female cortisol responses during conflict. Additionally, attachment avoidance influenced the effect of males' emotionality on both their own and their partners' cortisol responses (Laurent and Powers, 2007). This suggests that physiological responses during disagreements may be shaped by the conflict, individual characteristics, and the dynamics between partners. Gottman (1993) linked physiological patterns into his theory of marital stability and dissolution in later marital outcomes through exploring heart rate elevation. In his longitudinal research, he compared 52 husbands' baseline heart rate in couples who later divorced, with couples who remained together. It was found that husbands in couples who later divorced showed significantly higher heart rates than those in stable marriages  Although this  finding does not establish that an elevated heart rate causes emotional flooding, it suggests a relevance of physiological patterns to understanding marital instability. Moving beyond physiological arousal in romantic relationships, Del Vecchio et al. (2016) examined parents' responses to children's negative emotions. They found that when parents became overwhelmed by the intensity of a child's negative emotions, they focussed on escaping the aversive situation rather than responding effectively. This finding implies that when emotional reactions become overwhelming, individuals may struggle to engage in constructive responses and want to end the interaction. Although this study focused on parent-child relationships rather than romantic relationships, it provides supporting evidence that emotional overwhelm can interfere with effective interpersonal responses. Therefore, its findings should be interpreted as indirect support rather than direct evidence of emotional flooding in romantic relationships. === The role of cognitive appraisal and interpersonal threat === Cognitive appraisal refers to how individuals interpret stressful events and evaluate their significance. Gottman (1993) proposed that negative behaviours may be attributed to a partner's overall negative traits rather than viewed within the context of a specific situation. This perspective helps explain how people may interpret an isolated disagreement as evidence that their partner possesses enduring negative characteristics. As a result, the conflict may feel more significant and contribute to increasingly negative perceptions of the relationship. Let's take a look at how the interpretation of a partner’s behaviour can influence emotional responses. '''Table 1: Example in a relationship''' {| class="wikitable" |+Imagine your partner forgets to text you back… ! !Response !Emotion |- |Interpretation 1 |“They must be busy, they probably didn't see my message.” |You might feel relatively calm and ask them about it later. |- |Interpretation 2 |“They don't care about me and they always ignore me.” |You might feel hurt or rejected and respond with anger, potentially escalating the disagreement and creating conflict |} Over time, these interpretations may contribute to a more negative perception of the relationship. Gottman (1993) argued that negative interpretations of a partner can persist beyond a specific disagreement, leading individuals to view both their partner and the history of their relationship negatively. A partner's failure to communicate (Table 1) may be interpreted either as an isolated mistake or as evidence that the partner is generally uncaring. As a result, individuals may find it more difficult to evaluate a situation within its context or consider information that challenges their existing negative perceptions. Gottman (1993) further proposed that flooding may contribute to a cycle in which flooded individuals become more likely to interpret ambiguous behaviours as threatening or frustrating. These negative interpretations may become increasingly difficult to disconfirm, contributing to a negative view of the relationship. This suggests that emotional responses during conflict may be shaped by a partner's behaviour and by the meaning that is attributed to that behaviour. The role of the interpersonal context in emotional flooding is further supported by Malik et al. (2020). They suggest that flooding is not only an individual tendency to become overwhelmed, but may also be influenced by a partner's expressed negative affect. Their study examined 233 married or cohabiting couples during a problem-solving assessment. They found that both men's and women's flooding was positively associated with their own anger, as well as their partners' experienced and expressed anger. These findings demonstrate associations rather than establishing that a partner's anger or an individual's interpretations directly cause flooding. Emotional responses may also be reciprocal, with negative effects potentially contributing to flooding, while flooding may interfere with effective communication and problem-solving during conflict. Together, these findings suggest that flooding may involve an interaction between how a person interprets their partner's behaviour and the negative emotions expressed during conflict. === Individual differences and emotional regulation === Imagine two people having a disagreement with their partners about the same issue. One person becomes overwhelmed, they struggle to explain how they feel and want to leave the conversation. The other feels frustrated but can recognise their emotions, they take a moment to calm down and continue discussing the problem. Although both experience conflict, their emotional responses differ. Gross (1998) describes emotion regulation as the process through which individuals influence which emotions they have, when they have them, and how they experience and express them. When emotions become intense during relationship conflict, some individuals may find it more difficult to understand what they are feeling or regulate how they respond. Malik et al. (2020) suggest that individuals may be more or less likely to flood in a relatively stable, trait-like manner.  However, this does not mean that flooding is simply a personality trait or that an individual will respond the same way in every disagreement. One factor that may help explain these differences is emotional intelligence, particularly the ability to recognise, understand and regulate emotional experiences. Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023), examined perceived emotional intelligence and emotional flooding in a sample of 692 women. They considered three dimensions of perceived emotional intelligence; * Emotional attention * Emotional clarity * Emotional repair. These refer to attending to emotional experiences, understanding what those emotions mean and feeling able to regulate them. Researchers found that emotional clarity and emotional repair were negatively associated with emotional flooding. Women who reported greater clarity about their emotions and greater perceived ability to regulate them also showed lower levels of flooding. Positive conflict-resolution strategies were also associated with lower flooding. These findings suggest that understanding one's emotional experiences and responding constructively during disagreements may be relevant to emotional flooding. Individual differences may influence how people respond to conflict, however emotional responses are not necessarily predictable. Salo et al. (2025),  investigated whether emotion-regulation strategies could influence physiological responses during couple conflict. Their study examined acceptance, which involves allowing emotional experiences without judging them, and cognitive reappraisal which involves changing how a situation is interpreted. Researchers reported that both emotion regulation strategies reduced cardiac reactivity in the manipulated partner compared to the control group (Salo et al., 2025). This provides experimental evidence that using emotion-regulation strategies can influence some physiological responses during relationship conflict. However, the study measured cardiac reactivity rather than emotional flooding itself, so it does not establish that these strategies prevent flooding specifically. These studies suggest that emotional flooding may reflect a combination of individual vulnerability, emotional awareness and the ability to regulate responses during conflict. Some individuals may be more prone to becoming overwhelmed, while emotional clarity and regulation may be relevant to how they experience and deal with disagreements. Responses to conflict are also shaped by the interaction between partners, rather than by individual characteristics alone. Understanding these differences is important because it highlights why recognising emotional overwhelm and developing constructive ways of responding may be useful when managing conflict in close relationships. == How emotional flooding affects relationships == Relationship conflict does not always stay focussed on the issue that started it, think back to the '''case study''', Nicole initiates a conversation with Charlie wanting to resolve a problem. This led to them criticising and yelling at each other, on topics unrelated to the initial issue. When emotions become overwhelming, partners may struggle to listen to each other and communicate their concerns constructively. Research suggests that the relevance of emotional flooding with communication effectiveness, problem solving difficulties and relationship satisfaction extends beyond the immediate experience of feeling overwhelmed. === Emotional regulation and communication === Imagine yourself trying to explain why something hurt your feelings, your partner suddenly interrupts you, defends themselves and responds with criticism. Instead of feeling heard, you may become increasingly frustrated with them, and the original concern can become lost in the argument. This illustrates how communication can deteriorate when partners become involved in negative conversations. '''The Four Horsemen''' “The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse” is a metaphor depicting the end of times in the New Testament, describing conquest, war, hunger, and death (Wilde, 2026). Gottman (1993)  uses this metaphor to describe communication styles that may predict the end of a relationship. He describes a sequence in which “criticism leads to contempt, which leads to defensiveness, which leads to stonewalling” (Gottman, 1993). These are the behaviors that Gottman suggests are the most destructive to relationships. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 2: Explanation and examples of The Four Horsemen !Communication style !Meaning !Example |- |Criticism |An attack on a partner's character. Instead of small complaints about behaviour, a person attacks their partner’s character |“You forgot to call me” becomes “You’re so selfish, you never think about anyone else.” |- |Contempt |Disrespectful behaviour. A person communicates disrespectfully towards a partner, this may include sarcastic mocking, name-calling, and eye-rolling  (Beeney et al., 2019). | “You seriously can’t do anything right, can you?” or “You’re an idiot for saying that.” |- |Defensiveness |Claiming oneself blameless and a victim of another's attack (Beeney et al., 2019). Rather than engaging with a partner’s concern, it  often involves deflecting blame back onto the partner. | “I only forgot because you never remind me properly.” |- |Stonewalling |Withdrawal from the interaction. This is an emotional avoidance strategy, expressed by non-responsiveness (Beeney et al., 2019). |Looking away, remaining unresponsive and/or refusing to engage with the discussion. |} These patterns can shift an argument away from resolving a specific problem and towards attacking, defending and eventually disengaging. Emotional flooding may make constructive communication more difficult, the Four Horsemen are not symptoms of emotional flooding, however, they help illustrate how negative communication can develop during conflict. Destructive communication is only one part of the picture of a deteriorating relationship. Researchers have also examined how emotional flooding relates to communication effectiveness and relationship satisfaction. Kashian (2019) investigated emotional flooding and conflict communication among couples and reported that greater flooding during conflict was associated with less effective conflict communication. This association was statistically significant for participants who mainly communicated face-to-face during conflict but not for those who mainly used mediated forms of communication online or through text message. These findings suggest that the relationship between flooding and communication effectiveness may depend partly on the situation in which a disagreement occurs. The link between flooding and relationship functioning is further supported by Hooper et al. (2017), who examined emotional flooding, the Four Horsemen, and marital satisfaction among 591 married individuals. They found that refusal to engage in discussion (stonewalling), had the strongest negative association with relationship satisfaction. This finding shows the potential importance of withdrawal as a communication pattern associated with relationship dissatisfaction. These findings suggest that emotional flooding and negative communication patterns may influence how couples experience and manage conflict. When partners struggle to communicate effectively or withdraw from difficult conversations, disagreements may become harder to resolve, potentially contributing to lower relationship satisfaction over time. === Conflict and relationship outcomes === The effects of emotional flooding may extend beyond what happens during an argument. When individuals become overwhelmed, conflict-resolution processes, such as considering solutions, seeing different perspectives, and reaching agreement, may become difficult. Relationship satisfaction is an important outcome of relationship conflict. Hooper et al. (2017) found that emotional flooding and negative communication behaviours were associated with marital satisfaction. This finding links individuals' experiences during conflict to how they evaluate their relationships overall. Emotional flooding also needs to be understood within broader emotional and interpersonal patterns. Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) examined perceived emotional intelligence, positive conflict-resolution strategies, conflict, emotional flooding, and relationship satisfaction among 692 women. They reported that perceived emotional intelligence predicted 71.8% of the variance in emotional flooding and 35% of the variance in relationship satisfaction through positive conflict resolution and conflict. These findings suggest individuals who are better able to understand and regulate their emotions may therefore be less likely to experience emotional flooding and could experience greater relationship satisfaction. The studies suggest that relationship satisfaction and conflict may influence one another, however these associations do not establish causality. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}<quiz display=simple> '''Which situation below best demonstrates the potential effects of emotional flooding during relationship conflict?''' |type="()"} -A couple disagrees but calmly discusses different solutions. +One partner becomes overwhelmed, withdraws from the discussion, and the disagreement remains unresolved. -A couple disagrees and later reaches a compromise. -One partner notices they are becoming frustrated and suggests continuing the conversation later. </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} == What can be done to manage emotional flooding in relationships == Now you have an understanding of emotional flooding, how it occurs and how it affects relationships. Now we will discuss how you can manage emotional flooding in relationships. When an argument feels overwhelming, the goal is not to suppress every emotion or win the disagreement. Instead, partners can try to recognise rising arousal, regulate their reactions and return to the issue when they are better able to listen. Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) note that the emotions evoked in conflict, their regulation, and an appropriate conflict resolution strategy will reduce negative outcomes. === Recognising and regulating emotional arousal === A useful first step in managing emotional flooding is recognising when emotional overwhelm may be occurring. Possible signs include your racing heart, or wanting to interrupt or leave the conversation. However, these examples are potential indicators rather than confirmation you are experiencing flooding. Two emotion-regulation strategies that have been studied during couple conflict are acceptance and cognitive reappraisal. Acceptance involves allowing an emotion to be present without judging it, whereas cognitive reappraisal involves reconsidering how a situation is interpreted. Salo et al. (2025) found that both strategies significantly reduced cardiac reactivity during a 10-minute conflict discussion compared with a control condition where no emotion-regulation strategy was used. This suggests that emotion-regulation strategies may help reduce some of the physiological responses associated with conflict. Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) reported a pattern of higher perceived emotional intelligence associated with more constructive conflict-resolution strategies, which were then associated with lower levels of conflict. Greater conflict was also associated with higher levels of emotional flooding and lower relationship satisfaction. This suggests that recognising, understanding, and regulating emotions may help individuals respond more constructively during relationship disagreements. === De-escalating conflicts === Emotional regulation and mindfulness are useful techniques for managing the effects of emotional flooding. Cognitive reappraisal allows individuals to view stressful situations differently and reduce their emotional intensity (Castillo-López et al., 2024). A less effective strategy is suppressing emotions because it does not address the underlying emotional response. Castillo-López et al. (2024) suggest that mindfulness practices, such as mindful breathing and meditation, help individuals focus on the present moment and recognise their emotions without judgment. This may promote emotional awareness and better regulation of emotional responses. Castillo-López et al. (2024) further suggest that individuals can reduce physiological arousal through behavioural and physical activities, such as taking a walk, engaging in exercise, or practising relaxation exercises. Gottman (1993) presented a break technique involving taking a deliberate break during heated arguments to allow individuals time to cool down. This break is not considered stonewalling, as partners are expected to return to the discussion once they have calmed down. Taking a time-out reduces cortisol levels and physiological activation, which may help prevent the escalation of conflict and impulsive, destructive responses while promoting more rational and constructive dialogue once partners are calm (Castillo-López et al., 2024). Baucom et al. (2015) found that couples experienced decreases in overall emotional arousal after couple therapy, including the rate of increase and duration of emotional arousal at the beginning of conflict. These findings suggest that conflict-related emotional arousal can be influenced through couple therapy. This understanding of strategies that may reduce emotional flooding can help individuals navigate relationship conflict in ways that support healthier communication and relationship functioning. ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Love styles and relationship satisfaction|Love styles and relationships]] (Book chapter, 2025) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Berenguer-Soler, M., Castillo-López, Á. G. del, & Piñeda, D. (2023). Breaking the cycle of emotional flooding: The protective role of women’s emotional intelligence in couple’s conflict. Frontiers in Psychology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1217513 Castillo-López, Á. G., Berenguer-Soler, M., & Pineda, D. (2025). Relationship love styles’ effects on conflict, emotional intelligence, and sexual satisfaction: A latent profile analysis. SAGE Open, 15(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440251358988 Del Vecchio, T., Lorber, M. F., Slep, A. M. S., Malik, J., Heyman, R. E., & Foran, H. M. (2016). Parental flooding during conflict: A psychometric evaluation of a new scale. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44(8), 1587–1597. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-016-0137-9 Gottman, J. M. (1993). A theory of marital dissolution and stability. Journal of Family Psychology, 7(1), 57–75. Hooper, A., Spann, C., McCray, T., & Kimberly, C. (2017). Revisiting the basics: Understanding potential demographic differences with John Gottman’s four horsemen and emotional flooding. The Family Journal, 25(3), 224–229. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480717710650 Malik, J., Heyman, R. E., & Smith Slep, A. M. (2020). Emotional flooding in response to negative affect in couple conflicts: Individual differences and correlates. Journal of Family Psychology, 34(2), 145–154. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000584 }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://www.gottman.com/blog/making-sure-emotional-flooding-doesnt-capsize-your-relationship/ Emotional flooding] (The Gottman Institute) * [https://researchers.mq.edu.au/en/publications/emotional-flooding-and-hostile-discipline-in-the-families-of-todd/ Emotional flooding within family dynamics] (Macquarie University) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relationships]] hllmmft15iubw1h0nwbwaezszvzfj99 2841854 2841845 2026-10-21T10:55:31Z Tofu05 3106606 added internal/external links 2841854 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotional flooding in relationships:<br>Why does emotional flooding occur, how does it affect relationships, and what can be done about it?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''💭 Imagine this...''' Let’s cut to a scene in Marriage Story (2019). Charlie and Nicole are partners and are in the process of separating after their marriage has broken down. During a heated argument in their apartment, Nicole expresses her frustration about how she has felt throughout their marriage, while Charlie becomes increasingly defensive about the way she sees him and their relationship. What begins as a discussion about their failed marriage quickly turns into an argument where they bring up inner feelings they kept to themselves about years of resentment, sacrifices, parenting, and the ways they have hurt and disappointed each other. As the argument escalates, both become increasingly emotional. They start to speak over each other, interrupt, yell, and respond to each other's accusations rather than listening. Nicole expresses that she feels Charlie has controlled aspects of her life and failed to recognise her needs, while Charlie insists that he has made sacrifices for their family and feels that Nicole is unfairly blaming him. Their anger and frustration continue to build until Charlie becomes visibly overwhelmed and lashes out by punching a wall. By the end of the argument, neither of them had resolved the issues they were discussing. '''Think...''' *Have you ever been in a situation where a small disagreement suddenly became much more intense than expected? *What do you think happened to Charlie and Nicole as their argument escalated? *Why might it become harder for them to listen to each other or respond calmly as the conflict escalates? {{RoundBoxBottom}} The situation that Charlie and Nicole experienced shows how quickly relationship conflict can escalate when emotional responses become intense (see Figure 1). In these moments where arguments can become much more intense than the issue that started them, a person may become overwhelmed by their emotional response and find it difficult to think clearly and regulate their emotions. This experience is known as [https://w.wiki/eHn4 emotional flooding.] It describes a state in which individuals can become influenced by the experience of another person's negative emotions being intense and overwhelming, so that it interferes with an individual's ability to respond effectively (Del Vecchio et al., 2016). Research suggests that emotional flooding can contribute to poor relationship satisfaction, understanding these processes may help identify ways to recognise and manage emotional flooding before conflict becomes too difficult to resolve. This chapter will explore what emotional flooding is, why it occurs during relationship conflict, and how individual, emotional, cognitive, and interpersonal factors may contribute to it. It will then examine how emotional flooding can influence communication, conflict resolution, and relationship outcomes. Finally, exploring considering psychological strategies that may help individuals recognise and de-escalate emotional flooding. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''🔍 Focus questions''' *What psychological and physiological processes contribute to emotional flooding during relationship conflict? *How does emotional flooding affect emotion regulation and communication between partners in relationships? *What are the potential consequences of emotional flooding for relationship functioning? *What evidence-based strategies can help individuals manage emotional flooding during relationship conflict? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding emotional flooding == Emotional flooding is a psychological response that can occur when a person becomes overwhelmed by their partner’s negative emotions during conflict. [[wikipedia:John_Gottman|Gottman]] (1993), describes flooding as a response to negative emotions that are unexpected, intense and overwhelming, leaving their partner feeling disorganised and wanting to end the interaction. This may lead a person to withdraw from the conversation or attempt to escape the situation. Emotional flooding may be influenced by both [[Individual differences psychology|individual differences]] and the interpersonal context (Malik et al., 2020). Flooding cannot be understood as only an individual characteristic. The frequency and intensity of a partner’s negative emotions may also influence whether flooding occurs. This suggests that flooding develops through an interaction between a person's own vulnerability and also the emotional environment where the conflict takes place. Research by Malik et al. (2020) has linked emotional flooding to difficulties in relationship functioning, they found that flooding was associated with negative affect during couples conflict discussions. Couples involving at least one person who experienced high levels of flooding were also less effective in solving problems during conflict discussion (Malik et al., 2020). Their findings suggest that becoming overwhelmed may create difficulty for couples to resolve disagreements constructively. Gottman (1993) involved flooding into a broader theory of marital stability and dissolution, and it was identified as a potential part of progression towards emotional distance and relationship deterioration. Complementing Gottman (1993), Hooper et al. (2017) examined emotional flooding with negative communication behaviours and marital satisfaction, finding that refusal to talk to a partner (stonewalling) had the strongest negative association with marital satisfaction, highlighting its relevance to relationship functioning. Such research demonstrates why understanding emotional flooding is important for explaining how emotional experiences and interpersonal interactions may contribute to escalating conflict within relationships. Psychological research can help explain the processes underlying flooding, including emotional and physiological arousal, cognitive interpretations and interpersonal influences. It can also inform approaches for individuals to recognise emotional overwhelm and respond to conflict more constructively, bettering their individual and relationship wellbeing. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}<quiz display=simple> '''Check your understanding, which statement best describes emotional flooding? '' |type="()"} -Experiencing anger during any disagreement. +Becoming overwhelmed by intense negative emotions in a way that interferes with responding effectively. -Choosing to ignore a partner during conflict. </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why emotional flooding occurs during relationship conflicts == Why do some disagreements become overwhelming while others remain manageable? Research suggests that ''several'' interacting factors including physiological stress responses, how people interpret conflict, and individual differences in emotional regulation may be involved. Though they are not proven causes of flooding in every relationship, these factors have been examined across different studies. Research on couples has linked relationship conflict with biological stress responses, while studies of emotional flooding indicate that both a person's own emotional reactions and their partner’s negative affect are relevant. These findings all together suggest that flooding may occur when a person's own vulnerability interacts with an emotionally intense conflict. === Emotional and physiological arousal === Relationship conflict can activate the body's stress-response systems, potentially influencing how individuals experience and respond to emotional intense situations. One relevant system is the [https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal-hpa-axis hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis], which governs the cortisol (stress hormone) production and secretion (Kaur et al., 2023). Laurent and Powers (2007) examined factors that could predict HPA axis responses in emerging adult couples. They investigated how temperament and attachment were associated with physiological stress responses during conflict discussions about unresolved relationship issues. Research measured cortisol responses and the found that partners' dyadic fit (how both partners' attachment styles interact) influenced female cortisol responses during conflict. Additionally, attachment avoidance influenced the effect of males' emotionality on both their own and their partners' cortisol responses (Laurent and Powers, 2007). This suggests that physiological responses during disagreements may be shaped by the conflict, individual characteristics, and the dynamics between partners. Gottman (1993) linked physiological patterns into his theory of marital stability and dissolution in later marital outcomes through exploring heart rate elevation. In his longitudinal research, he compared 52 husbands' baseline heart rate in couples who later divorced, with couples who remained together. It was found that husbands in couples who later divorced showed significantly higher heart rates than those in stable marriages  Although this  finding does not establish that an elevated heart rate causes emotional flooding, it suggests a relevance of physiological patterns to understanding marital instability. Moving beyond physiological arousal in romantic relationships, Del Vecchio et al. (2016) examined parents' responses to children's negative emotions. They found that when parents became overwhelmed by the intensity of a child's negative emotions, they focussed on escaping the aversive situation rather than responding effectively. This finding implies that when emotional reactions become overwhelming, individuals may struggle to engage in constructive responses and want to end the interaction. Although this study focused on parent-child relationships rather than romantic relationships, it provides supporting evidence that emotional overwhelm can interfere with effective interpersonal responses. Therefore, its findings should be interpreted as indirect support rather than direct evidence of emotional flooding in romantic relationships. === The role of cognitive appraisal and interpersonal threat === Cognitive appraisal refers to how individuals interpret stressful events and evaluate their significance. Gottman (1993) proposed that negative behaviours may be attributed to a partner's overall negative traits rather than viewed within the context of a specific situation. This perspective helps explain how people may interpret an isolated disagreement as evidence that their partner possesses enduring negative characteristics. As a result, the conflict may feel more significant and contribute to increasingly negative perceptions of the relationship. Let's take a look at how the interpretation of a partner’s behaviour can influence emotional responses. '''Table 1: Example in a relationship''' {| class="wikitable" |+Imagine your partner forgets to text you back… ! !Response !Emotion |- |Interpretation 1 |“They must be busy, they probably didn't see my message.” |You might feel relatively calm and ask them about it later. |- |Interpretation 2 |“They don't care about me and they always ignore me.” |You might feel hurt or rejected and respond with anger, potentially escalating the disagreement and creating conflict |} Over time, these interpretations may contribute to a more negative perception of the relationship. Gottman (1993) argued that negative interpretations of a partner can persist beyond a specific disagreement, leading individuals to view both their partner and the history of their relationship negatively. A partner's failure to communicate (Table 1) may be interpreted either as an isolated mistake or as evidence that the partner is generally uncaring. As a result, individuals may find it more difficult to evaluate a situation within its context or consider information that challenges their existing negative perceptions. Gottman (1993) further proposed that flooding may contribute to a cycle in which flooded individuals become more likely to interpret ambiguous behaviours as threatening or frustrating. These negative interpretations may become increasingly difficult to disconfirm, contributing to a negative view of the relationship. This suggests that emotional responses during conflict may be shaped by a partner's behaviour and by the meaning that is attributed to that behaviour. The role of the interpersonal context in emotional flooding is further supported by Malik et al. (2020). They suggest that flooding is not only an individual tendency to become overwhelmed, but may also be influenced by a partner's expressed negative affect. Their study examined 233 married or cohabiting couples during a problem-solving assessment. They found that both men's and women's flooding was positively associated with their own anger, as well as their partners' experienced and expressed anger. These findings demonstrate associations rather than establishing that a partner's anger or an individual's interpretations directly cause flooding. Emotional responses may also be reciprocal, with negative effects potentially contributing to flooding, while flooding may interfere with effective communication and problem-solving during conflict. Together, these findings suggest that flooding may involve an interaction between how a person interprets their partner's behaviour and the negative emotions expressed during conflict. === Individual differences and emotional regulation === Imagine two people having a disagreement with their partners about the same issue. One person becomes overwhelmed, they struggle to explain how they feel and want to leave the conversation. The other feels frustrated but can recognise their emotions, they take a moment to calm down and continue discussing the problem. Although both experience conflict, their emotional responses differ. Gross (1998) describes emotion regulation as the process through which individuals influence which emotions they have, when they have them, and how they experience and express them. When emotions become intense during relationship conflict, some individuals may find it more difficult to understand what they are feeling or regulate how they respond. Malik et al. (2020) suggest that individuals may be more or less likely to flood in a relatively stable, trait-like manner.  However, this does not mean that flooding is simply a personality trait or that an individual will respond the same way in every disagreement. One factor that may help explain these differences is emotional intelligence, particularly the ability to recognise, understand and regulate emotional experiences. Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023), examined perceived emotional intelligence and emotional flooding in a sample of 692 women. They considered three dimensions of perceived emotional intelligence; * Emotional attention * Emotional clarity * Emotional repair. These refer to attending to emotional experiences, understanding what those emotions mean and feeling able to regulate them. Researchers found that emotional clarity and emotional repair were negatively associated with emotional flooding. Women who reported greater clarity about their emotions and greater perceived ability to regulate them also showed lower levels of flooding. Positive conflict-resolution strategies were also associated with lower flooding. These findings suggest that understanding one's emotional experiences and responding constructively during disagreements may be relevant to emotional flooding. Individual differences may influence how people respond to conflict, however emotional responses are not necessarily predictable. Salo et al. (2025),  investigated whether emotion-regulation strategies could influence physiological responses during couple conflict. Their study examined acceptance, which involves allowing emotional experiences without judging them, and [[wikipedia:Cognitive_appraisal|cognitive reappraisal]] which involves changing how a situation is interpreted. Researchers reported that both emotion regulation strategies reduced cardiac reactivity in the manipulated partner compared to the control group (Salo et al., 2025). This provides experimental evidence that using emotion-regulation strategies can influence some physiological responses during relationship conflict. However, the study measured cardiac reactivity rather than emotional flooding itself, so it does not establish that these strategies prevent flooding specifically. These studies suggest that emotional flooding may reflect a combination of individual vulnerability, emotional awareness and the ability to regulate responses during conflict. Some individuals may be more prone to becoming overwhelmed, while emotional clarity and regulation may be relevant to how they experience and deal with disagreements. Responses to conflict are also shaped by the interaction between partners, rather than by individual characteristics alone. Understanding these differences is important because it highlights why recognising emotional overwhelm and developing constructive ways of responding may be useful when managing conflict in close relationships. == How emotional flooding affects relationships == Relationship conflict does not always stay focussed on the issue that started it, think back to the '''case study''', Nicole initiates a conversation with Charlie wanting to resolve a problem. This led to them criticising and yelling at each other, on topics unrelated to the initial issue. When emotions become overwhelming, partners may struggle to listen to each other and communicate their concerns constructively. Research suggests that the relevance of emotional flooding with communication effectiveness, problem solving difficulties and relationship satisfaction extends beyond the immediate experience of feeling overwhelmed. === Emotional regulation and communication === Imagine yourself trying to explain why something hurt your feelings, your partner suddenly interrupts you, defends themselves and responds with criticism. Instead of feeling heard, you may become increasingly frustrated with them, and the original concern can become lost in the argument. This illustrates how communication can deteriorate when partners become involved in negative conversations. '''The Four Horsemen''' “The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse” is a metaphor depicting the end of times in the New Testament, describing conquest, war, hunger, and death (Wilde, 2026). Gottman (1993)  uses this metaphor to describe communication styles that may predict the end of a relationship. He describes a sequence in which “criticism leads to contempt, which leads to defensiveness, which leads to stonewalling” (Gottman, 1993). These are the behaviors that Gottman suggests are the most destructive to relationships. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 2: Explanation and examples of The Four Horsemen !Communication style !Meaning !Example |- |Criticism |An attack on a partner's character. Instead of small complaints about behaviour, a person attacks their partner’s character |“You forgot to call me” becomes “You’re so selfish, you never think about anyone else.” |- |Contempt |Disrespectful behaviour. A person communicates disrespectfully towards a partner, this may include sarcastic mocking, name-calling, and eye-rolling  (Beeney et al., 2019). | “You seriously can’t do anything right, can you?” or “You’re an idiot for saying that.” |- |Defensiveness |Claiming oneself blameless and a victim of another's attack (Beeney et al., 2019). Rather than engaging with a partner’s concern, it  often involves deflecting blame back onto the partner. | “I only forgot because you never remind me properly.” |- |Stonewalling |Withdrawal from the interaction. This is an emotional avoidance strategy, expressed by non-responsiveness (Beeney et al., 2019). |Looking away, remaining unresponsive and/or refusing to engage with the discussion. |} These patterns can shift an argument away from resolving a specific problem and towards attacking, defending and eventually disengaging. Emotional flooding may make constructive communication more difficult, the Four Horsemen are not symptoms of emotional flooding, however, they help illustrate how negative communication can develop during conflict. Destructive communication is only one part of the picture of a deteriorating relationship. Researchers have also examined how emotional flooding relates to communication effectiveness and relationship satisfaction. Kashian (2019) investigated emotional flooding and conflict communication among couples and reported that greater flooding during conflict was associated with less effective conflict communication. This association was statistically significant for participants who mainly communicated face-to-face during conflict but not for those who mainly used mediated forms of communication online or through text message. These findings suggest that the relationship between flooding and communication effectiveness may depend partly on the situation in which a disagreement occurs. The link between flooding and relationship functioning is further supported by Hooper et al. (2017), who examined emotional flooding, the Four Horsemen, and marital satisfaction among 591 married individuals. They found that refusal to engage in discussion (stonewalling), had the strongest negative association with relationship satisfaction. This finding shows the potential importance of withdrawal as a communication pattern associated with relationship dissatisfaction. These findings suggest that emotional flooding and negative communication patterns may influence how couples experience and manage conflict. When partners struggle to communicate effectively or withdraw from difficult conversations, disagreements may become harder to resolve, potentially contributing to lower relationship satisfaction over time. === Conflict and relationship outcomes === The effects of emotional flooding may extend beyond what happens during an argument. When individuals become overwhelmed, conflict-resolution processes, such as considering solutions, seeing different perspectives, and reaching agreement, may become difficult. Relationship satisfaction is an important outcome of relationship conflict. Hooper et al. (2017) found that emotional flooding and negative communication behaviours were associated with marital satisfaction. This finding links individuals' experiences during conflict to how they evaluate their relationships overall. Emotional flooding also needs to be understood within broader emotional and interpersonal patterns. Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) examined perceived emotional intelligence, positive conflict-resolution strategies, conflict, emotional flooding, and relationship satisfaction among 692 women. They reported that perceived emotional intelligence predicted 71.8% of the variance in emotional flooding and 35% of the variance in relationship satisfaction through positive conflict resolution and conflict. These findings suggest individuals who are better able to understand and regulate their emotions may therefore be less likely to experience emotional flooding and could experience greater relationship satisfaction. The studies suggest that relationship satisfaction and conflict may influence one another, however these associations do not establish causality. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}<quiz display=simple> '''Which situation below best demonstrates the potential effects of emotional flooding during relationship conflict?''' |type="()"} -A couple disagrees but calmly discusses different solutions. +One partner becomes overwhelmed, withdraws from the discussion, and the disagreement remains unresolved. -A couple disagrees and later reaches a compromise. -One partner notices they are becoming frustrated and suggests continuing the conversation later. </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} == What can be done to manage emotional flooding in relationships == Now you have an understanding of emotional flooding, how it occurs and how it affects relationships. Now we will discuss how you can manage emotional flooding in relationships. When an argument feels overwhelming, the goal is not to suppress every emotion or win the disagreement. Instead, partners can try to recognise rising arousal, regulate their reactions and return to the issue when they are better able to listen. Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) note that the emotions evoked in conflict, their regulation, and an appropriate conflict resolution strategy will reduce negative outcomes. === Recognising and regulating emotional arousal === A useful first step in managing emotional flooding is recognising when emotional overwhelm may be occurring. Possible signs include your racing heart, or wanting to interrupt or leave the conversation. However, these examples are potential indicators rather than confirmation you are experiencing flooding. Two emotion-regulation strategies that have been studied during couple conflict are acceptance and cognitive reappraisal. Acceptance involves allowing an emotion to be present without judging it, whereas cognitive reappraisal involves reconsidering how a situation is interpreted. Salo et al. (2025) found that both strategies significantly reduced cardiac reactivity during a 10-minute conflict discussion compared with a control condition where no emotion-regulation strategy was used. This suggests that emotion-regulation strategies may help reduce some of the physiological responses associated with conflict. Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) reported a pattern of higher perceived emotional intelligence associated with more constructive conflict-resolution strategies, which were then associated with lower levels of conflict. Greater conflict was also associated with higher levels of emotional flooding and lower relationship satisfaction. This suggests that recognising, understanding, and regulating emotions may help individuals respond more constructively during relationship disagreements. === De-escalating conflicts === Emotional regulation and mindfulness are useful techniques for managing the effects of emotional flooding. Cognitive reappraisal allows individuals to view stressful situations differently and reduce their emotional intensity (Castillo-López et al., 2024). A less effective strategy is suppressing emotions because it does not address the underlying emotional response. Castillo-López et al. (2024) suggest that mindfulness practices, such as mindful breathing and meditation, help individuals focus on the present moment and recognise their emotions without judgment. This may promote emotional awareness and better regulation of emotional responses. Castillo-López et al. (2024) further suggest that individuals can reduce physiological arousal through behavioural and physical activities, such as taking a walk, engaging in exercise, or practising relaxation exercises. Gottman (1993) presented a break technique involving taking a deliberate break during heated arguments to allow individuals time to cool down. This break is not considered stonewalling, as partners are expected to return to the discussion once they have calmed down. Taking a time-out reduces cortisol levels and physiological activation, which may help prevent the escalation of conflict and impulsive, destructive responses while promoting more rational and constructive dialogue once partners are calm (Castillo-López et al., 2024). Baucom et al. (2015) found that couples experienced decreases in overall emotional arousal after couple therapy, including the rate of increase and duration of emotional arousal at the beginning of conflict. These findings suggest that conflict-related emotional arousal can be influenced through couple therapy. This understanding of strategies that may reduce emotional flooding can help individuals navigate relationship conflict in ways that support healthier communication and relationship functioning. ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Love styles and relationship satisfaction|Love styles and relationships]] (Book chapter, 2025) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Berenguer-Soler, M., Castillo-López, Á. G. del, & Piñeda, D. (2023). Breaking the cycle of emotional flooding: The protective role of women’s emotional intelligence in couple’s conflict. Frontiers in Psychology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1217513 Castillo-López, Á. G., Berenguer-Soler, M., & Pineda, D. (2025). Relationship love styles’ effects on conflict, emotional intelligence, and sexual satisfaction: A latent profile analysis. SAGE Open, 15(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440251358988 Del Vecchio, T., Lorber, M. F., Slep, A. M. S., Malik, J., Heyman, R. E., & Foran, H. M. (2016). Parental flooding during conflict: A psychometric evaluation of a new scale. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44(8), 1587–1597. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-016-0137-9 Gottman, J. M. (1993). A theory of marital dissolution and stability. Journal of Family Psychology, 7(1), 57–75. Hooper, A., Spann, C., McCray, T., & Kimberly, C. (2017). Revisiting the basics: Understanding potential demographic differences with John Gottman’s four horsemen and emotional flooding. The Family Journal, 25(3), 224–229. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480717710650 Malik, J., Heyman, R. E., & Smith Slep, A. M. (2020). Emotional flooding in response to negative affect in couple conflicts: Individual differences and correlates. Journal of Family Psychology, 34(2), 145–154. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000584 }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://www.gottman.com/blog/making-sure-emotional-flooding-doesnt-capsize-your-relationship/ Emotional flooding] (The Gottman Institute) * [https://researchers.mq.edu.au/en/publications/emotional-flooding-and-hostile-discipline-in-the-families-of-todd/ Emotional flooding within family dynamics] (Macquarie University) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relationships]] 2wilx1jv10ur6cki63c0d3vuuduaul9 2841858 2841854 2026-10-21T11:22:30Z Tofu05 3106606 added image 2841858 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotional flooding in relationships:<br>Why does emotional flooding occur, how does it affect relationships, and what can be done about it?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''💭 Imagine this...''' [[File:Pexels-timur-weber-8560383.jpg|thumb|Figure 1. Charlie and Nicole arguing]] Charlie and Nicole are partners and are in the process of separating after their marriage has broken down. During a heated argument, Nicole expresses her frustration about how she has felt throughout their marriage, while Charlie becomes increasingly defensive about the way she sees him and their relationship. What begins as a discussion about their failed marriage quickly turns into an argument where they bring up inner feelings they kept to themselves about years of resentment, sacrifices, parenting, and the ways they have hurt and disappointed each other. As the argument escalates, both become increasingly emotional. They start to speak over each other, interrupt, yell, and respond to each other's accusations rather than listening. Nicole expresses that she feels Charlie has controlled aspects of her life and failed to recognise her needs, while Charlie insists that he has made sacrifices for their family and feels that Nicole is unfairly blaming him. Their anger and frustration continue to build until Charlie becomes visibly overwhelmed and lashes out by punching a wall. By the end of the argument, neither of them had resolved the issues they were discussing. '''Think...''' *Have you ever been in a situation where a small disagreement suddenly became much more intense than expected? *What do you think happened to Charlie and Nicole as their argument escalated? *Why might it become harder for them to listen to each other or respond calmly as the conflict escalates? {{RoundBoxBottom}} The situation that Charlie and Nicole experienced shows how quickly relationship conflict can escalate when emotional responses become intense (see Figure 1). In these moments where arguments can become much more intense than the issue that started them, a person may become overwhelmed by their emotional response and find it difficult to think clearly and regulate their emotions. This experience is known as [https://w.wiki/eHn4 emotional flooding.] It describes a state in which individuals can become influenced by the experience of another person's negative emotions being intense and overwhelming, so that it interferes with an individual's ability to respond effectively (Del Vecchio et al., 2016). Research suggests that emotional flooding can contribute to poor relationship satisfaction, understanding these processes may help identify ways to recognise and manage emotional flooding before conflict becomes too difficult to resolve. This chapter will explore what emotional flooding is, why it occurs during relationship conflict, and how individual, emotional, cognitive, and interpersonal factors may contribute to it. It will then examine how emotional flooding can influence communication, conflict resolution, and relationship outcomes. Finally, exploring considering psychological strategies that may help individuals recognise and de-escalate emotional flooding. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''🔍 Focus questions''' *What psychological and physiological processes contribute to emotional flooding during relationship conflict? *How does emotional flooding affect emotion regulation and communication between partners in relationships? *What are the potential consequences of emotional flooding for relationship functioning? *What evidence-based strategies can help individuals manage emotional flooding during relationship conflict? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding emotional flooding == Emotional flooding is a psychological response that can occur when a person becomes overwhelmed by their partner’s negative emotions during conflict. [[wikipedia:John_Gottman|Gottman]] (1993), describes flooding as a response to negative emotions that are unexpected, intense and overwhelming, leaving their partner feeling disorganised and wanting to end the interaction. This may lead a person to withdraw from the conversation or attempt to escape the situation. Emotional flooding may be influenced by both [[Individual differences psychology|individual differences]] and the interpersonal context (Malik et al., 2020). Flooding cannot be understood as only an individual characteristic. The frequency and intensity of a partner’s negative emotions may also influence whether flooding occurs. This suggests that flooding develops through an interaction between a person's own vulnerability and also the emotional environment where the conflict takes place. Research by Malik et al. (2020) has linked emotional flooding to difficulties in relationship functioning, they found that flooding was associated with negative affect during couples conflict discussions. Couples involving at least one person who experienced high levels of flooding were also less effective in solving problems during conflict discussion (Malik et al., 2020). Their findings suggest that becoming overwhelmed may create difficulty for couples to resolve disagreements constructively. Gottman (1993) involved flooding into a broader theory of marital stability and dissolution, and it was identified as a potential part of progression towards emotional distance and relationship deterioration. Complementing Gottman (1993), Hooper et al. (2017) examined emotional flooding with negative communication behaviours and marital satisfaction, finding that refusal to talk to a partner (stonewalling) had the strongest negative association with marital satisfaction, highlighting its relevance to relationship functioning. Such research demonstrates why understanding emotional flooding is important for explaining how emotional experiences and interpersonal interactions may contribute to escalating conflict within relationships. Psychological research can help explain the processes underlying flooding, including emotional and physiological arousal, cognitive interpretations and interpersonal influences. It can also inform approaches for individuals to recognise emotional overwhelm and respond to conflict more constructively, bettering their individual and relationship wellbeing. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}<quiz display=simple> '''Check your understanding, which statement best describes emotional flooding? '' |type="()"} -Experiencing anger during any disagreement. +Becoming overwhelmed by intense negative emotions in a way that interferes with responding effectively. -Choosing to ignore a partner during conflict. </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why emotional flooding occurs during relationship conflicts == Why do some disagreements become overwhelming while others remain manageable? Research suggests that ''several'' interacting factors including physiological stress responses, how people interpret conflict, and individual differences in emotional regulation may be involved. Though they are not proven causes of flooding in every relationship, these factors have been examined across different studies. Research on couples has linked relationship conflict with biological stress responses, while studies of emotional flooding indicate that both a person's own emotional reactions and their partner’s negative affect are relevant. These findings all together suggest that flooding may occur when a person's own vulnerability interacts with an emotionally intense conflict. === Emotional and physiological arousal === Relationship conflict can activate the body's stress-response systems, potentially influencing how individuals experience and respond to emotional intense situations. One relevant system is the [https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal-hpa-axis hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis], which governs the cortisol (stress hormone) production and secretion (Kaur et al., 2023). Laurent and Powers (2007) examined factors that could predict HPA axis responses in emerging adult couples. They investigated how temperament and attachment were associated with physiological stress responses during conflict discussions about unresolved relationship issues. Research measured cortisol responses and the found that partners' dyadic fit (how both partners' attachment styles interact) influenced female cortisol responses during conflict. Additionally, attachment avoidance influenced the effect of males' emotionality on both their own and their partners' cortisol responses (Laurent and Powers, 2007). This suggests that physiological responses during disagreements may be shaped by the conflict, individual characteristics, and the dynamics between partners. Gottman (1993) linked physiological patterns into his theory of marital stability and dissolution in later marital outcomes through exploring heart rate elevation. In his longitudinal research, he compared 52 husbands' baseline heart rate in couples who later divorced, with couples who remained together. It was found that husbands in couples who later divorced showed significantly higher heart rates than those in stable marriages  Although this  finding does not establish that an elevated heart rate causes emotional flooding, it suggests a relevance of physiological patterns to understanding marital instability. Moving beyond physiological arousal in romantic relationships, Del Vecchio et al. (2016) examined parents' responses to children's negative emotions. They found that when parents became overwhelmed by the intensity of a child's negative emotions, they focussed on escaping the aversive situation rather than responding effectively. This finding implies that when emotional reactions become overwhelming, individuals may struggle to engage in constructive responses and want to end the interaction. Although this study focused on parent-child relationships rather than romantic relationships, it provides supporting evidence that emotional overwhelm can interfere with effective interpersonal responses. Therefore, its findings should be interpreted as indirect support rather than direct evidence of emotional flooding in romantic relationships. === The role of cognitive appraisal and interpersonal threat === Cognitive appraisal refers to how individuals interpret stressful events and evaluate their significance. Gottman (1993) proposed that negative behaviours may be attributed to a partner's overall negative traits rather than viewed within the context of a specific situation. This perspective helps explain how people may interpret an isolated disagreement as evidence that their partner possesses enduring negative characteristics. As a result, the conflict may feel more significant and contribute to increasingly negative perceptions of the relationship. Let's take a look at how the interpretation of a partner’s behaviour can influence emotional responses. '''Table 1: Example in a relationship''' {| class="wikitable" |+Imagine your partner forgets to text you back… ! !Response !Emotion |- |Interpretation 1 |“They must be busy, they probably didn't see my message.” |You might feel relatively calm and ask them about it later. |- |Interpretation 2 |“They don't care about me and they always ignore me.” |You might feel hurt or rejected and respond with anger, potentially escalating the disagreement and creating conflict |} Over time, these interpretations may contribute to a more negative perception of the relationship. Gottman (1993) argued that negative interpretations of a partner can persist beyond a specific disagreement, leading individuals to view both their partner and the history of their relationship negatively. A partner's failure to communicate (Table 1) may be interpreted either as an isolated mistake or as evidence that the partner is generally uncaring. As a result, individuals may find it more difficult to evaluate a situation within its context or consider information that challenges their existing negative perceptions. Gottman (1993) further proposed that flooding may contribute to a cycle in which flooded individuals become more likely to interpret ambiguous behaviours as threatening or frustrating. These negative interpretations may become increasingly difficult to disconfirm, contributing to a negative view of the relationship. This suggests that emotional responses during conflict may be shaped by a partner's behaviour and by the meaning that is attributed to that behaviour. The role of the interpersonal context in emotional flooding is further supported by Malik et al. (2020). They suggest that flooding is not only an individual tendency to become overwhelmed, but may also be influenced by a partner's expressed negative affect. Their study examined 233 married or cohabiting couples during a problem-solving assessment. They found that both men's and women's flooding was positively associated with their own anger, as well as their partners' experienced and expressed anger. These findings demonstrate associations rather than establishing that a partner's anger or an individual's interpretations directly cause flooding. Emotional responses may also be reciprocal, with negative effects potentially contributing to flooding, while flooding may interfere with effective communication and problem-solving during conflict. Together, these findings suggest that flooding may involve an interaction between how a person interprets their partner's behaviour and the negative emotions expressed during conflict. === Individual differences and emotional regulation === Imagine two people having a disagreement with their partners about the same issue. One person becomes overwhelmed, they struggle to explain how they feel and want to leave the conversation. The other feels frustrated but can recognise their emotions, they take a moment to calm down and continue discussing the problem. Although both experience conflict, their emotional responses differ. Gross (1998) describes emotion regulation as the process through which individuals influence which emotions they have, when they have them, and how they experience and express them. When emotions become intense during relationship conflict, some individuals may find it more difficult to understand what they are feeling or regulate how they respond. Malik et al. (2020) suggest that individuals may be more or less likely to flood in a relatively stable, trait-like manner.  However, this does not mean that flooding is simply a personality trait or that an individual will respond the same way in every disagreement. One factor that may help explain these differences is emotional intelligence, particularly the ability to recognise, understand and regulate emotional experiences. Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023), examined perceived emotional intelligence and emotional flooding in a sample of 692 women. They considered three dimensions of perceived emotional intelligence; * Emotional attention * Emotional clarity * Emotional repair. These refer to attending to emotional experiences, understanding what those emotions mean and feeling able to regulate them. Researchers found that emotional clarity and emotional repair were negatively associated with emotional flooding. Women who reported greater clarity about their emotions and greater perceived ability to regulate them also showed lower levels of flooding. Positive conflict-resolution strategies were also associated with lower flooding. These findings suggest that understanding one's emotional experiences and responding constructively during disagreements may be relevant to emotional flooding. Individual differences may influence how people respond to conflict, however emotional responses are not necessarily predictable. Salo et al. (2025),  investigated whether emotion-regulation strategies could influence physiological responses during couple conflict. Their study examined acceptance, which involves allowing emotional experiences without judging them, and [[wikipedia:Cognitive_appraisal|cognitive reappraisal]] which involves changing how a situation is interpreted. Researchers reported that both emotion regulation strategies reduced cardiac reactivity in the manipulated partner compared to the control group (Salo et al., 2025). This provides experimental evidence that using emotion-regulation strategies can influence some physiological responses during relationship conflict. However, the study measured cardiac reactivity rather than emotional flooding itself, so it does not establish that these strategies prevent flooding specifically. These studies suggest that emotional flooding may reflect a combination of individual vulnerability, emotional awareness and the ability to regulate responses during conflict. Some individuals may be more prone to becoming overwhelmed, while emotional clarity and regulation may be relevant to how they experience and deal with disagreements. Responses to conflict are also shaped by the interaction between partners, rather than by individual characteristics alone. Understanding these differences is important because it highlights why recognising emotional overwhelm and developing constructive ways of responding may be useful when managing conflict in close relationships. == How emotional flooding affects relationships == Relationship conflict does not always stay focussed on the issue that started it, think back to the '''case study''', Nicole initiates a conversation with Charlie wanting to resolve a problem. This led to them criticising and yelling at each other, on topics unrelated to the initial issue. When emotions become overwhelming, partners may struggle to listen to each other and communicate their concerns constructively. Research suggests that the relevance of emotional flooding with communication effectiveness, problem solving difficulties and relationship satisfaction extends beyond the immediate experience of feeling overwhelmed. === Emotional regulation and communication === Imagine yourself trying to explain why something hurt your feelings, your partner suddenly interrupts you, defends themselves and responds with criticism. Instead of feeling heard, you may become increasingly frustrated with them, and the original concern can become lost in the argument. This illustrates how communication can deteriorate when partners become involved in negative conversations. '''The Four Horsemen''' “The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse” is a metaphor depicting the end of times in the New Testament, describing conquest, war, hunger, and death (Wilde, 2026). Gottman (1993)  uses this metaphor to describe communication styles that may predict the end of a relationship. He describes a sequence in which “criticism leads to contempt, which leads to defensiveness, which leads to stonewalling” (Gottman, 1993). These are the behaviors that Gottman suggests are the most destructive to relationships. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 2: Explanation and examples of The Four Horsemen !Communication style !Meaning !Example |- |Criticism |An attack on a partner's character. Instead of small complaints about behaviour, a person attacks their partner’s character |“You forgot to call me” becomes “You’re so selfish, you never think about anyone else.” |- |Contempt |Disrespectful behaviour. A person communicates disrespectfully towards a partner, this may include sarcastic mocking, name-calling, and eye-rolling  (Beeney et al., 2019). | “You seriously can’t do anything right, can you?” or “You’re an idiot for saying that.” |- |Defensiveness |Claiming oneself blameless and a victim of another's attack (Beeney et al., 2019). Rather than engaging with a partner’s concern, it  often involves deflecting blame back onto the partner. | “I only forgot because you never remind me properly.” |- |Stonewalling |Withdrawal from the interaction. This is an emotional avoidance strategy, expressed by non-responsiveness (Beeney et al., 2019). |Looking away, remaining unresponsive and/or refusing to engage with the discussion. |} These patterns can shift an argument away from resolving a specific problem and towards attacking, defending and eventually disengaging. Emotional flooding may make constructive communication more difficult, the Four Horsemen are not symptoms of emotional flooding, however, they help illustrate how negative communication can develop during conflict. Destructive communication is only one part of the picture of a deteriorating relationship. Researchers have also examined how emotional flooding relates to communication effectiveness and relationship satisfaction. Kashian (2019) investigated emotional flooding and conflict communication among couples and reported that greater flooding during conflict was associated with less effective conflict communication. This association was statistically significant for participants who mainly communicated face-to-face during conflict but not for those who mainly used mediated forms of communication online or through text message. These findings suggest that the relationship between flooding and communication effectiveness may depend partly on the situation in which a disagreement occurs. The link between flooding and relationship functioning is further supported by Hooper et al. (2017), who examined emotional flooding, the Four Horsemen, and marital satisfaction among 591 married individuals. They found that refusal to engage in discussion (stonewalling), had the strongest negative association with relationship satisfaction. This finding shows the potential importance of withdrawal as a communication pattern associated with relationship dissatisfaction. These findings suggest that emotional flooding and negative communication patterns may influence how couples experience and manage conflict. When partners struggle to communicate effectively or withdraw from difficult conversations, disagreements may become harder to resolve, potentially contributing to lower relationship satisfaction over time. === Conflict and relationship outcomes === The effects of emotional flooding may extend beyond what happens during an argument. When individuals become overwhelmed, conflict-resolution processes, such as considering solutions, seeing different perspectives, and reaching agreement, may become difficult. Relationship satisfaction is an important outcome of relationship conflict. Hooper et al. (2017) found that emotional flooding and negative communication behaviours were associated with marital satisfaction. This finding links individuals' experiences during conflict to how they evaluate their relationships overall. Emotional flooding also needs to be understood within broader emotional and interpersonal patterns. Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) examined perceived emotional intelligence, positive conflict-resolution strategies, conflict, emotional flooding, and relationship satisfaction among 692 women. They reported that perceived emotional intelligence predicted 71.8% of the variance in emotional flooding and 35% of the variance in relationship satisfaction through positive conflict resolution and conflict. These findings suggest individuals who are better able to understand and regulate their emotions may therefore be less likely to experience emotional flooding and could experience greater relationship satisfaction. The studies suggest that relationship satisfaction and conflict may influence one another, however these associations do not establish causality. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}<quiz display=simple> '''Which situation below best demonstrates the potential effects of emotional flooding during relationship conflict?''' |type="()"} -A couple disagrees but calmly discusses different solutions. +One partner becomes overwhelmed, withdraws from the discussion, and the disagreement remains unresolved. -A couple disagrees and later reaches a compromise. -One partner notices they are becoming frustrated and suggests continuing the conversation later. </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} == What can be done to manage emotional flooding in relationships == Now you have an understanding of emotional flooding, how it occurs and how it affects relationships. Now we will discuss how you can manage emotional flooding in relationships. When an argument feels overwhelming, the goal is not to suppress every emotion or win the disagreement. Instead, partners can try to recognise rising arousal, regulate their reactions and return to the issue when they are better able to listen. Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) note that the emotions evoked in conflict, their regulation, and an appropriate conflict resolution strategy will reduce negative outcomes. === Recognising and regulating emotional arousal === A useful first step in managing emotional flooding is recognising when emotional overwhelm may be occurring. Possible signs include your racing heart, or wanting to interrupt or leave the conversation. However, these examples are potential indicators rather than confirmation you are experiencing flooding. Two emotion-regulation strategies that have been studied during couple conflict are acceptance and cognitive reappraisal. Acceptance involves allowing an emotion to be present without judging it, whereas cognitive reappraisal involves reconsidering how a situation is interpreted. Salo et al. (2025) found that both strategies significantly reduced cardiac reactivity during a 10-minute conflict discussion compared with a control condition where no emotion-regulation strategy was used. This suggests that emotion-regulation strategies may help reduce some of the physiological responses associated with conflict. Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) reported a pattern of higher perceived emotional intelligence associated with more constructive conflict-resolution strategies, which were then associated with lower levels of conflict. Greater conflict was also associated with higher levels of emotional flooding and lower relationship satisfaction. This suggests that recognising, understanding, and regulating emotions may help individuals respond more constructively during relationship disagreements. === De-escalating conflicts === Emotional regulation and mindfulness are useful techniques for managing the effects of emotional flooding. Cognitive reappraisal allows individuals to view stressful situations differently and reduce their emotional intensity (Castillo-López et al., 2024). A less effective strategy is suppressing emotions because it does not address the underlying emotional response. Castillo-López et al. (2024) suggest that mindfulness practices, such as mindful breathing and meditation, help individuals focus on the present moment and recognise their emotions without judgment. This may promote emotional awareness and better regulation of emotional responses. Castillo-López et al. (2024) further suggest that individuals can reduce physiological arousal through behavioural and physical activities, such as taking a walk, engaging in exercise, or practising relaxation exercises. Gottman (1993) presented a break technique involving taking a deliberate break during heated arguments to allow individuals time to cool down. This break is not considered stonewalling, as partners are expected to return to the discussion once they have calmed down. Taking a time-out reduces cortisol levels and physiological activation, which may help prevent the escalation of conflict and impulsive, destructive responses while promoting more rational and constructive dialogue once partners are calm (Castillo-López et al., 2024). Baucom et al. (2015) found that couples experienced decreases in overall emotional arousal after couple therapy, including the rate of increase and duration of emotional arousal at the beginning of conflict. These findings suggest that conflict-related emotional arousal can be influenced through couple therapy. This understanding of strategies that may reduce emotional flooding can help individuals navigate relationship conflict in ways that support healthier communication and relationship functioning. ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Love styles and relationship satisfaction|Love styles and relationships]] (Book chapter, 2025) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Berenguer-Soler, M., Castillo-López, Á. G. del, & Piñeda, D. (2023). Breaking the cycle of emotional flooding: The protective role of women’s emotional intelligence in couple’s conflict. Frontiers in Psychology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1217513 Castillo-López, Á. G., Berenguer-Soler, M., & Pineda, D. (2025). Relationship love styles’ effects on conflict, emotional intelligence, and sexual satisfaction: A latent profile analysis. SAGE Open, 15(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440251358988 Del Vecchio, T., Lorber, M. F., Slep, A. M. S., Malik, J., Heyman, R. E., & Foran, H. M. (2016). Parental flooding during conflict: A psychometric evaluation of a new scale. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44(8), 1587–1597. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-016-0137-9 Gottman, J. M. (1993). A theory of marital dissolution and stability. Journal of Family Psychology, 7(1), 57–75. Hooper, A., Spann, C., McCray, T., & Kimberly, C. (2017). Revisiting the basics: Understanding potential demographic differences with John Gottman’s four horsemen and emotional flooding. The Family Journal, 25(3), 224–229. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480717710650 Malik, J., Heyman, R. E., & Smith Slep, A. M. (2020). Emotional flooding in response to negative affect in couple conflicts: Individual differences and correlates. Journal of Family Psychology, 34(2), 145–154. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000584 }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://www.gottman.com/blog/making-sure-emotional-flooding-doesnt-capsize-your-relationship/ Emotional flooding] (The Gottman Institute) * [https://researchers.mq.edu.au/en/publications/emotional-flooding-and-hostile-discipline-in-the-families-of-todd/ Emotional flooding within family dynamics] (Macquarie University) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relationships]] 4jvzikxh96ae39olqwq908khfkv2c3y 0 331552 2841831 2841118 2026-10-21T08:26:07Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 Attempting to solve lints 2841831 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Warm-glow giving:<br>Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Charity donation box, Hong Kong International Airport (2018).jpg|thumb|190px|'''Figure 1'''. A public donation box illustrates an everyday opportunity to engage in charitable giving. Such situations can benefit recipients while also generating emotional responses in donors.]] '''Imagine this...''' You are buying groceries when the checkout screen asks whether you would like to add $2 to support a charity. You had not planned to donate and you briefly hesitate. Two dollars will not make a noticeable difference to your own finances, so you select '''yes'''. As you leave the supermarket, you feel unexpectedly pleased about having helped someone else. A week later, you encounter another request for a small donation. You remember the positive feeling from the previous experience and again consider giving. Why can giving money away make a person feel good, and could this pleasant emotional response encourage them to behave generously again? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Warm-glow giving\|warm-glow giving]] the internal satisfaction or emotional reward that people can experience from helping others. Andreoni's (1990) theory proposes that people can be motivated simultaneously by concern for beneficiaries and by the personal satisfaction they receive from giving. Research suggests that giving is associated with positive emotional experiences and psychological well-being. For example, charitable donation and volunteering have been positively associated with psychological well-being among university students (Geng et al., 2022). However, giving does not always produce purely positive emotions. Charitable requests can also produce anxiety, guilt, anger, pressure, or mixed emotional reactions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023; Hepworth et al., 2021). Understanding these processes is important because emotional experiences may influence not only an immediate decision to donate but also whether people continue engaging in prosocial behavior in the future (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is warm-glow giving and how does it explain people's motivation to help others? * Why can giving produce positive emotional and rewarding experiences? * How do positive and negative emotions influence charitable giving decisions? * How can the emotional consequences of giving influence future and wider prosocial behavior? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is warm-glow giving?== Warm-glow giving was formally developed through Andreoni's (1990) theory of impure [[w:Altruism\|altruism]]. Pure [[w:Altruism\|altruism]] assumes that a person gives because they value improvements in another person's welfare, whereas impure altruism proposes that donors can also obtain utility from the act of giving itself. Warm glow therefore provides a way of understanding why apparently selfless behavior may also contain a personally rewarding component. Experiencing satisfaction from helping does not necessarily mean that genuine concern for others is absent; self-oriented and other-oriented motives can coexist (Andreoni, 1990). The theory is particularly useful because it connects motivation and emotion: the expectation or experience of a positive internal reward can provide motivation for prosocial behavior. Evidence shows that warm-glow processes extend beyond conventional charitable donations. Xing et al. (2024) found that consumers' feelings of warm glow helped explain the greater success of poverty-alleviation crowdfunding campaigns compared with ordinary crowdfunding campaigns. Chen (2025) extended warm-glow theory to pro-environmental gamification. Among 525 Ant Forest users, perceived warm glow was one of the positive predictors of continued engagement, alongside altruistic, egoistic, and pragmatic motivational factors. These findings suggest that warm glow can help explain multiple forms of prosocial participation, including donating, crowdfunding, and sustained environmentally beneficial behavior. Evidence from a motivation-focused journal provides a useful psychological qualification to the economic account. Wiwad and Aknin (2017) conducted three experiments comparing the emotional consequences of recalling self-focused and other-focused helpful acts. Recalling other-focused acts produced greater positive affect, with perceived morality helping to explain the difference. Because the studies relied on remembered behavior, the results do not establish that every other-focused act produces more happiness at the time it occurs. '''Key points:''' * Warm-glow giving is explained by Andreoni's (1990) theory of '''impure altruism''', in which concern for others and personal satisfaction from giving can coexist. * The emotional reward associated with helping can provide motivation for prosocial behavior. * Warm-glow processes can extend beyond charitable donations to other forms of prosocial participation, including crowdfunding and environmentally beneficial behavior (Xing et al., 2024; Chen, 2025). ==Why does giving feel good?== Andreoni’s theory explains why a donor might value the act of giving, but it does not itself establish that a donation will improve emotional well-being. Dunn et al. (2008) provided initial experimental evidence that spending on others can increase happiness; Aknin, Barrington-Leigh, et al. (2013) extended the finding to a range of cultural contexts. However, Aknin et al. (2020) obtained mixed results in large preregistered replications, suggesting that any average emotional benefit depends partly on how prosocial spending is enacted and measured. One explanation is that giving generates positive affect. Genevsky et al. (2025) found across behavioral and neuroimaging experiments that charitable appeals containing affectively congruent features generated greater donations than incongruent appeals. Importantly, the relationship between affective congruence and giving was mediated by positive aroused affect. This suggests that positive emotional experience was not simply associated with donation—it helped explain why particular appeals increased giving (Genevsky et al., 2025). Genevsky et al. (2025) also found greater activity in the nucleus accumbens, a brain region associated with positive affect and reward processing, in response to affectively congruent charitable requests. Increased activity subsequently predicted donation decisions. These findings provide a useful psychological and neuroaffective extension of warm-glow theory: charitable giving can engage emotional and reward processes that make helping psychologically reinforcing. Giving can also produce a sense of meaning rather than pleasure alone. Regan et al. (2023), writing in Affective Science, experimentally compared kindness towards others with kindness towards oneself and other positive activities. Other-directed kindness was linked to relatively stronger feelings of competence, self-confidence and meaning. These findings complement self-determination theory, but the intervention concerned kindness generally rather than charitable spending specifically. Psychological benefits are also evident outside laboratory donation tasks. Geng et al. (2022), using data from 1,871 Chinese university students, found that both volunteering time and the amount donated to charity were positively associated with psychological well-being. However, Geng et al. (2022) used observational data, so the association should not automatically be interpreted as proof that charitable giving directly causes greater well-being. People with greater psychological well-being may also be more inclined or able to participate in prosocial activities. Chen's (2025) findings similarly demonstrate that perceived warm glow can contribute to continued prosocial engagement. Participants in the Ant Forest platform were motivated by a combination of altruistic, self-related, and practical motives rather than a single source of motivation. '''Key points:''' * Positive emotional arousal can contribute to charitable donation decisions (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Giving can engage positive affect and reward-related processes, helping to explain why [[w:Prosocial behavior\|prosocial behaviour]] may feel psychologically rewarding (Genevsky et al., 2025). * Charitable giving and volunteering are associated with psychological well-being, although correlational findings should not be interpreted as proof of causation (Geng et al., 2022). Planned Figure 2 for the final book chapter A simple original diagram could illustrate the proposed motivational cycle: Opportunity to help → Giving → Positive affect/warm glow → Emotional reward → Greater motivation for future prosocial behavior. As illustrated in '''Figure 2''', an opportunity to help may lead to giving, positive affect or warm glow, emotional reward, and greater motivation for future prosocial behavior. {| style="margin:15px auto; border-collapse:separate; border-spacing:4px; text-align:center;" | style="border:1px solid #4f81bd;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#eef5fc; width:110px;" | '''Opportunity to help''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #548235;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f0f7ed; width:70px;" | '''Giving''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #d6a000;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#fff7dc; width:135px;" | '''Positive affect / warm glow''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #8064a2;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#f5f0fa; width:110px;" | '''Emotional reward''' | style="border:none; font-size:20px;" | → | style="border:1px solid #31859b;{{Text color default}}; border-radius:5px; padding:8px; background:#edf8fa; width:175px;" | '''Greater motivation for future prosocial behaviour''' |} '''''Figure 2.'' Proposed motivational cycle of warm-glow giving.''' ==How do emotions influence charitable giving?== Self-determination theory provides a useful framework for distinguishing voluntary generosity from helping under pressure. Ryan and Deci (2000) identify autonomy, competence and relatedness as psychological needs, while Weinstein and Ryan (2010) found more favorable helper and recipient outcomes when helping was autonomously motivated. Aknin, Dunn, et al. (2013) further showed the importance of understanding a donation’s impact. These findings suggest that the rewarding quality of giving depends on circumstances and motives rather than on monetary transfer alone. Emotions can affect how people evaluate charitable need, not merely whether they feel good afterwards. Hasford et al. (2015) found that consumers were more insensitive to the scope of a charitable problem when their donations were based on emotional rather than calculative valuation. This finding provides an important limitation to a simple "emotion improves giving" explanation. Emotional motivation may stimulate generosity while simultaneously making donors less responsive to information such as the number of beneficiaries (Hasford et al., 2015). Genevsky et al. (2025) showed that the emotional construction of a charitable appeal also matters. Affectively congruent combinations of appeal features increased [[w:Affect (psychology)\|positive affect]] and donations, regardless of whether the matched features themselves were positively or negatively valenced. Emotional responses to charitable requests are not necessarily pleasant. Hepworth et al. (2021), across four studies, found that checkout-charity solicitations could create customer anxiety, which subsequently reduced evaluations of the service encounter. Interestingly, Hepworth et al. (2021) also found that anxiety could decrease when customers agreed to donate in employee-led solicitation situations. Therefore, some giving may potentially involve reducing an uncomfortable emotional state rather than simply seeking positive warm glow. Coleman and Peasley (2023) similarly found that checkout charity can produce ambivalent emotional experiences. Consumers may experience positive emotions such as pride and joy alongside negative emotions such as guilt and anger. Their findings suggest that high positive and high negative affect can occur simultaneously, and this emotional incongruence may actually reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Together, these studies demonstrate that emotion has a complex role in charitable behaviour. Warm glow, pride, positive arousal, anxiety, guilt, and anger can each influence donation decisions under different circumstances. '''Key points:''' * Emotional responses can encourage charitable giving, but emotional decision-making may also reduce sensitivity to the scope of need (Hasford et al., 2015). * Charitable requests can generate negative emotional reactions such as anxiety, and donating may sometimes reduce this discomfort (Hepworth et al., 2021). * Positive and negative emotions can occur simultaneously during charitable requests, and emotional ambivalence may reduce donation intentions (Coleman & Peasley, 2023). {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Table 1. Emotional processes associated with giving and their possible influence on prosocial behaviour''' |- ! Process ! Emotional or motivational experience ! Possible behavioural effect ! Key evidence |- | '''Warm glow''' | Satisfaction from personally helping | Increases motivation to give or participate | Andreoni (1990); Xing et al. (2024) |- | '''Positive aroused affect''' | Positive emotional arousal during an appeal | Greater charitable donations | Genevsky et al. (2025) |- | '''Psychological well-being''' | Positive functioning associated with helping | May reinforce participation in prosocial activity | Geng et al. (2022) |- | '''Emotional valuation''' | Giving based mainly on feelings | Can promote donations but reduce sensitivity to scope | Hasford et al. (2015) |- | '''Checkout anxiety''' | Anxiety following a donation request | May reduce service evaluations and can sometimes encourage donating to reduce discomfort | Hepworth et al. (2021) |- | '''Emotional ambivalence''' | Simultaneous pride/joy and guilt/anger | Mixed affect can complicate or reduce donation intentions | Coleman & Peasley (2023) |- | '''Perceived warm glow''' | Personal satisfaction from environmental contribution | Encourages continued engagement | Chen (2025) |- | '''Moral elevation''' | Feeling inspired by another person's generosity | Encourages prosocial contagion | Yin et al. (2026) |} As summarised in Table 1, charitable behavior cannot be explained by one emotion alone. Giving involves interacting positive and negative emotional processes, and these processes can either encourage or inhibit prosocial action. ==How can warm glow influence future and wider prosocial behavior?== A useful distinction is between evidence of feeling good after giving and evidence of a later behavioral effect. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) tested repeated donation decisions, whereas Chen (2025) examined intentions to continue a digital environmental activity. The former more directly informs choice repetition; the latter helps explain sustained intentions but cannot by itself establish long-term action. This distinction limits overly simple claims that warm glow always produces future generosity. If giving produces an emotional reward, that feeling may act as feedback which shapes later choices. Shlefer and Kogut (2021) examined how feelings following previous donation decisions predicted subsequent decisions. They found that feeling good about a previous decision whether that decision was to give or not give—predicted a tendency to make a similar choice later. In contrast, feeling bad about the previous decision increased the likelihood of changing the next decision (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). This provides an important mechanism for explaining repeated [[w:Prosocial behavior\|prosocial behaviour]]. If donating creates a warm-glow response, people may learn from this positive emotional feedback and become more motivated to donate again. Chen (2025) provides complementary evidence about sustained engagement in a different prosocial context. Perceived warm glow positively contributed to users' intentions to continue engaging with Ant Forest, suggesting that emotional benefits can support persistence over time. Warm-glow processes may also influence behavior between people, not just within a single donor. Yin et al. (2026) examined prosocial contagion across nine experiments and investigated responses to observing generosity from benefactors with different income levels. Observing generosity from lower-income benefactors produced stronger perceptions of altruistic motivation and greater moral elevation, which subsequently encouraged prosocial responses among observers (Yin et al., 2026). The finding demonstrates how emotional responses to another person's generosity can spread prosocial behavior. People do not necessarily need to experience the initial act of giving themselves; witnessing meaningful generosity can also motivate helping. Xing et al. (2024) further illustrates the social and practical application of warm glow. In poverty-alleviation crowdfunding, consumer warm glow helped account for the greater success of poverty-focused campaigns, demonstrating that the emotional reward attached to helping can influence marketplace behavior. Thus, emotional rewards may create two reinforcing pathways: personal reinforcement, where feeling good after giving encourages future giving, and social contagion, where observing generosity inspires [[w:Prosocial behavior\|prosocial behaviour]] in other people.{{anchor|Scenarios}} '''Key points:''' * Emotional reactions to previous donation decisions can act as feedback that influences later giving behaviour (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021). * Perceived warm glow can support continued engagement in prosocial activities over time (Chen, 2025). * [[w:Prosocial behavior\|prosocial behaviour]] can spread socially because observing another person's generosity may produce moral elevation and encourage further helping behaviour (Yin et al., 2026). ;Quiz Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {Warm-glow giving suggests that people can care about helping others while also experiencing personal emotional satisfaction from the act of giving: |type="()"} + True - False {Charitable requests always make people feel positive emotions: |type="()"} - True + False {Why can giving produce positive emotional rewards? |type="()"} - Because all charitable donations guarantee happiness. + Because helping others can generate Positive affect, personal satisfaction, and a sense of meaning. - Because people only donate to receive financial rewards. {According to Shlefer and Kogut (2021), how can emotions following a donation decision influence future giving? |type="()"} - Positive emotions always cause people to increase their donations. + Feeling good about a previous decision can encourage people to repeat a similar decision. - Emotional reactions have no influence on subsequent donation decisions. </quiz> ==Conclusion== Warm-glow giving explains why helping can be emotionally rewarding without implying that generosity is entirely self-interested. Andreoni's (1990) account of impure [[w:Altruism\|altruism]] establishes how concern for others and satisfaction from personally helping can coexist. Psychological research further indicates that perceived impact, autonomous choice, [[w:Affect (psychology)\|positive affect]] and feelings of meaning help explain when giving is rewarding (Weinstein & Ryan, 2010; Aknin, Dunn, et al., 2013; Regan et al., 2023). Nevertheless, emotional benefits are not guaranteed. Larger replications have produced positive, null and small effects (Aknin et al., 2020), while requests for donations can elicit guilt, anxiety and ambivalence (Hepworth et al., 2021; Coleman & Peasley, 2023). Emotional satisfaction also differs from demonstrable effectiveness: feeling pleased by a donation does not establish that it meets recipients' needs particularly well. Warm glow may reinforce repeated giving through emotional feedback, while observing generosity can inspire related but distinct feelings of [[w:Elevation (emotion)\|moral elevation]] (Shlefer & Kogut, 2021; Yin et al., 2026). In everyday life, informed and voluntary donations, accompanied by meaningful feedback about impact, offer a practical way to support donors' well-being without losing sight of those who receive help. == See also == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Altruism and empathy|Altruism and empathy]] (Book chapter, 2024) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Empathy-altruism hypothesis|Empathy-altruism hypothesis]] (Book chapter, 2021) [[w|Altruism]] (Wikipedia) [[w behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Aknin, L. B., Barrington-Leigh, C. P., Dunn, E. W., Helliwell, J. F., Burns, J., Biswas-Diener, R., Kemeza, I., Nyende, P., Ashton-James, C. E., & Norton, M. I. (2013). Prosocial spending and well-being: Cross-cultural evidence for a psychological universal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(4), 635–652. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031578 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., & Whillans, A. V. (2022). The emotional rewards of prosocial spending are robust and replicable in large samples. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 31(6), 536–545. https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214221121100 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., Proulx, J., Lok, I., & Norton, M. I. (2020). Does spending money on others promote happiness? A registered replication report. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 119(2), e15–e26. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000191 Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., Whillans, A. V., Grant, A. M., & Norton, M. I. (2013). Making a difference matters: Impact unlocks the emotional benefits of prosocial spending. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 88, 90–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2013.01.008 Aknin, L. B., Hamlin, J. K., & Dunn, E. W. (2012). Giving leads to happiness in young children. PLOS ONE, 7(6), Article e39211. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0039211 Andreoni, J. (1989). Giving with impure altruism: Applications to charity and Ricardian equivalence. Journal of Political Economy, 97(6), 1447–1458. https://doi.org/10.1086/261662 Andreoni, J. (1990). Impure altruism and donations to public goods: A theory of warm-glow giving. The Economic Journal, 100(401), 464–477. https://doi.org/10.2307/2234133 Bekkers, R., & Wiepking, P. (2011). A literature review of empirical studies of philanthropy: Eight mechanisms that drive charitable giving. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 40(5), 924–973. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764010380927 Bischoff, I., & Krauskopf, T. (2015). Warm glow of giving collectively—An experimental study. Journal of Economic Psychology, 51, 210–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2015.09.001 Chen, Y. (2025). Gaining in giving: Unveiling continuous engagement intentions with the Chinese pro-environmental gamification Ant Forest. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 41(13), 8447–8463. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2024.2410053 Coleman, J. T., & Peasley, M. C. (2023). Wounding pride and infusing affect: The ambivalent emotional experience of checkout charity. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 40(6), 785–797. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-07-2021-4750 Crumpler, H., & Grossman, P. J. (2008). An experimental test of warm glow giving. Journal of Public Economics, 92(5–6), 1011–1021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2007.12.014 Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2014). Prosocial spending and happiness: Using money to benefit others pays off. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(1), 41–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413512503 Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2008). Spending money on others promotes happiness. Science, 319(5870), 1687–1688. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1150952 Genevsky, A., Yoon, C., Lin, T.-Y., Shaw, S. D., & Knutson, B. (2025). The impact of affective congruence on charitable giving. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 20(1), nsaf086. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsaf086 Geng, Y., Chen, Y., Huang, C., Tan, Y., Zhang, C., & Zhu, S. (2022). Volunteering, charitable donation, and psychological well-being of college students in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 790528. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.790528 Harbaugh, W. T., Mayr, U., & Burghart, D. R. (2007). Neural responses to taxation and voluntary giving reveal motives for charitable donations. Science, 316(5831), 1622–1625. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1140738 Hasford, J., Farmer, A., & Waites, S. F. (2015). Thinking, feeling, and giving: The effects of scope and valuation on consumer donations. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 32(4), 435–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2015.05.006 Hepworth, A., Lee, N. Y., & Zablah, A. R. (2021). Feeling anxious: The dark side of checkout charity solicitations. Journal of Business Research, 136, 330–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.07.050 Luccasen, A. (2017). Warm-glow giving: Earned money and the option to take. Economic Inquiry, 55(2), 996–1006. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecin.12417 Moll, J., Krueger, F., Zahn, R., Pardini, M., de Oliveira-Souza, R., & Grafman, J. (2006). Human fronto-mesolimbic networks guide decisions about charitable donation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103(42), 15623–15628. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0604475103 Regan, A., Margolis, S., Ozer, D. J., Schwitzgebel, E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2023). What is unique about kindness? Exploring the proximal experience of prosocial acts relative to other positive behaviors. Affective Science, 4, 92–100. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-022-00143-4 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 Shlefer, S., & Kogut, T. (2021). How did it feel? Affect as a feedback system in repeated donation decisions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 97, 104203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104203 Weinstein, N., & Ryan, R. M. (2010). When helping helps: Autonomous motivation for prosocial behavior and its influence on well-being for the helper and recipient. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(2), 222–244. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016984 Wiwad, D., & Aknin, L. B. (2017). Motives matter: The emotional consequences of recalled self- and other-focused prosocial acts. Motivation and Emotion, 41(6), 730–740. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-017-9638-2 Xing, C., Zhang, Y., & Tripe, D. (2024). Ethical consumers and low-income sellers on China's reward-based crowdfunding platforms: Are poverty alleviation campaigns more successful? Journal of Business Ethics, 191(4), 793–810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-024-05666-3 Yin, B. M., Olson, J. G., & Li, Y. J. (2026). When having less elevates more: Benefactor income, moral elevation, and prosocial contagion among observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 131(4), 585–601. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000493 }} ==External links== * [https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/how_to_make_giving_feel_good How to make giving feel good] (Greater Good Science Center) * [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/publications/observer/obsonline/the-warm-glow-of-giving-may-overshadow-doing-the-greatest-good.html The “Warm Glow” of Giving May Overshadow Doing the Greatest Good] (Association for Psychological Science) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Prosocial]] ggvw70yhfzhu9z6nt5woz6iy6w4dmy3 0 331568 2841732 2833272 2026-10-20T13:50:37Z Bronte.H 3005461 2841732 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Prevention versus promotion mindset:<br>What are the motivational differences between prevention and promotion mindsets?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} [[File:New York City Streetscapes - Skateboarding on Lower East Side 11.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. A person skateboarding]] ;Do these ways of finding success sound familiar to you? Jack is an artistic, and active high-school student, who has been enrolled in classical piano classes since he could say the word 'Mozart'. The day he won his first piano competition, he recalled the ecstatic and proud faces of his parent, who bragged to his school teacher, friend's parents, and the neighbours about his success. Whilst he had learned a complicated new piece from scratch at the start of the season, he felt as though his musical flow was entirely rehearsed, requiring intense focus to maintain perfect accuracy when delivering the piece. His heart pounded with anxiety thinking about each page of notation to play, and he relied on his hours of endless repetition to deliver the musical rendition. However, the feeling of satisfying his parent's expectations with a near-perfect score - and month-long break of strict daily practice as a reward - took a weight off of Jack's shoulders, allowing him to rest mentally. During his post-success break, Jack spent his newly gained free-time with friends at the skate park, carving up risky new tricks on his skateboard, spending time riding around the local shops, and perfecting the playlist he would play in his headphones to skate to. Whilst Jack finds success in his piano playing, he requires intense focus, and long, repetitive practice sessions to be his best. Jack also has many worries about his parent's expectations, and worries his cell phone will be confiscated again for skipping practice to spend time at the skatepark. Sometimes he picks less challenging, and even boring songs to prepare for competitions, if it means he will deliver a mistake-free program. If Jack's parents did not push him to play piano, he would probably give up on his lessons. Jack finds a deeper creative outlet when he skateboards with friends, away from competitions and expectations. Often when he gets time with his skateboard, he gets stuck for hours perfecting a new trick, and vividly remembers the first time he landed a kick-flip on his own at the park after endless attempts. Jack loves pushing the limits of his skills, and feels a deep sense of pride and accomplishment when he lands something difficult. Jack jokingly describes the pressure of piano competition preparation as 'dodging landmines', fearful of making a single mistake. Whereas skating feels as though he is 'reaching for the sky'. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{expand}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} What is a prevention mindset? What is a promotion mindset? What is the role of mindset in different contexts? How does our mindset influence educational success? How does our mindset influence mental health? Are mindsets malleable or fixed? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Mindsets== [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mindset&oldid=1368192659 Mindsets] are conceptualised as a * * * Theoretical history Mindset research developed in the mid-late 20th century, against a backdrop of psychological research marked by [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Behaviorism&oldid=1375127029 Behaviourism] research (Dweck & Yeager, 2019). With the field of research being paved by American [[wikipedia:Psychologist|Psychologist]] [[wikipedia:Carol_Dweck|Carol Dweck]], it was thought that pure interaction with our environment was not enough to understand why individuals develop cohesive patterns of behaviour and thought towards goals and expectations (Dweck & Yeager, 2019). This insight lead to the development of [[wikipedia:Implicit_theories_of_intelligence|Implicit Theories of Intelligence]], later being refined to what is now known as Dweck's * Current conceptualisations * Are mindsets fixed or malleable == Regulatory Focus Theory == === Prevention mindset === === Promotion mindset === == Motivational Differences Between Promotion and Prevention Mindsets == {{ic|Include at least an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-headings}} === Promotion Mindset in Various Contexts === * Education * Mental Health * Hobbies and Passions * Humanistic Approach === Prevention Mindset in Various Contexts === * Education * Mental Health * Workplace * Sports == Influences and Development of Prevention Mindset == == Influences and Development of Promotion Mindset == * ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure; this can be the figure in the scenario * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] which hosts free-to-use media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, and audio * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== List [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Checklist|Topic development - Checklist]] (Wikiversity) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Dweck, C. S., & Yeager, D. S. (2019). Mindsets: A view from two eras. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science'', ''14''(3), 481–496. <nowiki>https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691618804166</nowiki> {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Mindset]] 0md8m33fl3ztx6in4gao3ulp0914x07 0 331569 2841808 2833314 2026-10-21T04:19:29Z Amirrorslens 3106278 /* Religion */ removed heading in attempt to simplify structure 2841808 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Awe and the diminished self:<br>How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. NASA Hubble Ultra Deep Field]] ; Scenario Leo walks into the desert late at night and is taken aback at the night sky above him. Being alone in the vast and flat plane lets him really perceive the vastness of the stars and leaves him feeling very present and aware of his smallness in comparison. This overwhelming feeling leaves Leo seeking connection with others, and a new found sense of purpose. * [Author Note: REPLACE WITH A REAL CASE STUDY - such as near death experience (The Good Place coded) (Might modify scenario to incude this aspect similar to the purple feature box on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Motivation for using AI companions|this page]])] {{RoundBoxBottom}} '''''Author Note: KEY PSYCH SCIENCE''''' {{ic|Move this detail into subsequent sections}} * ''Maslow and Carl Rogers -> self-concept and peak experiences'' * ''KEY PIECE OF LITERATURE: Keltner and Haidt: Awe 2003'' *''Jean Piaget - Cognitive Development'' * Awe is considered a [[wikipedia:Peak_experience|peak experience]] according to Maslow [x] {{ic|Also consider awe as an emotion}}, (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Awe and well-being|Awe and well-being]]) ** Experiencing awe = indicator of reaching highest level of self-actualisation and self-transcendence) * Awe can have positive individual and community effects (pro-social behaviour) {{ic|The topic is not just about awe - it is about the effect of awe on self-perception}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is awe as an emotion and experience? * How does the experience of awe diminish the self? * What is the effect of a diminished sense of self? * How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we trigger or experience everyday moments of awe? * How can the experience of awe be applied for social and individual good?{{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} '''QUESTIONS AND NOTES FOR SELF''' * Where do I fit discussions of the Self in here? * Should I get rid of the physical and conceptual distinction for the headings? Rework to the five appraisals from that one article - [Author's Notes] {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Awe == [[File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|thumb|Figure 2: Plutchik's wheel of emotions, where awe is modelled as a combination of suprise and fear.]] [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] is an emotion that [... (general definition, innate). General overview of the experience. Quick introduction for process and criteria of awe (vastness (stimulus whether conceptual or physical) -> experience of awe as an emotion -> need for accommodation).] - KEY REFERENCE: Keltner and Haidt, 2003: * two appraisals are central in clear cases of awe: perceived vastness and a need for accommodation * Additional appraisals account for variation in the hedoic (pleasure) tone of awe experiences ** threat, beauty, exceptional ability, virtue, and the supernatural * Edwards et al. (2026) define awe to be an emotion elicited from experiencing great vastness that dramaticallt expands a person's frame of reference. * Robert Plutchik -> wheel of emotions, where awe is modelled as a combination of suprise and fear, see Figure 2. ** see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]] === Elicitors of awe === Might be wise to include a figure here of elicitors as they are hard to categorise and often overlap. ''[Authors Note: Perhaps splitting into physical vastness and conceptual vastness is the wrong step here? Feels hard to slot the above appraisals and elicitors into the below binary, please advise!]'' ==== Vastness ==== * "Although the term “vastness” implies great physical size, in this usage “vast” describes any stimulus that challenges one's accustomed frame of reference in some dimension ** A stimulus may convey vastness in physical space, in time, in number, in complexity of detail, in ability, even in volume of human experience. *** For example, one may experience a sense of vastness in a mathematical equation, not because the equation is literally long, but because of the vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. ** What is critical is that the stimulus dramatically expands the observer's usual frame of reference in some dimension or domain." (Shiota et al., 2007) ===== Physical vastness ===== ''[Author's Note: Nature, Space, might be wise to mention depth perception studies here. Why particuarly these things. Work in thesis on space video here.]'' * The overview effect = witnessing Earth from the atmosphere = life-altering degree of awe -> transcendent -> complete breakdown of perception of borders and countries = feeling of connectedness (Yaden et al., 2016) * Eclipses: study that used twitter data (over 2 million users) -> individuals exhibited more awe and expressed less self focused and more pro social, affiliative, humble and collective language * Witnessing natural disasters may induce a state of negatively valenced awe (Chaudhury et al., 2022; Piff et al., 2015) ** Link to heading section 'Effect of awe on the self' -> threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). ===== Conceptual vastness ===== Witnessing other people or learning things, coming of age moments, witnessing things for the first time theories here. Music and virtues act of skills. * Acts of Virtue * Acts of skills * Learning things ** A stimulus may convey vastness in physical space, in time, in number, in complexity of detail, in ability, even in volume of human experience. *** For example, one may experience a sense of vastness in a mathematical equation, not because the equation is literally long, but because of the vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. ** What is critical is that the stimulus dramatically expands the observer's usual frame of reference in some dimension or domain." (Shiota et al., 2007) ====== Psychedelics ====== ''[Author's Note: I feel psychedelics needs its own subsection here as it is particuarly relevant to my applications, and provides a good segue to need for accommodations.]'' * psychedielic-occassioned mystical experience is characterised by profound awe ** small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * psychedelics have been shown to produce enduring positive change across a range of psychological and behavioural outcomes (Hendricks, 2018) via ''(Griffiths et al., 2018; Griffiths, Richards, Johnson, McCann, & Jesse, 2008, Griffiths et al., 2011; Griffiths, Richards, McCann, & Jesse, 2006; Lebedev et al., 2016; MacLean, Johnson, & Griffiths, 2011)'' as well as treatment of depression. ==== Need for accommodation ==== * Awe is defined by Keltner and Haidt as an inability to assimilate an experience into current mental structures. (Keltner and Haidt, 2003) * Accommodation is one of the two ongoing processes (assimilation being the other) in [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]], where existing [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|schemas]] are modified, or even created to deal with a new event or experience (Jean Piaget, {find specific reference}). ** See also: [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] * ''[Authors Note: Insert table of epistimec emotions such as wonder, elevation, sublime, admiration (Keltner and Haidt), not sure of relevance or format]'' ''- [Authors Note: unsure whether I should spend a sub section on schemas or not, or how much explanation should be done for these sorts of fundamental but still unfamiliar to reader concepts'' - Discussion of what it means to require the need for knowledge structures to be updated. == Self == * [[wikipedia:Self|Self]] in philosophy = individual's own being, knowledge and values (and relationship between these attributes ** self is distingushable from others *** ''[Authors Note: have a section later in connectedness how when the self is diminished, the concept of otherness is also diminished -> oneness]'' === Self-perception === [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] = made up of one's self-schemas *possible selves ==== Ego ==== *''[Author's Note: Probably doesn't need it's own heading. Can be discussed with regards to self-perception and ego-death]'' ===== Ego-death ===== * small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * See also [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] = complete loss of subjective self concept === Oneness / Seperation === See Buddhism, see psychedelics, see Connectedness. [''Author's Note: unsure if this should be it's own section, it feels like it should be in the affect of awe on the self section, after speaking on the feeling of connectedness].'' == Effect of awe on the self == ''[Authors Note: This is where we will have a short section on the self (what it means, collection of experiences and stories we tell ourselves, superceding that, buddhist definitions of the self and awareness and appreciating life as tenets, lojong etc.)]'' === Key feelings and effects === * Awe diminishes the sense of self and shifts attention away from individual interests and concerns (Bai et al., 2017) * Differences among individuas for experiencing awe: ** higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 ** study found that individuals from higher classes reported less frequently experiencing awe compared to individuals from lower social classes (Piff & Moskowitz, 2017). [''Author's Note: I really like this fact and want to include it somewhere but not sure where to include].'' ** not only religious but also non-religious individuals report experiencing awe; *** however, religious onementions explicitly religious or life-or-death events while non-religious one talks about the wonder of nature (Preston & Shin, 2017). **** simulation of viewing Earth from the space, individuals who experienced awe were non-religious (Reinerman-Jones, Sollins, Gallagher, & Janz, 2013). ==== Smallness ==== * study found that smallness was experienced but not insignificance (Edwards, et al. 2025) ** awe shrinks the self without making the individual feel insignificant ==== Profoundness ==== * [x] discuss significance of emotion * the present moment ** forced presence *time dilation (what article was that??) ==== Connectedness ==== * seeking connection after feelings of smallness * higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 ===== Perception of the self ===== * presenting more balanced view of personal strengths and weaknesses * increased acknowledgment of outside forces in one's accomplishments (Stellar et al., 2018) * epistemic humility = measures of wisdom and moral character * positive self-transcendent experiences can be utilised as driving force for better understanding one's decision and perspectives impact others (Kim et al., 2023) === Behavioural changes === * Link back to need for accommodation and changes [x]. Link back to motivation content [x] ==== Pro-social behaviour ==== [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] refers to social behaviours that benefit everyone. * How does this relate back to the need for accommodation? [x] === Failures to accommodate === * Awe is more specifically defined in (Shiota et al. 2007) as an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that overwhelm current mental structures, yet facilitate ''attempts'' at accommodation. ** Segue intro into failures to accommodate, threat-based awe, etc ==== Fear ==== * Keltner and Haidt (2003) argued that awe is situated on the boundary of fear * Threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt) - flavour of the stimulus * See Nihilism ==== Trauma ==== [x] * failure to accommodate threat-based awe experienes can result in trauma == Current applications == * experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) * (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]'' === Wellbeing === ''[Author's Note: find additional references for five processes and explain in paragraph]'' * experiences in nature, moved by mysic, psychedelics, spiritual contemplation promote mental health? via awe (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) ** awe engages five processes *** shifts in neurophysiology *** diminished focus on self *** increased prosocail realtionality *** greater social integration *** heightened sense of meaning (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) === Therapies === *intro [x] ==== Existensial{{sp}} Therapy ==== * death is a main consideration in existential thought (Yalom, 2008) * death awareness reults in anxiety which can be experienced in two different ways: ** a) an overwhelming anxiety (dread or depression) resulting in various dysfunctional behaviors and moodstates associated with the choice of escape from it ** b) an energizing source that leads to live life fully as much as possible. (Furman, 2003) ** awe can be considered as a possible way of dealing with death anxiety (Schenider, 2021) ===== Gestalt ===== * here and now * reliving past experiences in the present moment to reexperience and attempt to accommodate * (Corey, 2009) ==== Psychedelic therapies ==== * evidence [x] * how related to awe [x] == Conclusion == * Awe diminishes the self via the small self affect etc. * Awe requires perceived vastness (stimulus from nature, or learning or challenge to mental schema), and a need for accommodation * Diminishing the self results in pro-social behaviour * Awe and its resulting experience of self-transcendent emotions can be utilised for therapies and healing * Awe promotes wellbeing and underscores other positive stimuli such as psychedelics or spiritual contemplation and learning * Focus Question: [What is awe as an emotion and experience?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe is made up of perceived vastness and a need for an accommodation that often leaves individuals with a smaller sense of self, connectedness and purpose/increased meaning] * Focus Question: [How does the experience of awe diminish the self?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe diminishes the self mostly through the small-self construct, as well as diminishing the ego and seperatedness feeling] * Focus Question: [What is the effect of a diminished sense of self?] ... Prelimary answer: [diminished sense of self results in prosocial behaviour (broad) need to specify what behaviours] * Focus Question: [How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we trigger or experience everyday moments of awe?] ** Prelimary answer: [experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) ** (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]]'' * Focus Question: [How can the experience of awe be applied for social and individual good?] ... Prelimary answer: [therapy, wellbeing, psycotherapy, deliberating triggering awe experiences for healing] * ''[Authors Note: summarise topic, significance, how psych science contributes to understanding and addressing topic, practical take home messages, 150-330 words, mirror in [[#Overview|Overview]]]'' ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Arvidson, P. S. (2022). Reverent Awe and the Field of Consciousness. Human Studies, 45(3), 397-416. Bai, Y., Maruskin, L. A., Chen, S., Gordon, A. M., Stellar, J. E., McNeil, G. D., Peng, K., & Keltner, D. (2017). Awe, the diminished self, and collective engagement: Universals and cultural variations in the small self. Journal of personality and social psychology, 113(2), 185. Cavallaro, R. M., Church, M. H., Giddens, B. J., & Rivera, G. N. (2025). Complex effects of awe on meaning in life and true self-knowledge. Self and Identity, 24(3), 189-216. Chen, S. K., & Mongrain, M. (2021). Awe and the interconnected self. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 16(6), 770-778. Edwards, M. E., Mendenhall, K., Sanders, C., & King, L. A. (2026). Small but still significant: Awe and the self. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 52(9), 3032-3045. Furman, R. (2003). Poetry therapy and existential practice. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 30(4), 195-200. Gao, R. (2026). From awe to pro-environmental behavior-a meta-analysis of the relationship between awe and pro-environmental behavior. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 21(5), 958-970. Goldy, S. P., Jones, N. M., & Piff, P. K. (2022). The social effects of an awesome solar eclipse. Psychological Science, 33(9), 1452-1462. Hendricks, P. S. (2018). Awe: a putative mechanism underlying the effects of classic psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy. International Review of Psychiatry, 30(4), 331-342. Jiang, T., Hicks, J. A., Yuan, W., Yin, Y., Needy, L., & Vess, M. (2024). The unique nature and psychosocial implications of awe. Nature Reviews Psychology, 3(7), 475-488. Jiang, T., & Sedikides, C. (2022). Awe motivates authentic-self pursuit via self-transcendence: Implications for prosociality. Journal of personality and social psychology, 123(3), 576. Keltner, D., & Haidt, J. (2003). Approaching awe, a moral, spiritual, and aesthetic emotion. Cognition and emotion, 17(2), 297-314. Kim, Y., Nusbaum, H. C., & Yang, F. (2023). Going beyond ourselves: The role of self-transcendent experiences in wisdom. Cognition and Emotion, 37(1), 98-116. Li, R., Hou, Z., Zhang, C., Xu, Q., & Nie, A. (2024). A meta-analysis examining the relationship between awe and prosocial behavior. Current Psychology, 43(29), 24702-24711. Lucht, A., & van Schie, H. T. (2024). The evolutionary function of awe: A review and integrated model of seven theoretical perspectives. Emotion Review, 16(1), 46-63. Maslow, A. H. (1964). Religions, values, and peak-experiences. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press. McMann, G. B. (2025). Role of Vastness and Accommodation of Awe in Personal Change and Growth Grand Canyon University]. Perez, K. A., Lench, H. C., Thompson, C. G., & North, S. (2023). Experimental elicitations of awe: A meta-analysis. Cognition and Emotion, 37(1), 18-33. Piff, P. K., Dietze, P., Feinberg, M., Stancato, D. M., & Keltner, D. (2015). Awe, the small self, and prosocial behavior. Journal of personality and social psychology, 108(6), 883. Piff, P. K., Singhal, I., & Bai, Y. (2025). Bridging me to we: Awe is a conduit to cohesive collectives. Current Opinion in Psychology, 62, 101979. Rivera, G. N., Vess, M., Hicks, J. A., & Routledge, C. (2020). Awe and meaning: Elucidating complex effects of awe experiences on meaning in life. European Journal of Social Psychology, 50(2), 392-405. Shiota, M. N., Keltner, D., & Mossman, A. (2007). The nature of awe: Elicitors, appraisals, and effects on self-concept. Cognition and Emotion, 21(5), 944-963. Shukla, S. (2021). Indian classical music, awe, and healing. The Humanistic Psychologist, 49(3), 355. Stellar, J. E., Gordon, A., Anderson, C. L., Piff, P. K., McNeil, G. D., & Keltner, D. (2018). Awe and humility. Journal of personality and social psychology, 114(2), 258. Sturm, V. E., Datta, S., Roy, A. R., Sible, I. J., Kosik, E. L., Veziris, C. R., Chow, T. E., Morris, N. A., Neuhaus, J., & Kramer, J. H. (2022). Big smile, small self: Awe walks promote prosocial positive emotions in older adults. Emotion, 22(5), 1044. Tanhan, F., DENİZ, M., & Akgün, G. (2022). Awe Therapy: Fundamentals, Formulation and Usage Area Awe Terapi: Temelleri, Formülasyonu ve Kullanım Alanları. Turkish Psychological Counseling and Guidance Journal, 12(65). Tanhan, F., Deniz, M. E., & Akgün, G. E. (2022). Awe Therapy: Fundamentals, formulation and usage area. Turkish Psychological Counseling and Guidance Journal, 12(65), 300-319. Yaden, D. B., Iwry, J., Slack, K. J., Eichstaedt, J. C., Zhao, Y., Vaillant, G. E., & Newberg, A. B. (2016). The overview effect: Awe and self-transcendent experience in space flight. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice, 3(1), 1. Yalom, I. D. (2008). Staring at the sun: Overcoming the terror of death. The Humanistic Psychologist, 36(3-4), 283. }} ''[Authors Note: what about italicisation for the references / article titles (APA?]'' ==External links== * [https://self-transcendence.org/theory Self-transendence] (Self-transcendence.org) * [https://fitmind.org/ Ancient wisdom + modern science] (Fitmind.org) * [https://therapyintampa.com/the-neuroscience-of-awe-how-shared-wonder-supports-mental-health/ The Neuroscience of Awe: How Shared Wonder Supports Mental Health] (North Star Therapy) * Ted Talk Neuroscience video [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Awe]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] n3ddzdzii9j7rznbuyy3j0n6hwod88g 2841810 2841808 2026-10-21T04:21:26Z Amirrorslens 3106278 /* Ego */ removed ego heading in attempt to simplify 2841810 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Awe and the diminished self:<br>How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. NASA Hubble Ultra Deep Field]] ; Scenario Leo walks into the desert late at night and is taken aback at the night sky above him. Being alone in the vast and flat plane lets him really perceive the vastness of the stars and leaves him feeling very present and aware of his smallness in comparison. This overwhelming feeling leaves Leo seeking connection with others, and a new found sense of purpose. * [Author Note: REPLACE WITH A REAL CASE STUDY - such as near death experience (The Good Place coded) (Might modify scenario to incude this aspect similar to the purple feature box on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Motivation for using AI companions|this page]])] {{RoundBoxBottom}} '''''Author Note: KEY PSYCH SCIENCE''''' {{ic|Move this detail into subsequent sections}} * ''Maslow and Carl Rogers -> self-concept and peak experiences'' * ''KEY PIECE OF LITERATURE: Keltner and Haidt: Awe 2003'' *''Jean Piaget - Cognitive Development'' * Awe is considered a [[wikipedia:Peak_experience|peak experience]] according to Maslow [x] {{ic|Also consider awe as an emotion}}, (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Awe and well-being|Awe and well-being]]) ** Experiencing awe = indicator of reaching highest level of self-actualisation and self-transcendence) * Awe can have positive individual and community effects (pro-social behaviour) {{ic|The topic is not just about awe - it is about the effect of awe on self-perception}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is awe as an emotion and experience? * How does the experience of awe diminish the self? * What is the effect of a diminished sense of self? * How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we trigger or experience everyday moments of awe? * How can the experience of awe be applied for social and individual good?{{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} '''QUESTIONS AND NOTES FOR SELF''' * Where do I fit discussions of the Self in here? * Should I get rid of the physical and conceptual distinction for the headings? Rework to the five appraisals from that one article - [Author's Notes] {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Awe == [[File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|thumb|Figure 2: Plutchik's wheel of emotions, where awe is modelled as a combination of suprise and fear.]] [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] is an emotion that [... (general definition, innate). General overview of the experience. Quick introduction for process and criteria of awe (vastness (stimulus whether conceptual or physical) -> experience of awe as an emotion -> need for accommodation).] - KEY REFERENCE: Keltner and Haidt, 2003: * two appraisals are central in clear cases of awe: perceived vastness and a need for accommodation * Additional appraisals account for variation in the hedoic (pleasure) tone of awe experiences ** threat, beauty, exceptional ability, virtue, and the supernatural * Edwards et al. (2026) define awe to be an emotion elicited from experiencing great vastness that dramaticallt expands a person's frame of reference. * Robert Plutchik -> wheel of emotions, where awe is modelled as a combination of suprise and fear, see Figure 2. ** see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]] === Elicitors of awe === Might be wise to include a figure here of elicitors as they are hard to categorise and often overlap. ''[Authors Note: Perhaps splitting into physical vastness and conceptual vastness is the wrong step here? Feels hard to slot the above appraisals and elicitors into the below binary, please advise!]'' ==== Vastness ==== * "Although the term “vastness” implies great physical size, in this usage “vast” describes any stimulus that challenges one's accustomed frame of reference in some dimension ** A stimulus may convey vastness in physical space, in time, in number, in complexity of detail, in ability, even in volume of human experience. *** For example, one may experience a sense of vastness in a mathematical equation, not because the equation is literally long, but because of the vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. ** What is critical is that the stimulus dramatically expands the observer's usual frame of reference in some dimension or domain." (Shiota et al., 2007) ===== Physical vastness ===== ''[Author's Note: Nature, Space, might be wise to mention depth perception studies here. Why particuarly these things. Work in thesis on space video here.]'' * The overview effect = witnessing Earth from the atmosphere = life-altering degree of awe -> transcendent -> complete breakdown of perception of borders and countries = feeling of connectedness (Yaden et al., 2016) * Eclipses: study that used twitter data (over 2 million users) -> individuals exhibited more awe and expressed less self focused and more pro social, affiliative, humble and collective language * Witnessing natural disasters may induce a state of negatively valenced awe (Chaudhury et al., 2022; Piff et al., 2015) ** Link to heading section 'Effect of awe on the self' -> threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). ===== Conceptual vastness ===== Witnessing other people or learning things, coming of age moments, witnessing things for the first time theories here. Music and virtues act of skills. * Acts of Virtue * Acts of skills * Learning things ** A stimulus may convey vastness in physical space, in time, in number, in complexity of detail, in ability, even in volume of human experience. *** For example, one may experience a sense of vastness in a mathematical equation, not because the equation is literally long, but because of the vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. ** What is critical is that the stimulus dramatically expands the observer's usual frame of reference in some dimension or domain." (Shiota et al., 2007) ====== Psychedelics ====== ''[Author's Note: I feel psychedelics needs its own subsection here as it is particuarly relevant to my applications, and provides a good segue to need for accommodations.]'' * psychedielic-occassioned mystical experience is characterised by profound awe ** small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * psychedelics have been shown to produce enduring positive change across a range of psychological and behavioural outcomes (Hendricks, 2018) via ''(Griffiths et al., 2018; Griffiths, Richards, Johnson, McCann, & Jesse, 2008, Griffiths et al., 2011; Griffiths, Richards, McCann, & Jesse, 2006; Lebedev et al., 2016; MacLean, Johnson, & Griffiths, 2011)'' as well as treatment of depression. ==== Need for accommodation ==== * Awe is defined by Keltner and Haidt as an inability to assimilate an experience into current mental structures. (Keltner and Haidt, 2003) * Accommodation is one of the two ongoing processes (assimilation being the other) in [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]], where existing [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|schemas]] are modified, or even created to deal with a new event or experience (Jean Piaget, {find specific reference}). ** See also: [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] * ''[Authors Note: Insert table of epistimec emotions such as wonder, elevation, sublime, admiration (Keltner and Haidt), not sure of relevance or format]'' ''- [Authors Note: unsure whether I should spend a sub section on schemas or not, or how much explanation should be done for these sorts of fundamental but still unfamiliar to reader concepts'' - Discussion of what it means to require the need for knowledge structures to be updated. == Self == * [[wikipedia:Self|Self]] in philosophy = individual's own being, knowledge and values (and relationship between these attributes ** self is distingushable from others *** ''[Authors Note: have a section later in connectedness how when the self is diminished, the concept of otherness is also diminished -> oneness]'' === Self-perception === [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] = made up of one's self-schemas *possible selves ===== Ego-death ===== * small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * See also [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] = complete loss of subjective self concept === Oneness / Seperation === See Buddhism, see psychedelics, see Connectedness. [''Author's Note: unsure if this should be it's own section, it feels like it should be in the affect of awe on the self section, after speaking on the feeling of connectedness].'' == Effect of awe on the self == ''[Authors Note: This is where we will have a short section on the self (what it means, collection of experiences and stories we tell ourselves, superceding that, buddhist definitions of the self and awareness and appreciating life as tenets, lojong etc.)]'' === Key feelings and effects === * Awe diminishes the sense of self and shifts attention away from individual interests and concerns (Bai et al., 2017) * Differences among individuas for experiencing awe: ** higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 ** study found that individuals from higher classes reported less frequently experiencing awe compared to individuals from lower social classes (Piff & Moskowitz, 2017). [''Author's Note: I really like this fact and want to include it somewhere but not sure where to include].'' ** not only religious but also non-religious individuals report experiencing awe; *** however, religious onementions explicitly religious or life-or-death events while non-religious one talks about the wonder of nature (Preston & Shin, 2017). **** simulation of viewing Earth from the space, individuals who experienced awe were non-religious (Reinerman-Jones, Sollins, Gallagher, & Janz, 2013). ==== Smallness ==== * study found that smallness was experienced but not insignificance (Edwards, et al. 2025) ** awe shrinks the self without making the individual feel insignificant ==== Profoundness ==== * [x] discuss significance of emotion * the present moment ** forced presence *time dilation (what article was that??) ==== Connectedness ==== * seeking connection after feelings of smallness * higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 ===== Perception of the self ===== * presenting more balanced view of personal strengths and weaknesses * increased acknowledgment of outside forces in one's accomplishments (Stellar et al., 2018) * epistemic humility = measures of wisdom and moral character * positive self-transcendent experiences can be utilised as driving force for better understanding one's decision and perspectives impact others (Kim et al., 2023) === Behavioural changes === * Link back to need for accommodation and changes [x]. Link back to motivation content [x] ==== Pro-social behaviour ==== [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] refers to social behaviours that benefit everyone. * How does this relate back to the need for accommodation? [x] === Failures to accommodate === * Awe is more specifically defined in (Shiota et al. 2007) as an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that overwhelm current mental structures, yet facilitate ''attempts'' at accommodation. ** Segue intro into failures to accommodate, threat-based awe, etc ==== Fear ==== * Keltner and Haidt (2003) argued that awe is situated on the boundary of fear * Threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt) - flavour of the stimulus * See Nihilism ==== Trauma ==== [x] * failure to accommodate threat-based awe experienes can result in trauma == Current applications == * experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) * (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]'' === Wellbeing === ''[Author's Note: find additional references for five processes and explain in paragraph]'' * experiences in nature, moved by mysic, psychedelics, spiritual contemplation promote mental health? via awe (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) ** awe engages five processes *** shifts in neurophysiology *** diminished focus on self *** increased prosocail realtionality *** greater social integration *** heightened sense of meaning (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) === Therapies === *intro [x] ==== Existensial{{sp}} Therapy ==== * death is a main consideration in existential thought (Yalom, 2008) * death awareness reults in anxiety which can be experienced in two different ways: ** a) an overwhelming anxiety (dread or depression) resulting in various dysfunctional behaviors and moodstates associated with the choice of escape from it ** b) an energizing source that leads to live life fully as much as possible. (Furman, 2003) ** awe can be considered as a possible way of dealing with death anxiety (Schenider, 2021) ===== Gestalt ===== * here and now * reliving past experiences in the present moment to reexperience and attempt to accommodate * (Corey, 2009) ==== Psychedelic therapies ==== * evidence [x] * how related to awe [x] == Conclusion == * Awe diminishes the self via the small self affect etc. * Awe requires perceived vastness (stimulus from nature, or learning or challenge to mental schema), and a need for accommodation * Diminishing the self results in pro-social behaviour * Awe and its resulting experience of self-transcendent emotions can be utilised for therapies and healing * Awe promotes wellbeing and underscores other positive stimuli such as psychedelics or spiritual contemplation and learning * Focus Question: [What is awe as an emotion and experience?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe is made up of perceived vastness and a need for an accommodation that often leaves individuals with a smaller sense of self, connectedness and purpose/increased meaning] * Focus Question: [How does the experience of awe diminish the self?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe diminishes the self mostly through the small-self construct, as well as diminishing the ego and seperatedness feeling] * Focus Question: [What is the effect of a diminished sense of self?] ... Prelimary answer: [diminished sense of self results in prosocial behaviour (broad) need to specify what behaviours] * Focus Question: [How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we trigger or experience everyday moments of awe?] ** Prelimary answer: [experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) ** (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]]'' * Focus Question: [How can the experience of awe be applied for social and individual good?] ... Prelimary answer: [therapy, wellbeing, psycotherapy, deliberating triggering awe experiences for healing] * ''[Authors Note: summarise topic, significance, how psych science contributes to understanding and addressing topic, practical take home messages, 150-330 words, mirror in [[#Overview|Overview]]]'' ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Arvidson, P. S. (2022). Reverent Awe and the Field of Consciousness. Human Studies, 45(3), 397-416. Bai, Y., Maruskin, L. A., Chen, S., Gordon, A. M., Stellar, J. E., McNeil, G. D., Peng, K., & Keltner, D. (2017). Awe, the diminished self, and collective engagement: Universals and cultural variations in the small self. Journal of personality and social psychology, 113(2), 185. Cavallaro, R. M., Church, M. H., Giddens, B. J., & Rivera, G. N. (2025). Complex effects of awe on meaning in life and true self-knowledge. Self and Identity, 24(3), 189-216. Chen, S. K., & Mongrain, M. (2021). Awe and the interconnected self. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 16(6), 770-778. Edwards, M. E., Mendenhall, K., Sanders, C., & King, L. A. (2026). Small but still significant: Awe and the self. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 52(9), 3032-3045. Furman, R. (2003). Poetry therapy and existential practice. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 30(4), 195-200. Gao, R. (2026). From awe to pro-environmental behavior-a meta-analysis of the relationship between awe and pro-environmental behavior. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 21(5), 958-970. Goldy, S. P., Jones, N. M., & Piff, P. K. (2022). The social effects of an awesome solar eclipse. Psychological Science, 33(9), 1452-1462. Hendricks, P. S. (2018). Awe: a putative mechanism underlying the effects of classic psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy. International Review of Psychiatry, 30(4), 331-342. Jiang, T., Hicks, J. A., Yuan, W., Yin, Y., Needy, L., & Vess, M. (2024). The unique nature and psychosocial implications of awe. Nature Reviews Psychology, 3(7), 475-488. Jiang, T., & Sedikides, C. (2022). Awe motivates authentic-self pursuit via self-transcendence: Implications for prosociality. Journal of personality and social psychology, 123(3), 576. Keltner, D., & Haidt, J. (2003). Approaching awe, a moral, spiritual, and aesthetic emotion. Cognition and emotion, 17(2), 297-314. Kim, Y., Nusbaum, H. C., & Yang, F. (2023). Going beyond ourselves: The role of self-transcendent experiences in wisdom. Cognition and Emotion, 37(1), 98-116. Li, R., Hou, Z., Zhang, C., Xu, Q., & Nie, A. (2024). A meta-analysis examining the relationship between awe and prosocial behavior. Current Psychology, 43(29), 24702-24711. Lucht, A., & van Schie, H. T. (2024). The evolutionary function of awe: A review and integrated model of seven theoretical perspectives. Emotion Review, 16(1), 46-63. Maslow, A. H. (1964). Religions, values, and peak-experiences. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press. McMann, G. B. (2025). Role of Vastness and Accommodation of Awe in Personal Change and Growth Grand Canyon University]. Perez, K. A., Lench, H. C., Thompson, C. G., & North, S. (2023). Experimental elicitations of awe: A meta-analysis. Cognition and Emotion, 37(1), 18-33. Piff, P. K., Dietze, P., Feinberg, M., Stancato, D. M., & Keltner, D. (2015). Awe, the small self, and prosocial behavior. Journal of personality and social psychology, 108(6), 883. Piff, P. K., Singhal, I., & Bai, Y. (2025). Bridging me to we: Awe is a conduit to cohesive collectives. Current Opinion in Psychology, 62, 101979. Rivera, G. N., Vess, M., Hicks, J. A., & Routledge, C. (2020). Awe and meaning: Elucidating complex effects of awe experiences on meaning in life. European Journal of Social Psychology, 50(2), 392-405. Shiota, M. N., Keltner, D., & Mossman, A. (2007). The nature of awe: Elicitors, appraisals, and effects on self-concept. Cognition and Emotion, 21(5), 944-963. Shukla, S. (2021). Indian classical music, awe, and healing. The Humanistic Psychologist, 49(3), 355. Stellar, J. E., Gordon, A., Anderson, C. L., Piff, P. K., McNeil, G. D., & Keltner, D. (2018). Awe and humility. Journal of personality and social psychology, 114(2), 258. Sturm, V. E., Datta, S., Roy, A. R., Sible, I. J., Kosik, E. L., Veziris, C. R., Chow, T. E., Morris, N. A., Neuhaus, J., & Kramer, J. H. (2022). Big smile, small self: Awe walks promote prosocial positive emotions in older adults. Emotion, 22(5), 1044. Tanhan, F., DENİZ, M., & Akgün, G. (2022). Awe Therapy: Fundamentals, Formulation and Usage Area Awe Terapi: Temelleri, Formülasyonu ve Kullanım Alanları. Turkish Psychological Counseling and Guidance Journal, 12(65). Tanhan, F., Deniz, M. E., & Akgün, G. E. (2022). Awe Therapy: Fundamentals, formulation and usage area. Turkish Psychological Counseling and Guidance Journal, 12(65), 300-319. Yaden, D. B., Iwry, J., Slack, K. J., Eichstaedt, J. C., Zhao, Y., Vaillant, G. E., & Newberg, A. B. (2016). The overview effect: Awe and self-transcendent experience in space flight. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice, 3(1), 1. Yalom, I. D. (2008). Staring at the sun: Overcoming the terror of death. The Humanistic Psychologist, 36(3-4), 283. }} ''[Authors Note: what about italicisation for the references / article titles (APA?]'' ==External links== * [https://self-transcendence.org/theory Self-transendence] (Self-transcendence.org) * [https://fitmind.org/ Ancient wisdom + modern science] (Fitmind.org) * [https://therapyintampa.com/the-neuroscience-of-awe-how-shared-wonder-supports-mental-health/ The Neuroscience of Awe: How Shared Wonder Supports Mental Health] (North Star Therapy) * Ted Talk Neuroscience video [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Awe]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] azg7vki6mhqk4clitol80fz0xvwx2xf 2841811 2841810 2026-10-21T04:22:53Z Amirrorslens 3106278 /* Psychedelics */ making heading level 2, need for accommodation heading upgraded to level 1 2841811 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Awe and the diminished self:<br>How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. NASA Hubble Ultra Deep Field]] ; Scenario Leo walks into the desert late at night and is taken aback at the night sky above him. Being alone in the vast and flat plane lets him really perceive the vastness of the stars and leaves him feeling very present and aware of his smallness in comparison. This overwhelming feeling leaves Leo seeking connection with others, and a new found sense of purpose. * [Author Note: REPLACE WITH A REAL CASE STUDY - such as near death experience (The Good Place coded) (Might modify scenario to incude this aspect similar to the purple feature box on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Motivation for using AI companions|this page]])] {{RoundBoxBottom}} '''''Author Note: KEY PSYCH SCIENCE''''' {{ic|Move this detail into subsequent sections}} * ''Maslow and Carl Rogers -> self-concept and peak experiences'' * ''KEY PIECE OF LITERATURE: Keltner and Haidt: Awe 2003'' *''Jean Piaget - Cognitive Development'' * Awe is considered a [[wikipedia:Peak_experience|peak experience]] according to Maslow [x] {{ic|Also consider awe as an emotion}}, (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Awe and well-being|Awe and well-being]]) ** Experiencing awe = indicator of reaching highest level of self-actualisation and self-transcendence) * Awe can have positive individual and community effects (pro-social behaviour) {{ic|The topic is not just about awe - it is about the effect of awe on self-perception}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is awe as an emotion and experience? * How does the experience of awe diminish the self? * What is the effect of a diminished sense of self? * How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we trigger or experience everyday moments of awe? * How can the experience of awe be applied for social and individual good?{{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} '''QUESTIONS AND NOTES FOR SELF''' * Where do I fit discussions of the Self in here? * Should I get rid of the physical and conceptual distinction for the headings? Rework to the five appraisals from that one article - [Author's Notes] {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Awe == [[File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|thumb|Figure 2: Plutchik's wheel of emotions, where awe is modelled as a combination of suprise and fear.]] [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] is an emotion that [... (general definition, innate). General overview of the experience. Quick introduction for process and criteria of awe (vastness (stimulus whether conceptual or physical) -> experience of awe as an emotion -> need for accommodation).] - KEY REFERENCE: Keltner and Haidt, 2003: * two appraisals are central in clear cases of awe: perceived vastness and a need for accommodation * Additional appraisals account for variation in the hedoic (pleasure) tone of awe experiences ** threat, beauty, exceptional ability, virtue, and the supernatural * Edwards et al. (2026) define awe to be an emotion elicited from experiencing great vastness that dramaticallt expands a person's frame of reference. * Robert Plutchik -> wheel of emotions, where awe is modelled as a combination of suprise and fear, see Figure 2. ** see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]] === Elicitors of awe === Might be wise to include a figure here of elicitors as they are hard to categorise and often overlap. ''[Authors Note: Perhaps splitting into physical vastness and conceptual vastness is the wrong step here? Feels hard to slot the above appraisals and elicitors into the below binary, please advise!]'' ==== Vastness ==== * "Although the term “vastness” implies great physical size, in this usage “vast” describes any stimulus that challenges one's accustomed frame of reference in some dimension ** A stimulus may convey vastness in physical space, in time, in number, in complexity of detail, in ability, even in volume of human experience. *** For example, one may experience a sense of vastness in a mathematical equation, not because the equation is literally long, but because of the vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. ** What is critical is that the stimulus dramatically expands the observer's usual frame of reference in some dimension or domain." (Shiota et al., 2007) ===== Physical vastness ===== ''[Author's Note: Nature, Space, might be wise to mention depth perception studies here. Why particuarly these things. Work in thesis on space video here.]'' * The overview effect = witnessing Earth from the atmosphere = life-altering degree of awe -> transcendent -> complete breakdown of perception of borders and countries = feeling of connectedness (Yaden et al., 2016) * Eclipses: study that used twitter data (over 2 million users) -> individuals exhibited more awe and expressed less self focused and more pro social, affiliative, humble and collective language * Witnessing natural disasters may induce a state of negatively valenced awe (Chaudhury et al., 2022; Piff et al., 2015) ** Link to heading section 'Effect of awe on the self' -> threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). ===== Conceptual vastness ===== Witnessing other people or learning things, coming of age moments, witnessing things for the first time theories here. Music and virtues act of skills. * Acts of Virtue * Acts of skills * Learning things ** A stimulus may convey vastness in physical space, in time, in number, in complexity of detail, in ability, even in volume of human experience. *** For example, one may experience a sense of vastness in a mathematical equation, not because the equation is literally long, but because of the vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. ** What is critical is that the stimulus dramatically expands the observer's usual frame of reference in some dimension or domain." (Shiota et al., 2007) ==== Psychedelics ==== ''[Author's Note: I feel psychedelics needs its own subsection here as it is particuarly relevant to my applications, and provides a good segue to need for accommodations.]'' * psychedielic-occassioned mystical experience is characterised by profound awe ** small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * psychedelics have been shown to produce enduring positive change across a range of psychological and behavioural outcomes (Hendricks, 2018) via ''(Griffiths et al., 2018; Griffiths, Richards, Johnson, McCann, & Jesse, 2008, Griffiths et al., 2011; Griffiths, Richards, McCann, & Jesse, 2006; Lebedev et al., 2016; MacLean, Johnson, & Griffiths, 2011)'' as well as treatment of depression. == Need for accommodation == * Awe is defined by Keltner and Haidt as an inability to assimilate an experience into current mental structures. (Keltner and Haidt, 2003) * Accommodation is one of the two ongoing processes (assimilation being the other) in [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]], where existing [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|schemas]] are modified, or even created to deal with a new event or experience (Jean Piaget, {find specific reference}). ** See also: [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] * ''[Authors Note: Insert table of epistimec emotions such as wonder, elevation, sublime, admiration (Keltner and Haidt), not sure of relevance or format]'' ''- [Authors Note: unsure whether I should spend a sub section on schemas or not, or how much explanation should be done for these sorts of fundamental but still unfamiliar to reader concepts'' - Discussion of what it means to require the need for knowledge structures to be updated. == Self == * [[wikipedia:Self|Self]] in philosophy = individual's own being, knowledge and values (and relationship between these attributes ** self is distingushable from others *** ''[Authors Note: have a section later in connectedness how when the self is diminished, the concept of otherness is also diminished -> oneness]'' === Self-perception === [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] = made up of one's self-schemas *possible selves ===== Ego-death ===== * small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * See also [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] = complete loss of subjective self concept === Oneness / Seperation === See Buddhism, see psychedelics, see Connectedness. [''Author's Note: unsure if this should be it's own section, it feels like it should be in the affect of awe on the self section, after speaking on the feeling of connectedness].'' == Effect of awe on the self == ''[Authors Note: This is where we will have a short section on the self (what it means, collection of experiences and stories we tell ourselves, superceding that, buddhist definitions of the self and awareness and appreciating life as tenets, lojong etc.)]'' === Key feelings and effects === * Awe diminishes the sense of self and shifts attention away from individual interests and concerns (Bai et al., 2017) * Differences among individuas for experiencing awe: ** higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 ** study found that individuals from higher classes reported less frequently experiencing awe compared to individuals from lower social classes (Piff & Moskowitz, 2017). [''Author's Note: I really like this fact and want to include it somewhere but not sure where to include].'' ** not only religious but also non-religious individuals report experiencing awe; *** however, religious onementions explicitly religious or life-or-death events while non-religious one talks about the wonder of nature (Preston & Shin, 2017). **** simulation of viewing Earth from the space, individuals who experienced awe were non-religious (Reinerman-Jones, Sollins, Gallagher, & Janz, 2013). ==== Smallness ==== * study found that smallness was experienced but not insignificance (Edwards, et al. 2025) ** awe shrinks the self without making the individual feel insignificant ==== Profoundness ==== * [x] discuss significance of emotion * the present moment ** forced presence *time dilation (what article was that??) ==== Connectedness ==== * seeking connection after feelings of smallness * higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 ===== Perception of the self ===== * presenting more balanced view of personal strengths and weaknesses * increased acknowledgment of outside forces in one's accomplishments (Stellar et al., 2018) * epistemic humility = measures of wisdom and moral character * positive self-transcendent experiences can be utilised as driving force for better understanding one's decision and perspectives impact others (Kim et al., 2023) === Behavioural changes === * Link back to need for accommodation and changes [x]. Link back to motivation content [x] ==== Pro-social behaviour ==== [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] refers to social behaviours that benefit everyone. * How does this relate back to the need for accommodation? [x] === Failures to accommodate === * Awe is more specifically defined in (Shiota et al. 2007) as an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that overwhelm current mental structures, yet facilitate ''attempts'' at accommodation. ** Segue intro into failures to accommodate, threat-based awe, etc ==== Fear ==== * Keltner and Haidt (2003) argued that awe is situated on the boundary of fear * Threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt) - flavour of the stimulus * See Nihilism ==== Trauma ==== [x] * failure to accommodate threat-based awe experienes can result in trauma == Current applications == * experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) * (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]'' === Wellbeing === ''[Author's Note: find additional references for five processes and explain in paragraph]'' * experiences in nature, moved by mysic, psychedelics, spiritual contemplation promote mental health? via awe (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) ** awe engages five processes *** shifts in neurophysiology *** diminished focus on self *** increased prosocail realtionality *** greater social integration *** heightened sense of meaning (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) === Therapies === *intro [x] ==== Existensial{{sp}} Therapy ==== * death is a main consideration in existential thought (Yalom, 2008) * death awareness reults in anxiety which can be experienced in two different ways: ** a) an overwhelming anxiety (dread or depression) resulting in various dysfunctional behaviors and moodstates associated with the choice of escape from it ** b) an energizing source that leads to live life fully as much as possible. (Furman, 2003) ** awe can be considered as a possible way of dealing with death anxiety (Schenider, 2021) ===== Gestalt ===== * here and now * reliving past experiences in the present moment to reexperience and attempt to accommodate * (Corey, 2009) ==== Psychedelic therapies ==== * evidence [x] * how related to awe [x] == Conclusion == * Awe diminishes the self via the small self affect etc. * Awe requires perceived vastness (stimulus from nature, or learning or challenge to mental schema), and a need for accommodation * Diminishing the self results in pro-social behaviour * Awe and its resulting experience of self-transcendent emotions can be utilised for therapies and healing * Awe promotes wellbeing and underscores other positive stimuli such as psychedelics or spiritual contemplation and learning * Focus Question: [What is awe as an emotion and experience?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe is made up of perceived vastness and a need for an accommodation that often leaves individuals with a smaller sense of self, connectedness and purpose/increased meaning] * Focus Question: [How does the experience of awe diminish the self?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe diminishes the self mostly through the small-self construct, as well as diminishing the ego and seperatedness feeling] * Focus Question: [What is the effect of a diminished sense of self?] ... Prelimary answer: [diminished sense of self results in prosocial behaviour (broad) need to specify what behaviours] * Focus Question: [How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we trigger or experience everyday moments of awe?] ** Prelimary answer: [experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) ** (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]]'' * Focus Question: [How can the experience of awe be applied for social and individual good?] ... Prelimary answer: [therapy, wellbeing, psycotherapy, deliberating triggering awe experiences for healing] * ''[Authors Note: summarise topic, significance, how psych science contributes to understanding and addressing topic, practical take home messages, 150-330 words, mirror in [[#Overview|Overview]]]'' ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Arvidson, P. S. (2022). Reverent Awe and the Field of Consciousness. Human Studies, 45(3), 397-416. Bai, Y., Maruskin, L. A., Chen, S., Gordon, A. M., Stellar, J. E., McNeil, G. D., Peng, K., & Keltner, D. (2017). Awe, the diminished self, and collective engagement: Universals and cultural variations in the small self. Journal of personality and social psychology, 113(2), 185. Cavallaro, R. M., Church, M. H., Giddens, B. J., & Rivera, G. N. (2025). Complex effects of awe on meaning in life and true self-knowledge. Self and Identity, 24(3), 189-216. Chen, S. K., & Mongrain, M. (2021). Awe and the interconnected self. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 16(6), 770-778. Edwards, M. E., Mendenhall, K., Sanders, C., & King, L. A. (2026). Small but still significant: Awe and the self. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 52(9), 3032-3045. Furman, R. (2003). Poetry therapy and existential practice. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 30(4), 195-200. Gao, R. (2026). From awe to pro-environmental behavior-a meta-analysis of the relationship between awe and pro-environmental behavior. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 21(5), 958-970. Goldy, S. P., Jones, N. M., & Piff, P. K. (2022). The social effects of an awesome solar eclipse. Psychological Science, 33(9), 1452-1462. Hendricks, P. S. (2018). Awe: a putative mechanism underlying the effects of classic psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy. International Review of Psychiatry, 30(4), 331-342. Jiang, T., Hicks, J. A., Yuan, W., Yin, Y., Needy, L., & Vess, M. (2024). The unique nature and psychosocial implications of awe. Nature Reviews Psychology, 3(7), 475-488. Jiang, T., & Sedikides, C. (2022). Awe motivates authentic-self pursuit via self-transcendence: Implications for prosociality. Journal of personality and social psychology, 123(3), 576. Keltner, D., & Haidt, J. (2003). Approaching awe, a moral, spiritual, and aesthetic emotion. Cognition and emotion, 17(2), 297-314. Kim, Y., Nusbaum, H. C., & Yang, F. (2023). Going beyond ourselves: The role of self-transcendent experiences in wisdom. Cognition and Emotion, 37(1), 98-116. Li, R., Hou, Z., Zhang, C., Xu, Q., & Nie, A. (2024). A meta-analysis examining the relationship between awe and prosocial behavior. Current Psychology, 43(29), 24702-24711. Lucht, A., & van Schie, H. T. (2024). The evolutionary function of awe: A review and integrated model of seven theoretical perspectives. Emotion Review, 16(1), 46-63. Maslow, A. H. (1964). Religions, values, and peak-experiences. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press. McMann, G. B. (2025). Role of Vastness and Accommodation of Awe in Personal Change and Growth Grand Canyon University]. Perez, K. A., Lench, H. C., Thompson, C. G., & North, S. (2023). Experimental elicitations of awe: A meta-analysis. Cognition and Emotion, 37(1), 18-33. Piff, P. K., Dietze, P., Feinberg, M., Stancato, D. M., & Keltner, D. (2015). Awe, the small self, and prosocial behavior. Journal of personality and social psychology, 108(6), 883. Piff, P. K., Singhal, I., & Bai, Y. (2025). Bridging me to we: Awe is a conduit to cohesive collectives. Current Opinion in Psychology, 62, 101979. Rivera, G. N., Vess, M., Hicks, J. A., & Routledge, C. (2020). Awe and meaning: Elucidating complex effects of awe experiences on meaning in life. European Journal of Social Psychology, 50(2), 392-405. Shiota, M. N., Keltner, D., & Mossman, A. (2007). The nature of awe: Elicitors, appraisals, and effects on self-concept. Cognition and Emotion, 21(5), 944-963. Shukla, S. (2021). Indian classical music, awe, and healing. The Humanistic Psychologist, 49(3), 355. Stellar, J. E., Gordon, A., Anderson, C. L., Piff, P. K., McNeil, G. D., & Keltner, D. (2018). Awe and humility. Journal of personality and social psychology, 114(2), 258. Sturm, V. E., Datta, S., Roy, A. R., Sible, I. J., Kosik, E. L., Veziris, C. R., Chow, T. E., Morris, N. A., Neuhaus, J., & Kramer, J. H. (2022). Big smile, small self: Awe walks promote prosocial positive emotions in older adults. Emotion, 22(5), 1044. Tanhan, F., DENİZ, M., & Akgün, G. (2022). Awe Therapy: Fundamentals, Formulation and Usage Area Awe Terapi: Temelleri, Formülasyonu ve Kullanım Alanları. Turkish Psychological Counseling and Guidance Journal, 12(65). Tanhan, F., Deniz, M. E., & Akgün, G. E. (2022). Awe Therapy: Fundamentals, formulation and usage area. Turkish Psychological Counseling and Guidance Journal, 12(65), 300-319. Yaden, D. B., Iwry, J., Slack, K. J., Eichstaedt, J. C., Zhao, Y., Vaillant, G. E., & Newberg, A. B. (2016). The overview effect: Awe and self-transcendent experience in space flight. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice, 3(1), 1. Yalom, I. D. (2008). Staring at the sun: Overcoming the terror of death. The Humanistic Psychologist, 36(3-4), 283. }} ''[Authors Note: what about italicisation for the references / article titles (APA?]'' ==External links== * [https://self-transcendence.org/theory Self-transendence] (Self-transcendence.org) * [https://fitmind.org/ Ancient wisdom + modern science] (Fitmind.org) * [https://therapyintampa.com/the-neuroscience-of-awe-how-shared-wonder-supports-mental-health/ The Neuroscience of Awe: How Shared Wonder Supports Mental Health] (North Star Therapy) * Ted Talk Neuroscience video [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Awe]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] thc27k2sntnaud6g3qaaavvk94n3o2y 2841812 2841811 2026-10-21T05:14:42Z Amirrorslens 3106278 Turning awe intro bullet points into sentences 2841812 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Awe and the diminished self:<br>How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. NASA Hubble Ultra Deep Field]] ; Scenario Leo walks into the desert late at night and is taken aback at the night sky above him. Being alone in the vast and flat plane lets him really perceive the vastness of the stars and leaves him feeling very present and aware of his smallness in comparison. This overwhelming feeling leaves Leo seeking connection with others, and a new found sense of purpose. * [Author Note: REPLACE WITH A REAL CASE STUDY - such as near death experience (The Good Place coded) (Might modify scenario to incude this aspect similar to the purple feature box on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Motivation for using AI companions|this page]])] {{RoundBoxBottom}} '''''Author Note: KEY PSYCH SCIENCE''''' {{ic|Move this detail into subsequent sections}} * ''Maslow and Carl Rogers -> self-concept and peak experiences'' * ''KEY PIECE OF LITERATURE: Keltner and Haidt: Awe 2003'' *''Jean Piaget - Cognitive Development'' * Awe is considered a [[wikipedia:Peak_experience|peak experience]] according to Maslow [x] {{ic|Also consider awe as an emotion}}, (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Awe and well-being|Awe and well-being]]) ** Experiencing awe = indicator of reaching highest level of self-actualisation and self-transcendence) * Awe can have positive individual and community effects (pro-social behaviour) {{ic|The topic is not just about awe - it is about the effect of awe on self-perception}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is awe as an emotion and experience? * How does the experience of awe diminish the self? * What is the effect of a diminished sense of self? * How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we trigger or experience everyday moments of awe? * How can the experience of awe be applied for social and individual good?{{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} '''QUESTIONS AND NOTES FOR SELF''' * Where do I fit discussions of the Self in here? * Should I get rid of the physical and conceptual distinction for the headings? Rework to the five appraisals from that one article - [Author's Notes] {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Awe == [[File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|thumb|Figure 2: Plutchik's wheel of emotions, where awe is modelled as a combination of suprise and fear.]] [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] is an emotion generally described as [insert synonyms]. In Robert Plutchik's wheel of emotion as seen in Figure 2, awe is modelled as a combination of suprise and fear (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]]). ''- KEY REFERENCE: Keltner and Haidt, 2003:'' * ''Additional appraisals account for variation in the hedoic (pleasure) tone of awe experiences'' ** ''threat, beauty, exceptional ability, virtue, and the supernatural'' * ''Edwards et al. (2026) define awe to be an emotion elicited from experiencing great vastness that dramaticallt expands a person's frame of reference.'' ** ''see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]]'' In clear cases, two appraisals are central to the experience of awe as an emotion; perceived vastness, and a following need for accommodation (Keltner and Haidt, 2003) === Elicitors of awe === Might be wise to include a figure here of elicitors as they are hard to categorise and often overlap. ''[Authors Note: Perhaps splitting into physical vastness and conceptual vastness is the wrong step here? Feels hard to slot the above appraisals and elicitors into the below binary, please advise!]'' ==== Vastness ==== * "Although the term “vastness” implies great physical size, in this usage “vast” describes any stimulus that challenges one's accustomed frame of reference in some dimension ** A stimulus may convey vastness in physical space, in time, in number, in complexity of detail, in ability, even in volume of human experience. *** For example, one may experience a sense of vastness in a mathematical equation, not because the equation is literally long, but because of the vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. ** What is critical is that the stimulus dramatically expands the observer's usual frame of reference in some dimension or domain." (Shiota et al., 2007) ===== Physical vastness ===== ''[Author's Note: Nature, Space, might be wise to mention depth perception studies here. Why particuarly these things. Work in thesis on space video here.]'' * The overview effect = witnessing Earth from the atmosphere = life-altering degree of awe -> transcendent -> complete breakdown of perception of borders and countries = feeling of connectedness (Yaden et al., 2016) * Eclipses: study that used twitter data (over 2 million users) -> individuals exhibited more awe and expressed less self focused and more pro social, affiliative, humble and collective language * Witnessing natural disasters may induce a state of negatively valenced awe (Chaudhury et al., 2022; Piff et al., 2015) ** Link to heading section 'Effect of awe on the self' -> threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). ===== Conceptual vastness ===== Witnessing other people or learning things, coming of age moments, witnessing things for the first time theories here. Music and virtues act of skills. * Acts of Virtue * Acts of skills * Learning things ** A stimulus may convey vastness in physical space, in time, in number, in complexity of detail, in ability, even in volume of human experience. *** For example, one may experience a sense of vastness in a mathematical equation, not because the equation is literally long, but because of the vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. ** What is critical is that the stimulus dramatically expands the observer's usual frame of reference in some dimension or domain." (Shiota et al., 2007) ==== Psychedelics ==== ''[Author's Note: I feel psychedelics needs its own subsection here as it is particuarly relevant to my applications, and provides a good segue to need for accommodations.]'' * psychedielic-occassioned mystical experience is characterised by profound awe ** small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * psychedelics have been shown to produce enduring positive change across a range of psychological and behavioural outcomes (Hendricks, 2018) via ''(Griffiths et al., 2018; Griffiths, Richards, Johnson, McCann, & Jesse, 2008, Griffiths et al., 2011; Griffiths, Richards, McCann, & Jesse, 2006; Lebedev et al., 2016; MacLean, Johnson, & Griffiths, 2011)'' as well as treatment of depression. == Need for accommodation == * Awe is defined by Keltner and Haidt as an inability to assimilate an experience into current mental structures. (Keltner and Haidt, 2003) * Accommodation is one of the two ongoing processes (assimilation being the other) in [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]], where existing [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|schemas]] are modified, or even created to deal with a new event or experience (Jean Piaget, {find specific reference}). ** See also: [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] * ''[Authors Note: Insert table of epistimec emotions such as wonder, elevation, sublime, admiration (Keltner and Haidt), not sure of relevance or format]'' ''- [Authors Note: unsure whether I should spend a sub section on schemas or not, or how much explanation should be done for these sorts of fundamental but still unfamiliar to reader concepts'' - Discussion of what it means to require the need for knowledge structures to be updated. == Self == * [[wikipedia:Self|Self]] in philosophy = individual's own being, knowledge and values (and relationship between these attributes ** self is distingushable from others *** ''[Authors Note: have a section later in connectedness how when the self is diminished, the concept of otherness is also diminished -> oneness]'' === Self-perception === [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] = made up of one's self-schemas *possible selves ===== Ego-death ===== * small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * See also [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] = complete loss of subjective self concept === Oneness / Seperation === See Buddhism, see psychedelics, see Connectedness. [''Author's Note: unsure if this should be it's own section, it feels like it should be in the affect of awe on the self section, after speaking on the feeling of connectedness].'' == Effect of awe on the self == ''[Authors Note: This is where we will have a short section on the self (what it means, collection of experiences and stories we tell ourselves, superceding that, buddhist definitions of the self and awareness and appreciating life as tenets, lojong etc.)]'' === Key feelings and effects === * Awe diminishes the sense of self and shifts attention away from individual interests and concerns (Bai et al., 2017) * Differences among individuas for experiencing awe: ** higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 ** study found that individuals from higher classes reported less frequently experiencing awe compared to individuals from lower social classes (Piff & Moskowitz, 2017). [''Author's Note: I really like this fact and want to include it somewhere but not sure where to include].'' ** not only religious but also non-religious individuals report experiencing awe; *** however, religious onementions explicitly religious or life-or-death events while non-religious one talks about the wonder of nature (Preston & Shin, 2017). **** simulation of viewing Earth from the space, individuals who experienced awe were non-religious (Reinerman-Jones, Sollins, Gallagher, & Janz, 2013). ==== Smallness ==== * study found that smallness was experienced but not insignificance (Edwards, et al. 2025) ** awe shrinks the self without making the individual feel insignificant ==== Profoundness ==== * [x] discuss significance of emotion * the present moment ** forced presence *time dilation (what article was that??) ==== Connectedness ==== * seeking connection after feelings of smallness * higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 ===== Perception of the self ===== * presenting more balanced view of personal strengths and weaknesses * increased acknowledgment of outside forces in one's accomplishments (Stellar et al., 2018) * epistemic humility = measures of wisdom and moral character * positive self-transcendent experiences can be utilised as driving force for better understanding one's decision and perspectives impact others (Kim et al., 2023) === Behavioural changes === * Link back to need for accommodation and changes [x]. Link back to motivation content [x] ==== Pro-social behaviour ==== [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] refers to social behaviours that benefit everyone. * How does this relate back to the need for accommodation? [x] === Failures to accommodate === * Awe is more specifically defined in (Shiota et al. 2007) as an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that overwhelm current mental structures, yet facilitate ''attempts'' at accommodation. ** Segue intro into failures to accommodate, threat-based awe, etc ==== Fear ==== * Keltner and Haidt (2003) argued that awe is situated on the boundary of fear * Threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt) - flavour of the stimulus * See Nihilism ==== Trauma ==== [x] * failure to accommodate threat-based awe experienes can result in trauma == Current applications == * experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) * (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]'' === Wellbeing === ''[Author's Note: find additional references for five processes and explain in paragraph]'' * experiences in nature, moved by mysic, psychedelics, spiritual contemplation promote mental health? via awe (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) ** awe engages five processes *** shifts in neurophysiology *** diminished focus on self *** increased prosocail realtionality *** greater social integration *** heightened sense of meaning (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) === Therapies === *intro [x] ==== Existensial{{sp}} Therapy ==== * death is a main consideration in existential thought (Yalom, 2008) * death awareness reults in anxiety which can be experienced in two different ways: ** a) an overwhelming anxiety (dread or depression) resulting in various dysfunctional behaviors and moodstates associated with the choice of escape from it ** b) an energizing source that leads to live life fully as much as possible. (Furman, 2003) ** awe can be considered as a possible way of dealing with death anxiety (Schenider, 2021) ===== Gestalt ===== * here and now * reliving past experiences in the present moment to reexperience and attempt to accommodate * (Corey, 2009) ==== Psychedelic therapies ==== * evidence [x] * how related to awe [x] == Conclusion == * Awe diminishes the self via the small self affect etc. * Awe requires perceived vastness (stimulus from nature, or learning or challenge to mental schema), and a need for accommodation * Diminishing the self results in pro-social behaviour * Awe and its resulting experience of self-transcendent emotions can be utilised for therapies and healing * Awe promotes wellbeing and underscores other positive stimuli such as psychedelics or spiritual contemplation and learning * Focus Question: [What is awe as an emotion and experience?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe is made up of perceived vastness and a need for an accommodation that often leaves individuals with a smaller sense of self, connectedness and purpose/increased meaning] * Focus Question: [How does the experience of awe diminish the self?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe diminishes the self mostly through the small-self construct, as well as diminishing the ego and seperatedness feeling] * Focus Question: [What is the effect of a diminished sense of self?] ... Prelimary answer: [diminished sense of self results in prosocial behaviour (broad) need to specify what behaviours] * Focus Question: [How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we trigger or experience everyday moments of awe?] ** Prelimary answer: [experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) ** (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]]'' * Focus Question: [How can the experience of awe be applied for social and individual good?] ... Prelimary answer: [therapy, wellbeing, psycotherapy, deliberating triggering awe experiences for healing] * ''[Authors Note: summarise topic, significance, how psych science contributes to understanding and addressing topic, practical take home messages, 150-330 words, mirror in [[#Overview|Overview]]]'' ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Arvidson, P. S. (2022). Reverent Awe and the Field of Consciousness. Human Studies, 45(3), 397-416. Bai, Y., Maruskin, L. A., Chen, S., Gordon, A. M., Stellar, J. E., McNeil, G. D., Peng, K., & Keltner, D. (2017). Awe, the diminished self, and collective engagement: Universals and cultural variations in the small self. Journal of personality and social psychology, 113(2), 185. Cavallaro, R. M., Church, M. H., Giddens, B. J., & Rivera, G. N. (2025). Complex effects of awe on meaning in life and true self-knowledge. Self and Identity, 24(3), 189-216. Chen, S. K., & Mongrain, M. (2021). Awe and the interconnected self. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 16(6), 770-778. Edwards, M. E., Mendenhall, K., Sanders, C., & King, L. A. (2026). Small but still significant: Awe and the self. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 52(9), 3032-3045. Furman, R. (2003). Poetry therapy and existential practice. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 30(4), 195-200. Gao, R. (2026). From awe to pro-environmental behavior-a meta-analysis of the relationship between awe and pro-environmental behavior. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 21(5), 958-970. Goldy, S. P., Jones, N. M., & Piff, P. K. (2022). The social effects of an awesome solar eclipse. Psychological Science, 33(9), 1452-1462. Hendricks, P. S. (2018). Awe: a putative mechanism underlying the effects of classic psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy. International Review of Psychiatry, 30(4), 331-342. Jiang, T., Hicks, J. A., Yuan, W., Yin, Y., Needy, L., & Vess, M. (2024). The unique nature and psychosocial implications of awe. Nature Reviews Psychology, 3(7), 475-488. Jiang, T., & Sedikides, C. (2022). Awe motivates authentic-self pursuit via self-transcendence: Implications for prosociality. Journal of personality and social psychology, 123(3), 576. Keltner, D., & Haidt, J. (2003). Approaching awe, a moral, spiritual, and aesthetic emotion. Cognition and emotion, 17(2), 297-314. Kim, Y., Nusbaum, H. C., & Yang, F. (2023). Going beyond ourselves: The role of self-transcendent experiences in wisdom. Cognition and Emotion, 37(1), 98-116. Li, R., Hou, Z., Zhang, C., Xu, Q., & Nie, A. (2024). A meta-analysis examining the relationship between awe and prosocial behavior. Current Psychology, 43(29), 24702-24711. Lucht, A., & van Schie, H. T. (2024). The evolutionary function of awe: A review and integrated model of seven theoretical perspectives. Emotion Review, 16(1), 46-63. Maslow, A. H. (1964). Religions, values, and peak-experiences. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press. McMann, G. B. (2025). Role of Vastness and Accommodation of Awe in Personal Change and Growth Grand Canyon University]. Perez, K. A., Lench, H. C., Thompson, C. G., & North, S. (2023). Experimental elicitations of awe: A meta-analysis. Cognition and Emotion, 37(1), 18-33. Piff, P. K., Dietze, P., Feinberg, M., Stancato, D. M., & Keltner, D. (2015). Awe, the small self, and prosocial behavior. Journal of personality and social psychology, 108(6), 883. Piff, P. K., Singhal, I., & Bai, Y. (2025). Bridging me to we: Awe is a conduit to cohesive collectives. Current Opinion in Psychology, 62, 101979. Rivera, G. N., Vess, M., Hicks, J. A., & Routledge, C. (2020). Awe and meaning: Elucidating complex effects of awe experiences on meaning in life. European Journal of Social Psychology, 50(2), 392-405. Shiota, M. N., Keltner, D., & Mossman, A. (2007). The nature of awe: Elicitors, appraisals, and effects on self-concept. Cognition and Emotion, 21(5), 944-963. Shukla, S. (2021). Indian classical music, awe, and healing. The Humanistic Psychologist, 49(3), 355. Stellar, J. E., Gordon, A., Anderson, C. L., Piff, P. K., McNeil, G. D., & Keltner, D. (2018). Awe and humility. Journal of personality and social psychology, 114(2), 258. Sturm, V. E., Datta, S., Roy, A. R., Sible, I. J., Kosik, E. L., Veziris, C. R., Chow, T. E., Morris, N. A., Neuhaus, J., & Kramer, J. H. (2022). Big smile, small self: Awe walks promote prosocial positive emotions in older adults. Emotion, 22(5), 1044. Tanhan, F., DENİZ, M., & Akgün, G. (2022). Awe Therapy: Fundamentals, Formulation and Usage Area Awe Terapi: Temelleri, Formülasyonu ve Kullanım Alanları. Turkish Psychological Counseling and Guidance Journal, 12(65). Tanhan, F., Deniz, M. E., & Akgün, G. E. (2022). Awe Therapy: Fundamentals, formulation and usage area. Turkish Psychological Counseling and Guidance Journal, 12(65), 300-319. Yaden, D. B., Iwry, J., Slack, K. J., Eichstaedt, J. C., Zhao, Y., Vaillant, G. E., & Newberg, A. B. (2016). The overview effect: Awe and self-transcendent experience in space flight. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice, 3(1), 1. Yalom, I. D. (2008). Staring at the sun: Overcoming the terror of death. The Humanistic Psychologist, 36(3-4), 283. }} ''[Authors Note: what about italicisation for the references / article titles (APA?]'' ==External links== * [https://self-transcendence.org/theory Self-transendence] (Self-transcendence.org) * [https://fitmind.org/ Ancient wisdom + modern science] (Fitmind.org) * [https://therapyintampa.com/the-neuroscience-of-awe-how-shared-wonder-supports-mental-health/ The Neuroscience of Awe: How Shared Wonder Supports Mental Health] (North Star Therapy) * Ted Talk Neuroscience video [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Awe]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] mpewladlzhv4bu5cmotx1mq5gj8y1m3 0 331599 2841737 2839058 2026-10-20T19:43:22Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 2841737 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Sun exposure and protection motivation:<br>What motivates sun exposure and protection behaviours?}} [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page history]]. __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Sunscreen spray.jpg|thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1.''' Applying sunscreen is a sun-protective behaviour used to reduce harmful UV exposure.]] ;Scenario Mia is a 22-year-old spending a summer afternoon at the beach with friends. She knows that excessive ultraviolet (UV) exposure increases the risk of skin damage and skin cancer, so she brings SPF 50+ sunscreen (see Figure 1). However, Mia also likes how she looks with a tan and notices that her friends are intentionally tanning. Although she planned to reapply sunscreen and spend time in the shade, she stays in the sun longer than intended. Mia's behaviour illustrates a common conflict: why might someone who understands the risks of sun exposure still feel motivated to tan, while also wanting to protect their skin? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * Sun-related behaviour involves competing motivations: people may be motivated to seek sun exposure while simultaneously wanting to protect themselves from harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation. * Intentional sun exposure can be motivated by factors such as appearance enhancement, tanning preferences, relaxation, wellbeing and social influences, whereas sun protection is strongly associated with health-preservation motives (Ingledew et al., 2010). * Knowledge about the risks of UV exposure does not necessarily result in protective behaviour because decisions are also influenced by perceived risk, self-efficacy, social norms and the perceived benefits of tanning. * Psychological theories, particularly '''protection motivation theory''', can help explain why people adopt or avoid sun-protective behaviours by examining perceptions of threat and people's beliefs about their ability to respond effectively (Rogers, 1975). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What psychological and social factors motivate intentional sun exposure? * What motivates people to engage in sun-protection behaviours? * How does protection motivation theory explain sun-protective behaviour? * How can psychological research be used to encourage safer sun exposure and protection behaviours? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What motivates intentional sun exposure? == Intentional sun exposure is influenced by psychological and social motivations that extend beyond a lack of awareness about ultraviolet (UV) radiation (see Figure 2). Individuals may understand the risks associated with excessive UV exposure while continuing to seek a tan because of perceived benefits relating to appearance, wellbeing and social acceptance. These competing motivations help explain why knowledge about skin cancer does not always translate into safer behaviour. [[File:Sun at noon.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2. A sun emitting UV radiation''' ]] === Appearance-related motivation === Appearance enhancement is an important motivation for intentional sun exposure. In some social environments, tanned skin is associated with attractiveness, health and confidence. These perceptions may encourage individuals to prioritise immediate appearance-related rewards over potential long-term health consequences. Leary and Jones (1993) examined the relationship between self-presentational motives and tanning-related health risks. Their research highlights how concerns about appearance and social evaluation can influence decisions about sun exposure. This suggests that tanning behaviour may reflect a desire to achieve a socially desirable appearance rather than simply a misunderstanding of UV-related risks. However, appearance preferences vary between individuals and cultural contexts. Findings from particular populations should therefore not be assumed to represent universal attitudes towards tanning. === Wellbeing and relaxation === Sun exposure may also be motivated by perceived psychological benefits, including relaxation, enjoyment and wellbeing. Ingledew et al. (2010) examined motives underlying sun-related behaviours and identified associations between appearance enhancement, wellbeing and sun exposure. Individuals may seek sunshine for reasons unrelated to tanning itself. For example, spending time outdoors can provide opportunities for recreation, social connection and relaxation. Importantly, these psychological benefits should not be confused with benefits arising specifically from unprotected UV exposure. === Social influences and tanning norms === Social influences also contribute to intentional tanning behaviour. Attitudes expressed by friends, family and wider social groups may shape perceptions of whether tanning is desirable or socially acceptable. Hillhouse et al. (2000) investigated tanning-related behaviour using appearance motivation and the theory of planned behaviour. Their findings highlight the relevance of psychological and social influences in understanding tanning intentions. Social norms may create situations in which individuals experience competing motivations. For example, someone may intend to seek shade but remain in direct sunlight because their friends are tanning. Together, these findings suggest that intentional sun exposure is influenced by appearance-related rewards, wellbeing motives and social expectations. Consequently, interventions focusing exclusively on the health risks of UV exposure may overlook important reasons why individuals continue to tan. == What motivates sun-protection behaviour? == Sun-protection behaviours include using sunscreen, seeking shade, wearing protective clothing and limiting exposure to harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Several psychological factors influence an individual's motivation to engage in these behaviours, including health preservation, perceived vulnerability and self-efficacy. === Health-preservation motives === Health preservation is an important motivation for sun protection. Ingledew et al. (2010) identified health-preservation motives as a factor associated with sun-protection behaviour. This highlights the role of concern for long-term health in motivating protective actions. === Perceived vulnerability and protective beliefs === Motivation to protect the skin is influenced not only by knowledge of UV-related risks but also by whether individuals perceive themselves as vulnerable to harm. Beliefs about the effectiveness of protective behaviours are also relevant (Jackson & Aiken, 2000). Consequently, awareness of UV risks alone may not fully explain an individual's motivation to engage in sun protection. === Self-efficacy === Self-efficacy refers to an individual's confidence in their ability to perform a behaviour successfully. Floyd et al. (2000) identified self-efficacy as an important component of protection motivation. In the context of sun protection, this concept helps explain why confidence in carrying out protective actions is relevant to motivation. == How does protection motivation theory explain sun-protective behaviour? == Protection motivation theory (PMT) proposes that protective behaviour is influenced by two appraisal processes: threat appraisal and coping appraisal (Rogers, 1975). These processes help explain how individuals evaluate UV-related risks and their ability to protect themselves. === Threat appraisal === Threat appraisal involves evaluating the perceived severity of a health threat, such as skin cancer or UV damage, and one's perceived vulnerability to experiencing that threat. These beliefs contribute to an individual's motivation to adopt protective behaviour. === Coping appraisal === Coping appraisal involves evaluating response efficacy and self-efficacy. Response efficacy refers to whether an individual believes a protective behaviour will be effective, while self-efficacy refers to their confidence in successfully performing that behaviour. Research supports the relevance of these mechanisms. Floyd et al. (2000) found that perceived severity, vulnerability, response efficacy and self-efficacy were associated with protective intentions and behaviours across the studies included in their meta-analysis. === The health belief model === The health belief model (HBM) provides another framework for understanding why individuals engage in sun-protective behaviours. The model proposes that health-related decisions are influenced by perceived susceptibility to a health problem, perceived severity of its consequences, perceived benefits of taking action and perceived barriers to doing so (Rosenstock, 1974). Later formulations also incorporate cues to action and self-efficacy. In the context of sun protection, perceived susceptibility involves believing that UV exposure could cause personal harm, while perceived severity concerns the seriousness of potential consequences such as skin cancer. Perceived benefits relate to believing that protective behaviours can reduce these risks, whereas perceived barriers may include inconvenience, discomfort or concerns about appearance. Cues to action are prompts that encourage individuals to engage in protective behaviour. Examples include UV index alerts, reminders to reapply sunscreen and public health campaigns. Self-efficacy also contributes to behaviour by influencing whether individuals feel capable of consistently performing protective actions. Mia's situation illustrates these concepts. Although she recognises the health risks of excessive sun exposure, her desire to tan with friends may create a barrier to protection. A sunscreen reminder or encouragement from a friend could serve as a cue to action, while confidence in applying sunscreen and seeking shade may support her decision to protect her skin. === Comparing protection motivation theory and the health belief model === Protection motivation theory and the health belief model both emphasise the role of perceived health threats and beliefs about protective actions. However, PMT organises these processes into threat appraisal and coping appraisal, while HBM explicitly considers perceived barriers and cues to action. Both models help explain why awareness of UV-related risks does not necessarily lead to consistent sun protection. Nevertheless, neither model fully captures the influence of appearance preferences, social norms and immediate rewards associated with tanning. Combining these theoretical perspectives with research on social motivation may therefore provide a more comprehensive understanding of sun-related behaviour. Table 1 summarises the similarities and differences between the two theories. {| class="wikitable" |+ Table 1. Comparison of protection motivation theory and the health belief model ! Psychological component ! Protection motivation theory (PMT) ! Health belief model (HBM) |- | Perceived threat | Threat appraisal considers perceived severity and vulnerability. | Considers perceived severity and susceptibility. |- | Protective beliefs | Coping appraisal considers response efficacy and self-efficacy. | Considers perceived benefits and self-efficacy. |- | Barriers and costs | Considers response costs and rewards associated with maladaptive behaviour. | Explicitly considers perceived barriers to protective action. |- | Triggers for action | Does not include a distinct cues-to-action component. | Includes cues to action, such as UV alerts and reminders. |- | Application to sun protection | Explains how perceived UV risks and confidence in protective actions influence motivation. | Explains how risk beliefs, benefits, barriers and reminders influence protective decisions. |} == How can safer sun behaviour be encouraged? == Effective sun-safety interventions should address both the health risks of ultraviolet (UV) exposure and the psychological rewards that motivate tanning, including appearance enhancement and social approval. Psychological theories and research can help explain how interventions may encourage individuals to adopt safer behaviours. === Appearance-focused interventions === Appearance-focused interventions aim to influence sun-related behaviour by highlighting visible consequences of excessive UV exposure, such as premature skin ageing. These approaches may be particularly relevant to individuals who value tanning for its perceived attractiveness or social benefits. Jones and Leary (1994) investigated the effects of appearance-based messages on tanning intentions among young adults. Their findings suggest that concerns about appearance may influence intentions to reduce risky sun exposure. This research demonstrates the potential value of addressing motivations beyond long-term health consequences. However, changes in intentions do not necessarily establish that individuals will consistently adopt protective behaviours in everyday situations. A systematic review by Persson et al. (2018) examined appearance-based interventions intended to reduce ultraviolet exposure. The findings suggested that appearance-focused strategies, including information about photoageing and UV photography, may improve sun-protective intentions and behaviours. However, differences in study methods and limited long-term follow-up restrict conclusions about whether these effects are sustained. === Strengthening protective motivation === Protection motivation theory suggests that interventions may encourage protective behaviour by increasing perceived vulnerability and severity while strengthening response efficacy and self-efficacy (Floyd et al., 2000). In practical terms, sun-safety campaigns can communicate the potential consequences of UV exposure while demonstrating achievable protective actions. These may include applying sunscreen, wearing protective clothing and seeking shade. The health belief model also highlights the importance of perceived barriers and cues to action. Reminders to apply sunscreen and information about the UV index may encourage individuals to act on their existing health concerns. These approaches suggest that effective interventions should not simply increase fear about UV exposure. They should also strengthen confidence in protective actions and reduce obstacles that make those actions difficult to perform. === Social and environmental strategies === Sun-related behaviour is influenced by social expectations and environmental circumstances. Individuals may experience competing motivations when their desire to protect their skin conflicts with appearance preferences or the behaviour of friends. Strategies that encourage positive social norms surrounding sun protection may help address these competing motivations. For example, outdoor recreation groups can encourage shade breaks, protective clothing and regular sunscreen application. Environmental strategies may also make protective behaviour easier by increasing access to shade and sunscreen. These approaches complement individual-level interventions by reducing practical barriers to sun protection. Overall, psychological research suggests that sun-safety interventions should combine clear information about UV-related risks with practical protective strategies. Addressing appearance motives, social influences and self-efficacy may help individuals translate protective intentions into more consistent behaviour. Henrikson et al. (2018) reviewed evidence on behavioural counselling interventions for skin cancer prevention. Although some interventions improved reported sun-protection behaviours, evidence of reductions in sunburn was inconsistent. This distinction highlights the importance of evaluating actual behavioural and health outcomes rather than relying exclusively on intentions or self-reported behaviour. === Reflecting on Mia's situation === * Revisit Mia's scenario from the Overview. What competing motivations may explain why she continues sun exposure despite knowing the potential health risks? * Using '''protection motivation theory''', identify how perceived severity, perceived vulnerability, response efficacy, and self-efficacy could influence Mia's sun-protection behaviour. * What psychological strategy could encourage Mia to use sun protection while also addressing the appearance and social motivations associated with tanning? === Test your understanding === '''Question 1:''' Which component of protection motivation theory describes confidence in one's ability to perform a protective behaviour? * A. Perceived severity * B. Self-efficacy * C. Perceived vulnerability * D. Response efficacy '''Question 2:''' Which concept in the health belief model describes reminders that encourage protective action? * A. Perceived severity * B. Response costs * C. Cues to action * D. Social rewards '''Answers:''' 1. B (Self-efficacy). 2. C (Cues to action). ==Conclusion== Sun exposure and protection behaviours are influenced by competing psychological, social and health-related motivations. Intentional sun exposure may be encouraged by appearance preferences, wellbeing motives and social expectations, whereas protective behaviour is influenced by health-preservation motives, perceived vulnerability and self-efficacy. Protection motivation theory and the health belief model provide complementary explanations of sun-protective behaviour. Both highlight the importance of perceived health threats and beliefs about protective actions, while the health belief model additionally emphasises barriers and cues to action. Research suggests that appearance-focused interventions, practical reminders and strategies that strengthen protective confidence may encourage safer sun-related behaviour. However, limitations in existing research and differences between intentions and actual behaviour demonstrate the need for continued evaluation. Ultimately, effective sun-safety strategies should do more than communicate health risks. They should recognise the motivations encouraging sun exposure while making protective behaviour practical, achievable and socially acceptable. == See also == * [[w:Health belief model|Health belief model]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Protection motivation theory|Protection motivation theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Sun tanning|Sun tanning]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Sunscreen|Sunscreen]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Ultraviolet|Ultraviolet radiation]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Floyd, D. L., Prentice-Dunn, S., & Rogers, R. W. (2000). A meta-analysis of research on protection motivation theory. ''Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30''(2), 407–429. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2000.tb02323.x Henrikson, N. B., Morrison, C. C., Blasi, P. R., Nguyen, M., Shibuya, K. C., & Patnode, C. D. (2018). Behavioral counseling for skin cancer prevention: Evidence report and systematic review for the US Preventive Services Task Force. ''JAMA, 319''(11), 1143–1157. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2017.21630 Hillhouse, J. J., Turrisi, R., & Kastner, M. (2000). Modeling tanning salon behavioral tendencies using appearance motivation, self-monitoring and the theory of planned behavior. ''Health Education Research, 15''(4), 405–414. https://doi.org/10.1093/her/15.4.405 Ingledew, D. K., Ferguson, E., & Markland, D. (2010). Motives and sun-related behaviour. ''Journal of Health Psychology, 15''(1), 8–20. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105309342292 Jackson, K. M., & Aiken, L. S. (2000). A psychosocial model of sun protection and sunbathing in young women: The impact of health beliefs, attitudes, norms, and self-efficacy for sun protection. ''Health Psychology, 19''(5), 469–478. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.19.5.469 Jones, J. L., & Leary, M. R. (1994). Effects of appearance-based admonitions against sun exposure on tanning intentions in young adults. ''Health Psychology, 13''(1), 86–90. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.13.1.86 Leary, M. R., & Jones, J. L. (1993). The social psychology of tanning and sunscreen use: Self-presentational motives as a predictor of health risk. ''Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 23''(17), 1390–1406. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1993.tb01039.x Persson, S., Benn, Y., Dhingra, K., Clark-Carter, D., Owen, A. L., & Grogan, S. (2018). Appearance-based interventions to reduce UV exposure: A systematic review. ''British Journal of Health Psychology, 23''(2), 334–351. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12291 Rogers, R. W. (1975). A protection motivation theory of fear appeals and attitude change. ''The Journal of Psychology, 91''(1), 93–114. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1975.9915803 Rosenstock, I. M. (1974). The health belief model and preventive health behavior. ''Health Education Monographs, 2''(4), 354–386. https://doi.org/10.1177/109019817400200405 }} ==External links== * [https://www.cancer.org.au/cancer-information/causes-and-prevention/sun-safety Be SunSmart and sun safety] (Cancer Council Australia) * [https://www.sunsmart.com.au/ SunSmart] (Cancer Council Victoria) * [https://www.cancer.org.au/cancer-information/causes-and-prevention/sun-safety/uv-index UV Index] (Cancer Council Australia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Environment]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Health]] jdmaz0fgjr94fgrdbu4386hkdhda05e 0 331620 2841828 2840591 2026-10-21T08:21:43Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 Attempting to solve lints 2841828 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-blame and emotion:<br>How does self-blame influence emotional responses to negative events?}} ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} [[File:Fort Wayne Daisies player, Marie Wegman, of the All American Girls Professional Baseball League arguing with umpire Norris Ward Opa-locka, Florida.jpg|thumb|right|250px| '''Figure 1'''. Two friends having an argument]] '''Imagine this...''' You are having an argument with someone close to you (see figure 1). Afterwards, you begin thinking about what went wrong and whether you could have handled the situation differently. You might think, "I should have listened more carefully" or "I shouldn't have reacted that way." Alternatively, you might begin questioning yourself more personally, thinking, "I'm a terrible friend" or "There's something wrong with me." Although both responses involve blaming yourself for the same negative experience, they focus on different aspects of responsibility. These thoughts may also lead to different emotional responses. You might feel guilty about what you said and want to apologise, or you might feel ashamed and begin questioning your worth as a person. For some people, reflecting on the experience may encourage them to approach future disagreements differently. For others, repeatedly blaming themselves may make it difficult to move forward, particularly when they believe the problem is part of who they are. This raises an important question: Why can blaming ourselves for a negative experience sometimes encourage positive change, while at other times contributing to ongoing emotional distress? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Self-blame is a common response to negative experiences, but its emotional consequences are not always straightforward. While some individuals may use these experiences to reflect on their actions and consider what they could do differently, others may develop negative beliefs about themselves that contribute to ongoing emotional distress. Psychological research suggests that the way individuals interpret their responsibility for an event can influence both their emotional responses and how they approach similar situations in the future. Understanding this relationship is important because self-blame is not necessarily helpful or harmful in every situation. Its consequences may depend on how individuals explain the event, whether they believe they have control over future outcomes, and whether their response encourages constructive action or repeated negative thinking. This chapter examines how self-blame influences emotional responses following negative events. It explores the different forms of self-blame, psychological theories that explain the relationship between self-blame and emotion, and research examining its emotional consequences. It also considers the circumstances in which self-blame may encourage positive change or contribute to ongoing distress. * Understanding factors that influence emotional responses to negative experiences may be particularly relevant for young adults. In Australia, 38.8% of people aged 16–24 experienced a mental disorder in the previous 12 months, while 13.5% experienced an affective disorder (Australian Bureau of Statistics [ABS], 2023). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} '''Focus questions''' * What are the different forms of self-blame? * How do psychological theories explain the relationship between self-blame and emotion? * How do different forms of self-blame influence emotional responses? * Under what circumstances might self-blame be helpful or harmful? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is self-blame?== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} Self-blame occurs when someone believes they are responsible for a negative event or outcome. When something goes wrong, people often try to understand why it happened and whether they could have prevented it. Sometimes, this involves thinking about their own actions, while other times, they may question their personal abilities or characteristics. Although both involve blaming oneself, the difference is important because it may influence how much control someone believes they have over similar situations in the future.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Focus Question 1: What are the different forms of self-blame? == Janoff-Bulman (1979) distinguishes between the [https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0022-3514.37.10.1798 two forms of self-blame], behavioural self-blame and characterological self-blame. These differ based on whether a person blames something they did or something they believe is wrong with them as a person. === Behavioural self-blame:=== Behavioural self-blame occurs when someone believes a negative event happened because of something they did or failed to do which directly impacted the outcome of the event. For example, an employee who misses an important work deadline may blame themselves for not managing their time effectively. Rather than believing they are incapable of doing their job, they recognise that their preparation or time management may have contributed to the outcome. Janoff-Bulman (1979) suggested that behavioural self-blame may help individuals maintain a sense of control because their actions can potentially be changed. If someone believes they could have prepared differently, they may also believe they can improve their approach next time. This does not mean that behavioural self-blame is always helpful, as someone may still feel guilty or continue blaming themselves for a mistake. Research by Anderson et al. (1994) challenges the assumption that behavioural self-blame is necessarily beneficial (see Figure 2). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} Did you know 💡 Anderson et al. (1994) examined two samples of university students, involving 1,001 participants in total. Their findings indicated that both behavioural and characterological self-blame were associated with depression and loneliness. This suggests that focusing on one's actions rather than personal characteristics does not necessarily protect someone from emotional difficulties. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Characterological self-blame: === Characterological self-blame occurs when someone believes a negative event happened because of their personal characteristics or abilities. Rather than focusing on a particular action, they may interpret the experience as evidence of something negative about themselves. For example, an employee who receives negative feedback from their manager may believe they are incompetent or simply not good enough at their job. Rather than considering whether there are specific areas they could improve, they interpret the feedback as evidence that they lack the personal abilities needed to succeed. Janoff-Bulman (1979) implied that characterological self-blame can be particularly distressing because people may view these characteristics as difficult to change. If someone believes the problem is part of who they are, they may feel that similar negative outcomes are likely to happen again. This distinction helps explain why two people can blame themselves for a similar experience but respond differently. However, behavioural self-blame should not automatically be considered positive or characterological self-blame the only harmful form. Research by Anderson et al. (1994) suggests that both forms can be associated with emotional difficulties, meaning the consequences of self-blame may depend on more than what a person believes caused the event. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Characterological self-blame focuses on specific behaviours that can be changed to prevent similar negative outcomes in the future: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Focus Question 2: How do psychological theories explain the relationship between self-blame and emotion? == People do not always respond emotionally to negative experiences in the same way. Although two people may experience a similar situation, their emotions can differ depending on how they understand what happened. For example, two employees who make a mistake at work may both blame themselves, but one might feel guilty about their actions while the other feels ashamed of their abilities. This suggests that emotional responses are influenced not only by the negative event itself, but also by how a person explains and interprets it. Two psychological approaches that help explain this relationship are attribution theory and cognitive appraisal theory. Whilst they focus on different aspects of emotional responses, both suggest that the meaning a person gives to a negative experience is important. === Attribution theory === [https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0033-295X.92.4.548 Attribution theory] focuses on how people explain why events happen. Weiner (1985) proposed that these explanations can be understood through three dimensions, locus, stability and controllability. Locus refers to whether someone believes the cause of an event comes from themselves or from an external factor. Stability refers to whether the cause is seen as something temporary or likely to remain the same. Controllability considers whether the person believes they can influence the cause of the event. These dimensions help explain why self-blame can lead to different emotional responses. For example, someone who believes they missed an important deadline because they did not manage their time effectively may feel guilty but also believe they can prevent the same mistake in the future. However, someone who believes they missed the deadline because they are naturally incompetent may feel ashamed and less confident about improving. Both individuals blame themselves, but they understand the cause of the mistake differently. This is important because Weiner's (1985) theory suggests that emotional responses depend partly on whether the perceived cause is stable and controllable, rather than simply whether a person believes they are responsible. === Cognitive appraisal theory === Cognitive appraisal theory focuses on how people evaluate the meaning of an experience. Rather than suggesting that an event automatically produces a particular emotion, this approach considers how an individual interprets the situation and what it means for them. For example, receiving negative feedback on a sporting performance by a coach may be viewed as an opportunity to improve or as evidence of personal failure. Someone who believes the feedback identifies an area they can improve may feel disappointed but remain motivated. In comparison, someone who interprets the feedback as evidence they are not capable of succeeding may experience shame or anxiety about making further mistakes. Tracy and Robins (2006) examined how different interpretations of negative experiences relate to guilt and shame. Their findings supported the idea that shame is more closely associated with explanations involving behaviours that can potentially be changed. This research helps explain why self-blame does not always produce the same emotional response. The way people understand their responsibility can influence whether they focus on correcting a particular mistake or develop more negative feelings about themselves. Overall, attribution theory and cognitive appraisal theory help explain why self-blame can influence emotions differently. Attribution theory examines what people believe caused an event, while cognitive appraisal theory considers how they evaluate the meaning of the event. Together, these approaches suggest that understanding emotional responses to self-blame requires considering both the explanation for what happened and what that explanation means to the individual. == Focus question 3: How do different forms of self-blame influence emotional responses? == Self-blame can be associated with several emotional responses, including guilt, shame, sadness and anxiety. However, these emotions are not necessarily experienced in the same way. The distinction between behavioural and characterological self-blame is important because it helps explain whether someone focuses on a particular mistake or develops negative beliefs about themselves. Research suggests that these different interpretations can influence both emotions and peoples experience and how they respond to negative events. === Guilt and shame === Guilt and shame are both emotions that can arise when someone believes they have done something wrong. However, guilt generally involves a negative evaluation of a particular action, while shame involves a negative evaluation of oneself. For example, someone who forgets an important friend's birthday might feel guilty about being forgetful and decide to make it up to them. However, if they interpret the mistake as evidence that they are a terrible friend, they may experience shame. Although both reactions involve self-blame, the second involves a broader judgement about the person's character. Tracy and Robins (2006) found support for the relationship between different types of appraisals and experiences of guilt and shame. Their research suggests that shame is more closely associated with negative evaluations of the self, whereas guilt is more closely associated with evaluations of particular behaviours. Tilghman-Osborne et al. (2008) further examined this relationship in a [https://guilfordjournals.com/doi/10.1521/jscp.2008.27.8.809 longitudinal study] involving 221 adolescents. The researchers found that shame and characterological self-blame were closely related, suggesting that they may reflect a similar underlying pattern of negative self-evaluation. However, the relationship between guilt and behavioural self-blame was less consistent. This is important because it suggests that the distinction between the two forms of self-blame does not perfectly explain which emotion someone will experience. Although behavioural self-blame and guilt share similarities, they should not automatically be treated as the same experience. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Research suggests that characterological self-blame is closely associated with feelings of shame: |type="()"} + True - False </quiz> === Sadness, anxiety, and depressive symptoms === Beyond guilt and shame, self-blame may also contribute to broader emotional difficulties. When someone repeatedly interprets negative experiences as evidence of personal inadequacy, these beliefs may affect how they feel about themselves and their expectations for the future. For example, a student who receives several disappointing grades might begin questioning their ability to succeed at university. Rather than feeling disappointed about one assessment, they may become increasingly discouraged and anxious about future results. This illustrates how negative self-evaluations can extend beyond an immediate emotional reaction. Janoff-Bulman (1979) found that depressed female university students reported greater characterological self-blame than non-depressed students, while behavioural self-blame did not differ significantly between the groups. This suggested that blaming negative experiences on personal characteristics may be particularly relevant to depressive symptoms. However, subsequent research has complicated this distinction. Anderson et al. (1994) found associations between both forms of self-blame and emotional difficulties, including depression and loneliness. Similarly, Tilghman-Osborne et al. (2008) identified a significant relationship between shame, characterological self-blame and depressive symptoms among adolescents. Together, these studies suggest that negative judgements about the self may be particularly important in understanding depressive symptoms. However, they also show that behavioural self-blame should not automatically be considered harmless. The relationship may depend on how people interpret their responsibility and whether self-blame becomes a repeated pattern. There are also limitations to consider. Much of this research examines associations between self-blame and depressive symptoms rather than establishing a direct cause-and-effect relationship. The studies also involve different populations, including university students and adolescents, which may limit how broadly their findings can be applied. Further evidence comes from [https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fa0021466 Kim et al. (2011)], who conducted a meta-analysis of 108 studies involving 22,411 participants. They found that shame had a stronger association with depressive symptoms (r = .43) than guilt (r = .28). However, guilt involving exaggerated responsibility for events beyond a person's control was also strongly associated with depressive symptoms (r = .39). These findings suggest that emotional difficulties may depend not only on whether someone experiences guilt or shame, but also on how they interpret their responsibility for a negative event. Overall, research indicates that different forms of self-blame are related to emotional responses, particularly guilt, shame and depressive symptoms. However, the findings suggest that these relationships are more complex than simply associating behavioural self-blame with guilt and characterological self-blame with shame. == Focus question 4: Under what circumstances might self-blame be helpful or harmful? == The consequences of self-blame may depend on what happens after someone accepts responsibility for a negative experience. In some situations, recognising a mistake can encourage reflection and improvement. In others, blaming oneself may make it more difficult to move forward, especially when the person continues focusing on what went wrong. Understanding the difference is important because recognising responsibility does not necessarily lead to a helpful emotional response. === When self-blame encourages constructive change === Self-blame may be helpful when someone uses the experience to identify what they could do differently in the future. For example, a person who performs poorly in a job interview might recognise that they did not prepare enough. Although they may feel disappointed, they can use this experience to practise their interview skills and approach future opportunities differently. Research by Tangney et al. (2007) suggests that guilt can encourage constructive responses following negative experiences. Their review discusses how guilt is often associated with taking responsibility and attempting to repair mistakes, such as apologising after hurting someone. This suggests that recognising responsibility may encourage positive change when attention is directed towards what can be done differently in the future. However, guilt is not necessarily helpful when someone takes responsibility for circumstances beyond their control. An important factor is whether the person believes they have control over what happens next. Weiner's (1985) attribution theory suggests that perceived controllability influences how people respond to negative outcomes. If someone believes their actions can make a difference, recognising a mistake may encourage them to take steps towards improving the situation. However, there is a difference between accepting responsibility and unnecessarily blaming oneself. Recognising that a particular decision contributed to an outcome can be useful, but this does not mean that a person needs to continue feeling guilty to make a positive change. What may be helpful is the opportunity to learn from the experience, rather than the negative emotion itself. === When self-blame contributes to ongoing distress === Self-blame may become harmful when someone repeatedly thinks about a negative experience without reaching a useful conclusion. Instead of identifying a way forward, they may continue questioning what they should have done differently. This pattern resembles rumination, which involves repeatedly focusing on distressing experiences and their possible causes or consequences. Nolen-Hoeksema et al. (2008) reviewed research showing that [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.xrumination rumination] is associated with prolonged negative mood and greater vulnerability to depressive symptoms. Although rumination and self-blame are not the same process, the findings help explain why repeatedly revisiting perceived personal mistakes may contribute to ongoing emotional difficulties. The potential harm of self-blame is not limited to repeatedly thinking about negative experiences. Frazier (1990) found that both behavioural and characterological self-blame were associated with greater depressive symptoms among women who had experienced sexual assault. These findings challenge the assumption that focusing on one's behaviour is necessarily less harmful than blaming personal characteristics. However, because the study examined responses to a traumatic experience, its findings may not apply in the same way to everyday mistakes or disappointing performance. Another concern is that people do not always accurately judge how much responsibility they had for an event. For example, someone whose friendship ends may blame themselves entirely, even though the relationship was influenced by both people. If they overlook circumstances outside their control, their self-blame may reinforce feelings of guilt or inadequacy without helping them understand what happened. This highlights an important limitation in treating self-blame as a way of improving future outcomes. Even when someone believes they could have prevented an event, that belief does not necessarily mean they had the ability to do so. Self-blame may therefore be particularly unhelpful when it involves unrealistic responsibility or repeated negative thoughts that do not lead to constructive action. Overall, the distinction between helpful and harmful self-blame is not simply whether someone accepts responsibility. It also depends on whether that responsibility is realistic, whether the person has control over future outcomes, and whether reflecting on the experience encourages constructive action. Recognising a mistake may provide an opportunity for change, whereas repeatedly blaming oneself for circumstances beyond one's control may prolong emotional distress. ==Conclusion== Self-blame is more complex than simply believing that a negative event was one's own fault. How individuals interpret their responsibility can influence the emotions they experience, particularly when they attribute an outcome to their behaviour or personal characteristics. The distinction between behavioural and characterological self-blame helps explain why people may respond differently to similar experiences. Attribution theory and cognitive appraisal theory further demonstrate that emotional responses are influenced not only by what happens, but also by how individuals understand the cause and meaning of an event. Research highlights the relationship between self-blame and emotions such as guilt, shame and depressive symptoms. While behavioural self-blame is often considered more constructive because it focuses on actions that may be changed, the evidence suggests that this distinction is not always straightforward. Both forms of self-blame have been associated with emotional difficulties, challenging the assumption that focusing on one's behaviour necessarily protects against distress. Similarly, although guilt may encourage individuals to take responsibility and repair mistakes, it can also become distressing when someone assumes responsibility for circumstances beyond their control. Ultimately, whether self-blame is helpful or harmful may depend on how realistically individuals assess their responsibility and what they do with that understanding. Recognising a mistake may encourage reflection and positive change, particularly when future outcomes can be influenced by different actions. However, repeated negative thoughts or blaming oneself for uncontrollable circumstances may contribute to ongoing emotional distress. Understanding these differences is important because it shows that taking responsibility does not have to involve continued self-criticism. Instead, learning from negative experiences may be more constructive when individuals recognise what they can change without assuming responsibility for everything that went wrong. ==See also== [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-blame_(psychology) Self-blame] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attribution_(psychology) Attribution theory] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_appraisal Cognitive appraisal theory] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1em| Abela, J. R. Z., Webb, C. A., Wagner, C., Ho, M.-H. R., & Adams, P. (2006)." The role of self-criticism, dependency, and hassles in the course of depressive illness: A multiwave longitudinal study. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32(3), 328–338.'' https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167205280911 Anderson, C. A., et al. ''“Behavioral and Characterological Attributional Styles as Predictors of Depression and Loneliness:'' Review, Refinement, and Test.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 66, no. 3, 1 Mar. 1994, pp. 549–558, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8169764/ Frazier, P. A. (1990). ''Victim attributions and post-rape trauma. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59(2), 298–304.'' https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.59.2.298 Janoff-Bulman, R. (1979). "Characterological versus behavioral self-blame: Inquiries into depression and rape.'' Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(10), 1798–1809. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.37.10.1798 ''Kim, S., Thibodeau, R., & Jorgensen, R. S. (2011). Shame, guilt, and depressive symptoms: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 137(1), 68–96.'' https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021466 ''Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. Oxford University Press.'' National Study of Mental Health and Wellbeing, 2020-21. (2022, July 22). Australian Bureau of Statistics. https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/health/mental-health/national-study-mental-health-and-wellbeing/2020-21?utm_ Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). ''Rethinking rumination. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3(5), 400–424.'' https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x Peterson, C., Schwartz, S. M., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1981). ''Self-blame and depressive symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,'' 41(2), 253–259.'' https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.41.2.253 Tangney, J. P., Stuewig, J., & Mashek, D. J. (2007).''Moral emotions and moral behavior. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 345–372.'' https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145 Tilghman-Osborne, C., Cole, D. A., Felton, J. W., & Ciesla, J. A. (2008). ''Relation of guilt, shame, behavioral and characterological self-blame to depressive symptoms in adolescents over time. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology'', 27(8), 809–842.'' https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2008.27.8.809 Tracy, J. L., & Robins, R. W. (2006).''Appraisal antecedents of shame and guilt: Support for a theoretical model. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32(10), 1339–1351.'' https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167206290212 Weiner, B. (1985).''An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. Psychological Review, 92(4), 548–573.'' https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.92.4.548 }} ==External links== * [https://www.cci.health.wa.gov.au/~/media/CCI/Consumer-Modules/Back-from-The-Bluez/Back-from-the-Bluez---05---Unhelpful-Thinking-Styles.pdf Unhelpful thinking styles] (Government of Western Australia) * [https://www.psychologytools.com/tools/digital-tools/self-blame?language=en-us Self-blame] (Psychology tools) * [https://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/types-of-mental-health-problems/trauma/effects-of-trauma/ Understanding the effects of trauma] (Mind) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-blame]] gbhffn0qdlpq09wpgx5zhp5jiotap1k 2841829 2841828 2026-10-21T08:22:00Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 /* References */ 2841829 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-blame and emotion:<br>How does self-blame influence emotional responses to negative events?}} ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} [[File:Fort Wayne Daisies player, Marie Wegman, of the All American Girls Professional Baseball League arguing with umpire Norris Ward Opa-locka, Florida.jpg|thumb|right|250px| '''Figure 1'''. Two friends having an argument]] '''Imagine this...''' You are having an argument with someone close to you (see figure 1). Afterwards, you begin thinking about what went wrong and whether you could have handled the situation differently. You might think, "I should have listened more carefully" or "I shouldn't have reacted that way." Alternatively, you might begin questioning yourself more personally, thinking, "I'm a terrible friend" or "There's something wrong with me." Although both responses involve blaming yourself for the same negative experience, they focus on different aspects of responsibility. These thoughts may also lead to different emotional responses. You might feel guilty about what you said and want to apologise, or you might feel ashamed and begin questioning your worth as a person. For some people, reflecting on the experience may encourage them to approach future disagreements differently. For others, repeatedly blaming themselves may make it difficult to move forward, particularly when they believe the problem is part of who they are. This raises an important question: Why can blaming ourselves for a negative experience sometimes encourage positive change, while at other times contributing to ongoing emotional distress? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Self-blame is a common response to negative experiences, but its emotional consequences are not always straightforward. While some individuals may use these experiences to reflect on their actions and consider what they could do differently, others may develop negative beliefs about themselves that contribute to ongoing emotional distress. Psychological research suggests that the way individuals interpret their responsibility for an event can influence both their emotional responses and how they approach similar situations in the future. Understanding this relationship is important because self-blame is not necessarily helpful or harmful in every situation. Its consequences may depend on how individuals explain the event, whether they believe they have control over future outcomes, and whether their response encourages constructive action or repeated negative thinking. This chapter examines how self-blame influences emotional responses following negative events. It explores the different forms of self-blame, psychological theories that explain the relationship between self-blame and emotion, and research examining its emotional consequences. It also considers the circumstances in which self-blame may encourage positive change or contribute to ongoing distress. * Understanding factors that influence emotional responses to negative experiences may be particularly relevant for young adults. In Australia, 38.8% of people aged 16–24 experienced a mental disorder in the previous 12 months, while 13.5% experienced an affective disorder (Australian Bureau of Statistics [ABS], 2023). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} '''Focus questions''' * What are the different forms of self-blame? * How do psychological theories explain the relationship between self-blame and emotion? * How do different forms of self-blame influence emotional responses? * Under what circumstances might self-blame be helpful or harmful? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is self-blame?== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} Self-blame occurs when someone believes they are responsible for a negative event or outcome. When something goes wrong, people often try to understand why it happened and whether they could have prevented it. Sometimes, this involves thinking about their own actions, while other times, they may question their personal abilities or characteristics. Although both involve blaming oneself, the difference is important because it may influence how much control someone believes they have over similar situations in the future.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Focus Question 1: What are the different forms of self-blame? == Janoff-Bulman (1979) distinguishes between the [https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0022-3514.37.10.1798 two forms of self-blame], behavioural self-blame and characterological self-blame. These differ based on whether a person blames something they did or something they believe is wrong with them as a person. === Behavioural self-blame:=== Behavioural self-blame occurs when someone believes a negative event happened because of something they did or failed to do which directly impacted the outcome of the event. For example, an employee who misses an important work deadline may blame themselves for not managing their time effectively. Rather than believing they are incapable of doing their job, they recognise that their preparation or time management may have contributed to the outcome. Janoff-Bulman (1979) suggested that behavioural self-blame may help individuals maintain a sense of control because their actions can potentially be changed. If someone believes they could have prepared differently, they may also believe they can improve their approach next time. This does not mean that behavioural self-blame is always helpful, as someone may still feel guilty or continue blaming themselves for a mistake. Research by Anderson et al. (1994) challenges the assumption that behavioural self-blame is necessarily beneficial (see Figure 2). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} Did you know 💡 Anderson et al. (1994) examined two samples of university students, involving 1,001 participants in total. Their findings indicated that both behavioural and characterological self-blame were associated with depression and loneliness. This suggests that focusing on one's actions rather than personal characteristics does not necessarily protect someone from emotional difficulties. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Characterological self-blame: === Characterological self-blame occurs when someone believes a negative event happened because of their personal characteristics or abilities. Rather than focusing on a particular action, they may interpret the experience as evidence of something negative about themselves. For example, an employee who receives negative feedback from their manager may believe they are incompetent or simply not good enough at their job. Rather than considering whether there are specific areas they could improve, they interpret the feedback as evidence that they lack the personal abilities needed to succeed. Janoff-Bulman (1979) implied that characterological self-blame can be particularly distressing because people may view these characteristics as difficult to change. If someone believes the problem is part of who they are, they may feel that similar negative outcomes are likely to happen again. This distinction helps explain why two people can blame themselves for a similar experience but respond differently. However, behavioural self-blame should not automatically be considered positive or characterological self-blame the only harmful form. Research by Anderson et al. (1994) suggests that both forms can be associated with emotional difficulties, meaning the consequences of self-blame may depend on more than what a person believes caused the event. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Characterological self-blame focuses on specific behaviours that can be changed to prevent similar negative outcomes in the future: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Focus Question 2: How do psychological theories explain the relationship between self-blame and emotion? == People do not always respond emotionally to negative experiences in the same way. Although two people may experience a similar situation, their emotions can differ depending on how they understand what happened. For example, two employees who make a mistake at work may both blame themselves, but one might feel guilty about their actions while the other feels ashamed of their abilities. This suggests that emotional responses are influenced not only by the negative event itself, but also by how a person explains and interprets it. Two psychological approaches that help explain this relationship are attribution theory and cognitive appraisal theory. Whilst they focus on different aspects of emotional responses, both suggest that the meaning a person gives to a negative experience is important. === Attribution theory === [https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0033-295X.92.4.548 Attribution theory] focuses on how people explain why events happen. Weiner (1985) proposed that these explanations can be understood through three dimensions, locus, stability and controllability. Locus refers to whether someone believes the cause of an event comes from themselves or from an external factor. Stability refers to whether the cause is seen as something temporary or likely to remain the same. Controllability considers whether the person believes they can influence the cause of the event. These dimensions help explain why self-blame can lead to different emotional responses. For example, someone who believes they missed an important deadline because they did not manage their time effectively may feel guilty but also believe they can prevent the same mistake in the future. However, someone who believes they missed the deadline because they are naturally incompetent may feel ashamed and less confident about improving. Both individuals blame themselves, but they understand the cause of the mistake differently. This is important because Weiner's (1985) theory suggests that emotional responses depend partly on whether the perceived cause is stable and controllable, rather than simply whether a person believes they are responsible. === Cognitive appraisal theory === Cognitive appraisal theory focuses on how people evaluate the meaning of an experience. Rather than suggesting that an event automatically produces a particular emotion, this approach considers how an individual interprets the situation and what it means for them. For example, receiving negative feedback on a sporting performance by a coach may be viewed as an opportunity to improve or as evidence of personal failure. Someone who believes the feedback identifies an area they can improve may feel disappointed but remain motivated. In comparison, someone who interprets the feedback as evidence they are not capable of succeeding may experience shame or anxiety about making further mistakes. Tracy and Robins (2006) examined how different interpretations of negative experiences relate to guilt and shame. Their findings supported the idea that shame is more closely associated with explanations involving behaviours that can potentially be changed. This research helps explain why self-blame does not always produce the same emotional response. The way people understand their responsibility can influence whether they focus on correcting a particular mistake or develop more negative feelings about themselves. Overall, attribution theory and cognitive appraisal theory help explain why self-blame can influence emotions differently. Attribution theory examines what people believe caused an event, while cognitive appraisal theory considers how they evaluate the meaning of the event. Together, these approaches suggest that understanding emotional responses to self-blame requires considering both the explanation for what happened and what that explanation means to the individual. == Focus question 3: How do different forms of self-blame influence emotional responses? == Self-blame can be associated with several emotional responses, including guilt, shame, sadness and anxiety. However, these emotions are not necessarily experienced in the same way. The distinction between behavioural and characterological self-blame is important because it helps explain whether someone focuses on a particular mistake or develops negative beliefs about themselves. Research suggests that these different interpretations can influence both emotions and peoples experience and how they respond to negative events. === Guilt and shame === Guilt and shame are both emotions that can arise when someone believes they have done something wrong. However, guilt generally involves a negative evaluation of a particular action, while shame involves a negative evaluation of oneself. For example, someone who forgets an important friend's birthday might feel guilty about being forgetful and decide to make it up to them. However, if they interpret the mistake as evidence that they are a terrible friend, they may experience shame. Although both reactions involve self-blame, the second involves a broader judgement about the person's character. Tracy and Robins (2006) found support for the relationship between different types of appraisals and experiences of guilt and shame. Their research suggests that shame is more closely associated with negative evaluations of the self, whereas guilt is more closely associated with evaluations of particular behaviours. Tilghman-Osborne et al. (2008) further examined this relationship in a [https://guilfordjournals.com/doi/10.1521/jscp.2008.27.8.809 longitudinal study] involving 221 adolescents. The researchers found that shame and characterological self-blame were closely related, suggesting that they may reflect a similar underlying pattern of negative self-evaluation. However, the relationship between guilt and behavioural self-blame was less consistent. This is important because it suggests that the distinction between the two forms of self-blame does not perfectly explain which emotion someone will experience. Although behavioural self-blame and guilt share similarities, they should not automatically be treated as the same experience. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Research suggests that characterological self-blame is closely associated with feelings of shame: |type="()"} + True - False </quiz> === Sadness, anxiety, and depressive symptoms === Beyond guilt and shame, self-blame may also contribute to broader emotional difficulties. When someone repeatedly interprets negative experiences as evidence of personal inadequacy, these beliefs may affect how they feel about themselves and their expectations for the future. For example, a student who receives several disappointing grades might begin questioning their ability to succeed at university. Rather than feeling disappointed about one assessment, they may become increasingly discouraged and anxious about future results. This illustrates how negative self-evaluations can extend beyond an immediate emotional reaction. Janoff-Bulman (1979) found that depressed female university students reported greater characterological self-blame than non-depressed students, while behavioural self-blame did not differ significantly between the groups. This suggested that blaming negative experiences on personal characteristics may be particularly relevant to depressive symptoms. However, subsequent research has complicated this distinction. Anderson et al. (1994) found associations between both forms of self-blame and emotional difficulties, including depression and loneliness. Similarly, Tilghman-Osborne et al. (2008) identified a significant relationship between shame, characterological self-blame and depressive symptoms among adolescents. Together, these studies suggest that negative judgements about the self may be particularly important in understanding depressive symptoms. However, they also show that behavioural self-blame should not automatically be considered harmless. The relationship may depend on how people interpret their responsibility and whether self-blame becomes a repeated pattern. There are also limitations to consider. Much of this research examines associations between self-blame and depressive symptoms rather than establishing a direct cause-and-effect relationship. The studies also involve different populations, including university students and adolescents, which may limit how broadly their findings can be applied. Further evidence comes from [https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fa0021466 Kim et al. (2011)], who conducted a meta-analysis of 108 studies involving 22,411 participants. They found that shame had a stronger association with depressive symptoms (r = .43) than guilt (r = .28). However, guilt involving exaggerated responsibility for events beyond a person's control was also strongly associated with depressive symptoms (r = .39). These findings suggest that emotional difficulties may depend not only on whether someone experiences guilt or shame, but also on how they interpret their responsibility for a negative event. Overall, research indicates that different forms of self-blame are related to emotional responses, particularly guilt, shame and depressive symptoms. However, the findings suggest that these relationships are more complex than simply associating behavioural self-blame with guilt and characterological self-blame with shame. == Focus question 4: Under what circumstances might self-blame be helpful or harmful? == The consequences of self-blame may depend on what happens after someone accepts responsibility for a negative experience. In some situations, recognising a mistake can encourage reflection and improvement. In others, blaming oneself may make it more difficult to move forward, especially when the person continues focusing on what went wrong. Understanding the difference is important because recognising responsibility does not necessarily lead to a helpful emotional response. === When self-blame encourages constructive change === Self-blame may be helpful when someone uses the experience to identify what they could do differently in the future. For example, a person who performs poorly in a job interview might recognise that they did not prepare enough. Although they may feel disappointed, they can use this experience to practise their interview skills and approach future opportunities differently. Research by Tangney et al. (2007) suggests that guilt can encourage constructive responses following negative experiences. Their review discusses how guilt is often associated with taking responsibility and attempting to repair mistakes, such as apologising after hurting someone. This suggests that recognising responsibility may encourage positive change when attention is directed towards what can be done differently in the future. However, guilt is not necessarily helpful when someone takes responsibility for circumstances beyond their control. An important factor is whether the person believes they have control over what happens next. Weiner's (1985) attribution theory suggests that perceived controllability influences how people respond to negative outcomes. If someone believes their actions can make a difference, recognising a mistake may encourage them to take steps towards improving the situation. However, there is a difference between accepting responsibility and unnecessarily blaming oneself. Recognising that a particular decision contributed to an outcome can be useful, but this does not mean that a person needs to continue feeling guilty to make a positive change. What may be helpful is the opportunity to learn from the experience, rather than the negative emotion itself. === When self-blame contributes to ongoing distress === Self-blame may become harmful when someone repeatedly thinks about a negative experience without reaching a useful conclusion. Instead of identifying a way forward, they may continue questioning what they should have done differently. This pattern resembles rumination, which involves repeatedly focusing on distressing experiences and their possible causes or consequences. Nolen-Hoeksema et al. (2008) reviewed research showing that [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.xrumination rumination] is associated with prolonged negative mood and greater vulnerability to depressive symptoms. Although rumination and self-blame are not the same process, the findings help explain why repeatedly revisiting perceived personal mistakes may contribute to ongoing emotional difficulties. The potential harm of self-blame is not limited to repeatedly thinking about negative experiences. Frazier (1990) found that both behavioural and characterological self-blame were associated with greater depressive symptoms among women who had experienced sexual assault. These findings challenge the assumption that focusing on one's behaviour is necessarily less harmful than blaming personal characteristics. However, because the study examined responses to a traumatic experience, its findings may not apply in the same way to everyday mistakes or disappointing performance. Another concern is that people do not always accurately judge how much responsibility they had for an event. For example, someone whose friendship ends may blame themselves entirely, even though the relationship was influenced by both people. If they overlook circumstances outside their control, their self-blame may reinforce feelings of guilt or inadequacy without helping them understand what happened. This highlights an important limitation in treating self-blame as a way of improving future outcomes. Even when someone believes they could have prevented an event, that belief does not necessarily mean they had the ability to do so. Self-blame may therefore be particularly unhelpful when it involves unrealistic responsibility or repeated negative thoughts that do not lead to constructive action. Overall, the distinction between helpful and harmful self-blame is not simply whether someone accepts responsibility. It also depends on whether that responsibility is realistic, whether the person has control over future outcomes, and whether reflecting on the experience encourages constructive action. Recognising a mistake may provide an opportunity for change, whereas repeatedly blaming oneself for circumstances beyond one's control may prolong emotional distress. ==Conclusion== Self-blame is more complex than simply believing that a negative event was one's own fault. How individuals interpret their responsibility can influence the emotions they experience, particularly when they attribute an outcome to their behaviour or personal characteristics. The distinction between behavioural and characterological self-blame helps explain why people may respond differently to similar experiences. Attribution theory and cognitive appraisal theory further demonstrate that emotional responses are influenced not only by what happens, but also by how individuals understand the cause and meaning of an event. Research highlights the relationship between self-blame and emotions such as guilt, shame and depressive symptoms. While behavioural self-blame is often considered more constructive because it focuses on actions that may be changed, the evidence suggests that this distinction is not always straightforward. Both forms of self-blame have been associated with emotional difficulties, challenging the assumption that focusing on one's behaviour necessarily protects against distress. Similarly, although guilt may encourage individuals to take responsibility and repair mistakes, it can also become distressing when someone assumes responsibility for circumstances beyond their control. Ultimately, whether self-blame is helpful or harmful may depend on how realistically individuals assess their responsibility and what they do with that understanding. Recognising a mistake may encourage reflection and positive change, particularly when future outcomes can be influenced by different actions. However, repeated negative thoughts or blaming oneself for uncontrollable circumstances may contribute to ongoing emotional distress. Understanding these differences is important because it shows that taking responsibility does not have to involve continued self-criticism. Instead, learning from negative experiences may be more constructive when individuals recognise what they can change without assuming responsibility for everything that went wrong. ==See also== [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-blame_(psychology) Self-blame] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attribution_(psychology) Attribution theory] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_appraisal Cognitive appraisal theory] ==References== {{Hanging indent| Abela, J. R. Z., Webb, C. A., Wagner, C., Ho, M.-H. R., & Adams, P. (2006)." The role of self-criticism, dependency, and hassles in the course of depressive illness: A multiwave longitudinal study. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32(3), 328–338.'' https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167205280911 Anderson, C. A., et al. ''“Behavioral and Characterological Attributional Styles as Predictors of Depression and Loneliness:'' Review, Refinement, and Test.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 66, no. 3, 1 Mar. 1994, pp. 549–558, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8169764/ Frazier, P. A. (1990). ''Victim attributions and post-rape trauma. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59(2), 298–304.'' https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.59.2.298 Janoff-Bulman, R. (1979). "Characterological versus behavioral self-blame: Inquiries into depression and rape.'' Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(10), 1798–1809. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.37.10.1798 ''Kim, S., Thibodeau, R., & Jorgensen, R. S. (2011). Shame, guilt, and depressive symptoms: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 137(1), 68–96.'' https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021466 ''Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. Oxford University Press.'' National Study of Mental Health and Wellbeing, 2020-21. (2022, July 22). Australian Bureau of Statistics. https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/health/mental-health/national-study-mental-health-and-wellbeing/2020-21?utm_ Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). ''Rethinking rumination. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3(5), 400–424.'' https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x Peterson, C., Schwartz, S. M., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1981). ''Self-blame and depressive symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,'' 41(2), 253–259.'' https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.41.2.253 Tangney, J. P., Stuewig, J., & Mashek, D. J. (2007).''Moral emotions and moral behavior. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 345–372.'' https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145 Tilghman-Osborne, C., Cole, D. A., Felton, J. W., & Ciesla, J. A. (2008). ''Relation of guilt, shame, behavioral and characterological self-blame to depressive symptoms in adolescents over time. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology'', 27(8), 809–842.'' https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2008.27.8.809 Tracy, J. L., & Robins, R. W. (2006).''Appraisal antecedents of shame and guilt: Support for a theoretical model. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32(10), 1339–1351.'' https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167206290212 Weiner, B. (1985).''An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. Psychological Review, 92(4), 548–573.'' https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.92.4.548 }} ==External links== * [https://www.cci.health.wa.gov.au/~/media/CCI/Consumer-Modules/Back-from-The-Bluez/Back-from-the-Bluez---05---Unhelpful-Thinking-Styles.pdf Unhelpful thinking styles] (Government of Western Australia) * [https://www.psychologytools.com/tools/digital-tools/self-blame?language=en-us Self-blame] (Psychology tools) * [https://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/types-of-mental-health-problems/trauma/effects-of-trauma/ Understanding the effects of trauma] (Mind) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-blame]] qnln2l3sp8o4ykf3apc5opk6z1qlmn5 2841833 2841829 2026-10-21T08:29:17Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 2841833 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-blame and emotion:<br>How does self-blame influence emotional responses to negative events?}} ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} [[File:Fort Wayne Daisies player, Marie Wegman, of the All American Girls Professional Baseball League arguing with umpire Norris Ward Opa-locka, Florida.jpg|thumb|right|250px| '''Figure 1'''. Two friends having an argument]] '''Imagine this...''' You are having an argument with someone close to you (see figure 1). Afterwards, you begin thinking about what went wrong and whether you could have handled the situation differently. You might think, "I should have listened more carefully" or "I shouldn't have reacted that way." Alternatively, you might begin questioning yourself more personally, thinking, "I'm a terrible friend" or "There's something wrong with me." Although both responses involve blaming yourself for the same negative experience, they focus on different aspects of responsibility. These thoughts may also lead to different emotional responses. You might feel guilty about what you said and want to apologise, or you might feel ashamed and begin questioning your worth as a person. For some people, reflecting on the experience may encourage them to approach future disagreements differently. For others, repeatedly blaming themselves may make it difficult to move forward, particularly when they believe the problem is part of who they are. This raises an important question: Why can blaming ourselves for a negative experience sometimes encourage positive change, while at other times contributing to ongoing emotional distress? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Self-blame is a common response to negative experiences, but its emotional consequences are not always straightforward. While some individuals may use these experiences to reflect on their actions and consider what they could do differently, others may develop negative beliefs about themselves that contribute to ongoing emotional distress. Psychological research suggests that the way individuals interpret their responsibility for an event can influence both their emotional responses and how they approach similar situations in the future. Understanding this relationship is important because self-blame is not necessarily helpful or harmful in every situation. Its consequences may depend on how individuals explain the event, whether they believe they have control over future outcomes, and whether their response encourages constructive action or repeated negative thinking. This chapter examines how self-blame influences emotional responses following negative events. It explores the different forms of self-blame, psychological theories that explain the relationship between self-blame and emotion, and research examining its emotional consequences. It also considers the circumstances in which self-blame may encourage positive change or contribute to ongoing distress. * Understanding factors that influence emotional responses to negative experiences may be particularly relevant for young adults. In Australia, 38.8% of people aged 16–24 experienced a mental disorder in the previous 12 months, while 13.5% experienced an affective disorder (Australian Bureau of Statistics [ABS], 2023). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} '''Focus questions''' * What are the different forms of self-blame? * How do psychological theories explain the relationship between self-blame and emotion? * How do different forms of self-blame influence emotional responses? * Under what circumstances might self-blame be helpful or harmful? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is self-blame?== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} Self-blame occurs when someone believes they are responsible for a negative event or outcome. When something goes wrong, people often try to understand why it happened and whether they could have prevented it. Sometimes, this involves thinking about their own actions, while other times, they may question their personal abilities or characteristics. Although both involve blaming oneself, the difference is important because it may influence how much control someone believes they have over similar situations in the future.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Focus Question 1: What are the different forms of self-blame? == Janoff-Bulman (1979) distinguishes between the [https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0022-3514.37.10.1798 two forms of self-blame], behavioural self-blame and characterological self-blame. These differ based on whether a person blames something they did or something they believe is wrong with them as a person. === Behavioural self-blame:=== Behavioural self-blame occurs when someone believes a negative event happened because of something they did or failed to do which directly impacted the outcome of the event. For example, an employee who misses an important work deadline may blame themselves for not managing their time effectively. Rather than believing they are incapable of doing their job, they recognise that their preparation or time management may have contributed to the outcome. Janoff-Bulman (1979) suggested that behavioural self-blame may help individuals maintain a sense of control because their actions can potentially be changed. If someone believes they could have prepared differently, they may also believe they can improve their approach next time. This does not mean that behavioural self-blame is always helpful, as someone may still feel guilty or continue blaming themselves for a mistake. Research by Anderson et al. (1994) challenges the assumption that behavioural self-blame is necessarily beneficial (see Figure 2). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} Did you know 💡 Anderson et al. (1994) examined two samples of university students, involving 1,001 participants in total. Their findings indicated that both behavioural and characterological self-blame were associated with depression and loneliness. This suggests that focusing on one's actions rather than personal characteristics does not necessarily protect someone from emotional difficulties. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Characterological self-blame: === Characterological self-blame occurs when someone believes a negative event happened because of their personal characteristics or abilities. Rather than focusing on a particular action, they may interpret the experience as evidence of something negative about themselves. For example, an employee who receives negative feedback from their manager may believe they are incompetent or simply not good enough at their job. Rather than considering whether there are specific areas they could improve, they interpret the feedback as evidence that they lack the personal abilities needed to succeed. Janoff-Bulman (1979) implied that characterological self-blame can be particularly distressing because people may view these characteristics as difficult to change. If someone believes the problem is part of who they are, they may feel that similar negative outcomes are likely to happen again. This distinction helps explain why two people can blame themselves for a similar experience but respond differently. However, behavioural self-blame should not automatically be considered positive or characterological self-blame the only harmful form. Research by Anderson et al. (1994) suggests that both forms can be associated with emotional difficulties, meaning the consequences of self-blame may depend on more than what a person believes caused the event. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Characterological self-blame focuses on specific behaviours that can be changed to prevent similar negative outcomes in the future: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Focus Question 2: How do psychological theories explain the relationship between self-blame and emotion? == People do not always respond emotionally to negative experiences in the same way. Although two people may experience a similar situation, their emotions can differ depending on how they understand what happened. For example, two employees who make a mistake at work may both blame themselves, but one might feel guilty about their actions while the other feels ashamed of their abilities. This suggests that emotional responses are influenced not only by the negative event itself, but also by how a person explains and interprets it. Two psychological approaches that help explain this relationship are attribution theory and cognitive appraisal theory. Whilst they focus on different aspects of emotional responses, both suggest that the meaning a person gives to a negative experience is important. === Attribution theory === [https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0033-295X.92.4.548 Attribution theory] focuses on how people explain why events happen. Weiner (1985) proposed that these explanations can be understood through three dimensions, locus, stability and controllability. Locus refers to whether someone believes the cause of an event comes from themselves or from an external factor. Stability refers to whether the cause is seen as something temporary or likely to remain the same. Controllability considers whether the person believes they can influence the cause of the event. These dimensions help explain why self-blame can lead to different emotional responses. For example, someone who believes they missed an important deadline because they did not manage their time effectively may feel guilty but also believe they can prevent the same mistake in the future. However, someone who believes they missed the deadline because they are naturally incompetent may feel ashamed and less confident about improving. Both individuals blame themselves, but they understand the cause of the mistake differently. This is important because Weiner's (1985) theory suggests that emotional responses depend partly on whether the perceived cause is stable and controllable, rather than simply whether a person believes they are responsible. === Cognitive appraisal theory === Cognitive appraisal theory focuses on how people evaluate the meaning of an experience. Rather than suggesting that an event automatically produces a particular emotion, this approach considers how an individual interprets the situation and what it means for them. For example, receiving negative feedback on a sporting performance by a coach may be viewed as an opportunity to improve or as evidence of personal failure. Someone who believes the feedback identifies an area they can improve may feel disappointed but remain motivated. In comparison, someone who interprets the feedback as evidence they are not capable of succeeding may experience shame or anxiety about making further mistakes. Tracy and Robins (2006) examined how different interpretations of negative experiences relate to guilt and shame. Their findings supported the idea that shame is more closely associated with explanations involving behaviours that can potentially be changed. This research helps explain why self-blame does not always produce the same emotional response. The way people understand their responsibility can influence whether they focus on correcting a particular mistake or develop more negative feelings about themselves. Overall, attribution theory and cognitive appraisal theory help explain why self-blame can influence emotions differently. Attribution theory examines what people believe caused an event, while cognitive appraisal theory considers how they evaluate the meaning of the event. Together, these approaches suggest that understanding emotional responses to self-blame requires considering both the explanation for what happened and what that explanation means to the individual. == Focus question 3: How do different forms of self-blame influence emotional responses? == Self-blame can be associated with several emotional responses, including guilt, shame, sadness and anxiety. However, these emotions are not necessarily experienced in the same way. The distinction between behavioural and characterological self-blame is important because it helps explain whether someone focuses on a particular mistake or develops negative beliefs about themselves. Research suggests that these different interpretations can influence both emotions and peoples experience and how they respond to negative events. === Guilt and shame === Guilt and shame are both emotions that can arise when someone believes they have done something wrong. However, guilt generally involves a negative evaluation of a particular action, while shame involves a negative evaluation of oneself. For example, someone who forgets an important friend's birthday might feel guilty about being forgetful and decide to make it up to them. However, if they interpret the mistake as evidence that they are a terrible friend, they may experience shame. Although both reactions involve self-blame, the second involves a broader judgement about the person's character. Tracy and Robins (2006) found support for the relationship between different types of appraisals and experiences of guilt and shame. Their research suggests that shame is more closely associated with negative evaluations of the self, whereas guilt is more closely associated with evaluations of particular behaviours. Tilghman-Osborne et al. (2008) further examined this relationship in a [https://guilfordjournals.com/doi/10.1521/jscp.2008.27.8.809 longitudinal study] involving 221 adolescents. The researchers found that shame and characterological self-blame were closely related, suggesting that they may reflect a similar underlying pattern of negative self-evaluation. However, the relationship between guilt and behavioural self-blame was less consistent. This is important because it suggests that the distinction between the two forms of self-blame does not perfectly explain which emotion someone will experience. Although behavioural self-blame and guilt share similarities, they should not automatically be treated as the same experience. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Research suggests that characterological self-blame is closely associated with feelings of shame: |type="()"} + True - False </quiz> === Sadness, anxiety, and depressive symptoms === Beyond guilt and shame, self-blame may also contribute to broader emotional difficulties. When someone repeatedly interprets negative experiences as evidence of personal inadequacy, these beliefs may affect how they feel about themselves and their expectations for the future. For example, a student who receives several disappointing grades might begin questioning their ability to succeed at university. Rather than feeling disappointed about one assessment, they may become increasingly discouraged and anxious about future results. This illustrates how negative self-evaluations can extend beyond an immediate emotional reaction. Janoff-Bulman (1979) found that depressed female university students reported greater characterological self-blame than non-depressed students, while behavioural self-blame did not differ significantly between the groups. This suggested that blaming negative experiences on personal characteristics may be particularly relevant to depressive symptoms. However, subsequent research has complicated this distinction. Anderson et al. (1994) found associations between both forms of self-blame and emotional difficulties, including depression and loneliness. Similarly, Tilghman-Osborne et al. (2008) identified a significant relationship between shame, characterological self-blame and depressive symptoms among adolescents. Together, these studies suggest that negative judgements about the self may be particularly important in understanding depressive symptoms. However, they also show that behavioural self-blame should not automatically be considered harmless. The relationship may depend on how people interpret their responsibility and whether self-blame becomes a repeated pattern. There are also limitations to consider. Much of this research examines associations between self-blame and depressive symptoms rather than establishing a direct cause-and-effect relationship. The studies also involve different populations, including university students and adolescents, which may limit how broadly their findings can be applied. Further evidence comes from [https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fa0021466 Kim et al. (2011)], who conducted a meta-analysis of 108 studies involving 22,411 participants. They found that shame had a stronger association with depressive symptoms (r = .43) than guilt (r = .28). However, guilt involving exaggerated responsibility for events beyond a person's control was also strongly associated with depressive symptoms (r = .39). These findings suggest that emotional difficulties may depend not only on whether someone experiences guilt or shame, but also on how they interpret their responsibility for a negative event. Overall, research indicates that different forms of self-blame are related to emotional responses, particularly guilt, shame and depressive symptoms. However, the findings suggest that these relationships are more complex than simply associating behavioural self-blame with guilt and characterological self-blame with shame. == Focus question 4: Under what circumstances might self-blame be helpful or harmful? == The consequences of self-blame may depend on what happens after someone accepts responsibility for a negative experience. In some situations, recognising a mistake can encourage reflection and improvement. In others, blaming oneself may make it more difficult to move forward, especially when the person continues focusing on what went wrong. Understanding the difference is important because recognising responsibility does not necessarily lead to a helpful emotional response. === When self-blame encourages constructive change === Self-blame may be helpful when someone uses the experience to identify what they could do differently in the future. For example, a person who performs poorly in a job interview might recognise that they did not prepare enough. Although they may feel disappointed, they can use this experience to practise their interview skills and approach future opportunities differently. Research by Tangney et al. (2007) suggests that guilt can encourage constructive responses following negative experiences. Their review discusses how guilt is often associated with taking responsibility and attempting to repair mistakes, such as apologising after hurting someone. This suggests that recognising responsibility may encourage positive change when attention is directed towards what can be done differently in the future. However, guilt is not necessarily helpful when someone takes responsibility for circumstances beyond their control. An important factor is whether the person believes they have control over what happens next. Weiner's (1985) attribution theory suggests that perceived controllability influences how people respond to negative outcomes. If someone believes their actions can make a difference, recognising a mistake may encourage them to take steps towards improving the situation. However, there is a difference between accepting responsibility and unnecessarily blaming oneself. Recognising that a particular decision contributed to an outcome can be useful, but this does not mean that a person needs to continue feeling guilty to make a positive change. What may be helpful is the opportunity to learn from the experience, rather than the negative emotion itself. === When self-blame contributes to ongoing distress === Self-blame may become harmful when someone repeatedly thinks about a negative experience without reaching a useful conclusion. Instead of identifying a way forward, they may continue questioning what they should have done differently. This pattern resembles rumination, which involves repeatedly focusing on distressing experiences and their possible causes or consequences. Nolen-Hoeksema et al. (2008) reviewed research showing that [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.xrumination rumination] is associated with prolonged negative mood and greater vulnerability to depressive symptoms. Although rumination and self-blame are not the same process, the findings help explain why repeatedly revisiting perceived personal mistakes may contribute to ongoing emotional difficulties. The potential harm of self-blame is not limited to repeatedly thinking about negative experiences. Frazier (1990) found that both behavioural and characterological self-blame were associated with greater depressive symptoms among women who had experienced sexual assault. These findings challenge the assumption that focusing on one's behaviour is necessarily less harmful than blaming personal characteristics. However, because the study examined responses to a traumatic experience, its findings may not apply in the same way to everyday mistakes or disappointing performance. Another concern is that people do not always accurately judge how much responsibility they had for an event. For example, someone whose friendship ends may blame themselves entirely, even though the relationship was influenced by both people. If they overlook circumstances outside their control, their self-blame may reinforce feelings of guilt or inadequacy without helping them understand what happened. This highlights an important limitation in treating self-blame as a way of improving future outcomes. Even when someone believes they could have prevented an event, that belief does not necessarily mean they had the ability to do so. Self-blame may therefore be particularly unhelpful when it involves unrealistic responsibility or repeated negative thoughts that do not lead to constructive action. Overall, the distinction between helpful and harmful self-blame is not simply whether someone accepts responsibility. It also depends on whether that responsibility is realistic, whether the person has control over future outcomes, and whether reflecting on the experience encourages constructive action. Recognising a mistake may provide an opportunity for change, whereas repeatedly blaming oneself for circumstances beyond one's control may prolong emotional distress. ==Conclusion== Self-blame is more complex than simply believing that a negative event was one's own fault. How individuals interpret their responsibility can influence the emotions they experience, particularly when they attribute an outcome to their behaviour or personal characteristics. The distinction between behavioural and characterological self-blame helps explain why people may respond differently to similar experiences. Attribution theory and cognitive appraisal theory further demonstrate that emotional responses are influenced not only by what happens, but also by how individuals understand the cause and meaning of an event. Research highlights the relationship between self-blame and emotions such as guilt, shame and depressive symptoms. While behavioural self-blame is often considered more constructive because it focuses on actions that may be changed, the evidence suggests that this distinction is not always straightforward. Both forms of self-blame have been associated with emotional difficulties, challenging the assumption that focusing on one's behaviour necessarily protects against distress. Similarly, although guilt may encourage individuals to take responsibility and repair mistakes, it can also become distressing when someone assumes responsibility for circumstances beyond their control. Ultimately, whether self-blame is helpful or harmful may depend on how realistically individuals assess their responsibility and what they do with that understanding. Recognising a mistake may encourage reflection and positive change, particularly when future outcomes can be influenced by different actions. However, repeated negative thoughts or blaming oneself for uncontrollable circumstances may contribute to ongoing emotional distress. Understanding these differences is important because it shows that taking responsibility does not have to involve continued self-criticism. Instead, learning from negative experiences may be more constructive when individuals recognise what they can change without assuming responsibility for everything that went wrong. ==See also== [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-blame_(psychology) Self-blame] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attribution_(psychology) Attribution theory] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_appraisal Cognitive appraisal theory] ==References== {{Hanging indent| Abela, J. R. Z., Webb, C. A., Wagner, C., Ho, M.-H. R., & Adams, P. (2006)'' The role of self-criticism, dependency, and hassles in the course of depressive illness: A multiwave longitudinal study. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32(3), 328–338.'' https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167205280911 Anderson, C. A., et al. ''“Behavioral and Characterological Attributional Styles as Predictors of Depression and Loneliness:'' Review, Refinement, and Test.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 66, no. 3, 1 Mar. 1994, pp. 549–558, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8169764/ Frazier, P. A. (1990). ''Victim attributions and post-rape trauma. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59(2), 298–304.'' https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.59.2.298 Janoff-Bulman, R. (1979).''Characterological versus behavioral self-blame: Inquiries into depression and rape.'' Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(10), 1798–1809. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.37.10.1798 ''Kim, S., Thibodeau, R., & Jorgensen, R. S. (2011). Shame, guilt, and depressive symptoms: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 137(1), 68–96.'' https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021466 ''Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. Oxford University Press.'' National Study of Mental Health and Wellbeing, 2020-21. (2022, July 22). Australian Bureau of Statistics. https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/health/mental-health/national-study-mental-health-and-wellbeing/2020-21?utm_ Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). ''Rethinking rumination. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3(5), 400–424.'' https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x Peterson, C., Schwartz, S. M., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1981). ''Self-blame and depressive symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,'' 41(2), 253–259. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.41.2.253 Tangney, J. P., Stuewig, J., & Mashek, D. J. (2007).''Moral emotions and moral behavior. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 345–372.'' https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145 Tilghman-Osborne, C., Cole, D. A., Felton, J. W., & Ciesla, J. A. (2008). ''Relation of guilt, shame, behavioral and characterological self-blame to depressive symptoms in adolescents over time. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology'', 27(8), 809–842. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2008.27.8.809 Tracy, J. L., & Robins, R. W. (2006).''Appraisal antecedents of shame and guilt: Support for a theoretical model. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32(10), 1339–1351.'' https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167206290212 Weiner, B. (1985).''An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. Psychological Review, 92(4), 548–573.'' https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.92.4.548 }} ==External links== * [https://www.cci.health.wa.gov.au/~/media/CCI/Consumer-Modules/Back-from-The-Bluez/Back-from-the-Bluez---05---Unhelpful-Thinking-Styles.pdf Unhelpful thinking styles] (Government of Western Australia) * [https://www.psychologytools.com/tools/digital-tools/self-blame?language=en-us Self-blame] (Psychology tools) * [https://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/types-of-mental-health-problems/trauma/effects-of-trauma/ Understanding the effects of trauma] (Mind) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-blame]] hugjlpx72sby52vpaixg3qg3x5or36a 0 331630 2841824 2841219 2026-10-21T08:13:05Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 Attempting to solve lints 2841824 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Reinforcement sensitivity theory:<br>How does Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory Explain Individual Differences in Motivation, Emotion, and Behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Case Study''' Aisha and her classmates, Mia and Daniel, have all applied for the same job and have made the interview stage for a competitive graduate position. Although they are all hoping to get the job, each of them reacts differently to the situation. Aisha is excited about the opportunity and thinks about the benefits of getting the job, such as earning a good salary and building her career/portfolio. She feels motivated to prepare for the interview and sees it as a chance to achieve her goals. This reflects the Behavioural Activation System (BAS), as it is linked to reward sensitivity and motivation to pursue positive outcomes. Mia is also keen to get the job, but feels nervous about making a mistake or giving the wrong answers. She spends time thinking about what could potentially go wrong and carefully considers how to respond to each questions. Her reaction reflects the Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS), which is involved in dealing with uncertainty, weighing up risks and managing conflicting feelings. On his way to the interview, Daniel encounters an aggressive person on his way inside the building and suddenly feels unsafe. His first instinct is to get away from the situation as quickly as possible and not go to the interview anymore. This reflects the Fight–Flight–Freeze System (FFFS), which is responsible for defensive responses to perceived threats. These examples show how people can react differently to situations depending on their sensitivity to rewards, uncertainty and threats. Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory helps explain these differences in motivation, emotion and behaviour, while recognising that the three systems can interact rather than operating completely separately. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === What is Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory? === Imagine two people walking home late at night when they hear footsteps approaching from behind. One person immediately turns around and runs, while the other becomes alert, evaluates the situation, and considers whether they should continue walking or find somewhere safe. In another situation, someone might eagerly approach a new opportunity because they anticipate a rewarding outcome, while another person may hesitate because of uncertainty or the possibility of failure. Why do people respond so differently to the same situations? Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST) provides a framework for understanding these differences in behaviour, motivation, emotion, and personality (Corr, 2008). RST was originally developed from the work of Jeffrey Gray and was substantially revised by Gray and McNaughton (2000). The revised theory proposes that behaviour is influenced by neuropsychological systems that respond to rewarding, conflicting, and threatening stimuli. The revised theory primarily focuses on three systems: the Behavioural Approach System (BAS), the Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS), and the Fight–Flight–Freeze System (FFFS) (Gray & McNaughton, 2000; Smillie et al., 2006). The BAS is primarily associated with approaching rewarding or appetitive stimuli and pursuing goals. The BIS is activated by goal conflict and uncertainty, prompting individuals to assess situations and resolve competing goals. In contrast, the FFFS is associated with responses to aversive or threatening stimuli, including defensive behaviours such as fight, flight, and freezing (Gray & McNaughton, 2000; Corr, 2008). Together, these systems provide a framework for understanding why individuals can experience and respond to similar situations in different ways. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions''' {{ic|}} #. What is Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory and how did it develop? #. What are the functions of the BAS, BIS, and FFFS? #. How do the BIS and FFFS differ in their responses to threatening situations? #. How can RST explain individual differences in personality and behaviour? #. How has RST contributed to psychological research into motivation and emotion? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory == === The Original Theory === The '''Behavioural Activation System (BAS)''' is primarily associated with sensitivity to rewards and appetitive stimuli. It motivates individuals to move towards desirable goals and positive outcomes and is associated with approach-related behaviours such as reward seeking, goal pursuit, excitement, and motivation (Gray & McNaughton, 2000; Corr, 2004). Individuals with a greater BAS sensitivity may therefore be more responsive to opportunities for reward as well as may be more likely to actively pursue pleasurable or desirable experiences. Research has also linked BAS sensitivity with aspects of personality such as extraversion, impulsivity, and reward responsiveness, although the exact relationship depends on how the BAS is measured (Corr, 2004; Smillie et al., 2006). === The Revised Theory === The '''Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS''') is associated with situations involving conflict, uncertainty, and competing behavioural goals. Rather than simply responding to punishment, as was emphasised in earlier versions of RST, the revised theory proposes that the BIS becomes particularly important when an individual experiences a conflict between approach and avoidance tendencies (Gray & McNaughton, 2000). For example, a person may want to approach a social situation because it could provide a reward but simultaneously want to avoid it because they are worried about being judged. Activation of the BIS can result in an increase of attention, caution, risk assessment, worry, and anxiety while the individual attempts to resolve the conflict (Corr, 2004; McNaughton & Corr, 2004). === The Three Neuropsychological Systems === The '''Fight–Flight–Freeze System (FFFS)''' is primarily responsible for responding to aversive and threatening stimuli and is associated with fear and defensive behaviour. When an individual encounters an immediate threat, the FFFS can motivate behaviours such as fighting, escaping, avoiding, or freezing in response to danger (Gray & McNaughton, 2000). An important development in revised RST was the separation of the FFFS from the BIS. The FFFS is more closely associated with direct fear and avoidance of threats, whereas the BIS is associated with anxiety arising from conflict and uncertainty (Corr, 2004; Smillie et al., 2006). This distinction allows RST to provide a more detailed explanation of why people can experience different emotional and behavioural responses to threatening situations. [[File:RSTDiagram.png|thumb|150x150px|'''Figure 2'''. Diagram illustrating the three systems of Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (BAS, BIS and FFFS) and their roles in motivation, emotion, and behaviour.]] == Behavioural Activation System == The Behavioural Activation System (BAS) stands for Behavioural Activation System and is one of the major motivational systems described within Jeffrey Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST). The BAS is primarily concerned with sensitivity to rewards and appetitive stimuli, encouraging individuals to move towards desirable outcomes rather than away from them (Gray, 1970; Corr, 2008). According to RST, the BAS becomes activated when the individual perceives a possibility of obtaining something desirable. This could be anything from money, to social approval, success, food, pleasurable experiences, or new opportunities. Rather than simply responding to rewards after they have been received, the BAS is particularly important for motivating behaviour when a reward is anticipated or considered achievable (Gray & McNaughton, 2000). === Reward Directed Behaviour === BAS activation can also occur in response to cues that signal the possibility of receiving a reward. These cues as mentioned may include seeing an opportunity to receiving positive feedback or recognising that a particular behaviour could lead to a desirable consequence. This means that BAS activity can then influence behaviour before the reward is actually obtained. Individual differences in BAS sensitivity make up an important component of RST. People differ in how strongly they respond to reward-related cues, meaning that the same opportunity may produce different levels of motivation in different individuals (Corr, 2004). A person with relatively higher BAS sensitivity may respond particularly strongly to opportunities for reward, as well as may be more motivated to pursue positive outcomes. They may be more likely to seek out exciting or enjoyable experiences, take advantage of opportunities that could produce positive consequences, and respond strongly to praise, achievement, recognition, or other forms of positive reinforcement. They may also be quicker to initiate behaviours when a potentially rewarding opportunity becomes available (Corr, 2008; Smillie et al., 2006). == Fight-Flight-Freeze System == The Fight–Flight–Freeze System (FFFS) is one of the three major motivational and defensive systems identified in the revised version of Jeffrey Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST), focusing more through the work of Gray and McNaughton (2000). The FFFS’s primary concern is with responding to aversive stimuli, such as threats, fear and punishment, and its central function is to protect the individual from immediate danger by producing defensive responses (Gray & McNaughton, 2000; Corr, 2004). Unlike the before mentioned Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS), which is primarily associated with conflict and uncertainty in situations, in which competing behavioural tendencies need to be resolved, the FFFS is then activated by stimuli that are perceived as directly threatening or aversive (McNaughton & Corr, 2004; Corr & McNaughton, 2008). === Fear and Threat === When a person encounters an immediate threat, the FFFS can produce rapid defensive responses that are commonly described as fight, flight, or freeze. The fight response involves confronting or attempting to defend against the source of danger, while the flight response involves escaping or moving away from the threatening stimulus. The freeze response involves becoming temporarily still, reducing movement, or experiencing a temporary inability to initiate an immediate behavioural response when confronted with danger (Gray & McNaughton, 2000; Kozlowska et al., 2015). These responses can be understood as different defensive strategies that may be selected depending on the characteristics and perceived proximity of the threat. For example, if an individual encounters an aggressive person, they may attempt to defend themselves, escape from the situation, or momentarily freeze while assessing what to do next. The FFFS is therefore closely associated with fear and defensive behaviour, whereas anxiety is more strongly associated with BIS activation when there is conflict or uncertainty about what action should be taken (McNaughton & Corr, 2004; Corr, 2008). This distinction between fear and anxiety represents an important development in the revised RST because earlier versions of Gray’s theory placed greater emphasis on the BIS as a system responding to punishment, whereas the revised model separated immediate fear responses from anxiety-related conflict processing (Gray & McNaughton, 2000; Corr, 2004). FFFS activation can occur rapidly because detecting and responding to potential danger can be important for survival, particularly when an individual encounters a threat that requires immediate action (LeDoux, 2012). From an evolutionary perspective, defensive responses such as fighting or escaping can help an organism avoid injury or remove itself from a dangerous environment, while freezing may provide an alternative response when immediate movement is not possible or may increase danger (Blanchard et al., 2001; Corr, 2004; Kozlowska et al., 2015). Overall, the FFFS provides an important component of RST by explaining how individuals detect and respond to immediate threats, punishment, and aversive stimuli. === Quiz === <quiz display="simple"> {The Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS) is primarily responsible for immediate fight, flight, or freeze responses to threats. |type="()"} - True || Not quite. In revised RST, the FFFS produces fight, flight, and freeze responses, whereas the BIS responds to goal conflict and uncertainty (Gray & McNaughton, 2000). + False {The Fight–Flight–Freeze System (FFFS) is associated with fear and defensive responses to aversive or threatening stimuli. |type="()"} + True - False {The Behavioural Activation System (BAS) is associated with approaching rewarding stimuli and pursuing goals. |type="()"} +True - False {In revised RST, the BIS and FFFS are identical systems that perform the same psychological function. |type="()"} -True + False {Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory can help explain why different people may respond differently to the same environmental situation. |type="()"} +True - False </quiz> == Behavioural Inhibition System == The Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS) is the last of the three major systems within the revised version of Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST) and is primarily involved in responding to conflict, uncertainty, and situations in which an individual has to evaluate competing behavioural options (Gray & McNaughton, 2000; McNaughton & Corr, 2004). Rather than simply causing a person to stop behaving, the BIS is supposed to interrupt or slow ongoing behaviour when an individual encounters a situation that requires further evaluation, thus allowing them to assess further potential risks and determine an appropriate response (Corr, 2004). The BIS is particularly relevant when a person experiences competing motivational tendencies, such as wanting to approach a potentially rewarding situation while simultaneously wanting to avoid a possible negative outcome. This is known as an approach–avoidance conflict, where the same situation contains both desirable and undesirable consequences (Gray & McNaughton, 2000). For example, a student may want to answer a question in class because they could receive recognition for providing the correct answer, but may also worry about embarrassment if they are incorrect. The conflict between the potential reward of answering and the potential negative consequence of making a mistake can result in increased BIS activity and greater caution before acting. The BIS may also become relevant during avoidance–avoidance conflicts, in which an individual must choose between two undesirable outcomes, as well as during situations involving uncertainty about what will happen next (McNaughton & Corr, 2004). === BIS and Anxiety === This makes the BIS particularly important for situations where the appropriate behavioural response is unclear. Activation of the BIS is associated with psychological experiences such as anxiety, worry, cautiousness, vigilance, and increased attention to potentially relevant environmental information (Gray & McNaughton, 2000; Corr, 2011). Importantly, the revised RST distinguishes BIS-related anxiety from the fear response associated with the Fight–Flight–Freeze System (FFFS). Whereas the FFFS is primarily responsible for immediate defensive responses to direct threats, the BIS is activated when there is conflict between competing behavioural tendencies or uncertainty regarding the appropriate response (McNaughton & Corr, 2004; Corr & McNaughton, 2008). Consequently, BIS activation does not necessarily result in immediate escape or avoidance; instead, the BIS encourages the individual to pause, gather information, assess potential consequences, and determine which behavioural response is the most appropriate (Corr, 2011). The BIS has therefore been described as an important system for conflict detection and resolution, allowing behaviour to be adjusted when an individual's existing response tendencies are insufficient to deal with a particular situation (Gray & McNaughton, 2000). '''Table 1''' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! System !! What It Responds To !! Primary Function !Typical Emotional Response !Typical Behaviour |- | '''Behavioural Activation System (BAS)''' || Rewards, appetitive, Stimuli, Opportunities for positive outcomes. || Motivates towards desirable goals. |Excitement/Enthusiasm |Approach, reward seeking, goal pursuit |- |'''Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS)''' |Conflict, uncertainty, competing goals as well as ambiguous situation. |Detects and resolves conflict between competing behavioural tendencies. |Anxiety, worry, and caution. |Pausing, evaluating, and increased attention. |- | '''Fight-Flight-Freeze System (FFFS)''' || Immediate threats, aversive stimuli, danger and punishment. || Protects the individual from direct threats. |Fear and Panic. |Fight, flight, freeze, avoidance. |} ==Conclusion== Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory provides an explanation for the different ways people experience and respond to the world around them. Throughout this chapter, RST has demonstrated that behaviour is not simply a direct response to a situation, but can be influenced by how individuals process rewards, conflict, uncertainty, and threats. The BAS, BIS, and FFFS each contribute to these responses by providing different pathways through which motivation and emotion can influence behaviour Firth et al. (2024). The distinction between the BAS, BIS, and FFFS is particularly important for understanding these differences. The BAS helps explain approach towards rewarding experiences and goal-directed behaviour, while the BIS helps explain how people respond when faced with uncertainty or competing goals. The FFFS, in contrast, helps explain defensive responses to direct threats. The distinction between the BIS and FFFS is especially important because it demonstrates that anxiety arising from conflict and uncertainty is not the same as fear arising from an immediate threat.Taken together these systems help explain why the same situation can produce different responses between individuals. A rewarding opportunity may encourage one person to approach, while uncertainty may cause another to pause and assess the situation, and a perceived threat may cause another to avoid or escape. These differences highlight the importance of considering individual sensitivity to reinforcement when understanding behaviour. Ultimately, RST provides a useful framework for connecting motivation, emotion, personality, and behaviour. Rather than viewing behaviour as uniform across individuals, the theory highlights how differences in reinforcement sensitivity can shape the way people interpret and respond to similar experiences. ==See also== * [[Anxiety]] (Wikiversity) * [[wikipedia:Gray's_biopsychological_theory_of_personality|Jeffery Gray's Behavioural Action/Inhibition Theory]] (Wikiversity) * [[wikipedia:Reinforcement_sensitivity_theory|Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory]] (Wikipedia) * [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Tutorials/Personality%2C_motivation_and_emotion?utm_source=chatgpt.com Personality, Motivation and Personality] (Wikiversity) * [[wikipedia:Self-determination_theory|Self Determination Theory]] (Wikiversity) * [[wikipedia:Gray's_biopsychological_theory_of_personality|Gray's Biospsychological Theory of Personality]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Blanchard, D. C., Hynd, A. L., Minke, K. A., Minemoto, T., & Blanchard, R. J. (2001). Human defensive behaviors to threat scenarios show parallels to fear- and anxiety-related defense patterns of non-human mammals. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 25(7–8), 761–770. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0149-7634(01)00056-2 Carver, C. S., & White, T. L. (1994). Behavioral inhibition, behavioral activation, and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: The BIS/BAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(2), 319–333. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.2.319 Corr, P. J. (2004). Reinforcement sensitivity theory and personality. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 28(3), 317–332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.01.005 Corr, P. J. (2011). Anxiety: Splitting the phenomenological atom. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(7), 889–897. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.09.013 Corr, P. J. (Ed.). (2008). The reinforcement sensitivity theory of personality. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511819389 Corr, P. J., & McNaughton, N. (2008). Reinforcement sensitivity theory and personality. In P. J. Corr (Ed.), The reinforcement sensitivity theory of personality (pp. 155–187). Cambridge University Press. De Pascalis, V., Strippoli, E., Riccardi, P., & Vergari, M. (2000). Psychophysiological responses to emotional stimuli in subjects with different levels of anxiety. Personality and Individual Differences, 28(3), 529–544. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00114-8 Firth, J., Standen, B., Sumich, A., Fino, E., & Heym, N. (2024). The neural correlates of reinforcement sensitivity theory: A systematic review of the frontal asymmetry and spectral power literature. Psychophysiology, 61(9), e14594. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.14594 Gray, J. A. (1970). The psychophysiological basis of introversion–extraversion. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 8(3), 249–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(70)90069-0 Gray, J. A. (1982). The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system. Oxford University Press. Gray, J. A., & McNaughton, N. (2000). The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. Kozlowska, K., Walker, P., McLean, L., & Carrive, P. (2015). Fear and the defense cascade: Clinical implications and management. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 23(4), 263–287. https://doi.org/10.1097/HRP.0000000000000065 LeDoux, J. (2012). Rethinking the emotional brain. Neuron, 73(4), 653–676. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2012.02.004 McNaughton, N., & Corr, P. J. (2004). A two-dimensional neuropsychology of defense: Fear/anxiety and defensive distance. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 28(3), 285–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.03.005 Smillie, L. D., & Jackson, C. J. (2006). Functional impulsivity and reinforcement sensitivity theory. Journal of Personality, 74(1), 47–84. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00369.x Smillie, L. D., Pickering, A. D., & Jackson, C. J. (2006). The new reinforcement sensitivity theory: Implications for personality measurement. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10(4), 320–335. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_3 }} ==External links== * [[doi:10.1017/CBO9780511819389|The Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of Personality]] (Cambridge University) * [[doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_3|The New Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory: Implications for Personality Measurement]] (Smillie, Pickering, and Jackson (2006)) * [https://global.oup.com/academic/ The Neuropsychology of Anxiety] (Oxford University Press) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Reward]] mvpvlj90c976rsr1j538wuaslckw0vp 1 331750 2841816 2833020 2026-10-21T07:26:18Z U3175512 3110028 /* GenAI acknowledgement */ new section 2841816 wikitext text/x-wiki == Topic development == Impressive work! I will be egarly waiting to read your book chapter. [[User:U3281503|U3281503]] ([[User talk:U3281503|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3281503|contribs]]) 22:46, 31 August 2026 (UTC) == Considering Rogers' person-centered approach == Hey there, Great job developing you topic, I enjoyed reading through your book chapter so far! I wondered if you have considered including concepts from Carl Rogers' (1957) [[wikipedia:Person-centered_therapy|person-centered approach to therapy]]. Rogers' approach heavily emphasises the importance of the therapeutic alliance in facilitating client's personal growth and psychological well-being. I think the principles of [[wikipedia:Unconditional_positive_regard|unconditional positive regard]], congruence and [[wikipedia:Active_listening|empathetic listening]] may be of relevance to your chapter! Here are some links/references that might help: - https://www.simplypsychology.org/client-centred-therapy.html - Rogers, C. R. (1957). The necessary and sufficient conditions of therapeutic personality change. ''Journal of Consulting Psychology, 21''(2), 95–103. [https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/h0045357 https://doi.org/10.1037/h0045357] Best regards. [[User:U3285438|U3285438]] ([[User talk:U3285438|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3285438|contribs]]) 04:17, 2 September 2026 (UTC) Quiz Template Hi, I added a quiz template for you to use and populated it with what you had in free text. I didn't delete anything so you have full visibility. Good luck. <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and subtitle are correctly worded and use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] |2= <!-- Headings --> # See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|heading casing]] <!-- Heading structure --> <!-- 1-level --> # Promising [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|1-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development (e.g., consider using subheadings) <!-- Other ---> # Use default heading formatting (i.e., avoid additional formatting such as bold, italics, underline, changing the size etc.) # Avoid having sections with only 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headingsn (fixed) # This section isn't necessary: "Therapeutic alliance and treatment outcomes" because its not about building TA. Focus on the core topic. <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Reasonably good alignment between focus questions and heading structure, but aim for closer alignment |3= <!-- Overview--> # Very good <!-- Scenario --> # A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box at the start of this section # Add an image to the scenario to help attract reader interest <!-- Description --> # A promising description of the problem/topic is planned or presented # Instead of "the therapeutic alliance"; consider just using "therapeutic alliance" <!-- Focus questions --> <!-- Alignment and quality --> # Develop closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings # There are more focus questions than top-level headings |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> ## Solid development <!-- Scope --> # The scope is about right, but it may be that outcomes don't need a dedicated focus question and section <!-- Theory and research --> # Promising balance of theory and research <!-- Other --> <!-- GenAI ---> # Do these key points include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion is underway # What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions) |5= <!-- Figure --> # Relevant figure(s) presented, captioned, and cited # Remove acknowledgement - this info is available on Wikimedia Commons (click on the image) (fixed) <!-- Caption --> # Figure caption(s) provide(s) a clear, appropriately detailed description that is meaningfully connected with the main text <!-- Cite --> # Figure(s) are cited at least once in the main text <!-- Size --> # Consider decreasing image size(s) to make them less dominant (fixed) # Consider placing image on right (fixed) # Consider moving image to beginning of section (fixed) |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Add in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Consider incorporating additional scenarios, examples, or case studies to illustrate key concepts. These could build on the Overview scenario or introduce new real-world situations in the main body of the chapter to demonstrate how the concepts apply in practice. <!-- Quiz --> # Promising use of quiz question(s) # Place each quiz question in the most relevant section # Focus the quiz question(s) on the take-home messages <!-- Tables --> # Excellent use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Very good <!-- Systematic reviews --> # Well done on identifying relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses <!-- APA style --> # Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]: ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf doi formatting] ## make doi hyperlinks active (i.e., clickable) |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## Excellent <!-- External links --> # External links ## The links are too general; link to the most relevant external resources about this topic ## Use alphabetical order |9= <!-- User page --> # Basic <!-- Description about self --> # Very brief description about self – consider expanding <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # A link to the book chapter is provided |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # None summarised on user page with direct link(s) to evidence (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing#Social contributions|Tutorial 2]]). Looking ahead to the book chapter, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Socialcontribution|social contributions]]. }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 05:14, 13 September 2026 (UTC) == GenAI acknowledgement == I used ChatGPT (OpenAI) during the preparation of this book chapter. It was used to assist with planning and structuring the chapter, improving the clarity and academic expression of text I had drafted, and later converting my completed Word document draft into Wikiversity source code and assisting with page formatting, including headings, boxes, quiz formatting and layout consistency. I initially misunderstood the requirement to acknowledge GenAI use within individual Wikiversity edit summaries. As a result, several earlier edits were made without an acknowledgement. Once I became aware of this requirement, I added a retrospective acknowledgement in a later edit summary and contacted the unit convener directly to explain the situation. This statement is being added retrospectively to provide a clear and transparent record of how GenAI was used in preparing the chapter. [[User:U3175512|U3175512]] ([[User talk:U3175512|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3175512|contribs]]) 07:26, 21 October 2026 (UTC) q068t1mxap1imktdctt0myfub1yszu0 1 331868 2841863 2831607 2026-10-21T11:36:46Z Jtneill 10242 Book chapter feedback 2841863 wikitext text/x-wiki == Heading casing == {| style="float: center; background:transparent;color:inherit;" |- | [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|48px|left]] | {{#if:U3246286|Hi [[User:U3246286|U3246286]].|}} FYI, the recommended [[Wikiversity]] heading style uses [[w:Letter case#Sentence_case|sentence casing]]. For example:<br> <big><big>Self-determination theory</big></big> rather than <big><big>Self-Determination Theory</big></big> Here's an example chapter with correct heading casing: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Growth mindset development|Growth mindset development]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:50, 6 September 2026 (UTC) |} <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and/or subtitle not correctly worded and/or didn't use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] (fixed) |2= <!-- Headings --> # See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|heading casing]] # Use either abbreviations (SDT) or not (self-determination) in headings, but not both <!-- Heading structure --> <!-- 2-level --> # Clear [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] # Consider simplifying the wording for the top-level headings <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> <!-- GenAI ---> # Are the headings based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. |3= <!-- Overview--> # Very good <!-- Scenario --> # A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box with an image at the start of this section <!-- Description --> # A promising description of the problem/topic is planned or presented # The description is too long; provide a brief, evocative description of the problem/topic; simplify/abbreviate the description of the problem/topic. Move detail into subsequent sections. # A basic description of the problem/topic is planned or presented <!-- Style --> # Use present, rather than future, tense <!-- Focus questions --> # Focus questions are aligned with sub-title and top-level headings |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Excellent – key points are well developed for each section # Provide more detailed edit summaries <!-- Scope --> # The scope is excellent (i.e., not too little/narrow or too big/broad) <!-- Writing style --> # The writing style is clear and easy to follow <!-- Theory and research --> # Promising balance of theory and research <!-- GenAI ---> # Do these key points include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion is well underway # What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions) |5= <!-- Figure --> # Excellent - Relevant figure(s) presented, captioned, and cited <!-- Caption --> # Figure caption(s) should include '''Figure X''' [bold]. ... <!-- Cite --> # Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style (e.g., see Figure 1) <!-- Size --> # Consider increasing image size(s) (especially if they have text) to make them easier to view # Consider decreasing image size(s) to make them less dominant <!-- Creation --> # Well done on creating and uploading your own image! {{smile}}—this can also be listed on your user page as a social contribution |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Add in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Consider use of more scenarios/examples/case studies <!-- Quiz --> # Promising use of quiz question(s) # Place each quiz question in the most relevant section <!-- Tables --> # Promising use of table(s) ## Well done acknowledging source - is this adapted? (if so, indicate as such) ## Use APA style for citations |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Very good <!-- Systematic reviews --> # At least one relevant systematic review and/or meta-analysis has been identified <!-- APA style --> # Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]: ## ampersand missing before last author ## I've made some copyediting corrections, particularly [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf doi formatting] ## page numbers should be separated by an en-dash (–) rather than a hyphen (-) |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## Excellent ## Use alphabetical order <!-- External links --> # External links ## To be developed (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) |9= <!-- User page --> # Basic but effective <!-- Description about self --> # Description about self provided self – consider expanding # Add description about self <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # Rename the link to the book chapter to make it more user-friendly (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # Good – two out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other type of contribution is making: # One out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other types of contribution are making: #* comments on the [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s of other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]] }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:50, 6 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is a basic chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of unacknowledged [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI]]—express more in your own words #* grammar and proofreading <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* Insufficient use [[w:Help:Edit summary|edit summaries]] to describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall – Citations --> #* Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FSelf-determination_theory_and_military_veteran_reintegration&diff=2841859&oldid=2838927 these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Very good <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Promising scenario or case study # Rewrite to use a single tense (not a combination of second and third person perspective) # Consider giving the person a name, an identity <!-- Overview – Scenario - Figure --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature box --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are good # The focus questions are too broad (the third question isn't necessary) |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Very good depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Very good use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # In many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Basic review of relevant research # Insufficient use of relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # In some places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Basic integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Basic summary and conclusion # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Highlight the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are summarised in a basic way <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Add practical, take-home message(s) |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is reasonably good ## genAI is over-used; write more in your own words, based on your own knowledge based on reading the primary sources <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar ## The grammar for some sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well captioned <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well captioned <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # In many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent APA style: |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Good use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Good use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent use of figure(s) # Very good use of table(s) # No use of feature boxes other than the opening scenario # No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples, other than opening scenario <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Insufficient use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Broken link fixed ## Add more links <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Insufficient use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~5 logged, useful, mostly minor to moderate contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] }} baclj4p1jxjiuvm2nptxf3qme54nk7e 2841866 2841863 2026-10-21T11:37:54Z Jtneill 10242 2841866 wikitext text/x-wiki == Heading casing == {| style="float: center; background:transparent;color:inherit;" |- | [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|48px|left]] | {{#if:U3246286|Hi [[User:U3246286|U3246286]].|}} FYI, the recommended [[Wikiversity]] heading style uses [[w:Letter case#Sentence_case|sentence casing]]. For example:<br> <big><big>Self-determination theory</big></big> rather than <big><big>Self-Determination Theory</big></big> Here's an example chapter with correct heading casing: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Growth mindset development|Growth mindset development]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:50, 6 September 2026 (UTC) |} <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and/or subtitle not correctly worded and/or didn't use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] (fixed) |2= <!-- Headings --> # See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|heading casing]] # Use either abbreviations (SDT) or not (self-determination) in headings, but not both <!-- Heading structure --> <!-- 2-level --> # Clear [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] # Consider simplifying the wording for the top-level headings <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> <!-- GenAI ---> # Are the headings based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. |3= <!-- Overview--> # Very good <!-- Scenario --> # A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box with an image at the start of this section <!-- Description --> # A promising description of the problem/topic is planned or presented # The description is too long; provide a brief, evocative description of the problem/topic; simplify/abbreviate the description of the problem/topic. Move detail into subsequent sections. # A basic description of the problem/topic is planned or presented <!-- Style --> # Use present, rather than future, tense <!-- Focus questions --> # Focus questions are aligned with sub-title and top-level headings |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Excellent – key points are well developed for each section # Provide more detailed edit summaries <!-- Scope --> # The scope is excellent (i.e., not too little/narrow or too big/broad) <!-- Writing style --> # The writing style is clear and easy to follow <!-- Theory and research --> # Promising balance of theory and research <!-- GenAI ---> # Do these key points include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion is well underway # What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions) |5= <!-- Figure --> # Excellent - Relevant figure(s) presented, captioned, and cited <!-- Caption --> # Figure caption(s) should include '''Figure X''' [bold]. ... <!-- Cite --> # Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style (e.g., see Figure 1) <!-- Size --> # Consider increasing image size(s) (especially if they have text) to make them easier to view # Consider decreasing image size(s) to make them less dominant <!-- Creation --> # Well done on creating and uploading your own image! {{smile}}—this can also be listed on your user page as a social contribution |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Add in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Consider use of more scenarios/examples/case studies <!-- Quiz --> # Promising use of quiz question(s) # Place each quiz question in the most relevant section <!-- Tables --> # Promising use of table(s) ## Well done acknowledging source - is this adapted? (if so, indicate as such) ## Use APA style for citations |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Very good <!-- Systematic reviews --> # At least one relevant systematic review and/or meta-analysis has been identified <!-- APA style --> # Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]: ## ampersand missing before last author ## I've made some copyediting corrections, particularly [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf doi formatting] ## page numbers should be separated by an en-dash (–) rather than a hyphen (-) |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## Excellent ## Use alphabetical order <!-- External links --> # External links ## To be developed (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) |9= <!-- User page --> # Basic but effective <!-- Description about self --> # Description about self provided self – consider expanding # Add description about self <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # Rename the link to the book chapter to make it more user-friendly (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # Good – two out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other type of contribution is making: # One out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other types of contribution are making: #* comments on the [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s of other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]] }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:50, 6 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is a basic chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of unacknowledged [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI]]—express more in your own words #* grammar and proofreading <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* Insufficient use [[w:Help:Edit summary|edit summaries]] to describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall – Citations --> #* Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FSelf-determination_theory_and_military_veteran_reintegration&diff=2841859&oldid=2838927 these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Very good <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Promising scenario or case study # Rewrite to use a single tense (not a combination of second and third person perspective) # Consider giving the person a name, an identity <!-- Overview – Scenario - Figure --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature box --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are good # The focus questions are too broad (the third question isn't necessary) |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Very good depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Very good use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # In many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). 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Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent use of figure(s) # Very good use of table(s) # No use of feature boxes other than the opening scenario # No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples, other than opening scenario <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Insufficient use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Broken link fixed ## Add more links <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Insufficient use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~5 logged, useful, mostly minor to moderate contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # Thanks also for the two excellent image uploads; add these to the social contributions list }} 7skj659sioq4midfp5zf8icm1bd93bb 2 332158 2841773 2835246 2026-10-20T23:42:01Z The Citer 3110681 2841773 wikitext text/x-wiki My template, text, and phrase storage! ==Templates== [[File:|thumb|300x300px|[Insert_text_here]]], [[File:|60px]] ==Text== – ==Phrases== <nowiki>''Incertae sedis''</nowiki> ==Purpose== It's a storage space so I don't have to copy text in source editor; I just can copy it in reading mode. User:[[The Citer]] [[User:The Citer]]dendron =[Unused NAME]= [[Wikipedia:Superrosids|Superrosidia]], [[Wikipedia:Rosids|Rosida]], [[Wikipedia:Rosids|Eurosida]], Fabidae, Malvidae<br> [[Wikipedia:Superasterids|Superasteridia]], [[Wikipedia:Asterids|Asterida]], [[Wikipedia:Asterids|Euasterida]], campanulidae, lamiidae jf3jfu4vzwtp9kysyd7xl3qmmcex5ur 2841778 2841773 2026-10-21T00:19:32Z The Citer 3110681 2841778 wikitext text/x-wiki My template, text, and phrase storage! ==Templates== [[File:|thumb|300x300px|[Insert_text_here]]], [[File:|60px]] ==Text== – ==Phrases== <nowiki>''Incertae sedis''</nowiki> ==Purpose== It's a storage space so I don't have to copy text in source editor; I just can copy it in reading mode. 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190 195 200 205 210 215 220 225 230 235 240 245 250 255 260 265 270 275 280 285 290 295 300 305 310 315 320 325 330 335 340 345 350 355 360 365 370 375 380 385 390 395 400 405 410 415 420 425 430 435 440 445 450 455 460 465 470 475 480 485 490 495 500 1 6 11 16 21 26 31 36 41 46 51 56 61 66 71 76 81 86 91 96 101 106 111 116 121 126 131 136 141 146 151 156 161 166 171 176 181 186 191 196 201 206 211 216 221 226 231 236 241 246 251 256 261 266 271 276 281 286 291 296 301 306 311 316 321 326 331 336 341 346 351 356 361 366 371 376 381 386 391 396 401 406 411 416 421 426 431 436 441 446 451 456 461 466 471 476 481 486 491 496 2 7 12 17 22 27 32 37 42 47 52 57 62 67 72 77 82 87 92 User:[[The Citer]] [[User:The Citer]]dendron =[Unused NAME]= [[Wikipedia:Superrosids|Superrosidia]], [[Wikipedia:Rosids|Rosida]], [[Wikipedia:Rosids|Eurosida]], Fabidae, Malvidae<br> [[Wikipedia:Superasterids|Superasteridia]], [[Wikipedia:Asterids|Asterida]], [[Wikipedia:Asterids|Euasterida]], campanulidae, lamiidae hh2fpr6zq7xxegfsijanti3m5egq6oe 0 332413 2841742 2841609 2026-10-20T19:51:44Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 2841742 wikitext text/x-wiki =Event= Meetings at the Pelican Club about the Smith-Slavin match ==Overview== Multiple meetings of members of the London Pelican Club, some of whom were associated with boxing, to hear about the [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Smith-Slavin 1889-12-23|Smith-Slavin match]] in Bruges, Belgium, on 23 December 1890. Many newspapers published stories about this series of events, some of which are present here; the big stories on the first page, above the fold, have been given prominence. ==Logistics== A number of meetings took place — of the members of the Pelican Club as well as of at least 2 committees established to investigate the Smith-Slavin fight, plus at least 1 subcommittee. * Tuesday afternoon, 7 January 1890, when people were questioned * Wednesday, 8 January 1890 ==Related Events== * The [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Smith-Slavin 1889-12-23|Smith-Slavin Fight]], 23 December 1889 * The Pelican Club Meetings * The [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Fracas at the Trocadero|Fracas at the Trocadero]] ==Who Was Present== === Tuesday Afternoon, 7 January 1890, 4:30–7:30 p.m. === # The Marquis of Queensberry # Sir John D. Astley, president # Captain Archibald Drummond # Kim Montagu, Viscount Mandeville # Mr. G. A. Baird ("Mr. Abington"), Smith's backer # Mr. Fleming, Smith's manager # Frank Slavin ===Wednesday, 8 January 1890, 4:30 p.m.=== # Sir John D. Astley, president # Marquis of Queensberry # Captain Archibald Drummond # Sir W. Gordon-Cumming # Mr. Robert Martin # Mr. John Corlett # Mr. Walter Dickson # Mr. Cecil Raleigh (Hon. Sec.) # Mr. Charles Hawtrey ==Entertainment== ==Anthology== Newspaper articles are in chronological order by date of publication in the newspaper cited. So many newspapers printed reports, and so many of those reports are word-for-word the same, or nearly, in all or in part (see copy-paste editing), the following is a selection hoping to be representative rather than comprehensive or complete. === The ''Evening News and Post'' === The Thursday, 9 January 1890 ''Evening News and Post'', first-page, above-the-fold story. The two editorial interpolations in square brackets are sic.<blockquote>Last night a meeting of the members of the Pelican Club was held to receive and consider the report of the committee which had been appointed to inquire into the circumstances of the disgraceful scenes at Bruges on the occaaion of the fight between Jem Smith, Champion of England, and Frank P. Slavin. Champion of Australia. There was a crowded attendance. Sir J. D. Astley presided, and amongst those present were the Marquis of Queensberry, Viscount Mandeville, Lord Chursten, Capt. Archibald Drummond, Col. Brabazon, Major Winter, Capt. de Wyndt [?], Hon. T. Willoughby, Messrs. John Corlett, Walter Dickson, Hugh Drummond, Walter Pallant, George Edwardes, Charles Harris, David James, Robert Martin, Arthur Roberts, [J.?] L. Shine, C. Bertram, C. Coborn, C. Collette, W. Cosier, A. Crocker, C. Danby, A. de Vere-Smith, C. Disraeli, C. H. Hawtrey, F. B. Hesseltine, C. B. B. Johnson, W. J. A. Knowles, J. F. M'Adams, T. Lumley, Cecil Raleigh (hon. secretary), W. E. Shine, J. M. Small, S. Smith, E. Solomon, E. Ellis, A. E. Welts (proprietor of the club), and W. C. K. Wick. The Chairman, in opening the proceedings, said that the reason of the general meeting being summoned was in the interests of the noble art, and to endeavour to find out who brought the roughs to the ringside, and who provided the funds for the purpose. Three or four committee meetings had been held, and the result would be laid before them. Many might say they ought to have done more, but he could assure them that the committee had done their best to find out and thoroughly sift matters to the bottom. Those who would pay a sufficient sum for the purpose in view would undoubtedly keep the thing as dark as possible. There was not use slightest question that money flowed freely, and that roughs were forthcoming. Much testimony had been brought before the committee, but he regretted to say that he did not think all had spoken truly. The public were only too anxious to imagine wrong upon the smallest circumstantial evidence, but he was certain that they could not be trusted in judging matters of wrong-doing, and they were not always correct. This was often the case in racing as well as in other sports, which, he need hardly tell them, he could personally vouch for. What was to be done was to put the world at large in full knowledge of the disgraceful proceedings which occurred at Bruges in the course of the late fight. In the first place, a sub-committee had been formed, who had submitted to the full committee a resolution which had been drawn up. The Committee's Report. The committee's report was then read as follows: Gentlemen — You have been called together in order that the committee may inform you of the action taken with regard to the recent prize fight between Frank Slavin and Jem Smith. It is hardly necessary to remind you that the Pelican Club, as the Pelican Club, has nothing whatever to do with prize fighting. Individual members of this or of any other club are, of course, perfectly free to patronise prize fights if they desire to do so. But the Pelican Club, in its corporate capacity, does not concern itself with them in any way, and does not desire, as it has obviously no right, to interfere with them or whatever may pertain to them. Unfortunately, however, it appeared that in connection with the fight between Slavin and Smith certain things occurred of which it became the duty of the Pelican Club to take notice. And, to begin with, Mr. John Fleming, an official of the club, was present in the capacity of Smith's manager. The report of the fight reached London, as you are aware, early on Monday, December 23. No sooner was attention called to the fact that Slavin had treated with brutality, which every member  of this club and every honest Englishman cannot too strongly reprehend, than a special meeting of the committee was convened by telegraph. The honorary secretary in the meantime wrote a letter to the papers repudiating any connection of the Pelican Club with the fight, and at the meeting of the committee Mr. Fleming was called to appear in person. He was at once informed that he was suspended from the performance of his usual duties here, and he was requested to state to writing the nature of his association with the fight in question, and what he knew regarding it. Since that day the committee have sat many times and for many hours. They are in receipt of a large mass of correspondence — some very emphatic, but, unfortunately anonymous. They have examined on several occasions a number of eye-witnesses of the fight, and they are, they believe, in full possession of every fact of importance in connection with the fight. With regard to Mr. Fleming, his statement practically amounts to this: The preliminaries of the fight between Slavin and Smith were concluded on September 16, 1889, that is, long anterior to the glove contest between Smith and Jackson, and although Mr. Fleming determined to sever his connection with Smith after the glove fight, he felt himself in duty bound to carry the fight with Slavin through to a conclusion, as his last action in the capacity of Smith's manager, and in this the committee did not consider him to blame. Smith went into training at Newmarket, where Mr. Fleming saw Smith occasionally, and meantime Mr. Fleming went to Belgium, and, in connection with Mr. Dunning of the ''Sportsman'' newspaper, they made arrangements that the fight should be fought on the private ground of a gentleman near Bruges, and with that gentleman they made the following agreement. [This is to the effect that they undertake no rough element should be present, no noise should be made, and if anything untoward should occur they should indemnify the gentleman in question against all damages and pay any expenses which might be paid by him.] It is of course impossible to say what is passing is the mind of any man, but it seems fair and reasonable to assume that neither Mr. Fleming nor Mr. Dunning contemplated the presence of roughs when they signed the agreement. Subsequently, however, a rumour did reach Mr. Fleming that both sides had organized what is known as a "corner," and he went straight to his partner in the agreement, Mr. Dunning, and told him what he had heard. Mr. Dunning informed him that he also had heard similar reports, but he had been able to assure himself that Slavin at least had no intention of employing roughs and, as we all know, Mr. Dunning's information has been justified by facts. Mr. Flemming then sought Smith, and Smith said that as long as Slavin did not have a "corner" he (Smith) did not want one. Mr. Fleming, however, continued to feel some anxiety on the subject, and took every possible precaution to keep the place a secret. Whether his effects were intentionally thwarted cannot be said, but on the morning of the fight there were present in Bruges a number of roughs who obviously had not come all that way for their own diversion, and who could not have paid their own way thither had they so desired. Mr. Fleming had kept himself steadily aloof from Smith's seconds up to this point. He crossed to Belgium with several members of thus club; with them he remained, and with them he returned. When, however, he found the rough element that he had feared was actually in Brugues, he apprised the owner of the ground where the fight was to take place of this fact. He said plainly, "The roughs are here; it is entirely for you to say whether you will allow the fight to proceed or not." The gentleman in question replied that he would let the fight go on, but if there was any row he would send for the police instantly. Now this is not the simple unsubstantial explanation of Mr. Fleming. These facts have been verified most completely by independent witnesses of honour and character, whose words it is impossible to doubt. These witnesses have spoken, moreover, very fully of Mr. Fleming's conduct in this matter, as also of the personal abuse he received; of his absenting himself from Smith's party at the ring side, and completely disassociating himself from Smith's party altogether. The committee have subjected Mr. Fleming's statement, and indeed his whole actions so far as they can inform themselves of them, apart from his statement, to the most searching inquiry, and as a result, at the committee meeting held on January 1, when scarcely a single member was absent, it was proposed by Mr. Burton and seconded by Mr. Beckett, "That this committee, after hearing Mr. Fleming's statement, and the evidence of gentlemen of undoubted character who were present at the ring side, are of opinion that Mr. Fleming is in no way responsible for the ruffianism that took place at the Smith and Slavin fight." This resolution was carried unanimously. It is with very great regret that the committee find it their duty to inform you that in the course of their investigation the name of a member of this club, Mr. G. Baird, has frequently been mentioned. The committee have most anxiously considered whether the conduct of Mr. Baird ought properly to come within the scope of their inquiry, but in the face of Rule 17, they have felt it necessary to proceed.  [This rule is the ordinary club rule, which provides that if the conduct of a member outside the club is unbecoming a gentleman, the committee have power to call upon him to resign.] The com- [Col. 3c–4a] mittee would feel great satisfaction if they could state explicitly that any given man had actually paid the men who behaved so disgracefully in Smith's corner, but such a transaction is very difficult of absolute proof. The committee do not impute to Mr. Baird that he paid the ruffians: he may not have known they were going to the fight at all. But it does appear that he did make use to Slavin of language unbecoming a gentleman and member of this club. The varied and entirely independent evidence before the committee on this point is absolutely conclusive. At this point the report ceased, and Sir John Astley informed the meeting that, in view of the evidence they had taken, the following resolution had been unanimously carried by the committee: "That the committee, while regretting Mr. Baird's individual conduct at the fight, do not find any evidence has been brought before them to justify them in finding that Mr. Baird was in any way responsible for the appearance of the roughs at the ring side in Belgium who prevented the fight from being fought to a conclusion." Mr. Charles Hawtrey at this stage asked a number of questions, which were answered by the chairman. Lord Queensberry, somewhat to the surprise of his brother committeemen, then said that it was with a certain amount of hesitation and pain that he proposed: "That the inquiry into Mr. Baird's conduct be continued from the point where the committee have left off." Mr. John Corlett protested against the action of Lord Queensberry, who, he remarked, was a member of the committee which had adopted the report and previous resolution. He (Mr. Corlett) did not think any further action was justified, seeing what evidence they had had before them and the difficulty of obtaining evidence, in view of the fact that they were not a legal body, and could not take evidence on oath. Major Noah proposed, and asked Lord Queensberry to accept, as an amendment, the following: Resolved that the conduct of Mr. Baird be referred back to the committee for further consideration, and they be instructed to report to the general meeting to be convened one month from this date. The committee, with the exception of Lord Queensberry, regarded this as a distinct vote of want of confidence. Captain Drummond and Mr. Hugh Drummond having spoken, a show of hands was taken, from which it was obvious that the majority of the members accepted the amendment of Major Noah. Sir John Astley then announced that the committee would resign, and that day fortnight another general meeting would be held, when the members of the club would be asked to appoint another committee. A good deal of discussion took place, and many gentlemen protested against the vote being regarded as one of want of confidence in the committee. — In reply, the committee and secretary pointed out the difficulty of obtaining anything like definite evidence in such a case as the present. — The matter, therefore, now stands over a fortnight.<ref>"The Smith-Slavin Fight. Who Paid the Roughs? — Resignation of the Pelican Club Committee." ''Evening News''(London) 9 January 1890, Thursday: 1 [of 4], Col. 2a–3a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive''https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0003283%2F18900109&page=1&article=007&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Evening News and Post'', n.p.</ref></blockquote> === ''The Sportsman'' === The ''Sportsman'' put this very substantial report on its last page, but it did give it the better part of 3 full columns. The article is made up of one very large and several small articles. The author of the large one is interestingly partisan, offended not just by the "disgraceful" conduct of Smith's "roughs," but also by the failures of the investigative committee and especially of its chairman, Sir John Astley, who the author says "whitewashed" their results by never finding who hired the roughs. Tellingly, perhaps, a Mr G. T. Dunning of the newspaper was involved in the fight in a couple of ways: a G. T. Dunning signed the agreement with the stakeholder, the man's whose property was the site of the fight in Bruges, and Mr G. T. Dunning at the ''Sportsman'' is collecting subscriptions for the "Slavin Testimonial," raising funds for Slavin.<blockquote>Last night a meeting of the members of the Pelican Club was held to receive and consider the report of the committee which had been appointed to inquire into the circumstances of the disgraceful scenes at Bruges on the occasion of the fight between Jem Smith., Champion of England, and Frank P. Slavin, Champion of Australia. There was a crowded attendance. Sir J. D. Astley presided, and amongst those present were the Marquis of Queensberry, Viscount Mandeville, Lord Churston, Capt. Archibald Drummond, Col. Brabazon, Major Winter, Capt. de Wyndt, Major Noah, Hon. T. Willoughby, Messrs. John Corlett, Walter Dickson, Hugh Drummond, Walter Pallant, George Edwardes, Charles Harris, David James, Robert Martin, Arthur Roberts, J. L. Shine, C. Bertram, C. Coborn, C. Collette, W. Cosier, A. Crocker, C. Danby, A. de Vere-Smith, C. Disraeli, C. H. Hawtrey, F. B. Hesseltine, C. B. B. Johnson, W. J. A. Knowles, J. F. M‘Adam, T. Lumley, Cecil Raleigh (hon. secretary), W. E. Shine, J. M. Small, S. Smith, E. Solomon, E. Ellis, A. E. Wells (proprietor of the club), and W. C. K. Wick. The meeting, unquestionably the most important that has ever taken place in the history of the club, was intensely animated from start to finish. The rapid arrival of members in cabs and private vehicles long before the hour fixed for the meeting — 4.30 — proved how great was the interest felt in the proceedings, and Denman-street was several times blocked by the traffic. Prior to the important gathering a meeting of the committee was held, this being constituted as follows:— Sir John D. Astley (chairman), Marquis of Queensberry, Lord Esmé Gordon, Capt. Archibald Drummond, Mr Hugh Drummond, Mr. John Corlett, Mr Walter Pallant, Mr Robert Martin, Mr. Arthur Ernest Wells, and Mr Cecil Raleigh (hon. secretary). What took place at this meeting did not transpire, but no doubt the members were engaged in mapping out the evening programme. Their labours were concluded in time to ensure a punctual start of the special general meeting. This was held in the large club room, which barely sufficed to accommodate the deeply-interested assemblage eager to hear the outcome of the committee’s lengthy deliberations. Probably few were prepared for the remarkable scene witnessed before the proceedings were brought to a close. Acting upon one of the most widely-drawn Pelican Club rules, which lays it down that so far as smoking is concerned every room shall be a "Liberty Hall," almost every member calmed his nerves with a Havanna [sic] of the choicest brand. Nevertheless the spirit which pervaded the meeting was of a distinctly business-like character, and great indeed was the astonishment of the committee to find that their "whitewashing" proposals were not swallowed so readily as they evidently anticipated they would be. The chairman, in his usual bluff and hearty manner, introduced the subject-matter without any needless waste of words, and called upon Mr Cecil Raleigh to read the report of the committee. This will be found set forth below. The impression generally created was that the committee had discovered very little of what took place at the fight in view of the number of gentlemen called as witnesses and the length of time spent in their deliberations. The chairman, however, pointed out that some of the testimony adduced was not in the opinion of the committee truthful, and this may in some measure account for the singularly negative result arrived at. Briefly put the verdicts seemed to be "not guilty" in the case of Mr Fleming, and "not proven" against Mr Baird. It will be remembered that immediately after the fight the Pelican Club declared its intention of "sifting the matter to the bottom." The majority of the members yesterday were of opinion that the matter could hardly be called "sifted to the bottom" ''if the persons responsible for the presence of the roughs at the ring-side were not indicated''. This, it need scarcely be pointed out, was not done. "Not one word," said Mr Corlett, "had been brought out in the course of the inquiry to incriminate Mr Baird." This was said in reply to the Marquis of Queensberry, who, though a member of the Committee of Inquiry, dissented from its report on the ground that since Tuesday evening he had discovered new evidence of an important nature, for which reason he desired the conduct of Mr Baird to be still further investigated. Mr Hawtrey made a very pertinent remark concerning the appointment of the referee, but quietly subsided when Sir John came out with, "Excuse me, Mr Hawtrey, but I think you know as much about prize-fighting as a duck knows about an umbrella." Major Noah capped Lord Queensberry's amendment with another, referring the report back to the committee. The Marquis promptly seconded it, and at the same time withdrew his amendment in favour of the later one. The members of the "inner circle" began to look astonished at the strength of the opposition. It was no less unexpected than inconvenient, though it may be mentioned that there was a singular lack of official formula in the meeting throughout. When at last the chairman put the amendment it was found impossible to tell the result from the hands raised for and against. "Call 'Aye' and 'No,'" said Sir John, and immediately there came a roar of "Ayes," followed by a treble pipe of "Noes." "I cannot decide," said Sir John, "you must split into two parties, 'Ayes' to the right, 'Noes' to the left." No sooner was the room divided than the result of the voting was seen at once, the amendment being carried by an overwhelming majority. Confusion reigned supreme for a time; the committee conferred together and resigned in a body, excepting, of course, Lord Queensberry and Lord Esmé Gordon, the latter not being present. Sir John announced that another meeting would be held in a fortnight, when the members would be enabled to select "a better lot." And then, to cap the climax, the meeting dissolved without a vote of thanks to the chairman. The Chairman in opening the proceedings said that the reason of the general meeting being summoned was in the interests of the noble art, and to endeavour to find out who brought the roughs to the ringside, and who provided the funds for the purpose. Three or four committee meetings had been held, and the result would be laid before them. Many might say they ought to have done more, but he could assure them that the committee had done their best to find out and thoroughly sift matters to the bottom. Those who would pay a sufficient sum for the purpose in view would undoubtedly keep the thing as dark as possible. There was not the slightest question that money flowed freely, and that roughs were forthcoming. Much testimony had been brought before the committee, but he regretted to say that he did not think all had spoken truly. The public were only too anxious to imagine wrong upon the smallest circumstantial evidence, but he was certain that they could not be trusted in judging matters of wrong-doing, and they were not always correct. This was often the case in racing as well as in other sports, which, he need hardly tell them, he could personally vouch for. What was to be done was to put the world at large in full knowledge of the disgraceful proceedings which occurred at Bruges in the course of the late fight. In the first place, a sub-committee had been formed, who had submitted to the full committee a resolution which had been drawn up. The Committee's Report Sir John then called on Mr Cecil Raleigh (the hon. secretary) to read the following report: Report of the Committee of the Pelican Club to the general meeting of members on Wednesday, January 8: Gentlemen — You have been called together to-day in order that the committee may inform you of the action they have taken with regard to the recent prize fight between Frank Slavin and Jem Smith. It is hardly necessary to remind you that the Pelican Club, as the Pelican Club, has nothing whatever to do with prize fighting. Individual members of this, as of any other club, are of course perfectly free to patronise or promote prize fights if they desire to do so. But the Pelican Club in its corporate capacity does not concern itself with them in any way, and it has no desire, as it obviously has no right, to interfere with them or whatever may pertain to them. Unfortunately, however, it appeared that in connection with this fight between Slavin and Smith, certain things occurred of which it became the duty of the Pelican Club to take notice. And, to begin with, Mr. John Fleming, an official of the club, was present in the capacity of Smith's manager. The report of the fight reached London, as you are aware, early on Monday, December 23, and no sooner was it known that Slavin had been treated with a brutal cowardice which every member of this club and every honest Englishman cannot too strongly reprehend, than a special meeting of the committee was convened by telegraph on Tuesday. Your hon. secretary in the meantime wrote a letter to the papers repudiating any connection of the Pelican Club with the fight, and at the meeting of the committee Mr. Fleming was called to appear in person. He was at once informed that he was suspended from the performance of his usual duties here, [Col. 1c–2a] and he was requested to state to writing the nature of his association with the fight in question, and what he knew regarding it. Since that day, gentlemen, the committee have sat many times and for many hours. They are in receipt of a large mass of correspondence — some very emphatic, but, unfortunately anonymous; they have examined on several occasions a number of eye-witnesses of the fight, and they are, they believe, in full possession of every fact of importance in connection with the fight. With regard to Mr. Fleming, his statement practically amounts to this: The preliminaries of the fight between Slavin and Smith were concluded on September 16, 1889, that is, long anterior to the glove contest between Smith and Jackson, and although Mr. Fleming determined to sever his connection with Smith after the glove fight, he felt himself in duty bound to carry the fight with Slavin through to a conclusion, as his last action in the capacity of Smith's manager, and in this the committee did not consider him to blame. Smith went into training at Newmarket, where Mr. Fleming saw Smith occasionally, and meantime Mr. Fleming went to Belgium, and, in connection with Mr. Dunning of the ''Sportsman'' newspaper, they made arrangements that the fight should be fought on the private ground of a gentleman near Bruges, and with that gentleman they made the following agreement. Re Smith v. Slavin # You undertake not to allow any rough element to be present, and no noise to be made by cheering, &c., at ring side or elsewhere on my grounds, situated at St. Michael, Bruges, Belgium, and should any damage be caused by anyone to said grounds, my residence, or live or dead stock, you guarantee to be responsible in every way. # You undertake to guarantee that the place, names of any gentlemen residing in or near Bruges (within five miles) be not mentioned in any newspaper or print before, during, or after fight. # You undertake the number of spectators on ''both your sides'' do not exceed from forty to fifty ''altogether'', and to be guaranted by representatives of both sides in every way. # You undertake that, should anything untoward occur, to indemnify me, and all expenses that I may be put to in any way before or after the fight you agree to pay. (Signed) John Fleming (Signed) G. T. Dunning It is, of course, impossible, gentlemen, to say what is passing in the mind of any man, but it seems fair and reasonable to assume that neither Mr Fleming nor Mr Dunning contemplated the presence of roughs when they signed that agreement. Subsequently, however, a rumour did reach Mr Fleming to the effect that both sides had organised what is known as a corner," and he went straight to his partner in the agreement, Mr Dunning, and told him what he had heard. Mr Dunning informed him that he also had heard similar reports, but he had been able to assure himself that Slavin, at least, had no intention of employing roughs, and, as we all know, Mr Dunning's information has been justified by facts. Mr Fleming then sought Smith, and Smith said that as long as Slavin did not have a "corner," he (Smith) did not want one. Mr Fleming, however, continued to feel some anxiety on the subject and he took every possible precaution to keep the place selected for the fight a secret. Whether his efforts were intentionally thwarted cannot be said, but on the morning of the fight there were present at Bruges a number of roughs who obviously had not come all that way for their own diversion, and who could not have paid their own way thither even had they so desired. Mr Fleming had kept himself studiously aloof from even Smith's seconds up to this point. He had crossed to Belgium with several members of this club, with them he remained and with them he returned. When, however, he found the rough element that he feared, was actually present in Bruges, he apprised the owner of the ground where the fight was to take place of the fact. He said plainly, "The roughs ''are'' here, and it is entirely for you to say whether you will allow the fight to proceed or not." The gentleman in question replied that he would let the fight go on, but if there was any row he should instantly send for the police. Now, this is not the simple unsubstantiated explanation of Mr Fleming. This fact has been verified most completely by independent witnesses of honour and character whose word it is impossible to doubt. The witnesses have spoken, moreover, very fully of Mr Fleming's conduct in the matter as a whole, of the abuse he received, of absenting himself from Smith’s part of the ring, of his completely disassociating himself from Smith's party. The committee have subjected Mr Fleming's statement, and indeed his actions, so far as they can inform themselves of them apart from his statement, to the most searching inquiry, and as a result, at a committee meeting held on Wednesday, January 1, when scarcely a single member was absent, it was proposed by Mr Burton, and seconded by Mr Beckett, "That this committee, after hearing Mr Fleming's statement, and the evidence of gentlemen of undoubted character who were present at the ring-side, are of opinion that Mr Fleming was in no way responsible for the ruffianism that took place at the Slavin and Smith fight." This resolution was carried ''unanimously''. Gentlemen, it is with very great regret that the committee find it their duty to inform you that in the course of their investigations the name of a member of this club, Mr. G. A. Baird, has frequently been mentioned. The committee have most anxiously considered whether the conduct of Mr Baird ought properly to come within the scope of their inquiry, but in face of Rule 17 they have felt it necessary to proceed. The Rule in question says:— "Any member whose conduct, in or out of the club, shall be unbecoming a gentleman, in the opinion of the committee, or with respect to whom any matter may have transpired which might be calculated to render his continued membership of the club injurious to its character or interests, shall, if the committee on inquiry find the same substantiated, be requested to resign; and in case of non-compliance he shall be subject to expulsion. Any member so resigning or expelled shall cease to have any claim upon the club whatsoever, and not be eligible for re-election in the ordinary manner, but he may be re-instated by the vote of a special general meeting, such vote to be a majority of not less than three-fourths of the members present." The committee would feel great satisfaction if they could state explicitly that any given man did actually pay the men who behaved so disgracefully in Smith's corner, but such a transaction is very difficult of absolute proof. The committee do not impute it to Mr. G. Baird that he paid the ruffians in question. He may not have known they were coming to the fight at all, but it does appear that he did make use to Slavin of language unbecoming a gentleman and a member of this club. The varied and entirely independent evidence before the committee on this point is absolutely conclusive. At the finish of the hon. secretary's statement of the committee's doings, Mr Raleigh read the resolution arrived at on Tuesday night, as follows: "That the committee, while regretting Mr. Baird's individual conduct at the fight, do not find any evidence has been brought before them to justify them in finding that Mr. Baird was in any way responsible for the appearance of the roughs at the ring-side in Belgium who prevented the fight from being fought to a conclusion. Carried unanimously." The hon. sec. went on to say that he hoped the general meeting would ratify the foregoing document, and come to the unanimous conclusion that their committee had done right. Mr C. H. Hawtrey asked for an explanation with respect to a statement in T<small>HE</small> S<small>PORTSMAN</small> to the effect that Smith objected to all the referees suggested by Slavin. It appeared to him that Mr Fleming, as Smith's manager, would be the objecting party. The Chairman said that the referee was appointed by the stakeholder, and that the Smith party had nothing whatever to do with it. Mr Hawtrey said he simply asked the question for information. A member who witnessed the fight said he was fully under the impression that Fleming was not to be blamed in the matter, but he could not absolve Mr Baird. It appeared to him that Mr Baird was undoubtedly the leader of the rough division, and if this was true he was not fit to be a member of the Pelican Club. The Marquis of Queensberry said that although he did not wish to find fault with the action of the committee he must say that fresh evidence had reached them on the previous day, and he was of opinion that sufficient time had not been given to the matter so far as it concerned Mr Baird, and therefore he begged to move the following amendment: "That the examination into Mr Baird's conduct should be reopened and continued by the committee from the point it left off." Because a man had thousands of pounds to throw about that was no reason he should be allowed to do as he liked, and he must say he had very grave suspicions with with respect to that gentleman's proceedings. (Hear, hear.) Mr Hawtrey seconded the amendment. Mr John Corlett said that they appeared to meet under most novel conditions, and he must strongly object to the Marquis of Queensberry springing a surprise upon them by the amendment just read. The marquis formed one of the committee himself, and on the previous night had fully coincided with the decision arrived at, and now he apparently sought to sever himself from his fellow-committeemen. To expel a member was a very serious matter, and in his opinion Mr Baird’s conduct had nothing whatever to do with the result of the fight. He trusted that the meeting would not be led away by other reports. Mr Baird, it was acknowledged, had promised to Smith, in the event of his success, the stakes, amounting to 1000''l.'', and there was not the slightest doubt that his seconds, who were not of very high class, had determined to cut up the sum stated at all costs. There was not one word brought out in the course of the investigation to incriminate Mr Baird, and while the mere fact of bad language in the club would be most severely dealt with by the committee, outside they had really no jurisdiction. He had heard that adverse comments had been passed with respect to the inquiry held by the committee. Amongst others, why had not Mr E. Bailey been called? On this point he could only say that he interviewed the gentleman mentioned, and that his evidence would have agreed precisely with that of others who were before them. The committee had done their honest duty in [Col. 2c–3a] the matter and be regretted the one of their own body should now appear to be in opposition to them. The Marquis of Queensberry was sorry to think that Mr Corlett had misunderstood his remarks. What he stated was that he was perfectly satisfied with the result of the committee's inquiries, but that sufficient time had not been given to thoroughly sift the fresh evidence that had been offered regarding Mr Baird, whose evidence, he might state, flatly contradicted that of Mr Fleming. Mr Corlett moved the following in reply to Lord Queensberry's resolution:— "That the report of the committee be adopted." Mr Hugh Drummond seconded the amendment. Major Noah proposed a second amendment, as follows:— "That the conduct of Mr Baird be referred back to the committee for further consideration, and that they be instructed to report to a general meeting to be convened one month from this date." Lord Queensberry seconded. A desultory discussion ensued, in which Mr R. Martin and Mr H. Drummond took a prominent part, and eventually, amidst great excitement and confusion, the chairman put Major Noah's amendment, Lord Queensberry having withdrawn his in its favour. The meeting divided, and the amendment was carried by an overwhelming majority. On the result being declared from the chair Mr Walter Pallant rose and said that this evidently showed a want of confidence in the committee, and if adhered to, they had no option but to resign in a body. Major Noah stated most emphatically that it did not show a want of confidence in the committee. Capt. Drummond energetically denied this. If the meeting supported Major Noah in his amendment, he could assure them that the committee would consider it their duty to resign, as a large majority against them clearly indicated a want of confidence. The chairman briefly stated that the committee had resolved to resign in a body, and that a general meeting would be called in a fortnight's time to elect a "better lot." (Laughter.) The meeting then broke up in great confusion without the customary vote of thanks to the chairman.<ref>"The Late Fight. Meeting of the Pelican Club. Stormy Proceedings. The Committee Resigns." ''The Sportsman'' 9 January 1890, Thursday: 4 [of 4], Col. 1a–3b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001055%2F18900109&page=4&article=049&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> === The ''Globe'' === On 9 January 1890, the ''Globe'' had a big article listing apparently every member of the Pelican Club and a detailed account of the results of the Sir John Astley's investigative committee's meetings with the organization.<ref>"The Smith-Slavin Fight. Stormy Meeting at the Pelican Club. — Resignation of the Committee." ''The Globe'' 9 January 1890, Thursday: 3 [of 8], Col. 4a–5c [of 5]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001652%2F18900109&page=3&article=027&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref> In this article, the paper says it published an account of the meetings the evening before, in a special edition. If I don't find that, I should put this one in. This piece, by "Magpie," is quite critical of the Pelican Club inquiry committee process:<blockquote>From a paragraph which appears in a sporting contemporary this morning, it would seem that the Pelican Club inquiry into the Slavin-Smith fiasco, which takes place to-night, is more likely to bring forth a mouse than produce a mountain. The Pelicans having with some degree of authority, as supporters of boxing, arrogated to themselves the rights of self-appointed censors of the noble art of self-defence, naturally lay themselves open to public criticism. It appears that a committee meeting of the Pelican Club was held yesterday evening. Sir John Astley was in the chair, and among those present were the Marquis of Queensberry, Captain Drummond, Mr. Arthur Roberts, Mr. John Corlett, Mr. Robert Martin, Mr. Cecil Raleigh (hon. sec.), and Mr. Wells, the proprietor of the club. Lord Royston, the Hon. M. Sandys, Mr. Atkinson Grimshaw, the gentleman in whose grounds the fight took place, Fleming the man who has acted for some time past as Smith's manager. Lord Mandeville — who, I note from the ''Sporting Life'', had the distinguished honour of being associated with Mr. John Baldock at a meeting held at a Fleet-street hotel, where several friends of Mr. Davies, Peter Jackson’s manager, foregathered on Monday to wish than gentleman ''bon voyage'' on his return trip to America — Mr. Vezey, the sporting publican, who acted as referee, Mr. Baird, ''alias'' "Mr. Abington," and Slavin were examined. There was a three hours’ discussion, and it was eventually decided by the committee, so says the paper in question, to exonerate "Mr. Abington" from any complicity with the gang of roughs who were present at Bruges. Fleming, too, was exonerated, and it would now appear, from what little has leaked out, that nobody was to blame. In fact, I shall not be surprised to hear, when the members of the club assemble tonight to confirm the resolutions of the committee, that everybody that was at Bruges and everything that took place there on the Monday before Christmas Day was all fair, square, and above board. In fact, it would not astonish me if I were told there was no prize fight at all. Mr. Vezey, having recovered from his illness sufficiently to attend the meeting, should by this time have recovered enough pluck to reverse his decision of "a draw" into victory for Slavin. Everybody connected with the affair but Smith and his seconds, having been subjected to a Pelican whitewashing, it now only remains to apologise to Messrs. Smith, Baldock, Harper, and the gentlemen from Birmingham for suspecting them for one moment being guilty of aught but the most gentlemanly conduct. It would have been wiser on the part of Messieurs the Pelicans if they had admitted reporters to yesterday’s meeting. They have taken up the part as I have before said of public censors and they must submit to public criticism. Frank Slavin, according his own press mouthpiece has received a sum of money which is not included in the list of subscriptions to his public  testimonial. As he of late has posed as the most interesting individual in the sporting world during this dead season, he might take the sporting world into his confidence and tell them the name of his "good fairy." Altogether the  Slavin-Smith business has passed from the horrible stage to that of the grotesque.<ref>"Sporting Chatter. (By 'Magpie.')." ''The Globe'' 8 January 1890, Wednesday: 7 [of 8], Col. 1a–b [of 5]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001652%2F18900108&page=7&article=056&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> === The ''Evening Star'' === The Thursday, 9 January 1890 ''Evening Star'':<blockquote>The proceedings at the special general meeting of the Pelican Club yesterday evening in connection with the late Championship Fight at Bruges were of a very  lively nature, and it looks as if some of the members were rather startled when the conduct of Mr. (Abington) Baird at the fight was called in question. The Committee presented a report exonerating both Mr. G. A. Baird (Smith’s backer) and Mr. John Fleming (Smith’s manager), but the meeting seemed to think that due inquiry had not been made into the conduct of Mr. Baird, and after a heated discussion referred back that part of the report relating to him. The fat was then in the fire, and the committee thereupon resigned in a body, and a general meeting will be held on the 22nd inst. to elect a new committee. The proceedings from the first were of an exciting nature, and great confusion prevailed at the finish, the meeting dissolving without the usual vote of thanks to the chairman. Mr. John Corlett could not see that anything had transpired to incriminate the "Squire," but even the endeavours of the proprietor of ''Pink 'Un'' to "make things pleasant" were of no avail, and the Marquis of Queensbury and his friends carried the day. These pugilists and their “noble" patrons seem to be going from bad to worse. After the Pelican meeting it appears that there was a fracas in the Trocadero Music Hall, in which Lord Mandeville, Mr. Abington, Charley Mitchell, "Pony" Moore, Jack Baldock (such names mingled !), and two or three other professional boxers were engaged [sic] It appears that "The Squire's" opinions on the late fight happened not to coincide with those of Mitchell, and high words were exchanged between the pair. Suddenly the Birmingham boxer jumped up and "went for" Mr. Abington, but did not strike him. Lord Mandeville immediately interposed and asked Mitchell to be quiet, whereupon the latter directed his attention to his lordship, and struck him sharply on the forehead. The ''Sportsman'' adds that Carney and Bates then sprang to the assistance of his lordship, and Mitchell and Moore left the building, but it is thought this will not be the end of the affair.<ref>"Sporting Twinkles." ''Evening Star'' 9 January 1890, Thursday: 3 [of 4], Col. 3c [of 5]. ''British Newspaper Archive''https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001707%2F18900109&page=3&article=033&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Star of the East'', p. 3.</ref></blockquote> === The ''Liverpool Weekly Courier'' === The Saturday, 11 January 1890, ''Liverpool Weekly Courier'':<blockquote>The committee of the Pelican Club (Sir John Astley in the chair) was occupied for many hours in investigating the circumstances of the recent disgraceful prize-fight near Bruges. Among the witnesess examined were Mr. Vezey (the referee), Mr. G. Abington Baird, Lord Mandeville, and Slavin. The evidence of the latter was so favourable to Mr. Baird that this gentleman was exonerated from the charge of having aided, abetted, or paid the Birmingham roughs who assisted the contest with knuckle-dusters and blows. It would seem that their services had been requisitioned by others for the especial benefit of an obnoxious pugilist, who did not, however, put in an appearance. {{paragraph break}} On Wednesday a special general meeting of the members of the Pelican Cub was held at the clubhouse, Denman-street, Piccadilly, for the purpose of considering the report of the committee of proceedings in connection with the recent prize-fight between Smith and Slavin. The meeting was private, but the following account of the proceedings was officially furnished:— John Astley, Bart., presided. The report of the committee stated that the Pelican Club, as a club, had nothing whatever to do with the prize-fight. Unfortunately, however, it appeared that in connection with the fight certain things occurred of which it became the duty of the club to take notice. To begin with, Mr. John Fleming, an official of the club, was present in the capacity of Smith's manager. The report of the fight reached London early on Monday, December 23d. No sooner was attention called to the fact that Slavin had been treated with brutality, which every member of the club and every honest Englishman could not too strongly condemn, than a special meeting of the committee was convened. The hon. secretary in the meantime wrote a letter to the papers repudiating any connection of the Pelican Club with the fight, and at a meeting of the committee Mr. Fleming was called to appear in person. He was at once informed that he was suspended from the performance of his usual duties at the club, and was requested to state in writing the nature of his association with the fight and what he knew of it. Since that day the committee had sat many times. They had been in receipt of a mass of correspondence, some very emphatic, but unfortunately anonymous. They had examined on several occasions a number of eyewitnesses of the fight, and were, they believed, in full possession of every fact of importance with regard to Mr. Fleming. His statement practically amounted to this, the preliminaries of the fight between Slavin and Smith were concluded on September 16th last, long anterior to the glove contest between Smith and Jackson, and although Mr. Fleming determined to sever his connection with Smith after the glove fight, he felt himself in duty bound to carry the fight with Slavin through to a conclusion. In this the committee did not consider him to blame. It seemed, furthermore, only fair and reasonable to assume that Mr. Fleming never contemplated the presence of the roughs when the agreement was signed. Subsequently, however, a rumour did reach Mr. Fleming that both sides had organised what is known as a "corner," and he took every possible precaution to keep the place selected a secret. Whether his efforts were intentionally thwarted could not be said, but on the morning of the fight there were present in Bruges a number of roughs, who obviously had not come all that way for their own diversion, and who could not have paid their own way thither, had they so desired. Mr. Fleming, on discovering this, informed the owner of the ground of the fact. That gentleman said he would let the fight go on, but if there was any row he would send for the police instantly. The committee had consequently arrived at the conclusion that Mr. Fleming was in no way responsible for the ruffianism that took place. The committee, however, regretted to state that in the course of their investigations the name of a member of the club, Mr. G. W. Baird, was frequently mentioned. The committee had most anxiously considered whether the conduct of Mr. Baird ought properly to come within the scope of their inquiry, but in face of the club rules they felt it necessary to proceed. The committee would feel great satisfaction if they could state explicitly that any given man had actually paid the men who behaved so disgracefully in Smith's "corner,"  but such a transaction was very difficult of absolute proof. The committee did not impute to Mr. Baird that he paid the ruffians in question. He  may not have known they were going to the fight at all. But it did appear that he made use to Slavin of language unbecoming a gentleman and a member of that club. The evidence before the committee on this point was absolutely conclusive. Sir John Ashley informed the meeting that in view of the evidence they had taken the committee had unanimously resolved that while regretting Mr. Baird's conduct at the fight, they did not find [Col. c–a] that any evidence had been brought before them to justify them in finding Mr. Baird was in any way responsible for the appearance of the roughs at the ring ride who prevented the fight from being fought to a conclusion. The Marquis of Queensberry moved an amendment to the resolution that the inquiry into Mr. Baird's conduct be continued from the point where the committee have left off[.] Mr. J. Corlett protested against the action of Lord Queensberry, who was a member of the committee which had adopted the report and resolution. Mr. Noah proposed that the conduct of Mr. Baird be referred back to the committee for further consideration, and that they be instructed to report to a general meeting to be convened one month from this date. The committee, with the  exception of Lord Queensberry, regarded this as a vote of want of confidence. On a show of hands being taken it was obvious that the majority of the members accepted the amendment of Mr. Noah. Sir John Astley then announzed [sic?] that the commmittee would resign, and the meeting was adjourned for a fortnight.<ref>"The Slavin-Smith Prize Fight. Action of the Pelican Club." ''Liverpool Weekly Courier'' 11 January 1890, Saturday: 3 [of 8], Col. 4b–5a [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0003067%2F18900111&page=3&article=042&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> === ''Reynolds's Newspaper'' === The Sunday, 12 January 1890, ''Reynolds's Newspaper'' has a longish report on the Pelican Club meeting and the fracas at the Trocadero:<blockquote>A special general meeting of the Pelican Club, convened by the committee with reference to the Smith-Slavin fight, near Bruges, drew a very full attendance of members. Sir John Astley (the president) took the chair, and was supported by the Marquis of Queensberry, Captain Archibald Drummond, Sir W. Gordon-Cumming, Mr. Robert Martin, Mr. John Corlett, Mr. Walter Dickson, and others, including Mr. Cecil Raleigh (hon. sec.) A resolution of the committee, stating that while they censured the language used by Mr. Abington Baird at the fight, yet they could not on the evidence before them connect him with the hiring of roughs, was first read; and then the opposition was led by Mr. Charles Hawtrey, who put some most pertinent questions to the Chairman. An unexpected mine was immediately afterwards sprung by Lord Queensberry, who declared that as a member of the committee he agreed with the decision of that body, yet nevertheless as a private individual he thought further investigation desirable. {{paragraph break}} Some very strong remarks from Mr. John Corlett and a forcible speech by Mr. Hugh Drummond caused great excitement. Finally, Major Noah proposed, and the Marquis of Queensberry seconded, the following amendment: — "That this inquiry into Mr. Baird's conduct be referred back to the committee with instructions to report to a general meeting to be convened one month from date." Amid intense commotion this was carried by a majority of at least three to one. Some desultory speaking followed, and then Sir John Astley announced that the amendment would be taken by the committee as a vote of censure, and that, consequently, he and his colleagues, would resign there and then. This determination was adhered to, despite the vehement protests of those who had voted with the majority that they had every confidence in the committee, but only wished for further inquiry into Mr. Baird's conduct.<ref>"The Recent Prize Fight." ''Reynolds's Newspaper'' 12 January 1890, Sunday: 6 [of 8], Col. 4a–b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000101%2F18900112&page=6&article=053&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> === ''Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper'' === This report is from the Sunday, 12 January 1890, ''Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper'':<blockquote>A meeting of the committee of the Pelican club was held on Tuesday afternoon, Sir John D. Astley presiding, to consider the action of certain parties in connection with the brutality displayed by some hired ruffians at the recent championship prize fight between Jem Smith and Frank Slavin at Bruges, and among the members present were the Marquis of Queensberry and Captain Hugh Drummond. Lord Mandeville, Mr. G. A. Baird ("Mr. Abington"), Mr. Fleming, Frank Slavin, and others were examined, and, after a long discussion, it was decided by the committee to exonerate "Mr. Abington" (Smith's backer) and Mr. Fleming (Smith's manager) from all blame. A special general meeting of the club, convened for Wednesday, drew a very full attendance of members. Sir John Astley (the president) took the chair, and was supported by the Marquis of Queensberry, Captain Archibald Drummond, Sir W. Gordon-Cumming, Mr. Robert Martin, Mr. John Corlett, Mr. Walter Dickson, and others, including Mr. Cecil Raleigh, the honorary secretary. A resolution of the committee, stating that while they censured the language used by Mr. Abington Baird at the fight, yet they could not on the evidence before them connect him with the hiring of roughs, was first read; and then the opposition was led by Mr. Charles Hawtrey, who put some most pertinent questions to the chairman. An unexpected mine was immediately afterwards sprung by Lord Queensberry, who declared that as a member of the committee he agreed with the decision of that body, yet nevertheless as a private individual he thought further investigation desirable.<ref>"The Pelican Club and the Fight." ''Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper'' 12 January 1890, Sunday: 1 [of 12], Col. 5a [of 5]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000079%2F18900112&page=1&article=005&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, n.p.</ref></blockquote> == Notes and Questions == # ==References== {{reflist}} r9mspr954ibcmw0402r2s2z1r9yilyy 0 332521 2841776 2840753 2026-10-21T00:10:19Z Hadfaiez 3112632 /* Fall 2026 */ 2841776 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Smartwatch Technology for Health Monitoring and Fitness Tracking '''Introduction Smartwatch is a wearable device that is designed to be worn on a person’s wrist. It is responsible for tracking and recording an individual’s activities such as the number of steps taken, running, sleep, and some vital signs. Smartwatches have become a rage among individuals who are willing to gather information about their health and lifestyle. I got interested in this topic after watching my dad using his smartwatch to monitor his blood pressure, walking, sleeping, and Calories burned.  He could use the device to track his activity data using this device. This caught my attention and led me to ask questions about how this technology works, the accuracy of its results, and how such tools are useful in everyday life. [[File:Android Wear Smartwatch- LG G Watch (15051774155).jpg|thumb|right|300px|LG G Watch smartwatch. Photo by Maurizio Pesce, licensed under CC BY 2.0.]] LG G Watch smartwatch. Photo by Maurizio Pesce, licensed under CC BY 2.0. '''How Smartwatches Work''' Smartwatches typically use sensors to collect data about the person movements and a certain vital signs . In particular, motion sensors allow the smartwatch to track the number of steps and other activity, while optical sensors can measure the heart rate. The smartwatch uses the data to provide activity statistics and health indicators on its display. Some smartwatches can also synchronize with a phone app to allow the user to access and analyze the information.<ref name="sensors">{{Cite web |url=https://www.nibib.nih.gov/science-education/science-topics/sensors |title=Sensors |website=National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering}}</ref> '''Health Monitoring and Fitness Tracking''' Smartwatches can help users to monitor various aspects of their lifestyle. In accordance with the devices’ specific features, they allow the owners to keep track of the number of steps walked, workouts, heart rate, sleep quality, and calories burned. Such data can help the users to identify their usual patterns and understand their daily behaviors better. In addition, some smartwatches also have built-in health screens. Nonetheless, it is essential to note that the health-related features and benefits of smartwatches may vary depending on the devices.[[File:Garmin Forerunner 35 sensor.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Rear smartwatch heart-rate sensor.]]<ref name="cleveland">{{Cite web |url=https://health.clevelandclinic.org/fitness-tracker |title=Fitness Trackers: Benefits and What To Look For |website=Cleveland Clinic}}</ref> Researchers explored the role of smartwatches and fitness trackers in greater detail, in particular, their abilities to monitor and control hypertension. However, it should not be taken for granted that the devices are always accurate in terms of the collected data and appropriate for medical purposes.<ref name="hypertension">{{Cite journal |last=Masuka |first=Learnmore |last2=Maguraushe |first2=Kudakwashe |last3=Ndlovu |first3=Belinda |date=2026 |title=Leveraging Smartwatch Technology in Hypertension Management: A Systematic Literature Review |doi=10.1007/978-3-032-22567-2_22}}</ref> '''<br />Accuracy and Limitations''' Although smartwatches can give helpful information,  the results are not always accurate. According to a 2024 review of consumer wearable technologies, which examined evidence from systematic reviews and validation studies, the accuracy depended on a specific device and type of measurement and how it measured . Compared to physical-activity measurements, heart-rate observations had better precision, while the number of steps or sleep time could be significantly underestimated or overestimated. This inaccuracy can affect the general understanding of one’s health status or level of physical activity if the user assumes that all measurements provided by the device are valid. Therefore, the results from smartwatches should be interpreted carefully , and their accuracy should be evaluated depending on the device and type of measurement.<ref name="accuracy">{{Cite journal |title=Keeping Pace with Wearables: A Living Umbrella Review of Systematic Reviews Evaluating the Accuracy of Consumer Wearable Technologies in Health Measurement |journal=Sports Medicine |date=2024 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-024-02077-2}}</ref> '''Privacy and Security Concerns ''' Smartwatches can collect  private information about their users activity and health data. That raises concerns about how such information is treated: stored, transferred, and secured. Users should understand of the privacy policies related to their devices' information and the data these devices share with connected applications.<ref name="magwatch">{{Cite web |last=Xu |first=Haowen |last2=Zhao |first2=Tianya |last3=Wang |first3=Xuyu |last4=Dai |first4=Jun |last5=Sun |first5=Xiaoyan |title=MagWatch: Exposing Privacy Risks in Smartwatches Through Electromagnetic Signals |url=https://users.wpi.edu/~jdai/docs/MagWatch.pdf}}</ref> The research paper “Magwatch: Exposing Privacy Risks in Smartwatches Through Electromagnetic Signals” investigated whether electromagnetic Users should understand information about which apps are being used and what activities are performed with them. This research demonstrates a potential privacy risk in the context of the experiment performed, but not necessarily a universal issue for all smartwatch devices, and highlights the importance of the security of such wearables. '''Benefits and Challenges One of the benefits of using technology with smartwatches is that it provides people with instant access to certain activity and health information on their wrist. Tracking steps, workouts, and sleep can help them become more informed about their habits and lifestyles and become more active in their daily routines. Some smartwatches also offer other health-related features, too. Unfortunately, these activity-tracking devices also have some limitations, including the possibility of inaccurate readings, varying features, and a high price.<ref name="gao">{{Cite web |url=https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-26-107847 |title=Wearable Technologies: Potential Benefits and Challenges in Clinical Decision-Making |website=U.S. Government Accountability Office |date=2026-08-06}}</ref> '''Conclusion''' Smartwatches use technology and sensors to help people track their daily activities and some health information. They make it easier for people to check their steps, sleep, and heart rate. However, their results are not always accurate, and users should also think about their privacy. While researching this topic, I learned that smartwatches can be helpful in everyday life, but people should understand their limitations and not depend on them completely. My dad’s use of his smartwatch made me curious about how this technology works and how it can help people in their daily live mine look the same. == Further Reading == * [https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices FDA — Medical Devices] * [https://www.clevelandclinic.org Cleveland Clinic — Health Information] * [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ PubMed — Medical Research Articles] * [https://www.nibib.nih.gov National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering] == References == <references /> tla8jrry9wgjpmefn2jupkjtgzhuntu 2841777 2841776 2026-10-21T00:13:23Z Hadfaiez 3112632 2841777 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Smartwatch Technology for Health Monitoring and Fitness Tracking '''Introduction Smartwatch is a wearable device that is designed to be worn on a person’s wrist. It is responsible for tracking and recording an individual’s activities such as the number of steps taken, running, sleep, and some vital signs. Smartwatches have become a rage among individuals who are willing to gather information about their health and lifestyle. I got interested in this topic after watching my dad using his smartwatch to monitor his blood pressure, walking, sleeping, and Calories burned.  He could use the device to track his activity data using this device. This caught my attention and led me to ask questions about how this technology works, the accuracy of its results, and how such tools are useful in everyday life. [[File:Android Wear Smartwatch- LG G Watch (15051774155).jpg|thumb|right|300px|LG G Watch smartwatch. Photo by Maurizio Pesce, licensed under CC BY 2.0.]] LG G Watch smartwatch. Photo by Maurizio Pesce, licensed under CC BY 2.0. '''How Smartwatches Work''' Smartwatches typically use sensors to collect data about the person movements and a certain vital signs . In particular, motion sensors allow the smartwatch to track the number of steps and other activity, while optical sensors can measure the heart rate. The smartwatch uses the data to provide activity statistics and health indicators on its display. Some smartwatches can also synchronize with a phone app to allow the user to access and analyze the information.<ref name="sensors">{{Cite web |url=https://www.nibib.nih.gov/science-education/science-topics/sensors |title=Sensors |website=National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering}}</ref> '''Health Monitoring and Fitness Tracking''' Smartwatches can help users to monitor various aspects of their lifestyle. In accordance with the devices’ specific features, they allow the owners to keep track of the number of steps walked, workouts, heart rate, sleep quality, and calories burned. Such data can help the users to identify their usual patterns and understand their daily behaviors better. In addition, some smartwatches also have built-in health screens. Nonetheless, it is essential to note that the health-related features and benefits of smartwatches may vary depending on the devices.[[File:Garmin Forerunner 35 sensor.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Rear smartwatch heart-rate sensor.]]<ref name="cleveland">{{Cite web |url=https://health.clevelandclinic.org/fitness-tracker |title=Fitness Trackers: Benefits and What To Look For |website=Cleveland Clinic}}</ref> Researchers explored the role of smartwatches and fitness trackers in greater detail, in particular, their abilities to monitor and control hypertension. However, it should not be taken for granted that the devices are always accurate in terms of the collected data and appropriate for medical purposes.<ref name="hypertension">{{Cite journal |last=Masuka |first=Learnmore |last2=Maguraushe |first2=Kudakwashe |last3=Ndlovu |first3=Belinda |date=2026 |title=Leveraging Smartwatch Technology in Hypertension Management: A Systematic Literature Review |doi=10.1007/978-3-032-22567-2_22}}</ref> '''<br />Accuracy and Limitations''' Although smartwatches can give helpful information,  the results are not always accurate. According to a 2024 review of consumer wearable technologies, which examined evidence from systematic reviews and validation studies, the accuracy depended on a specific device and type of measurement and how it measured . Compared to physical-activity measurements, heart-rate observations had better precision, while the number of steps or sleep time could be significantly underestimated or overestimated. This inaccuracy can affect the general understanding of one’s health status or level of physical activity if the user assumes that all measurements provided by the device are valid. Therefore, the results from smartwatches should be interpreted carefully , and their accuracy should be evaluated depending on the device and type of measurement.<ref name="accuracy">{{Cite journal |title=Keeping Pace with Wearables: A Living Umbrella Review of Systematic Reviews Evaluating the Accuracy of Consumer Wearable Technologies in Health Measurement |journal=Sports Medicine |date=2024 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-024-02077-2}}</ref> '''Privacy and Security Concerns ''' Smartwatches can collect  private information about their users activity and health data. That raises concerns about how such information is treated: stored, transferred, and secured. Users should understand of the privacy policies related to their devices' information and the data these devices share with connected applications.<ref name="magwatch">{{Cite web |last=Xu |first=Haowen |last2=Zhao |first2=Tianya |last3=Wang |first3=Xuyu |last4=Dai |first4=Jun |last5=Sun |first5=Xiaoyan |title=MagWatch: Exposing Privacy Risks in Smartwatches Through Electromagnetic Signals |url=https://users.wpi.edu/~jdai/docs/MagWatch.pdf}}</ref> The research paper “Magwatch: Exposing Privacy Risks in Smartwatches Through Electromagnetic Signals” investigated whether electromagnetic Users should understand information about which apps are being used and what activities are performed with them. This research demonstrates a potential privacy risk in the context of the experiment performed, but not necessarily a universal issue for all smartwatch devices, and highlights the importance of the security of such wearables. '''Benefits and Challenges One of the benefits of using technology with smartwatches is that it provides people with instant access to certain activity and health information on their wrist. Tracking steps, workouts, and sleep can help them become more informed about their habits and lifestyles and become more active in their daily routines. Some smartwatches also offer other health-related features, too. Unfortunately, these activity-tracking devices also have some limitations, including the possibility of inaccurate readings, varying features, and a high price.<ref name="gao">{{Cite web |url=https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-26-107847 |title=Wearable Technologies: Potential Benefits and Challenges in Clinical Decision-Making |website=U.S. Government Accountability Office |date=2026-08-06}}</ref> '''Conclusion''' Smartwatches use technology and sensors to help people track their daily activities and some health information. They make it easier for people to check their steps, sleep, and heart rate. However, their results are not always accurate, and users should also think about their privacy. While researching this topic, I learned that smartwatches can be helpful in everyday life, but people should understand their limitations and not depend on them completely. My dad’s use of his smartwatch made me curious about how this technology works and how it can help people in their daily live mine look the same. == Further Reading == * [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30035250/ A Survey of Smartwatches in Remote Health Monitoring] — Research about how smartwatches are used for remote health monitoring. * [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40199339/ Apple Watch Accuracy in Monitoring Health Metrics] — Research about the accuracy of smartwatch measurements. * [https://consumer.ftc.gov/consumer-alerts/2021/01/does-your-health-app-protect-your-sensitive-info Does Your Health App Protect Your Sensitive Info?] — Information about privacy and health apps. * [https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/safety-communications/do-not-use-smartwatches-or-smart-rings-measure-blood-glucose-levels-fda-safety-communication FDA Warning About Smartwatches and Blood Glucose Measurements] — Explains an important limitation of certain smartwatch health features. == References == <references /> gr5nxap73fdd2j866rfdsa7dzpgws6p 2841782 2841777 2026-10-21T00:55:09Z Hadfaiez 3112632 2841782 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Smartwatch Technology for Health Monitoring and Fitness Tracking '''Introduction Smartwatch is a wearable device that is designed to be worn on a person’s wrist. It is responsible for tracking and recording an individual’s activities such as the number of steps taken, running, sleep, and some vital signs. Smartwatches have become a rage among individuals who are willing to gather information about their health and lifestyle. I got interested in this topic after watching my dad using his smartwatch to monitor his blood pressure, walking, sleeping, and Calories burned.  He could use the device to track his activity data using this device. This caught my attention and led me to ask questions about how this technology works, the accuracy of its results, and how such tools are useful in everyday life. [[File:Android Wear Smartwatch- LG G Watch (15051774155).jpg|thumb|right|300px|LG G Watch smartwatch. Photo by Maurizio Pesce, licensed under CC BY 2.0.]] LG G Watch smartwatch. Photo by Maurizio Pesce, licensed under CC BY 2.0. '''How Smartwatches Work''' Smartwatches typically use sensors to collect data about the person movements and a certain vital signs . In particular, motion sensors allow the smartwatch to track the number of steps and other activity, while optical sensors can measure the heart rate. The smartwatch uses the data to provide activity statistics and health indicators on its display. Some smartwatches can also synchronize with a phone app to allow the user to access and analyze the information.<ref name="sensors">{{Cite web |url=https://www.nibib.nih.gov/science-education/science-topics/sensors |title=Sensors |website=National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering}}</ref> '''Health Monitoring and Fitness Tracking''' Smartwatches can help users to monitor various aspects of their lifestyle. In accordance with the devices’ specific features, they allow the owners to keep track of the number of steps walked, workouts, heart rate, sleep quality, and calories burned. Such data can help the users to identify their usual patterns and understand their daily behaviors better. In addition, some smartwatches also have built-in health screens. Nonetheless, it is essential to note that the health-related features and benefits of smartwatches may vary depending on the devices.[[File:Garmin Forerunner 35 sensor.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Rear smartwatch heart-rate sensor.]]<ref name="cleveland">{{Cite web |url=https://health.clevelandclinic.org/fitness-tracker |title=Fitness Trackers: Benefits and What To Look For |website=Cleveland Clinic}}</ref> Researchers explored the role of smartwatches and fitness trackers in greater detail, in particular, their abilities to monitor and control hypertension. However, it should not be taken for granted that the devices are always accurate in terms of the collected data and appropriate for medical purposes.<ref name="hypertension">{{Cite journal |last=Masuka |first=Learnmore |last2=Maguraushe |first2=Kudakwashe |last3=Ndlovu |first3=Belinda |date=2026 |title=Leveraging Smartwatch Technology in Hypertension Management: A Systematic Literature Review |doi=10.1007/978-3-032-22567-2_22}}</ref> '''<br />Accuracy and Limitations''' Although smartwatches can give helpful information,  the results are not always accurate. According to a 2024 review of consumer wearable technologies, which examined evidence from systematic reviews and validation studies, the accuracy depended on a specific device and type of measurement and how it measured . Compared to physical-activity measurements, heart-rate observations had better precision, while the number of steps or sleep time could be significantly underestimated or overestimated. This inaccuracy can affect the general understanding of one’s health status or level of physical activity if the user assumes that all measurements provided by the device are valid. Therefore, the results from smartwatches should be interpreted carefully , and their accuracy should be evaluated depending on the device and type of measurement.<ref name="accuracy">{{Cite journal |title=Keeping Pace with Wearables: A Living Umbrella Review of Systematic Reviews Evaluating the Accuracy of Consumer Wearable Technologies in Health Measurement |journal=Sports Medicine |date=2024 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-024-02077-2}}</ref> '''Privacy and Security Concerns ''' Smartwatches can collect  private information about their users activity and health data. That raises concerns about how such information is treated: stored, transferred, and secured. Users should understand of the privacy policies related to their devices' information and the data these devices share with connected applications.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chikwetu |first=Lucy |last2=Miao |first2=Yu |last3=Woldetensae |first3=Melat K. |last4=Bell |first4=Diarra |last5=Goldenholz |first5=Daniel M. |last6=Dunn |first6=Jessilyn |date=2023 |title=Does deidentification of data from wearable devices give us a false sense of security? A systematic review |journal=The Lancet Digital Health |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=e239-e247 |doi=10.1016/S2589-7500(22)00234-5}}</ref> Another concern with smartwatches is the privacy of personal health information. Smartwatches and other wearable devices collect data that may reveal information about a person's health and daily activities. A systematic review of wearable-device research found that removing names and other direct identifiers does not always prevent people from being identified through their data. This shows why protecting personal information is important when health data is collected, stored, or shared. '''Benefits and Challenges One of the benefits of using technology with smartwatches is that it provides people with instant access to certain activity and health information on their wrist. Tracking steps, workouts, and sleep can help them become more informed about their habits and lifestyles and become more active in their daily routines. Some smartwatches also offer other health-related features, too. Unfortunately, these activity-tracking devices also have some limitations, including the possibility of inaccurate readings, varying features, and a high price.<ref name="gao">{{Cite web |url=https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-26-107847 |title=Wearable Technologies: Potential Benefits and Challenges in Clinical Decision-Making |website=U.S. Government Accountability Office |date=2026-08-06}}</ref> '''Conclusion''' Smartwatches use technology and sensors to help people track their daily activities and some health information. They make it easier for people to check their steps, sleep, and heart rate. However, their results are not always accurate, and users should also think about their privacy. While researching this topic, I learned that smartwatches can be helpful in everyday life, but people should understand their limitations and not depend on them completely. My dad’s use of his smartwatch made me curious about how this technology works and how it can help people in their daily live mine look the same. == Further Reading == * [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30035250/ A Survey of Smartwatches in Remote Health Monitoring] — Research about how smartwatches are used for remote health monitoring. * [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40199339/ Apple Watch Accuracy in Monitoring Health Metrics] — Research about the accuracy of smartwatch measurements. * [https://consumer.ftc.gov/consumer-alerts/2021/01/does-your-health-app-protect-your-sensitive-info Does Your Health App Protect Your Sensitive Info?] — Information about privacy and health apps. * [https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/safety-communications/do-not-use-smartwatches-or-smart-rings-measure-blood-glucose-levels-fda-safety-communication FDA Warning About Smartwatches and Blood Glucose Measurements] — Explains an important limitation of certain smartwatch health features. == References == <references /> gid7kd84rh6r6lgk3t6atm4slbg7gxy 2841783 2841782 2026-10-21T01:12:44Z Hadfaiez 3112632 Completed smartwatch health monitoring article 2841783 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Smartwatch Technology for Health Monitoring and Fitness Tracking '''Introduction Smartwatch is a wearable device that is designed to be worn on a person’s wrist. It is responsible for tracking and recording an individual’s activities such as the number of steps taken, running, sleep, and some vital signs. Smartwatches have become a rage among individuals who are willing to gather information about their health and lifestyle. I got interested in this topic after watching my dad using his smartwatch to monitor his blood pressure, walking, sleeping, and Calories burned.  He could use the device to track his activity data using this device. This caught my attention and led me to ask questions about how this technology works, the accuracy of its results, and how such tools are useful in everyday life. [[File:Android Wear Smartwatch- LG G Watch (15051774155).jpg|thumb|right|300px|LG G Watch smartwatch. Photo by Maurizio Pesce, licensed under CC BY 2.0.]] '''How Smartwatches Work''' Smartwatches typically use sensors to collect data about the person movements and a certain vital signs . In particular, motion sensors allow the smartwatch to track the number of steps and other activity, while optical sensors can measure the heart rate. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kim |first=Kwang Bok |last2=Baek |first2=Hyun Jae |title=Photoplethysmography in Wearable Devices: A Comprehensive Review of Technological Advances, Current Challenges, and Future Directions |journal=Electronics |volume=12 |issue=13 |pages=2923 |year=2023 |doi=10.3390/electronics12132923}}</ref> The smartwatch uses the data to provide activity statistics and health indicators on its display. Some smartwatches can also synchronize with a phone app to allow the user to access and analyze the information.<ref name="sensors">{{Cite web |url=https://www.nibib.nih.gov/science-education/science-topics/sensors |title=Sensors |website=National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering}}</ref> '''Health Monitoring and Fitness Tracking''' Smartwatches can help users to monitor various aspects of their lifestyle. In accordance with the devices’ specific features, they allow the owners to keep track of the number of steps walked, workouts, heart rate, sleep quality, and calories burned. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Masoumian Hosseini |first=Mohsen |last2=Masoumian Hosseini |first2=Seyedeh Toktam |last3=Qayumi |first3=Karim |last4=Hosseinzadeh |first4=Shahriar |last5=Sajadi Tabar |first5=Seyedeh Saba |title=Smartwatches in healthcare medicine: assistance and monitoring; a scoping review |journal=BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=248 |year=2023 |doi=10.1186/s12911-023-02350-w}}</ref> Such data can help the users to identify their usual patterns and understand their daily behaviors better. In addition, some smartwatches also have built-in health screens. Nonetheless, it is essential to note that the health-related features and benefits of smartwatches may vary depending on the devices.[[File:Garmin Forerunner 35 sensor.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Rear smartwatch heart-rate sensor.]]<ref name="cleveland">{{Cite web |url=https://health.clevelandclinic.org/fitness-tracker |title=Fitness Trackers: Benefits and What To Look For |website=Cleveland Clinic}}</ref> Researchers explored the role of smartwatches and fitness trackers in greater detail, in particular, their abilities to monitor and control hypertension. However, it should not be taken for granted that the devices are always accurate in terms of the collected data and appropriate for medical purposes.<ref name="hypertension">{{Cite journal |last=Masuka |first=Learnmore |last2=Maguraushe |first2=Kudakwashe |last3=Ndlovu |first3=Belinda |date=2026 |title=Leveraging Smartwatch Technology in Hypertension Management: A Systematic Literature Review |doi=10.1007/978-3-032-22567-2_22}}</ref> '''<br />Accuracy and Limitations''' Although smartwatches can give helpful information,  the results are not always accurate. According to a 2024 review of consumer wearable technologies, which examined evidence from systematic reviews and validation studies, the accuracy depended on a specific device and type of measurement and how it measured . <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lepley |first=Adam S. |last2=Davis |first2=Fiddy |last3=Melvin |first3=Amanda C. |last4=Zhao |first4=Zheng-Yang |title=Consumer Smartwatch Technology in Health and Performance Research: Validity, Limitations, and Real-World Applications |journal=Sensors |volume=26 |issue=14 |pages=4486 |year=2026 |doi=10.3390/s26144486}}</ref> Compared to physical-activity measurements, heart-rate observations had better precision, while the number of steps or sleep time could be significantly underestimated or overestimated. This inaccuracy can affect the general understanding of one’s health status or level of physical activity if the user assumes that all measurements provided by the device are valid. Therefore, the results from smartwatches should be interpreted carefully , and their accuracy should be evaluated depending on the device and type of measurement.<ref name="accuracy">{{Cite journal |title=Keeping Pace with Wearables: A Living Umbrella Review of Systematic Reviews Evaluating the Accuracy of Consumer Wearable Technologies in Health Measurement |journal=Sports Medicine |date=2024 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-024-02077-2}}</ref> '''Privacy and Security Concerns ''' Smartwatches can collect  private information about their users activity and health data. That raises concerns about how such information is treated: stored, transferred, and secured. Users should understand of the privacy policies related to their devices' information and the data these devices share with connected applications.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chikwetu |first=Lucy |last2=Miao |first2=Yu |last3=Woldetensae |first3=Melat K. |last4=Bell |first4=Diarra |last5=Goldenholz |first5=Daniel M. |last6=Dunn |first6=Jessilyn |date=2023 |title=Does deidentification of data from wearable devices give us a false sense of security? A systematic review |journal=The Lancet Digital Health |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=e239-e247 |doi=10.1016/S2589-7500(22)00234-5}}</ref> Another concern with smartwatches is the privacy of personal health information. Smartwatches and other wearable devices collect data that may reveal information about a person's health and daily activities. A systematic review of wearable-device research found that removing names and other direct identifiers does not always prevent people from being identified through their data. This shows why protecting personal information is important when health data is collected, stored, or shared. '''Benefits and Challenges One of the benefits of using technology with smartwatches is that it provides people with instant access to certain activity and health information on their wrist. Tracking steps, workouts, and sleep can help them become more informed about their habits and lifestyles and become more active in their daily routines. Some smartwatches also offer other health-related features, too. Unfortunately, these activity-tracking devices also have some limitations, including the possibility of inaccurate readings, varying features, and a high price.<ref name="gao">{{Cite web |url=https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-26-107847 |title=Wearable Technologies: Potential Benefits and Challenges in Clinical Decision-Making |website=U.S. Government Accountability Office |date=2026-08-06}}</ref> '''Conclusion''' Smartwatches use technology and sensors to help people track their daily activities and some health information. They make it easier for people to check their steps, sleep, and heart rate. However, their results are not always accurate, and users should also think about their privacy. While researching this topic, I learned that smartwatches can be helpful in everyday life, but people should understand their limitations and not depend on them completely. My dad’s use of his smartwatch made me curious about how this technology works and how it can help people in their daily live mine look the same. == Further Reading == * [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30035250/ A Survey of Smartwatches in Remote Health Monitoring] — Research about how smartwatches are used for remote health monitoring. * [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40199339/ Apple Watch Accuracy in Monitoring Health Metrics] — Research about the accuracy of smartwatch measurements. * [https://consumer.ftc.gov/consumer-alerts/2021/01/does-your-health-app-protect-your-sensitive-info Does Your Health App Protect Your Sensitive Info?] — Information about privacy and health apps. * [https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/safety-communications/do-not-use-smartwatches-or-smart-rings-measure-blood-glucose-levels-fda-safety-communication FDA Warning About Smartwatches and Blood Glucose Measurements] — Explains an important limitation of certain smartwatch health features. == References == <references /> apt93wmnid5h68yr4rn774io8hv7w7d 2841786 2841783 2026-10-21T01:21:46Z Hadfaiez 3112632 Completed smartwatch health monitoring article 2841786 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == Smartwatch is a wearable device that is designed to be worn on a person’s wrist. It is responsible for tracking and recording an individual’s activities such as the number of steps taken, running, sleep, and some vital signs. Smartwatches have become a rage among individuals who are willing to gather information about their health and lifestyle. I got interested in this topic after watching my dad using his smartwatch to monitor his blood pressure, walking, sleeping, and Calories burned.  He could use the device to track his activity data using this device. This caught my attention and led me to ask questions about how this technology works, the accuracy of its results, and how such tools are useful in everyday life. [[File:Android Wear Smartwatch- LG G Watch (15051774155).jpg|thumb|right|300px|LG G Watch smartwatch. Photo by Maurizio Pesce, licensed under CC BY 2.0.]] == How Smartwatches Work == Smartwatches typically use sensors to collect data about the person movements and a certain vital signs . In particular, motion sensors allow the smartwatch to track the number of steps and other activity, while optical sensors can measure the heart rate. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kim |first=Kwang Bok |last2=Baek |first2=Hyun Jae |title=Photoplethysmography in Wearable Devices: A Comprehensive Review of Technological Advances, Current Challenges, and Future Directions |journal=Electronics |volume=12 |issue=13 |pages=2923 |year=2023 |doi=10.3390/electronics12132923}}</ref> The smartwatch uses the data to provide activity statistics and health indicators on its display. Some smartwatches can also synchronize with a phone app to allow the user to access and analyze the information.<ref name="sensors">{{Cite web |url=https://www.nibib.nih.gov/science-education/science-topics/sensors |title=Sensors |website=National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering}}</ref> == Health Monitoring and Fitness Tracking == Smartwatches can help users to monitor various aspects of their lifestyle. In accordance with the devices’ specific features, they allow the owners to keep track of the number of steps walked, workouts, heart rate, sleep quality, and calories burned. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Masoumian Hosseini |first=Mohsen |last2=Masoumian Hosseini |first2=Seyedeh Toktam |last3=Qayumi |first3=Karim |last4=Hosseinzadeh |first4=Shahriar |last5=Sajadi Tabar |first5=Seyedeh Saba |title=Smartwatches in healthcare medicine: assistance and monitoring; a scoping review |journal=BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=248 |year=2023 |doi=10.1186/s12911-023-02350-w}}</ref> Such data can help the users to identify their usual patterns and understand their daily behaviors better. In addition, some smartwatches also have built-in health screens. Nonetheless, it is essential to note that the health-related features and benefits of smartwatches may vary depending on the devices.[[File:Garmin Forerunner 35 sensor.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Rear smartwatch heart-rate sensor.]]<ref name="cleveland">{{Cite web |url=https://health.clevelandclinic.org/fitness-tracker |title=Fitness Trackers: Benefits and What To Look For |website=Cleveland Clinic}}</ref> Researchers explored the role of smartwatches and fitness trackers in greater detail, in particular, their abilities to monitor and control hypertension. However, it should not be taken for granted that the devices are always accurate in terms of the collected data and appropriate for medical purposes.<ref name="hypertension">{{Cite journal |last=Masuka |first=Learnmore |last2=Maguraushe |first2=Kudakwashe |last3=Ndlovu |first3=Belinda |date=2026 |title=Leveraging Smartwatch Technology in Hypertension Management: A Systematic Literature Review |doi=10.1007/978-3-032-22567-2_22}}</ref> == Accuracy and Limitations == Although smartwatches can give helpful information,  the results are not always accurate. According to a 2024 review of consumer wearable technologies, which examined evidence from systematic reviews and validation studies, the accuracy depended on a specific device and type of measurement and how it measured . <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lepley |first=Adam S. |last2=Davis |first2=Fiddy |last3=Melvin |first3=Amanda C. |last4=Zhao |first4=Zheng-Yang |title=Consumer Smartwatch Technology in Health and Performance Research: Validity, Limitations, and Real-World Applications |journal=Sensors |volume=26 |issue=14 |pages=4486 |year=2026 |doi=10.3390/s26144486}}</ref> Compared to physical-activity measurements, heart-rate observations had better precision, while the number of steps or sleep time could be significantly underestimated or overestimated. This inaccuracy can affect the general understanding of one’s health status or level of physical activity if the user assumes that all measurements provided by the device are valid. Therefore, the results from smartwatches should be interpreted carefully , and their accuracy should be evaluated depending on the device and type of measurement.<ref name="accuracy">{{Cite journal |title=Keeping Pace with Wearables: A Living Umbrella Review of Systematic Reviews Evaluating the Accuracy of Consumer Wearable Technologies in Health Measurement |journal=Sports Medicine |date=2024 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-024-02077-2}}</ref> == Privacy and Security == Smartwatches can collect  private information about their users activity and health data. That raises concerns about how such information is treated: stored, transferred, and secured. Users should understand of the privacy policies related to their devices' information and the data these devices share with connected applications.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chikwetu |first=Lucy |last2=Miao |first2=Yu |last3=Woldetensae |first3=Melat K. |last4=Bell |first4=Diarra |last5=Goldenholz |first5=Daniel M. |last6=Dunn |first6=Jessilyn |date=2023 |title=Does deidentification of data from wearable devices give us a false sense of security? A systematic review |journal=The Lancet Digital Health |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=e239-e247 |doi=10.1016/S2589-7500(22)00234-5}}</ref> Another concern with smartwatches is the privacy of personal health information. Smartwatches and other wearable devices collect data that may reveal information about a person's health and daily activities. A systematic review of wearable-device research found that removing names and other direct identifiers does not always prevent people from being identified through their data. This shows why protecting personal information is important when health data is collected, stored, or shared. == Benefits and Challenges == One of the benefits of using technology with smartwatches is that it provides people with instant access to certain activity and health information on their wrist. Tracking steps, workouts, and sleep can help them become more informed about their habits and lifestyles and become more active in their daily routines. Some smartwatches also offer other health-related features, too. Unfortunately, these activity-tracking devices also have some limitations, including the possibility of inaccurate readings, varying features, and a high price.<ref name="gao">{{Cite web |url=https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-26-107847 |title=Wearable Technologies: Potential Benefits and Challenges in Clinical Decision-Making |website=U.S. Government Accountability Office |date=2026-08-06}}</ref> == Conclusion == Smartwatches use technology and sensors to help people track their daily activities and some health information. They make it easier for people to check their steps, sleep, and heart rate. However, their results are not always accurate, and users should also think about their privacy. While researching this topic, I learned that smartwatches can be helpful in everyday life, but people should understand their limitations and not depend on them completely. My dad’s use of his smartwatch made me curious about how this technology works and how it can help people in their daily live mine look the same. == Further Reading == * [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30035250/ A Survey of Smartwatches in Remote Health Monitoring] — Research about how smartwatches are used for remote health monitoring. * [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40199339/ Apple Watch Accuracy in Monitoring Health Metrics] — Research about the accuracy of smartwatch measurements. * [https://consumer.ftc.gov/consumer-alerts/2021/01/does-your-health-app-protect-your-sensitive-info Does Your Health App Protect Your Sensitive Info?] — Information about privacy and health apps. * [https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/safety-communications/do-not-use-smartwatches-or-smart-rings-measure-blood-glucose-levels-fda-safety-communication FDA Warning About Smartwatches and Blood Glucose Measurements] — Explains an important limitation of certain smartwatch health features. == References == <references /> f23herbv4ng35s5v1atpmr94q0zuv2x 2841788 2841786 2026-10-21T01:24:54Z Hadfaiez 3112632 Completed smartwatch health monitoring article 2841788 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == Smartwatch is a wearable device that is designed to be worn on a person’s wrist. It is responsible for tracking and recording an individual’s activities such as the number of steps taken, running, sleep, and some vital signs. Smartwatches have become a rage among individuals who are willing to gather information about their health and lifestyle. I got interested in this topic after watching my dad using his smartwatch to monitor his blood pressure, walking, sleeping, and Calories burned.  He could use the device to track his activity data using this device. This caught my attention and led me to ask questions about how this technology works, the accuracy of its results, and how such tools are useful in everyday life. [[File:Android Wear Smartwatch- LG G Watch (15051774155).jpg|thumb|right|300px|LG G Watch smartwatch. Photo by Maurizio Pesce, licensed under CC BY 2.0.]] == How Smartwatches Work == Smartwatches typically use sensors to collect data about the person movements and a certain vital signs . In particular, motion sensors allow the smartwatch to track the number of steps and other activity, while optical sensors can measure the heart rate. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kim |first=Kwang Bok |last2=Baek |first2=Hyun Jae |title=Photoplethysmography in Wearable Devices: A Comprehensive Review of Technological Advances, Current Challenges, and Future Directions |journal=Electronics |volume=12 |issue=13 |pages=2923 |year=2023 |doi=10.3390/electronics12132923}}</ref> The smartwatch uses the data to provide activity statistics and health indicators on its display. Some smartwatches can also synchronize with a phone app to allow the user to access and analyze the information.<ref name="sensors">{{Cite web |url=https://www.nibib.nih.gov/science-education/science-topics/sensors |title=Sensors |website=National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering}}</ref> == Health Monitoring and Fitness Tracking == Smartwatches can help users to monitor various aspects of their lifestyle. In accordance with the devices’ specific features, they allow the owners to keep track of the number of steps walked, workouts, heart rate, sleep quality, and calories burned. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Masoumian Hosseini |first=Mohsen |last2=Masoumian Hosseini |first2=Seyedeh Toktam |last3=Qayumi |first3=Karim |last4=Hosseinzadeh |first4=Shahriar |last5=Sajadi Tabar |first5=Seyedeh Saba |title=Smartwatches in healthcare medicine: assistance and monitoring; a scoping review |journal=BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=248 |year=2023 |doi=10.1186/s12911-023-02350-w}}</ref> Such data can help the users to identify their usual patterns and understand their daily behaviors better. In addition, some smartwatches also have built-in health screens. Nonetheless, it is essential to note that the health-related features and benefits of smartwatches may vary depending on the devices.[[File:Garmin Forerunner 35 sensor.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Rear smartwatch heart-rate sensor.]]<ref name="cleveland">{{Cite web |url=https://health.clevelandclinic.org/fitness-tracker |title=Fitness Trackers: Benefits and What To Look For |website=Cleveland Clinic}}</ref> Researchers explored the role of smartwatches and fitness trackers in greater detail, in particular, their abilities to monitor and control hypertension. However, it should not be taken for granted that the devices are always accurate in terms of the collected data and appropriate for medical purposes.<ref name="hypertension">{{Cite journal |last=Masuka |first=Learnmore |last2=Maguraushe |first2=Kudakwashe |last3=Ndlovu |first3=Belinda |date=2026 |title=Leveraging Smartwatch Technology in Hypertension Management: A Systematic Literature Review |doi=10.1007/978-3-032-22567-2_22}}</ref> == Accuracy and Limitations == Although smartwatches can give helpful information,  the results are not always accurate. According to a 2024 review of consumer wearable technologies, which examined evidence from systematic reviews and validation studies, the accuracy depended on a specific device and type of measurement and how it measured . <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lepley |first=Adam S. |last2=Davis |first2=Fiddy |last3=Melvin |first3=Amanda C. |last4=Zhao |first4=Zheng-Yang |title=Consumer Smartwatch Technology in Health and Performance Research: Validity, Limitations, and Real-World Applications |journal=Sensors |volume=26 |issue=14 |pages=4486 |year=2026 |doi=10.3390/s26144486}}</ref> Compared to physical-activity measurements, heart-rate observations had better precision, while the number of steps or sleep time could be significantly underestimated or overestimated. This inaccuracy can affect the general understanding of one’s health status or level of physical activity if the user assumes that all measurements provided by the device are valid. Therefore, the results from smartwatches should be interpreted carefully , and their accuracy should be evaluated depending on the device and type of measurement.<ref name="accuracy">{{Cite journal |title=Keeping Pace with Wearables: A Living Umbrella Review of Systematic Reviews Evaluating the Accuracy of Consumer Wearable Technologies in Health Measurement |journal=Sports Medicine |date=2024 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-024-02077-2}}</ref> == Privacy and Security == Smartwatches can collect  private information about their users activity and health data. That raises concerns about how such information is treated: stored, transferred, and secured. Users should understand of the privacy policies related to their devices' information and the data these devices share with connected applications.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chikwetu |first=Lucy |last2=Miao |first2=Yu |last3=Woldetensae |first3=Melat K. |last4=Bell |first4=Diarra |last5=Goldenholz |first5=Daniel M. |last6=Dunn |first6=Jessilyn |date=2023 |title=Does deidentification of data from wearable devices give us a false sense of security? A systematic review |journal=The Lancet Digital Health |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=e239-e247 |doi=10.1016/S2589-7500(22)00234-5}}</ref> Another concern with smartwatches is the privacy of personal health information. Smartwatches and other wearable devices collect data that may reveal information about a person's health and daily activities. A systematic review of wearable-device research found that removing names and other direct identifiers does not always prevent people from being identified through their data. This shows why protecting personal information is important when health data is collected, stored, or shared. == Benefits and Challenges == [[File:Smartwatch-health2.png|thumb|right|250px|A smartwatch used to share and monitor health data.]] One of the benefits of using technology with smartwatches is that it provides people with instant access to certain activity and health information on their wrist. Tracking steps, workouts, and sleep can help them become more informed about their habits and lifestyles and become more active in their daily routines. Some smartwatches also offer other health-related features, too. Unfortunately, these activity-tracking devices also have some limitations, including the possibility of inaccurate readings, varying features, and a high price.<ref name="gao">{{Cite web |url=https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-26-107847 |title=Wearable Technologies: Potential Benefits and Challenges in Clinical Decision-Making |website=U.S. Government Accountability Office |date=2026-08-06}}</ref> == Conclusion == Smartwatches use technology and sensors to help people track their daily activities and some health information. They make it easier for people to check their steps, sleep, and heart rate. However, their results are not always accurate, and users should also think about their privacy. While researching this topic, I learned that smartwatches can be helpful in everyday life, but people should understand their limitations and not depend on them completely. My dad’s use of his smartwatch made me curious about how this technology works and how it can help people in their daily live mine look the same. == Further Reading == * [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30035250/ A Survey of Smartwatches in Remote Health Monitoring] — Research about how smartwatches are used for remote health monitoring. * [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40199339/ Apple Watch Accuracy in Monitoring Health Metrics] — Research about the accuracy of smartwatch measurements. * [https://consumer.ftc.gov/consumer-alerts/2021/01/does-your-health-app-protect-your-sensitive-info Does Your Health App Protect Your Sensitive Info?] — Information about privacy and health apps. * [https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/safety-communications/do-not-use-smartwatches-or-smart-rings-measure-blood-glucose-levels-fda-safety-communication FDA Warning About Smartwatches and Blood Glucose Measurements] — Explains an important limitation of certain smartwatch health features. == References == <references /> 3ue6de6umkjhxdsg96oq8gqkcsk1e9s 0 332549 2841741 2841649 2026-10-20T19:50:23Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 Attempting to solve lints 2841741 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. While no one really knows how to make economies grow, immigrants and free, competitive media markets have been suggested as playing major roles in the creative destruction that is required for economic growth at the technology frontier. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line could be due to the change in reference, as [[w:Holland|Holland]] at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>Dośpiał-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives "the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long".<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref> This provides one explanation for the end of growth of the economy of Holland shortly before 1600 and for the slowing of economic growth in recent decades in the US, the UK, and the Netherlands, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., Martínez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that sanctuary jurisdictions have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>Martínez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President Trump's Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so the secular elites would "protect" them in wars against the designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature.<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king traveling around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> A century later during the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651), pamphlets and newspapers helped build the [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], who supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Many were part of the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which won the war. The Levellers were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]], son of King James, in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that (over a century later) became the US. That growth was presumably supported by the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were both roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor, whose successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> But FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers computations based on the data from both Maddison and MeasuringWorth: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! !colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth( % / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 ||2.24% ||1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who replaced Charles I, refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, presumably supported by the growing number of independent publishers of pamphlets, books, and newspapers mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in proclaiming the contributions of immigrants to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how "the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology." Aghion et al. (2021, p. 292) also discuss (a) "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita" and (b) the overrepresentation of immigrants in patent applications.<ref>e.g., Aghion et al. (2026, pp. 266-267).</ref> However, [[w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78) claimed that "over the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth," seemingly the opposite of the claim just quoted from Aghion et al. Anther example of how technology winners protect their status against competition is the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] decision in ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]''. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]], who represented the plaintiff in that case, asked how could extending the copyright on existing works "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts", as required by the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution? Lessig lost that case. His (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to limit rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000, which would bankrupt his parents and which they could not recover even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP). The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, becauses much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) SLAPP laws, because anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the administrations threats against the ABC network because they didn't like a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the power of major corporations, which provide most of the money for the media. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting abruptly after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714) followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820), then another dramatic increase in the slope starting abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant to thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. However, the data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts", according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs moved to confiscate "[[w:Commons|commons]]", land whose use had been traditionally shared by commoners, and give to nobles. The Levellers had been excluded from the government of Lord Protector Cromwell, but the spirit of levelling still stalked the land. Some commoners joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That period came to an abrupt end at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices of cereal grains and products made by them, high. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, "The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the Fifteenth Hussars had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The Manchester Observer called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... ." And the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to became successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either change in administration -- a new head of state -- or some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (2) immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s could make important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as suggested by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, Céline Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__>{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Renée DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--Renée DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna Dośpiał-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--Martínez, Daniel E.; Martínez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> 9bsze2dw9qm001tbf49m6dyucmlhh57 3 332564 2841730 2026-10-20T12:11:41Z MathXplore 2888076 vandalism1 ([[m:User:ZbVl/VD|Vandoom]]) 2841730 wikitext text/x-wiki == 2026-10-20 == [[File:Information.svg|25px|alt=Information icon]] Hello, I’m letting you know that one or more of your recent contributions have been reverted because they did not appear constructive. If you would like to experiment, please use the [[Wikiversity:Sandbox|sandbox]] or ask for assistance at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|Colloquium]]. Thank you.<!-- Glow-vandalism1 @ 1792498296602.3s --><nowiki></nowiki> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:11, 20 October 2026 (UTC) pm0bx9zm6by56gvqm1o2rcsz0eu7zs2 6 332565 2841744 2026-10-20T19:53:55Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=LCal.9A: Recursion (20261017 - 20261015) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-20 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2841744 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=LCal.9A: Recursion (20261017 - 20261015) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-20 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} r6ythnljjotrgne2guzjwlk47y1g54f 2841749 2841744 2026-10-20T20:15:29Z Young1lim 21186 /* Summary */ 2841749 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=LCal.9A: Recursion (20261019 - 20261015) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-20 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} nfcahwdsky8zqe195wgg92zofxi0y4c 6 332566 2841748 2026-10-20T20:15:19Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=LCal.9A: Recursion (20261020 - 20261019) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-20 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2841748 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=LCal.9A: Recursion (20261020 - 20261019) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-20 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} cie657rkljo15sjllygzvx7067x5whv 6 332567 2841752 2026-10-20T20:48:07Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Data.1A: Data Object (20261012 - 20261006) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-20 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2841752 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Data.1A: Data Object (20261012 - 20261006) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-20 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} ebkpw13pexvutrfuigfdffqo6gmtf67 6 332568 2841754 2026-10-20T20:48:54Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Data.1A: Data Object (20261013 - 20261012) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-20 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2841754 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Data.1A: Data Object (20261013 - 20261012) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-20 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} o6xjngcttfu2904w4izt0o337esoatx 6 332569 2841757 2026-10-20T20:49:43Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Data.1A: Data Object (20261019 - 20261013) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-20 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2841757 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Data.1A: Data Object (20261019 - 20261013) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-20 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} ihvnirozhi8nvxjbcimk4v6x7so20uq 6 332570 2841759 2026-10-20T20:50:38Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Data.1A: Data Object (20261020 - 20261019) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-20 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2841759 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Data.1A: Data Object (20261020 - 20261019) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-20 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} j55lk976hy686jujkhpk33mbbu2v9gz 3 332574 2841768 2026-10-20T22:58:24Z Jtneill 10242 Welcome 2841768 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Welcome== {{Robelbox|theme=9|title='''[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]], Wb525!'''|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or get in touch with [[User talk:Jtneill|me personally]] if you would like some [[Help:Contents|help]]. Remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature#How to add your signature|sign]] your comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. Using the signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] makes it simple. 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See you around Wikiversity! ---- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 22:58, 20 October 2026 (UTC)</div> <!-- Template:Welcome --> {{Robelbox/close}} suih88wae0wzhw3dyhkny7jibmsi3x1 2 332576 2841813 2026-10-21T05:31:47Z WAGroupsEditor 3113036 User page with COI/paid-editing disclosure 2841813 wikitext text/x-wiki I write learning materials about administering WhatsApp groups and online safety. '''Conflict of interest disclosure:''' I work with 9bot, a company that develops software for managing WhatsApp groups. I am compensated by 9bot for my contributions. My contributions here are educational and do not mention or link to that product. If you think any edit is promotional, please tell me on my talk page. c0e05q7l4wmtnpnq31fv4l42m8eqk4e 0 332577 2841814 2026-10-21T05:32:18Z WAGroupsEditor 3113036 Create learning resource 2841814 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Learning resource}} '''WhatsApp group moderation''' is a short learning resource for people who administer groups and communities on the messaging application WhatsApp. It covers the platform's native settings, common forms of spam and fraud, and practical moderation routines. It does not cover or recommend any third-party product. WhatsApp is a trademark of its owner, and this resource is not affiliated with WhatsApp or Meta. == Who this is for == Volunteers and staff who run family, school, neighbourhood, religious, hobby or work groups, and anyone who has just become a group admin. == Learning objectives == After completing the lessons, learners should be able to: # describe the size limits and structure of WhatsApp groups and Communities; # configure group permissions, join approval and "Send for admin review"; # recognise the main types of WhatsApp scams and spam described by banks and regulators; # write and enforce a set of group rules; # secure an admin account with two-step verification and recover a compromised account. == Lessons == # [[/Lesson 1: Groups and Communities/]] # [[/Lesson 2: Admin permissions and settings/]] # [[/Lesson 3: Spam, scams and fraud in groups/]] # [[/Lesson 4: Group rules and enforcement/]] # [[/Lesson 5: Account security for admins/]] # [[/Lesson 6: Engagement features and their risks/]] # [[/Quiz/]] Estimated time: about 2 hours. Features change; each lesson cites the WhatsApp Help Center pages it relies on, checked in October 2026. [[Category:Digital literacy]] [[Category:Online communities]] [[Category:Information security]] h62vsszf3hnfhtl9x2i7n3cb0bpa31q 6 332578 2841841 2026-10-21T09:00:01Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=LCal.9A: Recursion (20261021 - 20261020) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-21 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2841841 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=LCal.9A: Recursion (20261021 - 20261020) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-21 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} tao7tvxxn1qmu7ldv59xoyy37nvzmto 6 332579 2841843 2026-10-21T09:00:53Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Data.1A: Data Object (20261021 - 20261020) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-21 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2841843 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Data.1A: Data Object (20261021 - 20261020) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-21 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} 3it6i3x1fe2suljqjwz00vytep6hnqg 6 332580 2841849 2026-10-21T10:44:43Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=2. Newton-Raphson Method (20261019 - 20261013) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-21 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2841849 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=2. Newton-Raphson Method (20261019 - 20261013) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-21 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} stm2vnib3vuwjhte61vj57ygzmjizio 6 332581 2841851 2026-10-21T10:45:38Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=2. Newton-Raphson Method (20261020 - 20261019) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-21 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2841851 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=2. Newton-Raphson Method (20261020 - 20261019) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-21 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} kvzmiqbs9khlhgr0m5eb35u1v44wy1w 6 332582 2841853 2026-10-21T10:46:36Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=2. Newton-Raphson Method (20261021 - 20261020) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-21 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2841853 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=2. Newton-Raphson Method (20261021 - 20261020) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-21 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} kpp9sa8aonv3egypb1j6sp91acl5afk 6 332584 2841861 2026-10-21T11:36:22Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Work2.1A: Libraries (20261019 - 20261017) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-21 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2841861 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Work2.1A: Libraries (20261019 - 20261017) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-21 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} al1w9srwgccmnws33puen4i3zqn8qw3 6 332585 2841864 2026-10-21T11:37:17Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Work2.1A: Libraries (20261020 - 20261019) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-21 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2841864 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Work2.1A: Libraries (20261020 - 20261019) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-21 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} snha76u25c4vacvyam4zwkjuwf8rpji 6 332586 2841867 2026-10-21T11:38:24Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Work2.1A: Libraries (20261021 - 20261020) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-21 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2841867 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Work2.1A: Libraries (20261021 - 20261020) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-21 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} ry8wez9zdh2pzril30wu1fhqiivnsi8 2 332587 2841868 2026-10-21T11:52:21Z Wb525 3112992 links 2841868 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} = Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model = == Abstract == This article is a reading of what, in short, may have been the cosmogony of our universe and, consequently, how its structure allows [[/%CE%9BCDM|flaws and added patches]] to vanish. = UG = This term stands for French '''''Uniformité Genrée''''' (''Gendered Uniformity''). We coined it to describe a phenomenon that, strangely, has gone unnoticed until now. In short, everything produced by the universe in its earliest stages — particles, atoms, nuclei, molecules — none of which possess geometry, is subject to this regime. Its objects have no individuality, no history, no variation. This uniformity is the hidden foundation of everything, the silent order governing the birth of the universe. For now, let’s simply understand that the world of the small — below the molecule or chemistry — has no geometry, even if textbooks erroneously suggest otherwise. = NUG = This term stands for French '''''Non-Uniformité Genrée''''' ''(Non-Gendered Uniformity''). It represents everything else: stars, planets, meteors, and of course, all that derives from them — humans, artifacts, flora, fauna. All these objects are to be considered geometric because they have a form perceptible to humans without sophisticated optical equipment. From this, we can already deduce that humanity is an integral part of its own physics. Without humans, this text — and others like it — would have no reason to exist, and its understanding, or rather, its reading, would not have been necessary. This realization is of capital importance because time — the kind we count on our wristwatches — is also subject to the presence of humanity. = the Arrow of Emergence = This is the principle that decides the order of the elements' emergence or modification. It is part of the universe's properties, or even prior to it — it makes no difference. When a glass slips from our hands and, by misfortune, the floor is tiled rather than carpeted, it shatters. And if we read the universe simply, we catch its message — the message of the irreversible cosmic order: the one that prevents the glass from reassembling, the one that prevents events from denying their own existence. Thus, the universe gives us the direction from past to future, what current physics commonly calls the Arrow of Time. But no chronometric time. = Time = In encyclopedias, one cannot really say that time is defined, and when it is, it is closer to a sequence of events than to the measurement of [[/Time|time]] — its chronometry. A year, a day, a minute… This chronometry is only possible relative to precise references. References that are not other than the circadian pace of day and night that impact and rhythm the life of living beings. References that now exist throughout the universe, since the cesium atom is used to measure the second — even though its origin remains a human convention and the second itself expresses a duration, not human chronometric time. So one could live on Mars using the same time we use on the Earth by convention. A watch, based on cesium pace, could tell him when to stop working or watch TV. The only absolute necessity would be to keep contact with Earth in order to check, from time to time if their time systems are correctly synchronized to the circadian time. It is then evident that it is technically realizable as long as a logical limit of communication delay is not reached — delay that could affect the precision of the synchronization. This shows that this little interplanetary arrangement is not a universal solution and that still, cosmic time does not exist. We can add that time remains a human interpretation and chronometry of duration — and that, without Man, time exists nowhere. Not even on Earth. = Universe Formation = Faraday intuited the possibility of a substrate. It was randomly discovered in 1964: what the standard model calls [[/the CMB|CMB]], is not a fossil, but this invisible substrate, an omnipresent quantum form of the universe, called here the [[/the GRID|GRID]], that plays many rolesː * The support of the whole universe. * The quantum matrix of what is to become the universe and its geometry. * The  counter energy that will, by contortion and pressure, create the [[/gravity|gravity]]. Therefore, and clearly, the universe — at least as far as humans are concerned — has always existed in its first primordial form, the one of the [[/the CMB|CMB]]. Then, somehow, without entering into a detailed description of an unknown so-called nucleosynthesis, the Arrow of Emergence triggers the evolution of the elements into more complex forms to finally emerge as geometry — the NUG regime, * Where [[/gravity|gravity]], as said, is expressed by the pressure of geometry on the [[/the GRID|GRID]]. * Where the so-called [[/black holes|black holes]] are none other than permanent centers of geometry emergence, which explains the spiral form of galaxies * Where gravitational waves are ripples in the [[/the GRID|GRID]], produced by extreme geometric distortions. LIGO/Virgo/KAGRA detect them without contradiction and certainly with greater probability than a mathematical construct such as spacetime. jtwjig1gd655v91qui2ul90htzxgf2s